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CAMBRIDGE,  MASSACHUSETTS 

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ESSAYS 


AND 


TREATISES 

ON  SEVERAL  SUBJECTS. 


IN  TWO  VOLUMES. 


Bt  DAVID  HUME,  Esg. 


VOLUME  FIRST, 


CONTAIKINO 


ESSAYS,  MORAL,,  POLITICAL,  AND  LITERAKY. 


A  NEW  EDITION. 


Of 
EDINBURGH: 

PRTIITBD  POE  BELL  &  B&AOFUTB,  AMD  W.  BLACKWOOD,  BDINBUEGH  ; 
AND  T.  CADELL  ;  LONOMAN,  HUEffT.  &  00.  ;  J.  CUTHELL  ;  J.  MUNN  ; 
BALDWIN,  CEADOCK  &  JOY;  JBFFEEY  &  SON;  JOHN  RICHAED80N ; 
SBBEWOOD  &  CO.  ;  O.  B.  WHITTAKEE  ;  R.  SAUKDF.ES  ;  J.  COLLIKOWOOD  ; 
W.  MAION  ;   AND  J.  DUNCAN,  LONDON. 

1826. 


/.;-  ,1 , 


r. 


EDIMBUBGH : 
Printed  by  James  Walker. 


CONTENTS 


OF 


VOLUME  FIRST. 


KSSATS,  MORAL,  POLITICAL,  AND  LITERARY. 

PART  I. 

nSAY  PACK 

I.       Of*  the  Ddicacy  of  Taste  and  Fteaum ^ 

^_  II.      Of  the  Liberty  of  the  PJpe» 8 

*^  III.      That  PoUtics  may  be  reduced  to  a  Sdence ^ 18 

"^  IV. ,    Of  the  First  Principles  of  GoTemment 87  < 

^  V.       Of  the  Origin  of  Govenunent ^ 32 

*   VI.      Of  the  Independence  of  Fkriiament 87 

VII.     Whether  the  British  Govemmenft  incUnes  to  Absolute  Mo- 
narchy, or  to  a  Republic '.. • 4f 

VIII.    Of  Parties  in  general 49 

IX.     Of  the  Forties  of  Great  Britain  56 

k'  '"X.      Of  Superstition  and  Enthusiasm 67  V 

XI.    Of  the  Dignity  or  Meanness  of  Human  Kature 73 

XII.    Of  Civil  Liberty 81 

XIU.   Of  Eloquence 1 91 

-*  XIV.    Of  the  Rise  and  Pktigress  of  the  Artsand  Sciences 101. 

XV.    The  Epicurean 131 

XVL    The  Stoic ^ 140 

XVII.  The  Flatonist 150 

XVIIL  The  Sceptic ^..., 155  X 

XIX,    Of  Polygamy  and  Divorces 178 

XX.    Of  Simplicity  and  Refinement  in  Writing 188 

XXL    Of  National  Characters 194 

XXIL  Of  Tragedy 211 

XXIIL  Of  the  Standard  of  Taste 221 


IV  CONTENTS. 

PART  n. 

IMAY  TAOE 

I.  Or  Commerce    240 

II.  Of  Refinement  in  tbe  Arts    265 

III.  Of  Money   279 

IV.  Of  Interest 293 

v.    Of  the  Balance  of  Trade    907 

VI.  Ofthe  Jealousy  of  Trade 328 

VII.  Of  the  Balance  of  Power   , 331 

VIIL  Of  Taxes 340 

IX.  Of  Public  Credit  •w.m.^.- .^ « 346 

X.    Of  some  Remarkable  Customs 363 

XL  Of  the  Populousness  of  Ancient  Nations  373 

XII.  Of  the  Original  Contract  444 

XIII.  Of  P^issire  Obedience 467 

XIV.  Of  the  CoaKtion  of  Forties - 472 

XV.  Of  the  IVotestant  Succession  481 

XVI.  Idea  of  a  Perfect  CommoaWtaHfa 492 


ESSAYS, 

MORAL*  POLITICAL*  AND  LITERARY. 


PART  I  •. 


•  PobliilMd  in  1742. 


VOL.  1. 


ESSAY  I. 


OF  THE  DELICACY  OF  TASTE  AND  PA86IOK. 

Some  people  are  subject  to  a  certain  delicacy  of  passuMy 
'which  makes  them  extremely  sensible  to  all  the  accidents 
of  life,  and  gives  them  a  lively  joy  upon  every  prosperous 
event)  as  well  as  a  piercing  grief  when,  they  meet  with 
misfortunes  and  adversity.  Favours  and  good  offices  easily 
engage  their  friendship,  while  the  smallest  injury  provokes 
their  resentment  Any  honour  or  mark  of  distinction 
elevates  them  above  measure,  but  they  are  as  sensibly 
touched  with  contempt  People  of  this  character  have, 
no  doubt,  more  lively  enjoyments,  as  well  as  more  pun- 
gent sorrows,  than  men  of  cool  and  sedate  tempers :  But, 
I  believe,  when  every  thing  is  balanced,  there  is  no  one, 
who  would  not  rather  be  of  the  latter  character,  were  he 
entirely  master  of  his  own  disposition.  Good  or  ill  for- 
tune is  very  little  at  our  disposal ;  and  when  a  person,  that 
has  this  sensibility  of  temper,  meets  with  any  misfortune, 
his  sorrow  or  resentment  takes  entire  possession  of  him, 
and  deprives  him  of  all  relish  in  the  common  occurrences 
6f  life,  the  right  enjoyment  of  which  forms  the  chief  part 
of  our  happiness.  Great  pleasures  are  much  less  frequent 
than  great  pains,  so  that  a  sensible  temper  must  meet  with 
fewer  trials  in  the  former  way  than  in  the  latter.  Not  to 
motion,  that  men  of  such  lively  passions  are  apt  to  be 

b2 


4  ESSAY  I. 

transported  beyond  all  bonnds  of  prudence  and  discre- 
tion, and  to  take  false  steps  in  the  conduct  of  life,  which 
are  often  irretrievable. 

There  is  a  delicacy  of  taste  observable  in  some  men, 
which  very  much  resembles  this  delicacy  of  passion^  and 
produces  the  same  sensibility  to  beauty  and  deformity  of 
every  kind,  as  that  does  to  prosperity  and  adversity,  obli- 
gations and  injuries.  When  you  present  a  poem  or  a  pic- 
ture to  a  man  possessed  of  thb  talent,  the  delicacy  of  his 
feeling  makes  him  be  sensibly  touched  with  every  part  of 
it ;  nor  are  the  masterly  strokes  perceived  with  more  ex- 
quisite relish  and  satis&ction,  than  the  negligences  or  ab- 
surdities with  disgust  and  uneasiness.  A  polite  and  judi- 
cious conversation  affords  him  the  highest  entertainment ; 
rudeness  or  impertinence  is  as  great  a  punbhment  to  him. 
In  short,  delicacy  of  taste  has  the  sajsie  effect  as  delicacjy 
of  passion.  It  enlarges  the  sphere  both  of  our  happiness 
and  misery,  and  makes  us  sensible  to  pains  as  well  as  plea- 
8ure%  which  escape  the  rest  of  mankind. 

I  believe,  however,  every  one  will  agree  with  me,  that, 
notwithstanding  this  resemblance,  delicacy  of  taste  i&  as 
much  to  be  desired  and  cultivated,  as  delicacy  of  passion 
is  to  be  lamented,  aad  to  be  remedied,  if  possible.  The 
good  or  ill  accidents  of  life  are  very  litjtle  at  our  disposal; 
but  we  are  pretty  much  masters  what  books  we  shall  read, 
what  diversions  we  shall  partake  o^  ajod  what  company  we 
shall  keep.  Philosophers  have  endeavoured  U^  render  hap* 
piness  entirely  independent  of  every  thing  external.  The 
degree  of  perfection  is  impossible  to  be  atkmtmd;  but 
every  wise  man  will  endeavour  to  pllu^  his  happiness  on 
such  objects  chiefly  as  depi^d  upon  himsdf ;  and  that  'm 
not  to  be  attained  so  much  by  any  <^er  means  as  by  this 
deljcai^  of  sentiment    When  a  mati  is  possessed  <^  that 


PELICACrr  OF  TASTE.  5 

talent,  he  is  more  happy  by  what  pleases  his  taste,  than 
by  what  gratifies  his  appetites,  and  receives  more  enjoy- 
ment from  a  poem,  or  a  piece  of  reasoning,  than  the  most 
expensive  luxury,  can  afibrd. 

Whatever  connection  there  may  be  originally  between 
diese  two  species  of  delicacy,  I  am  persuaded,  that  nothing 
is  so  proper  to  cure  us  of  this  delicacy  of  passion,  as  the 
cultivating  of  that  higher  and  more  refined  taste,  which 
enables  us  to  judge  of  the  characters  of  men,  of  composi^ 
tions  of  genius,  and  of  the  productions  of  the  nobler  arts. 
A  greater  or  less  relish  for  those  obvious  beauties,  which 
strike  the  senses,  depends  entirdy  upon  the  greater  or  lesft 
sensibility  of  the  temper ;  but  with  regard  to  die  sciences 
and  liberal  arts,  a  fine  taste  is,  in  some  measure,  the  same 
with  strong  sense,  or  at  least  depends  so  much  upon  it 
that  they  are  inseparable.  In  order  to  judge  aright  of  a 
composition  of  genius,  there  are  so  many  views  to  be  taken 
in,  so  many  circumstances  to  be  compared,  and  such  a 
knowledge  of  human  nature  requisite,  that  no  man,  who 
is  not  possessed  of  the  soundest  judgment,  will  ever  make 
a  tolerable  critic  in  such  performances.  And  this  is  a  new 
reason  for  cultivating  a  relish  in  the  liberal  arts.  Our 
judgment  will  strengthen  by  this  exercise.  We  shall  form 
jnster  notions  of  life.  Many  things  which  please  or  affict 
others,  will  appear  to  us  too  frivolous  to  engage  our  at^ 
tention }  and  we  shall  lose  by  degrees  diat  sensibility  and 
d^li^sAcy  of  plissbli,  whidb  is  so  incommodious^ 

But  perhaps  I  have  gone  too  far,  in  saying  that  a  cul^* 
titated  taste  for  the  polite  arts  extinguishes  the  passions, 
and  renders  us  indifferent  to  those  ol]jects,  which  are  so 
folkDy  ptirsued  by  the  rest  of  mankind  On  fkrther  re- 
flection, I  find,  that  it  rather  improves  our  sensibility  for 
all  the  tender  and  agreeable  passions ;  at  the  same  time 


6  ESSAY  I. 

that  it  renders  the  mhid  incapable  of  the  rougher  and 
more  boisterous  emotions. 

Ingenaas  didiciSMfideliter  artet, 
Emollit  mores,  nee  tinh  esse  feros. 

For  this>  I  think,  there  maybe  assigned  two  very  natural 
reasons.  In  the^^  place,  nothing  is  so  improving  to  the 
temper  as  the  study  of  the  beauties,  either  of  poetry,  elo- 
quence, music,  or  painting.  They  ^ve  a  certain  elegance 
of  sentiment  to  virhich  the  rest  of  mankind  are  strangers. 
The  emotions  which  they  excite  are  soft  and  tender.  They 
draw  off  the  mind  from  the  hurry  of  business  and  interest; 
cherish  reflection ;  dispose  to  tranquillity ;  and  produce 
an  agreeable  melancholy,  which,  of  all  dispositions  of  the 
mind,  is  the  best  suited  to  love  and  friendship. 

In  the  second  place,  a  delicacy  of  taste  is  favourable  to 
love  and  friendship,  by  confining  our  choice  to  few  people, 
and  making  us  indifferent  to  the  company  and  conversa- 
tion of  the  greater  part  of  men.  You  will  seldom  find 
that  mere  men  of  the  world,  whatever  strong  sense  they 
may  be  endowed  with,  are  very  nice  in  distinguishing 
characters,  or  in  marking  those  insensible  differences  and 
gradations,  which  make  one  man  preferable  to  another. 
Any  one,  that  has  competent  sense,  is  sufficient  for  their 
entertainment  They  talk  to  him  of  their  pleasures  and 
affairs,  with  the  same  frankness  that  they  would  to  an- 
other; and  finding  many  who  are  fit  to  supply  his  place, 
they  never  feel  any  vacancy  or  want  in  his  absence.  But 
to  make  useof  the  allusion  of  a  celebrated  French  ^  author, 
the  judgment  may  be  compiled  to  a  clock  or  viratch,  where 
the  most  ordinary  machine  is  sufficient  to  tell  the  hours ; 

*  Mons,  FoHmiLLii  Plunilh^  des  Mondes,  Soir  6. 


DELICACY  OF  TASTE.  7 

but  the  most  elaborate  alone  can  point  out  the  mmutes  and 
seconds,  and  distinguish  the  smallest  differences  of  time. 
One  that  has  well  digested  his  knowledge  both  of  books 
and  men,  has  little  enjoyment  but  in  the  company  of  afew 
select  companions.  He  feels  too  sensibly,  how  much  all 
the  rest  of  mankind  fall  short  of  thenotioiis  which  he  has 
entertained.  And,  his  a£fections  being  thus  confined 
within  a  narrow  drde^  no  wonder  he  carries  them  fur- 
ther, than  if  they  were  more  general  and  undistinguished. 
The  gaiety  and  frolic  of  a  bottle  companion  improves  with 
him  into  a  solid  friendship;  and  the  ardours  of  a  youth- 
fut  appetite  become  an  elegant  passion. 


ESSAY  IL 


or  THX  UBBRTV  OF  TUX  PR16S* 

rcoTKina  is  aore  apt  to  snr^ise  a  fereigoeri  iikwx  4ba 
eittoeme  liberty  which  we  exkjoj  vk  this  eomitry^  of  com^ 
mimicating  whatever  we  please  to  the  public,  and  of  cspet^ 
ly  censuring  every  measure  entered  into  by  the  King  or 
his  ministers.  If  the  administration  resolve  upon  war,  it 
is  affirmed,  that,  either  wilfidly  or  ignorantly,  they  mistake 
the  interests  of  the  nation;  and  that  peace,  in  the  present 
situation  of  affiiirs,  is  infinitely  preferable.  If  the  passion 
of  the  mmisters  lie  towards  peace,  our  political  writers 
breathe  nothing  but  war  and  devastation,  and  represent 
the  pacific  conduct  of  the  government  as  mean  and  pusil- 
lanimous. As  this  liberty  is  not  indulged  in  any  other  go- 
vernment, either  republican  or  monarchical ;  in  Holland 
and  Venice,  more  than  in  France  or  Spain ;  it  may  very 
naturally  give  occasion  to  the  question.  How  it  hcgppem 
that  Great  Britain  alone  ef^oys  this  peculiar  pri^nkge  ? 

The  reason  why  the  laws  indulge  us  in  such  a  liberty, 
seems  to  be  derived  from  our  mixed  form  of  government, 
which  is  neither  wholly  monarchical,  nor  wholly  republi- 
can. It  will  be  found,  if  I  mistake  not,  a  true  observation 
in  politics,  that  the  two  extremes  in  government,  liberty 
and  slavery,  commonly  fq>proach  nearest  to  each  other ; 
and  that,  as  you  depart  from  the  extremes,  and  mix  a  Uttle 


LIBERTY  OF  TH£  PRESS.  9 

of  nonarehy  with  liberty,  tbe  government  becomes- always 
the  more  free ;  and,  on  the  odier  handy  wh^i  you  mix  a 
little  of  liberty  with  monarchy,  the  yoke  becomes  always 
the  more  grievous  and  intolerable.    In  a  government,  such 
as  that  of  France,  which  is  absolute,  and  where  law,  cus- 
tom, and  religion  concur,  all  of  them,  to  make  the  people 
fidly  satisfied  wi  A  their  oondhioii,  the  monarch  cannot  en- 
tertain any  jeakmy  against  his  mibjeets,  and  therefore  is 
vpi  to  indulge  tfiem  in  great  ISbetHea  both  of  speech  and 
action.    In  a  government  ahogetlier  republican,  such  as 
that  of  Holland,  where  there  is  no  magistrate  so  eminent 
as  to  give^eoiMiqf  to  the  state,  there  is  no  danger  in  intrusts 
ing  the  magistrates  with  large  discretionuy  powers ;  and 
though  many  advantages  result  from  such  powers,  in  pre- 
serving peace  and  order,  yet  they  lay  a  considerable 
restnunt  on  men's  acticms,  and  make  every  private  citizen 
pay  a  great  respect  to  the  government    Thus  it  seems  evi- 
dent that  the  two  extremes  of  absdinte  monarchy  and  of  a 
republic,  ^^roaoh  near  to  each  other  in  some  material  cir- 
cumstances.   In  the^f j^  the  magistrate  has  no  jealousy  of 
the  people ;  in  the  second^  the  peqile  have  none  of  the 
magistrate :  Whidi  want  of  jealousy  b^ets  a  mutual  con- 
fidence and  trust  in  both  cases,  and  produces  a  species  of 
liberty  in  monarchies,  and  of  arbitrary  power  in  republics. 
To  justify  tbe  other  pert  of  the  foregoing  observation, 
tha^  in  every  govemm^it,  the  means  are  most  vride  of 
each  othcgp,  and  that  ^e  mixtures  of  monarchy  and  liberty 
teoAfft  the  yoke  either  more  easy  or  more  grievous ;  I  must 
take  notice  of  a  remark  in  Tacitus  with  regard  to  the  Ro- 
mans under  the  emptors,  that  they  neitiber  could  bear  td- 
tal  slavery  nor  total  liberty.  Nee  Mam  BerviMemy  neetotam 
HberiakmpatiposmmiL    This  remark  a  celebrated  poet  has 


10  ESSAY  II. 

translated  and  applied  to  the  English,  in  his  lively  descrip- 
tion of  Queen  Elizabeth's  policy  and  gOTemment^ 

Bt  it  aimtr  Mm  joug  ii  1' AngloU  indompt^ 

Qui  ne  peut  ni  tenrir,  ni  TiTre  en  liberty        HnnuAOty  liv.  1. 

According  to  these  remarksi  we  are  to  consider  the  Ro- 
man goveniment  under  the  emperors  as  a  mixture  of  des- 
potism and  liber^,  where  the  deq>otism  prevailed ;  and 
the  English  government  as  a  mixture  of  the  same  kind, 
where  the  liberty  predominates*  The  consequences  are 
conformable  to  the  foregoing  observation;  and  such  as 
may  be  expected  from  diose  mixed  forms  of  government, 
which  beget  a  mutual  watchfulness  and  jealousy.  The 
JEloman  emperors  were,  many  of  them,  the  most  frightful 
tyrants  that  ever  disgraced  human  nature;  and  it  is  evi- 
dent, that  their  cruelty  was  chiefly  excited  by  their/eofotf^, 
and  by  their  observing  that  all  the  great  men  of  Rome 
bore  with  impatience  the  dominion  of  a  family,  which,  but 
a  little  before,  was  nowise  superior  to  their  own*  On  the 
other  hand,^  as  the  r^ublican  part  of  the  government  pre- 
vails in  England,  thou^  vnth  a  great  mixture  of  mo- 
narchy, it  is  obliged,  for  its  own  preservation,  to  maintain 
a  watchful/eoAntfy  over  the  magistrates,  to  ronove  all  dis- 
cretionary powers,  and  to  secure  every  cme's  life  and  for- 
tune by  general  and  inflexible  laws.  No  action  must  be 
deemed  a  crime  but  what  the  law  has  plainly  determined 
to  be  such :  No  crime  must  be  imputed  to  a  man  but  frcmi 
a  legal  proof  before  his  judges;  and  even  these  judges 
must  be  his  fellow-subjects,  who  are  obliged,  by  their  own 
interest,  to  have  a  watchfiil  eye  over  the  encroachments 
and  vjplence  of  the  ministers.  From  these  causes  it  pro- 
ceeds, that  there  is  as  xnich  liberty,  and  even,  perhaps,  li- 


LIBERTY  OF  THE  PRESS.  11 

centiousness  in  Great  Britain,  as  there  were  formerly  sla- 
very and  tyranny  in  Rcune. 

These  principles  account  for  the  great  liberty  of  the 
press  in  these  kingdoms,  beyond  what  is  indulged  in  any 
other  govemmept  It  is  apprehended,  that  arbitrary 
power  would  steal  in  upon  us,  were  we  not  careful  to  pre- 
vent its  progress,  and  were  there  not  an  easy  method  of 
conveying  the  alarm  from  one  end  of  the  kingdom  to  the 
other.  The  spirit  of  the  people  must  frequently  be  roused, 
in  order  to  curb  the  ambition  of  the  court ;  and  the  dread 
of  rousing  this  spirit  must  be  employed  to  prevent  that 
ambition.  Nothing  so  effectual  to  this  purpose  as  the  li- 
berty of  the  press ;  by  which  all  the  learning,  wit,  and 
genius  of  the  nation,  may  be  employed  on  the  side  of  free- 
dom, and  every  one  be  animated  to  its  defence.  As  long, 
therefore,  as  the  republican  part  of  our  government  can 
maintain  itself  against  the  monarchical,  it  will  naturally  be 
careful  to  keep  the  press  open,  as  of  importance  to  its  own 
preservation. 

It  must  however  be  allowed,  that  the  unbounded  liberty 
of  the  press,  though  it  be  difficult,  perhaps  impossible^  to 
propose  a  suitable  remedy  for  it,  is  one  of  the  evils  attend- 
ing those  mixed  forms  of  government. 


ESSAY  in. 


THAT  rOLlTtCS  UAY  BE  REDUCED  TO  A  8CISNCB« 

It  is  a  question  with  several,  whether  there  be  any  essen- 
tial difference  between  one  form  of  government  and  im- 
other  ?  and,  whether  every  form  may  not  become  good  or 
bad,  according  as  it  is  well  or  ill  administered  ^  ?  Were  it 
CMice  admitted,  that  all  governments  are  alike,  and  that 
the  only  difference  conosts  in  the  character  and  conduct 
of  the  governors,  most  political  disputes  would  be  at  an 
endf  and  all  Zeal  for  one  constitution  above  another  must 
be  esteemed  mere  bigotry  and  folly.  But^  though  a  friend 
to  moderation,  I  cannot  forbear  condemning  this  senti- 
ment, and  should  be  sorry  to  think,  that  human  afiairs 
admit  of  no  greater  stability,  dian  what  they  receive  from 
the  casual  humours  and  characters  of  particular  men. 

It  is  true,  those  who  maintain,  that  the  goodness  of  all 
government  consists  in  the  goodness  of  the  administration, 
may  cite  many  particular  instances  in  history,  where  the 
very  same  government,  in  different  hands,  has  varied  sud- 
denly into  the  two  opposite  extremes  of  good  and  bad. 
Compare  the  French  government  under  Henry  III.  and 
under  Henry  IV.  Oppression,  levity,  artifice  on  the  part 
of  the  rulers;  fection,  sedition,  treachery,  rebellion,  dis- 

*  For  fonni  of  gOTenunent  let  fools  contcsty 
WhaM*er  it  best  administered  is  best 

EssAT  ON  Mak,  Book  5. 


POLITICS  A  SCIENCE.  IS 

loyaby  on  the  part  of  the  subjects :  Tkese  jcompose  the 
character  of  the  former  miserable  era.  Bat  when  the  pa- 
triot and  hetoic  prince,  who  succeeded,  was  pnce  firmly 
seated  on  the  throne,  the  government,  the  people,  every 
thing,  seemed  to  be  totally  changed ;  and  all  from  the  dif- 
ference of  the  temper  and  conduct  of  these  two  sovereigns. 
Instuices  of  this  kind  may  be  multiplied,  almost  without 
number,  from  ancient  as  well  as  qiodam  history,  foreign 
as  well  as  domestic. 

But  here  it  may  be  proper  to  make  a  distinction.  All 
absolute  gov^mments  must  very  naxah  dq[>end  on  the  ad- 
ministration;  and  this  is  one  of  the  great  incimvenienees 
attending  that  fonn  of  government  But  a  republican  and 
free  government  would  be  an  obvious  absurdity,  if  the  pur- 
tienlar  chedcs  and  controls,  provided  by  the  oonstitntibn^ 
had  really  no  influmee,  and  made  it  not  the  interest,  even 
ef  bad  men,  to  act  for  the  public  good.  Such  is  the  m- 
tenticm  of  these  forms  of  government^  and  sudi  is  tbdr 
real  etkct^  where  tibey  are  wisely  constitnted :  As,  on  the 
other  hand,  they  are  the  source  of  all  disorder,  a»d  of  the 
bladest  crimes,  where  cither  skiU  or  honesty  has  been 
wanting  in  their  original  frame  and  institution. 

So  gveat  ia  die  force  of  laws,  and  of  particolar  fi)rms  of 
government,  and  sa  little  dependence  have  they  cm  the 
hamours  aod  tempam  of  mtn,  that  consequences  almost 
as  general  amA  certain  may  sometimes  be  deduced  from 
diem,  aa  any  wilidi  die  mathematical  sciences  afilird  uSk 

The  constitation  ef  the  Roman  republic  gave  die  whole 
fegislatife  power  to  the  pecqple,  without  allowtng  a  n^^ 
dve  voice  either  to  the  nobility  or  ccmsuls*  ThisiHibemKl- 
ed  power  they  possessed  in  a  colleedvis^  Bot  in  a  represoH 
tatire  body.  The  comequences  weve ;  Whaib  Ae  peqple, 
by  success  and  conquest,  had  becemci  very  numereus,  and 


14  ESSAY  III. 

had  spread  themselves  to  a  great  distance  from  the  capi- 
tal, the  city  tribes,  though  the  most  contemptible,  carried 
almost  every  vote :  They  were,  therefore,  most  cajoled  by 
every  one  that  affected  popularity:  They  were  suf^rted 
in  idleness  by  the  general  distribution  of  com,  and  by 
particular  bribes,  which  they  received  from  almost  every 
candidate :  By  this  means,  they  became  every  day  more 
licentious,  and  the  Campus  Martins  was  a  perpetual  scene 
of  tumult  and  sedition:  Armed  slaves  were  introduced 
among  these  rascally  citizens ;  so  that  the  whole  govern- 
ment fell  into  anarchy ;  and  the  greatest  happiness,  which 
the  Romans  could  look  for,  was  the  despotic  power  ef  the 
Caesars.  Such  arc  the  effects  of  democracy  without  a  re- 
presentative. 

A  Nobili^  may  possess  the  whole,  or  any  part  of  the 
legislative  power  of  a  state,  in  two  different  ways.  Either 
every  nobleman  shares  the  power  as  a  part  of  the  whole 
body,  or  the  whole  body  enjoys  the  power  as  composed 
(^  parts,  which  have  each  a  distinct  power  and  authority. 
The  Venetian  aristocracy  is  an  instance  of  the  first  kind 
of  government;  the  Polish,  of  the  second.  In  the  Vene- 
tian government  the  whole  body  of  nobility  possesses  the 
whole  power,  and  no  nobleman  has  any  authority  which 
he  receives  not  from  the  whole.  In  the  Polish  govern- 
ment every  nobleman,  by  means  of  his  fiefs,  has  a  distinct 
hereditary  ^thority  over  his  vassals,  and  the  whole  body 
has  no  authority  but  what  it  receives  from  the  concurrence 
of  its  parts.  The  different  operations  and  tendencies  of 
these  two  species  of  government  might  be  made  i^parent 
even  a  priori.  A  Venetian  nobility  is  preferable  to  a  Po- 
lish, let  the  humours  and  education  of  men  be  ever  so 
much  varied.  A  nobility,  who  possess  their  power  in  com- 
mon, will  preserve  peace  and  order,  both  among  them- 


POLITICS  A  SCIENCE.  15 

selves,  and  their  subjects ;  and  no  member  can  have  au- 
thority enough  to  control  the  laws  for  a  moment  The 
nobles  will  preserve  their  authority  over  the  pec^le,  but 
without  any  grievous  granny,  or  any  breach  of  private 
pri^per^;  because  such  a  tyrannical  government  promotes 
not  the  interests  of  the  whole  body,  however  it  may  that 
f^spme  individuab.  There  will  be  a  distinction  of  rank 
between  the  nobility  and  people,  but  this  will  be  the  only 
distinction  in  the  state.  The  whole  nobility  will  form  one 
body,  and  the  whole  people  another,  without  any  of  those 
private  feuds  and  animosities,  which  ^read  ruin  and  de- 
solation every  where.  It  is  easy  to  see  the  disadvantages 
of  a  Polish  nobility  in  every  one  of  these  particulars. 
.  It  is  possible  90  to  constitute  a  free  government,  as  that 
a  single  person,  call  him  a  doge,  prince,  or  king^  shall 
possess  a  large  share  of  power,  and  shall  form  a  proper 
balance  or  countorpoise  to  the  other  parts  of  the  legisla^ 
ture.  This  chief  magistrate  may  be  either  elective  or  he^ 
redifary  i  and  though  the  former  institution  may,  to  a  su- 
perficial view,  appear  the  most  advantageous ;  yet  a  more 
accurate  inspection  will  discover  in  it  greater  inconvenien- 
ces than  in  the  latter,  and  such  as  are  founded  on  causes 
and  principles  eternal  and  immutable.  The  filling  of  the 
throng  in  such  a  government,  is  a  point  of  too  great  and 
U)o  general  interest^  not  to  divide  the  whole  people  into 
jbctions : .  Whence  a  civil  war,  the  greatest  of  ills,  may  be 
apprehended,  almost  with  certainty,  upon  every  vacancy. 
The  prince  elected  must  be  either  a  Foreigner  or  a  Nor 
Hoe  :■  The  former  will  be  ignorant  of  the  people  whom  he 
J8  to  govern ;  suqpicious  of  his  new  subjects,  and  suspected 
by  them ;  giving  his  confidence  entirely  to  strangers,  who 
will  have  no  other  care  but  of  enriching  themsdves  in  the 
/juickest  manner  while  their  master's  favour  and  authority 


1<  ESSAY  III* 

are  able  to  support  diem.  A  nalhre  wiU  oarty  into  the 
throne  all  his  private  ammorities  and  friendshipsi  aofi  will 
never  be  viewed  in  his  elevation  without  excitiDg  the  sea* 
timent  of  envy  in  those  who  formeriy  considered  hira  as 
their  equaL  Not  to  mention  that  a  crown  is  too  high  m 
reward  ever  to  be  given  to  merit  alone^  and  will  alwi^ 
induce  the  candidates  to  employ  forc^  or  ttHmey,  cnr  in- 
trigue^ to  procure  the  votes  c^the  electors :  So  that  such 
an  election  will  give  no  better  chance  for  superi<Mr  merit 
in  the  prince,  than  if  the  state  had  trusted  to  birth  alone 
for  determining  the  sovereign. 

It  may  therefore  be  pronounced  as  im  universal  axiom 
in  politics,  TTio^  on  bereeHiary  prince,  a  nediUfy  wUkM 
vassabj  and  a  people  voHng  hy  Oe^  represenMiveSf  /brm 
tke  best  MOvrAftcHTf  abistocracv,  ami  niBfocEAcr.  But 
m  order  to  prove  more  fiilly,  that  pofities  admit  of  gene* 
ral  truths,  which  are  invariable  by  the  famnour  or  edQca-> 
tibn  either  of  subject  or  sovereign,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to 
observe  some  other  princq)les  of  this  science,  whkh  may 
seem  to  deserve  that  diaracter. 

It  may  easily  be  observed,  that,  tiiov^  free  govern* 
ments  have  been  commonly  the  most  happy  for  those  who 
partake  of  their  freedom;  yet  are  diey  the  most  ruinous 
and  oppressive  to  their  provinces :  And  this  observatiott 
may,  I  befieve,  be  fixed  as  a  maxim'  of  Ae  kind  we  are 
here  speaking  of*  When  a  monarch  tttends  his  domi* 
nions  by  conquest,  he  soon  learns  to  consider  his  old 
and  his  new  subjects  as  on  the  same  fbotmg;  because  in 
reafi^,  all  his  subjects  are  to  him  the  sam^  except  die 
few  friends  and  favourites  with  whom  he  b  personally  ae^ 
quainted.  He  does  no^  tberefbr^  make  any  cEs&ictioii 
between  them  in  his  peiiera/kiws ;  and,  at  the  same  time^ 
is  cardfiil  to  prevent  9k&partiadar  acts  of  oppressicm  on 


POLITICS  A  saENCE*  17 

die  one  as  well  as  on  the  other.  But  a  free  state  necessa-» 
lily  makes  a  great  distinction,  and  must  always  do  so,  till 
men  learn  to  love  their  neighbours  as  well  as  themselves. 
The  conquerors,  in  such  a  government,  are  all  legislators, 
and  will  be  sure  to  c<mtrive  matters,  by  restrictions  on 
trader  and  by  taxes,  so  as  to  draw  some  private,  as  well 
as  public  advantage  from  their  conquests.  Provincial  go* 
▼emors  have  also  a  better  chance^  in  a  republic,  to  escape 
with  their  plunder,  by  means  of  bribery  or  intrigue ;  aad 
their  fellaw-citizens,  who  find  their  own  state  to  be  ^irich- 
ed  by  die  spoils  of  the  subject  provinces,  will  be  theinore 
inclined  to  tolerate  such  abuses.  Not  to  mention,  that  it 
18  a  necessary  precaution  in  a  free  state  to  diange  ihe  go-r 
viemors  frequently ;  which  obl^^es  these  temporary  tyrants 
to  be  more  expeditioos  and  rapacious,  that  they  may  ac* 
cumulate  sufficient  wealth  before  they  give  place  to  their 
successors.  What  cruel  tyrants  were  the  Romans  over 
the  world  during  the  time  of  their  commonwealth  !  It  is 
true,  they  had  laws  to  prevent  oppression  in  their  provin- 
cial magistrates;  but  Cicero  informs  us,  that  thie  Romans 
could  not  better  consult  the  interests  of  the  provinces  than 
by  repealing  these  very  laws.  For,  in  that  case,  says  he, 
our  magistrates,  having  entire  impunity,  would  plunder 
no  more  thiui  would  satisfy  their  own  rapaciousness ; 
whereas,  at  present,  they  must  also  satisfy  that  of  their 
judges,  and  of  all  the  great  men  in  Rome,  of  whose  pro- 
tection  they  stand  in  need.  Who  can  read  of  the  cruelties 
and  impressions  of  Verres  without  horror  and  astoriish-* 
ment?  And  who  is  not  touched  with  indignation  to  hear, 
that,  after  Cicero  had  exhausted  on  that  abandoned  cri- 
minal dll  the  thunders  of  his  eloquence,  and  had  prevailed 
so  far  as  to  get  him  condemned  to  the  utmost  extent  of 
the  law§ ;  yet  that  cruel  tyrant  lived  peaceably  to  old  age, 
VOL.  I.  c 


It  ASSAY  III. 

in  opulence  and  ease»  and,  thirty  years  afterwards,  was 
putinto  the  proscription  by  Mark  Ant^H^,  <m  account  of 
his  exorbitant  wealth,  where  he  fell  with  Cicero  himself, 
and  all  the  most  yittuous  men  of  Rome?  After  the  disso- 
lutioa  of  the  commonwealth,  the  Boman  yohe  became 
easier  upon  the  provinoes,  as  IWitusinfarms  us  * ;  and  it 
may  be  observed,  that  many  of  4lie  wo|«t  emperors,  Po* 
mitian^  finr  instance,  wece  cavefid  to  prevent  all  oppress 
sion  ondie  pvovinces.  -  In  Tiberius'f^  ^  time,  Gaul  was  es« 
teemed  richer  than  Itaty  itself:  iiov  do  I  find,  dming  the 
whole  time  of  the  Roman  m^^u^y,  that  the  empire  1ie^ 
came  less  rich  or  populous  in  any  of  its  provinces ;  though 
indeed  its  valour  and  military  discipline  were  always  upon 
the  decl^ie*  The  expression  and  tyran^iy  of  the  Cartha^ 
ginians  over  their  subject  states  in  Africa  went  so  fiEU-y.as 
w»  leacn  from  Pofybins  ^  that,  not  content  with  exacting 
the  half  of  all  the  produce  of  the  land,  which  of  itself  wtts 
a  very  high  rent,  they  also  loaded  th^n  with  many  other 
taxes.  If  we  pass  from  ancient  to  modem  times,  w^  shftll 
ttill  find  the  observsition  to  hold.  The  provinces  of  abso* 
lute  monarchies  are  always  better  treated  than  those  of 
free  states*  Compare  the  Pai&  oonqtds  of  France  with  Ife- 
hmdy  a^d  you  wlU  be  convinced  of  this  truth ;  though  diis 
latter  kingdom,  being,  in  a  good  measure,  peopled  from 
Ea^and,  possesses  so  many  rights  and  privileges  as  should 
natundly  make  it  challenge  better  treatment  than  jthat  of 
a  conquered  province.  Corsica  is  also  an  obvious  instance 
to  the  same  purpose*  .       > 

•  Anib  lib*  i.  cap.  S.  '  ^  Suftt  in  viM  Domit 

•  Efrogium  rMUnend«  UbairUti  temjpu^  si  ip«j  Aotente$,  ^^m  nppf 
Italiti  q^uam  imbelUs  urbana  plcbs,  nihil  validum  ia  excrcitibutt,  ni8i-qt^04 
externum  cogiiarent— Tacit.  Ann*  Hb.  iii. 

^  *  Lib.  i.  cap.  71?. 


POLinCS  A  sa£NCE.  Id 

Ttiere  is  an  observation  of  Maciuavel,  with  regard  to 
die  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Chreat^  which,  I  think, 
may  be  regarded  as  one  <^  those  eteHud  pditical  truths, 
whidi  no  thne  nor  accidents  can  vary.  It  may  seem 
strange,  says  that  politician,  that  snch  sodden  conquests, 
as  those  of  Alexander,  should  be  possessed  so  peaceably 
by  his  successors,  and  that  the  Persians,  during  all  the 
confusions  and  civil  wars  among  the  Grades,  never-mad^ 
the  smallest  effort  towards  the  l^ecorery  of  their  ferm^  in«- 
dependent  government  To  satisfy  us  concerning  the  cause 
of  this  remarkable  event,  we  may  consider,  tibtat  a  monafeh 
may  govern  bis  subjects  in  two  different  ways.  He  mfty 
either  follow  the  maxims  of  the  eastern  princes,  and  stretch 
his  authority  so  fiir  as  to  leave  no  distinction  of  rank  among 
bis  subjects,  but  wbat  proceeds  immediately  from  himself; 
ik>  sD^antages  of  birth ;  no  hereditdi^  honours  tad  po^ 
sessions ;  and,  in  a  word^  no  cfedft  among  the  people,  ex^ 
cept  from  his  commission  alone.  Or  a  monarch  may  ex- 
ert tus  power  after  a  milder  manner,  like  other  European 
princes ;  and  leav^  other  sources  of  honour,  beside  his 
tattle  and  fevour :  Birti),  titles,  possessions,  valour,  inle- 
grity,  knowledge,  or  great  and  fbrtunate  achievement^^/ 
in  the  fiMrmer  species  of  government,  after  a  conquest,  it 
is  impossible  ever  to  shake  off  the  yoke ;  since  no  one  pos^ 
aesses,  among  the  people,  «o  much  personal  credit  and  au^ 
thority  as  to  begin  such  an  enterprise :  Whereas,  in  th6' 
latter,  the  least  misfortune,  or  discord  among  the'  victors, 
will  encourage  the  vanquished  to  take  arms,  who  have 
leaders  ready  to  prompt  and  conduct  them  in  every  un- 
dertaking*. 

Such  is  the  reasoning  of  Machiavel,  which  seems  solid 

•  So«  Note  [A.] 

c2 


so  £88AT  III. 

and  conclusive ;  though  I  wish  be  bad  not  mixed  falsehood 
with  truth,  in  asserting,  that  monardiies,  governed  accord- 
ing to  eastern  policy,  though  more  easily  kept  when  cMice 
subdued,  yet  are  the  most  difficult  to  subdue ;  since  they 
cannot  contain  any  powerful  subject,  whose  discontent  and 
factitm  may  fecilitate  the  enteiprises  of  an  enemyt  For, 
besides  that  such  a  tyrannical  government  enervates  the 
courage  of  men,  and  renders  them  indifferent  towards  the 
fortunes  of  their  sovereign ;  besides  this,  I  say,  we  find  by 
experience,  that  even  the  temporary  and  delegated  autho- 
rity of  the  generals  and  magistrates,  being  always,  in  such 
governments,  as  absolute  within  its  sphere,  as  that  of  the 
prince  himself  is  able,  with  barbarians,  accustomed  to  a 
blind  submission,  to  produce  the  most  dangerous  and  fa^ 
tal  revolutions.  So  that,  in  every  respect,  a  gentle  govern- 
ment is  preferable,  and  gives  the  greatest  security  to  the 
sovereign  as  well  as  to  the  subject, 

Legblators,  therefore,  ought  not  to  trust  the  future  go- 
vernment of  a  state  entirely  to  chance,  but  ought  to  pro- 
vide a  system  of  laws  to  regulate  the  administration  of 
public  afiairs  to  the  latest  posterity.  Effects  will  always 
correspond  to  causes ;  and  wise  r^ulations,  in  any  com- 
monwealth, are  the  most  valuable  legacy  that  can  be  left 
to  future  ages«  In  the  smallest  court  or  office,  the  stated 
forms  and  methods,  by  which  business  must  be  conducted, 
are  found  to  be  a  considerable  check  on  the  natural  de- 
pravity of  mankind.  Why  should  not  the  case  be  the 
same  in  public  affiurs  ?  Can  we  ascribe  the  stability  and 
wisdom  of  the  Venetian  government,  through  so  many 
ages,  to  any  thing  but  the  form  of  government?  And  is 
it  not  easy  to  point  out  those  defects  in  the  original  con- 
stitution, which  produced  the  tumultuous  governments  of 
Athens  and  Rome,  and  ended  at  last  in  the  ruin  of  the&e 


POLITICS  A  SCISKCE*  d1 

two  fiunous  republics?  And  so  little  dependence  has  this 
affiur  on  the  humours  and  education  of  particular,  men^ 
that  one  part  of  the  same  republic  may  be  wisely  con« 
ducted,  and  another  weakly,  by  the  very  same  men,  mere- 
ly on  account  of  the  differences  of  the  forms  and  institu- 
tions by  which  these  parts  are  r^nlated^  Historians  in- 
form us  that  this  was  actually  the  case  with  Genoa.  For 
while  the  state  was  always  full  of  sedition,  and  tumult,  and 
disorder,  the  Bank  of  St  Greorge,  which  had  become  a 
con^erable  part  of  the  people,  was  conducted,  for  several 
ages^  with  the  utmost  int^ity  and  wisdom  '• 

The  ages  of  greatest  public  spirit  are  not  always  most 
eminent  for  private  virtue*  Good  laws  may  b^et  order 
and  moderation  iri  the  government,  where  the  manners 
and  customs  have  instilled  little  humanity  or  justice  into 
die  tempers  of  men.  The  most  illustrious  period  of  the 
Roman  history,  considered  in  a  political  view,  is  that  be- 
tween the  beginning  of  the  first  and  end  of  the  last  Punic 
war ;  the  due  balance  between  the  nobility  and  people  be- 
ing then  fixed  by  the  contests  of  the  tribunes,  and  not  be- 
ing yet  lost  by  the  extent  of  conquests.  Yet  at  this  very 
time,  the  horrid  practice  of  poisoning  was  so  common, 
that,  during  part  of  the  season,  a  Pra^bor  punished  capi- 
tally for  this  crime  above  three  thousand  ^  per8<»is  in  a  part 
of  Italy ;  and  found  informations  of  this  nature  still  mul- 

*  Esaempio  Teramento  laro,  et  da  FUosofi  intante  loro  imaginate  et  ve* 
dute  Republiche  mai  non  troyato,  Tedere  dentro  ad  on  mederimo  oerduoy 
fira  medesimi  dUaduri,  la  liberta,  et  la  tirannide,  la  rita  dvile  et  la  corotta, 
la  ghistitia  et  la  lioenaa;  peiche  quello  ordine  solo  mantiere  quella  dtta 
piena  di  coetnmi  antidii  et  ▼enerabtlL  E  8*egli  auvetUBse  (die  col  tempo 
in  ogni  modo  auTerr^)  que  San  Giorgio  tutti  qud  la  dtti  occupasse,  sar- 
rebbe  quella  una  RepubUca  piu  daHa  Venetiana  memorabik. — Ddia  Hist. 
Florentine,  lib.  viii. 

^  T.  lirii,  lib.  xL  <^p.  43. 


22:  ESSAY  III* 

tiplying  upon  him.  There  is  a  similar,  or  rather  a  wors«t 
instance ',  in  the  more  early  times  of  the  commonwealths 
So  deprav^  in  private  life  were  that  people^  whom  in  their 
histories  we  so  much  admire*  I  doubt  not  but  they  were, 
really  more  virtuous  during  the  time  of  the  two  TYHmm^, 
rates ;  when  they  were  tearing  their  common  country  t^ 
pieces,  and  spreading  slaughter  and  desolation  over  the 
Ihce  of  the  earth,  merely  for  the  choice  of  tyrants  K 
.  Here,  then,  is  a  sufficient  inducement  to  maintain,  with 
the  utmost  2Seal,  in  every  free  state,  those  forms  and  insti* 
tutions,  by  which  liberty  is  secured,  the  public  good  coo^'. 
suited,  and  the  avarice  or  ambition  of  particular  men  re- 
strained and  punished.  Nothing  does  more  honour  to 
}iuman  nature  than  to  see  it  susceptible  of  so  noble  a  p%^ 
sion ;  as  nothing  can  be  a  greatei^  indication  of  meannesa 
of  heart  in  any  man  than  to  see  him  destitute  of  it.  A 
man  who  loves  only  himself,  without  reg^d  to  frienddiip 
and  desert,  merits  the  severest  blame ;  and  a  man  who  ia 
cmly  susceptible  of  friendship,  without  public  spirit,  or  9 
regard  to  the  community,  is  deficient  in  the  most  mate^ 
rial  part  of  virtue. 

But  this  is  a  subject  which  needs  not  be  I(»^er  insisted 
cm  at  present  There  are  enow  of  zealots  on  both  sides^ 
who  kindle  up  the  passions  of  their  partisans,  and,  under 
pretence  of  public  good,  pursue  the  interests  and  ends  <^ 
their  particular  faction.  For  my  part,  I  shall  always  be 
more  fond  of  promoting  moderation  than  zeal ;  though 
perhaps  the  surest  way  of  producing  moderation  in  every 
party,  is  to  increase  our  zeal  for  the  public     Let  us  there* 

•  T.  liTii,  lib.  ▼iii*  oap.  18. 
h  L'Aigle  comtre  TiUgl^y  Romains  contre  Romunsy 
Combatant  seulement  pour  le  choix  de  tyrans. 

COUVULLW, 


POLITICS  A  «CIKNC£.  23 

ibre  try,'  tf  it  be  possible,  from  the  foregoing  ^loctrine,  to 
draw  a  lesson  of  moderation  with  r^ard  to  the  pfiaiietf 
into  which  our  comitry  is  at  present  divided ;  at  the  same 
time,  that  we  allow  not  this  moderation  to  abate  die  in- 
dustry and  passion^  with  which  every  individual  is  bound 
to  pursue  the  good  of  his  eountty. 

Those  who  eith^  aMaek  or  defend  a  minister  in  sucih  a 
govemihent  as  ours,  where  the  utmost  liberty  is  allowed^ 
always  carry  matters  to  an  extreme^  and  exaggerate  his 
merit  or  demerit  with  regard  to  the  pubHc  His  enemies 
are  sure  to  charge  Um  with  the  greatest  enormities^  both 
in  domestic  and  foreign  management;  and  dtere  ifii  no 
meanness  or  crim^  of  which,  i»  Aieir  account,  he  is  not 
capable^  Unnecessary  wars,  scandalous  treaties,  profttsion 
of  pubUc  treasure,  oppressive  tasces,  every  kind  of  mal-ad- 
ministration,  is  ascribed  to  him.  To  aggravate  the  diarge, 
his  pernicious  conduct,  it  is  sfdd,  will  extend  its  baneftd 
influence  even  to  posterity,  by  undermining  the  best  con- 
stitntioh  in  the  world,  and  disordering  that  wise  system  of 
laws,  institutions,  and  customs,  by  which  our  ancestors, 
during  so  many  centuries,  have  been  so  happily  governed. 
He  is  not  only  a  wicked  minister  in  himself,  but  has  re- 
moved every  security  provided  against  wicked  ministers 
for  the  future. 

On  the  oth^r  hand,  the  partisans  of  the  minister  make 
his  panegyric  nm  as  high  as  t^e  accusation  agiiinst  him, 
and  celebrate  his  wise,  steady,  and  moderate  conduct  in 
every  part  of  his  admimstration.  The  h<mour  and  inte- 
rest of  the  nation  suppcnrted  abroad,  public  credit  maii»- 
tmned  at  home,  persecution  restrained',  fibction  subdued^; 
'Ae  merit  of  all  these  blessings  is  ascribed  solely  to  the 
minister.  At  the  same  time,  he  crowns  all  his  other  me- 
rits by  a  religious  care  of  the  best  constitution  in  the 


i4f  ESSAY  III. 

woiidy  which  he  has  preserved  ill  all  its  parts^  and  hasp 
transmitted  entire,  to  be  the  hf^piness  and  security  of  the 
latest  posterity. 

When  this  accusation  and  panegyric  are  received  by  the 
partisans  of  each  party,  no  vironder  they  beget  an  extraor- 
dinary ferment  on  both  sides,  and  fill  the  nation  with  vio- 
lent animosities.  But  I  would  fain  persuade  these  party 
zealots,  that  there  is  a  flat  contradiction  both  in  the  accur 
sation  and  panegyric,  and  that  it  were  impossible  for  ei- 
ther of  them  to  r\in  so  high,  were  it  not  for  this  contra^ 
diction.  If  our  constitution  be  really  that  noble  fabric^ 
the  pridt  qf  Britain,  the  envy  of  <mr  neighboursy  raised  by 
the  labour  qf  9o  many  ceniuries,  repaired  at  the  expense  (^ 
somany  millions,  and  cemented  by  such  qpn^mkmqf  blood*; 
I  say,  if  our  constitution  does  in  any  degree  deserve  these 
eulo^es,  it  would  never  hfive  suffered  a  wicked  and  weak 
minister  to  govern  triumphantly  ibr  a  course  of  twenty 
years,  when  o[q[)osed  by  the  greatest  geniuses  in  the  na- 
tion, who  exercised  the  utmost  liberty  of  tongue  and  pen, 
in  parliament,  And  in  their  frequent  appeals  to  the  people. 
But,  if  the  minister  be  wicked  and  weak,  to  the  degree  sq 
strenUbudy  insisted  on,  the  constitution  must  be  faulty  in 
its  original  pl*ikieiides,  and  be  cannot  consistently  be  char- 
ged with  undermining  the  best  form  of  government  in  the 
World>  A  constitution  is  only  so  far  goody  as  it  provides 
,a  remedy  i^fuust  mal-administradon ;  and  if  the  British, 
when  in  its  greatest  vigour,  and  rq>aired  by  two  such  re- 
.Huurkable  events,  as  the  Bevolutkm  and  Accession^  by  which 
our  aincient  royal  family  was  sacrificed  to  it ;  if  our  coiv- 
^tJtution,  I  say,  with  so  great  advantages,  doe^s  not,  in 
factj  provide  any  such  remedy,  we  are  rather  beholden  tp 

•  Dissertation  on  Pftitiefi,  Letter  X. 


POLITICS  A  SCIENCE.  26 

any  miiiister  who  undermines  it,  and  affords  us  an  oppor- 
tunity of  erecting  a  better  in  its  place. 

I  would  employ  the  same  topics  to  moderate  the  seal 
of  those  who  defend  the  minister.  Ib  avr  condituiian  «o 
^acoeOmtf  Then  a  change  of  ministry  can  be  no  such 
dreadful  event ;  since  it  is  essential  to  such  a  constitution, 
in  every  ministry,  both  to  preserve  itself  irom  violation, 
and  to  prevent  all  enormities  in  the  administration,  h 
xmr  corutiMion  very  badf  Then  so  extraordinary  a  jea- 
lousy and  apprehension,  on  account  of  changes,  is  ill 
placed ;  and  a  man  should  no  more  be  anxious  in  this  case, 
than  a  husband,  who  had  married  a  woman  from  the  stews, 
should  be  watchful  to  prevent  her  infidelity.  Public  af- 
fairs, in  such  a  government,  must  necessarily  go  to  con- 
fusion, by  whatever  hands  they  are  conducted ;  and  the 
zeal  q( patriots  is  in  that  case  much  less  requisite  than  the 
patience  and  submission  ot pkUowphers.  The  virtue  and 
good  intentions  of  Cato  and  Brutus  are  highly  laudable; 
but  to  what  purpose  did  their  zeal  serve  ?  Only  to  hasten 
the  fatal  period  of  the  Roman  government,  and  render  its 
convulsions  and  dying  agonies  more  violent  and  painful. 

I  would  not  be  understood  to  mean,  that  public  affairs 
deserve  no  care  and  attention  at  aU.  Would  men  be  mo- 
derate and  consistent,  their  claims  might  be  admitted ;  at 
least  might  be  examined.  The  covntry-party  might  still 
assert,  that  our  constitution,  though  excellent,  will  admit 
of  mal-administration  to  a  certain  degree;  and  therefore, 
if  the  minister  be  bad,  it  is  proper  to  oppose  him  vrith  a 
mtUabk  degree  of  zeal.  And,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
court-party  may  be  allowed,  upon  die  supposition  that  the 
minister  were  good,  to  defend,  and  with  some  zeal  too,  his 
administration.  I  would  only  persuade  men  not  to  con- 
tend, as  if  they  were  fighting  pro  oris  etfocisj  and  change 


26  ESSAY  III, 

a  good  constitution  into  a  bad  one,  by  the  violence  of  theic 
factions.  i 

I  hnYe  not  her^  conaidered  any  thitig  that  is  pers<mal  in 
the  present  epntroyersy.  In  the  best  citil  constitution^ 
whjere  ev«ty  man  is  strained  by  the  most  rigid  laws,  it 
is  easy  to  discover  either  the  good  or  bad  intentions  of  a 
miAisfel'^  and  to  judge,  whether  his  petsonal  character  det 
serve  love  or  hatred.  But  such  questions  are  of  little  imt- 
poitance  to  the  public,  and  lay  those,  who  employ  th^ 
pens  upon  them,  under  a  just  suspicicm  either  of  malevo-* 
lence  or  of  flattery. 


ESSAY  IV. 


or  THE  FIRST  PRINCIPLES  OF  GOVERNMENT. 

.  iN  oTHiNG  appears  more  surprising*  to  those  who  consider 
human  afikirs  with  a  philosophical  eye^  than  the  easiness 
with  which  the  many  are  governed  by  the  few ;  and  the 
implicit  submission,  with  which  men  resign  their  own  sen- 
timents and  passions  to  those  of  their  rulers.  When  we 
inquire  by  what  means  this  wonder  is  effiscted,  we  shaU 
find,  that,  ^  Force  is  always  on  the  side  of  the  governed, 
the  governors  have  nothing  to  support  them  but  opinion. 
It  is,  therefore,  onua^unioiuonly  that  government  is  found- 
ed ;  and  this  maxim  extends  to  the  most  despotic  and 
most  military  governments,  as  well  as  to  the  most  free  aad 
most  pop^lar.  The  soldan  of  Egypt, .  or  the  emperor  of 
Rome,  might  drive  his  harmless  subjects,  like  brute  beast£i, 
against  their  sentiment^  and  inclination :  But  he  must,  at 
least,  huve  led  his  nuxmalukes^  or  prc^orian  brnds^  lik^ 
men,  by  their  opinion.^ 

Opinion  i^  of  tif  o  kind%  to  wit,  opinion  of  interesd^ 
and  Qpuii(m  of  i^igut.  By  opinion  of  interest,  I  chiefly 
tmderstand  the  sense  of  the  general  advantage  which  is 
reaped  from  government  j  togedier  with  the  persuasioi^ 
that  the  particular  government^  which  is  established,  is 
equally  advantageous  with  any  other  that  could  easily  be 
settled.     When  this  ppinion  prevails  among  the  generali- 


28  ESSAY  IV. 

ty  of  a  state,  or  among  those  who  have  the  force  in  their 
hands,  it  gives  great  security  to  any  government 

Right  is  of  two  kinds ;  right  to  JJower  and  right  to  Pro^ 
perty.  What  prevalence  opinion  of  the  first  kind  has 
over  mankind,  may  easily  be  understood,  by  observing  the 
attachment  which  all  nations  have  to  their  ancient  govern- 
ment, and  even  to  those  names  which  have  had  the  sane-* 
tion  of  antiquity.  Antiquity  always  begets  the  opinion  of 
right ;  and  whatever  disadvantageous  sentiments  we  may 
entertain  of  mankind,  they  are  always  found  to  be  prodi- 
gal both  of  blood  and  treasure  in  the  maintenance  of  pu- 
blic justice.  There  h,  indeed,  no  particular,  in  which,  at 
first  sight,  there  may  appear  a  greater  contradiction  in  the 
frame  of  the  human  mind  than  the  present.  When  men 
act  in  a  faction,  they  are  apt,  without  shame  or  remorse, 
to  neglect  all  the  ties  of  honour  and  morality,  in  order  to 
serve  their  party ;  and  yet,  when  a  faction  is  formed  upon 
a  point  of  right  or  principle,  there  is  no  occasion  where 
men  discover  a  greater  obstinacy,  and  a  more  determined 
sense  of  justice  and  equity.  The  same  social  disposition 
of  mankind  is  the  cause  of  these  contradictory  appearances. 

It  is  sufficiently  understood,  that  the  opinion  of  right  to 
property  is  of  moment  in  all  matters  of  government.  A 
noted  author  has  made  property  the  foundation  of  all  go- 
vernment ;  and  most  of  our  political  writers  seem  inclined 
to  follow  him  in  that  particubr.  This  is  carrying  the  mat- 
ter too  far ;  but  still  it  must  be  owned,  that  the  opinion  of 
right  to  property  has^  a  great  influence  in  this  subject. 

Upon  these  three  opinions,  therefore,  of  public  irUeresif 
of  right  to  power^  and  of  right  to  propertyy  are  all  govern- 
ments founded,  and  all  authority  of  the  few  over  the  ma- 
ny. There  are  indeed  other  principles,  which  add  force  to 
these,  and  determine,  limit,  or  alter  their  operation ;  such 


PRINCIPLES  OF  GOVERNMENT.  29 

R$  a^f'inkrtMtifear  and  c^gklbm :  But  still  we  may  assert^ 
that  these  other  principles'  can  have  no  infiaence  alone, 
bat  suppose  the  antecedent  influence  of  those  opinions 
above  mentioned.     They  are,  therefore,  to  be  esteemed 
the  sec<mdary,  not  the  original  principles  of  govemmenti. 
For,  Jlritt  as  to  seff-interesiy  by  which  I  mean  the  ex^ 
pectation  of  particular  rewards,  distinct  from  die  general 
protection  which  we  receive  from  government^  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  magistrate's  authority  must  be  antecedently 
established,  at  least  be  hoped  for,  in  order  to  produce  thi» 
expecistimu    The  prospect  of  reward  may  augment  his 
authori^  with  regard  to  some  particular  persons ;  but  caa 
never  give  birth  to  it,  with  regard  to  the  public*    Mea 
naturally  look  for  the  greatest  lavours  from  their  friends 
and  acquaintance ;  and  therefore,  the  h(^>6s  of  any.  cpnsi** 
derable  number  of  the  state  would  never  centre  in  any  par- 
ticular set  of  men,  if  these  men  had  no  other  title  to  ma- 
gistracy, and  had  no  separate  influence  over  the  opiAioAs 
of  mankind     The  same  observation  may  be  extended  to 
the  other  two  principles  oifoar  and  <^SMio9U    No  man 
would  have  any  reason  to  fiar  the  fury  of  a  tyrant,  if  he 
had  no  authority  over  any  but  from  fear ;  since,  as  a  single 
man,  his  bodily  force  can  reach  but  a  small  way,  and  all 
the  farther  power  he  possesses  must  be  founded  either  on 
our  own  opinion,  or  on  the  presumed  opinion  of  others* 
And  though  effedUm  to  wisdom  and  virtue  in  a  9at>treig9^ 
extends  very  far,  and  has  great  influence ;  yet  he  nnust  an- 
tecedently be  supposed  invested  with  a  public  character, 
otherwise  the  public  esteem  will  serve  him  in  no  stead,  nor 
will  his  virtue  have  any  influence  beyond  a  narrow  sphere, 
A  government  may  endure  for  several  ages,  though  the 
balance  of  power  and  the  balance  of  property  do  not  coin- 
cide.    This  chiefly  happens, where  any  raok  or  order  oC 


aO  B86AT  IV;* 

the  state  has  acquii^d  a  laif^e  share  in  Uieprc^erty ;  but,^ 
from  the  original  oQiistitation  of  die  govenunent,  has  no 
sham  in  the  poivsr.  Under  what  prefisnee  Would  any  ln« 
dividnal  of  that  order  assione  authority  in  public  afikrrs  ?: 
Aft  men  are  commonly  much  attached  to  their  ancient  go<-' 
yemment)  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  die  public  ^ould 
e¥er£etvovr  such  usurpations.  But  where  the  ordinal  cdn-^ 
stitution  allows  any  share  €i  power,,  though  smally  to  an 
order  of  nlen,  who  possess  a  large  share  of  property,  it  is 
easy  for  thefu  gradually  to  stretch  dieir  authority,  and 
bring  the  baianceof  power  to  coincide  >rith  that  of  ptofptr-^ 
ty.  This  has  been  the  caeewith  the  House  of  Commons: 
in  England* 

-  Most  wrfters  that  ha?ie  treated  of  the  British  go'irem'^ 
ment^'have  supposed,  that  as  the  Lower  House  r^e- 
settts  aU  the  commons  of  Great  Britain^  its  weight  in  ^o 
scale  is  proportiEoned  to  the  property  and  power  of  all 
whom  it  represttits*  But  thb  pri|iciple  must  not  be  re« 
eeived  as  absolutely  true.  For  thoi^h  the  people  are  ap^ 
to  attach  themselves  more  to  the  House  of  Commons  tbim^ 
to  any  other  member  of  the  constklUlkm ;  that  House  bein^ 
chosen  by  them  as  their  rqpresentatives^  and  as  the  public 
guar^Kana  of  their  m>erty :  yet  ar€^  there  instuftces  where 
the  House,  even  when  in  oppositl<»n  to  the  crown,  has 
not  been  foHowed  by  the  people;  as  we  may  particulariy 
observe  of  the  Any  Ho«se  of  Commons  in  the  reign  of 
King  William.  Were  the  members  obliged  to  receive 
instructi<ms  from  their  constituents,  like  the  Dutch  depu- 
ties^ this  would  entirely  alter  the  case ;  and  if  such  im- 
mense power  and  riches,  as  those  of  all  the  commons  of 
Great  Britain,  were  brought  into  the  stale,  it  is  not  easy 
to  conceive,  that  the  crowh  could  either  influence  that 
multitude  of  people,  or  withstand  that  balance  of  property* 


PHINCIPLES  OF  GOVERNMENT.  31 

It  is  true,  the  crown  has  great  influence  over  the  collective 
body  in  the  elections  of  members ;  but  were  this  influence, 
which  at  present  is  cHily  exerted  once  in  seven  years,  to  be 
employed  in  bringing  over  the  people  to  every  vote,  it 
would  so<m  be  wasted,  and  no  skill,  popularity,  or  revenue 
could  support  it  I  must,  therefiare,  be  of  opinion,  that 
an  alteration  in  this  particular  would  introduce  a  total 
alteration  in  our  government,  and  would  soon  reduce  it 
to  a  pure  republic ;  and,  perhaps,  to  a  republic  of  no  in- 
convenient form.  For  though  the  people,  collected  in  a 
\Kidjf  like  the  Efmati  t)ribas»  b^  qttito  unfit  iox  govera- 
xoMk,  jet  vHjteo  diqE^ersed  in  smidl  bodies,,  duty  are^  mortt 
iitsdqptible  b<Hli  of  reawHiaDdOfd^r;  tbeforo^cdLpopntor 
fwrrepts  aad  tides  is,  in  sT  great  meatare,' bi^dtet)  ^'atid  Aq 
pdili^  idterest  nay  be  parsmed  with  aane  ilijBNibod  Md 
ora/rtttiioy.  Bnl  it  ia  needAesa  to  fMsda  anyfartke^  c^At* 
ceming  a  forp  of  govemiMnt^  whiiohiis  never  likely  td 
have  place  hi  Great  BritainV  aad  which  aeema  mot  Id  ba 
tfw  aim  erf*  any  party  amongst  us.  |jet,tts  dberi^aadim«» 
prove  our  ancient  govemnw^  aa  much  as  posaihl^  wbb-t 
^t  aiiecmraging  a  piaasiQa&nr  nich  dangerous  hoveltitti. 


ESSAY  V. 


OF  THE  ORIGIN  OF  GOVERNMENt. 

JVIan,  horn  in  a  family,  is  cmnpeUed  toiaaititaiiisocietyy 
from  m^QSjisitjr,  frcnn  natural  indinatipn,  and  from  bisJiil* 
The  same  creature,  in  his  fiurther  progress,  is  engaged  to 
establish  political  society,  in  order  to  administer  justice^; 
witfaout  which  there  can  be  no  peace  among  them,  nor 
safe^,  nor  mutual  intercourse.  We  are,  therefore,  to 
look  upon  all  the  vast  apparatus  of  our  government,  as 
having  ultimately  no  other  object  or  purpose  bntAe  dis-« 
tribution  ofjustice^  or,  in  other  words,  the  support  of  Uie 
tw^e  judges.  Kings  and  parliaments,  fleets  and  armies^ 
officers  of  the  court  and  revenue,  ambassadors,  ministers, 
and  privy-counsellors,  are  all  subordinate  in  their  end  to 
>/  this  part  of  administration.  Even  the  sisxgff  as  their 
duty  leads  them  to  inculcate  morality,  may  justly  be 
thought,  so  fiur  as  regards  this  world,  to  have  no  other 
useful  object  of  their  institution. 

All  men  are  sensible  of  the  necessity  of  justice  to  main- 
tain peace  and  order ;  and  all  men  are  sensible  of  the  ne- 
cessity of  peace  and  order  for  the  maintenance  of  society. 
Yet,  notwithstanding  this  strong  and  obvious  necessity, 
such  is  the  frailty  or  perverseness  of  our  nature  !  it  is  im- 
possible to  keqp  men,  faithfully  and  unerringly,  in  the 
paths  of  justice.     Some  extraordinary  circumstances  may 

2 


ORIGIN  OF  GOVERNMENT.  3S 

lii|)peii9  ia  which  a  maa  finds  his  interests  to  be  moro 
promoted  by  fraud  or  lapine^  than  hurt  by  the  breach 
whidi  his  iigiistice  makes  in  die  social  miicai#  But  mncfa 
more  fireqoendy  he  is  seduced  from  his  great  and  impoxw 
tan^  but  distant  interests,  by  the  alluremoit  <^  present^ 
dumgfa  often  very  frirohm^  temptatioDs*  This  great  weak- 
ness is  incurable  in  human  lUiture* 

Men  must^  therefore,  endeavour  to  palliate  what  they 
cannot  cure*  They  i^^ust  institute  some  persons  under  ^ 
the  appdlation  of  magistrates,  whose  peculiar  office  it  is 
to  point  out  the  decrees  of  equity,  to  punish  traasgresscnrs, 
to  correct  fraud  and  violence,  and  to  oUigemen,  hcfwevep 
rductaa^  to  consult  their  own  real  and  permanent  i^te^* 
rests*  In  a  word,  obedieooeis  a  new  duty  whiJoh  mustbe 
invented  to  support  that  of  justice,  and  the  ties  of  equitjr 
must  be  corroborated  by  those  of  aU^ance« 

But  still,  viewing  matters  in  an  abstract  l%ht,  it  may 
be  though^  that  nothing  is  gained  by  this  alUaace,  and 
that  the  factitionsdu^  of  obedience,  from  its  very  nature^ 
lays  as  feeble  a  hokl  of  the  hummi  mind,  as  the  prunilive 
and  natural  duty  of  justice.  Peculiar  interests  and  pxe-» 
sent  temptations  may  overocmie  the  one  as  well  as  tho 
other*  Th^  are  equally  ^oqposed  to  the  same  inemivef* 
nienoe.  And  the  man,  who  is  inclined  to  be  a  bad  neighf* 
hour,  must  be  led  by  the  same  motives,  well  or  ill  underw 
stood,  to  be  a  bad  citizen  and  subject*  N<rt  to  inentionr 
diat  the  magistrate  himself  may  often  be  negligent,  or 
partial,  or  nnjpst  in  lus  administration* 

Ftyperkmciv  however,  proves  that  there  is  a  great  dif* 
fisrence  between  the  oases.  Order  in  society,  we  find,  i9 
much  bettor  maintained  by  means  of  government;  and 
our  duty  to  the  OMgistrate  is  more  strictly  guarded  l^  the 
principles  of  human  nature^  than  our  doty  to  our  ffeUow« 

VOL.  !•  D 


M  EilSAY  V« 

ettlmia.'  Thclave  of  ddnuUdli  isao  stikkigiath^  breiri 
dfiBMiylltetida^ilotariyfliifafWt  tcv  bat  Murt  all  dif 
ind  Citigiitay  «nd«arfif  ef  goireraaMDt;  andnicp»' 
!  nmd  ^  A»t  tUtiati^  thsm^  oAea  1«1  aatmyby  jni* 
VEtft  passioiit^  &adf  in  Gardinafy.ottsi^  a  miUe  intetfe^t  in 
(be  iaijpartiai  adtbuyatradon  of  j«adce»  Thepenont^  who 
first  attain  this  distincticoi  by  tbe  eonaeiit,  tadt  or  eiq^raas^ 
of  the  paqde^  must  be  endowed  with  superior  personal 
qahliliet  of  Talowr,  fbicay  integrt^^  or  prudenoe^  iHbich 
obimnand  reqiect  and  oMfideace:  and»  after  gorrenmieBt 
is  estahliahedf  a  regard  to  birth,  rank,  and  station^  has  jit 
mig^itjrinfliie&ee  over  meD,aadeitforc6t  thedeereeaef  thd 
laagistrate.  The  printe  or  leader  exclaintt  against  every 
dborder  which  disturbs  his  sooiety«  He  suaamons  all  his 
partiaani  and  aU  men  of  {Nrobitgr  to  aid  him  in  ootoecting 
and  redressing  it:  and  he  is  readily  followed  by attindifi 
ferent  persons  in  the  exeoution  of  his  c^ce.  He  sooi^  Ac- 
quires the  power  of  rewarding  these  servioes ;  jind  in'  thri 
progress  of  society,  he  establishes  sdsordinate  liiinisten^^ 
and  often  a  milstary  feroey  who  find  an  inmiediate  and  a 
visible  interest  in  supporting  his  authority.  Habit  ni&t^ 
consoUdatas  what  other  principlea  of  hunan  Uqiturt  had: 
imperfectly  founded;  and  meny  once  accustomed  taobb^ 
dienoe,  never  think  of  d^Murting  fi*om  that  patlv  in  which: 
they  and  their  aneestocs  have  constantly  trod^  and  to  whirii* 
they  are  confined  by  so  maby  tusgait  and  visible  motivesL 
Bat  though  this  prdgress  of  human  alfiiirs  may  apptar 
certain  and  inevitable,  and  though  the  support  which,  ai^ 
Iq^iance  brings  to  justice  be  founded  on  obViouapnnci{des 
of  bumun  nature,  k  oaniiot  be  expeoted  thatmed  should, 
beforehand  be  aUe  to  discover  thenv  or  foresee  their  b^po* 
ration.  OovermnentcomflKnceemore  casually  and  more 
imperfedly.    It  is  probata  dial  due  first  asoendaiit  of  one 


ORIGIN  OF  OOTXRNMENT.  M 

-mu^  o^er  maltitiictes  b^sab  ikirkig  a  state  <i£i«ar :  -dbeib 
.the  8iqperi6tife]r  of  courage  and  of  goomU  diiw««i^:  itrnkS 
*mo8t  yiaStAf,  whMve  iDiaiiimityand.efaiioabt  ave  mo8tiiek|i^ 
site,:  aii4  where  the  pemidmifi  affects  of  41sbi<|^ 
-MQiBUy  felt  The  long  oontiimati  w  of  that  $ti^^  iin  iMl- 
-dttt  common  amequg  sava^  tvihes,  hiiired  t)ie  ]^eo^Ie  to 
sttbimssion ;  and  if  die  diieftaiii  pos^sMd  ^nraA  ^i% 
^ae  prudence  and  valonr)  he  became^  efen  ddring  peafee, 
ihe  arbiter  of  all  diflbrenoes,  and  oonld  gradaalfy^  t^*  a 
mixture  of  force  and  consent,  establish  lus  duthori^.  The 
benefit  sensibly  Hslt  ifirdm  his  infin^oe^  m^  it  b@  cherish 
o4  fay  the  p^ple,  at  least  bjr  the  peaceable  td^d  wdl!Kiia<^ 
posed  afnOngtbem;  and  if  his  st^  enjoys  the  samegood 
qualities,  gOTemment  adtranced  tMe  sooni^r  to  maWrify 
and  perfection ;  bnt  was  still'in  a  feeble  stat^  tat  tfi§^ 
Iher  progrera  of  improvement  procured  the  ms^strsM  a 
rerrenoe,  and  enabled  him  to  b^tow  rewards  6n  the  seve« 
ral  instruments  of  his  admmistration,-  and  to  inflict  puhisfa- 
meniB  on  the  refractory  and  disobedient  B^ftretfaat  pe4 
nod,  each  exertion  <^  his  infiti^ice  mtist  have  beenP  partis 
colar,  and  founded  on  ^  peculiai^  circumstances  of  the 
case.  After  it,  submission  was  no  longer  k  mattieir'  of 
fshoice  in  the  bulk  of  the  conmianily,  but  was  rigorously 
exacted  by  llie  authority  of  th^  supreme  magistrate. 
•  In  all  governments,  there  ii  a  perpetud  intestine  Strugs' 
gle,  open  or  secret^  between  Authority  and  Liberty  ; 
and  neither  of  them  can  ever  absolutely  prevail  in  the  con-^ 
test*  A  great  sacrifice  of  liberty  must  necessarily  be  made 
in  every  government ;  yet  even  the  authority,  which  con- 
fines liberty,  can  never,  and  perhaps  ought  never,  in  any 
constitution,  to  become  quite  entire  and  uncontrollable. 
The  sultan  is  master  of  the  life  and  fortune  of  any  indivi- 
dual ;  but  will  not  be  permitted  to  impose  new  taxes  on 

d2 


36  Z89AY  T. 

his  subjects :  a  French  mansrdi  can  hdpoBe  taxes  at  fiet^ 
sure;  but  would  find  it  dang^xmsta  attempt  diie  lives  and 
fortunes  of  individuals.  Htlijgum  aiso»  in  most  countries, 
is  commonly  found  to  be  a  very  intractaUe  principle ;  and 
V  other  principles  or  jMrejudioes  frequently  resist  all  the  au- 
,  thority  of  the  civil  magbtrate;  whose  power,  being  found- 
I  -ed  on  opinion,  can  never  subvert  other  bpinions,  equally 
\  rooted  with  that  of  his  title  to  dominioii.  The  govern- 
ment, which,  in  commcm  appellatton,  recdves  the  appel- 
lation offree»  is  that  which  admits  gf  a  psrtitimi^powar 
.among  several  members,  whose  united  authoritjr  is  n6 
less,  or  is  commonly  greater,  than  that  of  any  monarch; 
but  who^  in  the  usual  course  of  administration,  must  act 
by  general  and  equal  law^  that  are  previously  known  jto 
all  the  members,  and  to  all  their  subjects.  In  this  sens^ 
it  must  be  owned,  that  liberty  is  the  perfection  dT  civil  so^ 
dety ;  but  still  authority  must  be  acknowledged  essential 
to  its  very  existence :  and  in  those  contests,  which  so  of- 
ten take  place  between  the  one  and  the  other,  the  latter 
pay,  on  that  account,  challenge  the  preference*  Unless 
perhaps  one  may  say  (and  it  may  be  sliid  with  some  rea- 
son) that  a  circumstance,  which  is  ess^itial  to  the  exis^ 
tence  of  civil  socie^,  must  always  support  itsdf,  and  needs 
be  guarded  with  less  jealousy,  than  one  tha.t  contributes 
only  to  its  perfection,  which  the  indolence  of  men  is  so 
apt  to  neglect,  or  their  ignoranceto  overlook. 


ESSAY  VI- 


OF  THS  INDEPKNDENCnr  OJ  f ARIIABIBNT* 

P(^smcA3L  writers  have  estobHshed  it  as  a  maxim,  that, 
in  contriving  anjr  system  of  government,  and  fixing  the 
several  checks  and  controls  of  the  constitution,  every  man 
ought  to  be  supposed  a  Jbiove,  and  to  have  no  other  end, 
in  all  his  actions,  than  private  interest  By  this  interest 
we  must  govern  him,  and,  by  means  of  it^  make  him,  not- 
withstanding his  insatiable  avarice  and  ambition,  co-9pe'^ 
rate  to  public  good.  Without  this,  say  they,  we  shall  in 
vaio  boast  of  the  advantages  of  any  constitution,  and  shall 
find,  in  die  ^,  that  we  have  no  security  for  our  liberties 
er  pofl^sessions,  except  th^  good- will  of  our  rulers,  that  is, 
we  shall  have  no  security  at  all. 

It  is,  therefons,  a  just  poUHeal  maxim,  thai  every  man 
mmi  be  st^fpoeed  a  knave :  though,  at  the  same  time,  it 
appears  somewhat  strange,  that  a  maxim  should  be  true  in 
potitice  which  is  fidse  in  fiut.  But  to  satisfy  us  on  this 
head,  we  may  consider,  that  men  are  generally  more  ho- 
nest in  thrir  private  than  in  their  public  capacity,  and  wiH 
go  greater  lengths  to  serve  a  par^,  than  when  dieir  own 
private  interest  is  alone  concerned*  Honour  is  a  great 
check  upon  mankind :  But  where  a  considerable  body  of 
n^en  act  tc^ther,  this  check  is  in  a  great  measure  rerno^ 


88  ESSAY  VI. 

ved;  sinceamanis  sure  to  be  approved  of  by  his  own  par^ 
ty,  for  virhat  promotes  the  common  mterest;  and  he  soon 
learns  to  despise  the  clamours  of  adversaries.  To  which 
we  may  add,  that  every  court  or  senate  is  determined  by 
the  greater  number  pf  yoioes;  fio  that,  if  self-interest  in- 
fluences only  the  m^ority,  (as  it  will  always  do,)  the  whole 
senate  follows  the  allurements  of  this  separate  interest,  and 
acts  as  if  it  contained  not  one  member  who  had  any  regard 
to  public  interest  .wd  liberty. 
I  When  there  offers,  therefore,  to  our  censure  and  exami^^ 
nation,  any  plan  of  government,  real  or  imaginary,  where 
^  power  is  flistributed  among  sever^  pouftg,  and  several 
orders  of  men,  we  should  always  consider  the  sepiaratein* 
t^rest  of  each  court,  and  each  order ;  and|  if  we  find  that 
A  V  c  ^  ][^y  ^^  skUful  division  of  pow^»  this  interest  must  neces-^ 

^rily^  in  its  operation,  concur  with  die  public,  we  may 
pronounce  that  government  to  be  wise  and  happy.  .  If^ 
on  the  contrary^  separate  interest  be  not  chedced,  and  be 
not  directed  to  the  public,  we  ought  to  look  ibr  nothing 
but  faction^  disorder,  and  tyranny  from  such  a  govern-^ 
ipent  in  this  opinion  I  am  justified  by  experience^  as 
well  as  by  the  authority  of  all  philosophers  and  poKti"*- 
(^cians,  both  ancient  and  modem. 
,  How  much,  therefore,  would  it  have  surprised  sqc)i  ^  ge- 
nius  as  Cicero  or  Tacitus,  to  have  been  told,  thai  in  a  fo:^ 
tore  age,  there  should  arise  a  Tery  regular  system  of  »i«ed. 
government,  where  the  authority  was  so  distidbUted,  that 
Que  rank,  whenever  it  pleased,  might  swallow  up  all  the 
lestf  and  engross  the  whole  power  of  the  constitoticffw— 
Such  a  government,  they  would  say,  will  not  be  a  mixed 
governments  For  $o  great  is  the  natural  ambition  of  men^ 
that  th^  are  never  satisfied  with  power ;  and  if  oneordor 
of  men,  by  pursuing  its  Qwn  interest,  can  usurp  upon  every. 


INDEPENDENiCrr  OF  FAKLIAM£^T.  89 

fKher  order5  ft  will  asttutAy  do  so,  and  render  itsdfy  as 
fiuria  poaaibk^  absokte  aikl  iiDOQiitrolUble, 
,  But,  in  tbif  opinion,  oxperimce  sImws  they  would  have 
bean  miatakgnj;  for  iUa  id  mtnally  the  case  with  the  Bri« 
lirii  coDititiitiM*  The  sbaca  of  power,  allotted  by  our 
ecaititittion  to  the  faoose  of  ooMHaons^  is  so  great,  that  k 
ahsolately  commands  all  tfaa  other  parts  of  the  gosvemment. 
The  Idng^s  legislative  power  is  {dainly  no  proper  check  to 
it ;  for  thou^  tba  king  has  e  negative  in  framing  laws, 
yet  dus,  in  fact,  is  cateemedof  ad  little  moment,  thf^  what<» 
ever  is  voted  by  the  two  houses,  is  always  sure  to  pass  into 
a  law,  and  the  rojBl  Assent  is  Utde  better  than  a  form* 
The  principal  weight  of  the  erawn  lies  in  the  executive 
power.  But  besides  that  the  executive  power  in  every  go* 
vemment  is  dtcgether  subordinate  to  the  l^islative;  be* 
ttdtethis,  I  say,  the  exercise  of  this  power  requires  an  im- 
mense expense,'and  the  oommoos  have  assumed  to  them* 
sfiives  the  sole  right  of  granting  money.  How  easy, 
therefore^  would  it  be  for  that  bouse  to  wrest  from  the 
«Pown  all  these  powers,  one  after  another ;  by  making  eve- 
ry grant  conditional,  and  choosing  their  time  so  well,  that 
their  refusal  of  supply  should  only  distress  Ae  government, 
vrithoat  giving  foreign  powers  any  advantage  over  us?.  Did 
die  house  of  eonnoons  depend  in  the  same  manner  vpto 
die  king,  and  had  ncme  of  the  members  any  pn^)erty  bill 
from  his  gift^  would  not  he  coaomand  idl  their  resoJutidnsi 
and  be  from  that  moment  absolute  ?  As  to  the  house  <{ 
loacds^  they  ere  a  very  powerful  support  to  the  crown^  4o 
long  as  they  are,  in  their  turn,  supported  by  it;  but  both 
experience  and  reason  shew,  that  they  have  no  force  or  au? 
thoritysufficient  to  maintain  themselves  alone,  without  such 
suppcHt* 


40  SSSAY  Yf • 

How,  th^retore^  shall  we  solTe  this  paradox  ?  And  fay 
what  means  is  this  meiaBh&  of  onr  ccNutitatioQ  confined 
within  the  proper  limits;  sinoe^  from  our  very  oonttitttdon, 
it  niustnecessmly  have  as  much  power  as  it  demands,  and 
can  only  be  confined  by  itself?  How  is  this  consistent 
with  our  e]q)eTience  of  Jiuman  nature  ?  I  answer,  that  the 
interest  of  the  body  is  here  restrained  by  that  of  the  indi* 
viduals,  and  that  the  house  of  commons  stretches  not  its 
power,  because  such  an  usurpation  would  be  contrary  to 
the  interest  of  the  mi^orily  of  its  members.  The  crown 
has  so  many  offices  at  Hs  disposal,  that,  when  assbted  by 
the  holiest  and  disinterested  part  of  the  house,  it  will  al« 
ways  command  the  resolutions  of  the  whcle,  so  &r,  at  leasts 
as  to  preserve  the  ancient  constitution  frcHU  danger.  We 
may,  therefore,  give  to  this  influence  what  name  we  please ; 
we  may  call  it  by  the  invidious  appellations  of  carrypihn 
and  dqtendemce;  but  some  degree  and  some  kind  of  it  are 
inseparable  from  the  very  nature  of  the  constitution,  and 
necessary  to  the  preservation  of  our  mixed  government.  ^ 
Instead,  then,  of  asserting*  absolutely,  that  die  depen* 
dence  of  parliament,  in  every  degree,  is  an  infiingemeut 
of  BritiA  liberty,  the  conntiy^party  should  have  made  some 
4  concessions  to  thdr  adversaries,  and  have  only  examitied 

what  was  the  proper  degree  of  this  dependence^  beycmd 
^  which  it  became  dangerous  to  liberty.    But  sucb-AJnode^ 

\Ua.x^  ration  b  not  to  be  expected  in  party-men  of  any  kind« 

After  a  concession  of  this  nature  all  declamation  must  be 
abandoned;  and  a  cahn  inquiry  into  the  proper  degree  of 
ooutt^influence  and  parliamentary  dependence  would  have 
be^i  expected  by  the  readers.  And  though  the  advan- 
tage, in  such  a  controversy,  might  possibly  remain  to  the 

■  Sec  Dissertation  on  Parties,  throughout. 


IMD£PSNDEMCT  OF  PABUAM£NT.  41 

temUr^'parip  /  yet  the  victory  would  not  be  so  complete 
as  they  wbh  for,  nor  would  a  true  patriot  have  given  an 
entire  kxMe  to  his  zeal»  for  fear  of  running  matters  into  a 
contrary  e^Ureme,  by  diminishing  too*  far  the  influence  of 
the  crown.  It  was,  therefore,  thought  best  to  deny,  that 
this  extreme  could  ever  be  dangerous  to  the  constitution, 
or  that  die  crown  could  ever  have  too  little  influence  over 
members  of  parliament 

AH  questions  concerning  the  proper  medium  between 
extremes  are  difficult  to  be  decided ;  both  because  it  is  not 
easy  to  find  words  proper  to  fix  this  medium,  and  because 
the  good  and  fll,  in  such  cases,  ran  so  gradually  mto  each 
Other,  as  even  to  raider  our  senHmenti  doubtftil  and  mw 
certain.  But  there  is  a  peculiar  difficulty  in  the  present 
case,  which  would  embarrass  the  most  knowing  and  most 
impartial  examiner.  The  power  of  the  crown  is  alwaya 
lodged  in  a  single  person,  either  king  or  minister ;  and  as 
this  person  may  have  either  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  am-* ' 
bidcm,  capacity,  courage,  popukri^,  or  fortune^  the  power, 
which  is  too  great  in  one  hand,  may  become  too  little  in 
another.  In  pure  republics,  where  the  authority  is  distiil 
buted  among  several  assemblies  or  Senates,  the  chedcs  and 
contnds  are  more  regular  in  their  operation;  because  dia 
members  of  such  numerous  assemblies  may  be  presumed  t^ 
be  always  nearly  equal  in  capaci^  and  virtue;  and  it  is  only 
their  number,  riches,  or  authority,  which  enter  into  ooosi^ 
deration.  But  a  limited  monarchy  admits  not  of  any  such 
fltabili^;  nor  is  it  possible  to  assign  to  the  crown  such  a  de^ 
terminicte  d^ree  of  power,  as  will,  in  every  hand,  form  a 
proper  counterbalance  to  the  other  parts  of  the  oonstitOi* 
tion.  This  is  an  unavoidable  disadvantage,  among  the 
many  advantages,  attending  that  species  of  government. 

•  See  Nora  [B.] 


ESSAY  VII. 


^H£THBR  THE  BRITISH   GOVERNMENT  INCLINES  MORI;  TO 
ABSOLUTE  MONARCHY,  OB  TO  A  REPUBLIC 

Jlt  afibrjis  a  violent  pr^udice  against  almost  every  science 
tbat  DO  prudentmaiiy  however  sure  of  Jiis  princii^esy  dares 
pii(^>hes7  oonoemiog  any  events  or  foretell  the  remote  con«> 
sequences  of  tilings.  A  physician  will  not  venture  to  pro*- 
iiouoc^  cpncereing  the  condition  of  his  patient  a  fortnight 
«r  a  month  after :  And  still  less  dares  a  politician  foretell 
the  situation  of  public  affiiirs  a  few  years  hence.  Harring* 
Um  thought  himself  so  sore  <^his  general  principles,  thai 
ike  babmce  qf  power  dq^ends  <m  that  qf  propertjf^  that  he 
▼eitfitred  to  pronounce  it  impossible  ever  to  re-establish 
teoDarchy  in  England:  But  his  book  was  scarcely  pub* 
lished  when  the  king  was  resUnred;  and  we  see^  that  mo- 
narchy has  ever  since  subsisted  upon  ihe  same  footing  as 
befiMre*  Notwithstanding  this  unlucky  example,  I  will 
Teoture  to  examine  an  in^)ortant  question^  to  wit,  Whdhef 
He  JBrtftsA  GiSfoenmad  imdinu  mom  to  absobUe  monarchic 
4Mr  t»  m  repubUcf  andim  whichqfthe$e  two  tpecies  qfg(h 
wmwimt  a  wiU  niott  probabfy  terminaU  ?  As  there  seems 
not  to  be  any  great  danger  of  a  sudden  revolution  either 
way,  I  shall  at  least  escape  the  shame  attending  my  teme* 
rity,  if  I  should  be  found  to  have  been  mistaken. 

Those  who  assert,  that  the  balance  of  our  government 


THE  BRITISH  GOVERNMENT.  U 

jiwrliim  towards  absolute  monarchy,  may  support  their  opi- 
mqa  by  the  foUowang  reasons :  That  property  has  a  great 
influence  on  power  cannot  possibly  be  denized ;  but  yet  the 
general  maxim,  that  the  bakmce<if  the  one  dqj^ntUoii  the  ba^ 
kmee  qfthe  other,  aiust  be  received  with  several  limitations. 
jte  is  evident,  that  much  less  property  in  a  single  hand  w3l 
be  able  to  coaBterbaianoe  a  greater  property  in  several :  not 
only  because  it  is  difficult  to  make  many  persons  combine 
ia  the  sasie  views  and  measures ;  but  because  property, 
when  united,  eauses  much  greater  dependence,  than  the 
same  property  when  disperse*  A  hundred  persons,  <^ 
L.  1000  a^year  a-piece,  can  oonsume  all  their  ineome,  and- 
nobody  shall  ever  be  the  better  for  them,  except  their  ser* 
vants  and  tradesmen,  who  justly  regard  their  profits  as  the- 
product  of  their  own  labour.  But  a  man  possessed  of 
L.100,000  a-year,  if  he  has  either  any  generosity,  or  any 
cunning,  may  create  a  great  dependence  by  obligations, 
and  still  a  greater  by  expectati<ms«  Hence  we  may  ob- 
serve, that,  in  all  free  governments,  any  subject  exorbitant' 
]y  rich,  has  always  created  jealousy,  even  though  his  riches 
bore  no  proportion  to  those  of  the  state.  Crassus's  for- 
tune, if  I  remember  well,  amounted  only  to  i^ut  two  mil- 
lions and  a  half  of  our  money ;  yet  we  find,  that  though 
his  genius  was  nothing  extraordinary,  he  was  able,  by  means 
of  his  riches  alone,  to  counterbalance,  during  hb  lifetime, 
the  power  of  Pompey  as  well  as  that  of  Ccesar,  who  after- 
wards became  master  of  tile  world.  The  wealth  of  the 
Medici  made  them  masters  of  Florence ;  though,  it  is  pro*' 
bable,  it  was  not  C(Hisiderable,  compared  to  the  united 
property  of  that  opulent  republic. 

These  considerations  are  apt  to  make  one  entertain  a 
Magnificent  idea  of  the  British  spirit  and  love  of  liberty  t 
since  We  could  maintain  our  free  government,  during  so 


44  ESSAY  TJI. 

many  centuries,  against  our  sovereigns,  who,  besides  the 
power,  and  dignity,  and  majesty  of  the  crown,  have  always 
been  possessed  of  much  more  prcq^erty,  than  any  subject 
has  ever  enjoyed  in  any  commonwealth.  But  it  may  be 
said,  that  this  spirit,  however  great,  will  never  be  able  to 
suj^rt  itself  against  that  immense  property,  which  is  now 
lodged  in  the  king^  and  which  is  still  increasing.  Upon  a 
moderate  computation,  there  are  near  three  millions  a*year 
at  the  diyosal  oTtbe  crown.  The  civil  list  amounts  to 
Bear  a  million;  the  o^ection  of  all  taxes  to  another;  and 
the  employments  in  the  army  and  navy,  together  with  ec-* 
clesiastical  preferments,  to  above  a  third  million : — an 
enormous  sum,  and  what  may  &irly  be  computed  to  be 
moti  than  a  thirtieth  part  of  the  whole  income  and  labour 
of  the  kingdom.  When  we  add  to  this  great  property, 
the  increasing  luxury  of  the  nation,  our  proneness  to  cor- 
r,uption,  together  with  the  great  power  and  prerogatives  of 
the  crown,  and  the  command  of  military  force,  there  is  no 
one  but  must  despair  of  being  able,  without  extraordinary 
effints,  to  support  our  free  government  much  longer  under 
these  disadvantages. 

.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who  maintain,  that  the  bias 
of  the  Britbh  government  leans  towards  a  r^ublic,  nuiy 
support  their  opinion  by  specious  arguments.  It  may  be 
^d,  that  though  this  immense  property  in  the  crown  be 
joined  to  the  dignity  of  first  magistrate,  and  to  many  other 
legal  powers  and  prerogatives,  which  should  naturally  give 
it  greater  Influence ;  yet  it  really  becomes  less  dangerous 
to  liberty  upon  that  very  account  Were  England  a  repub- 
lic, and  were  any  private  man  possessed  of  a  revenue,  a 
third,  or  even  a  tenth  part  as  large  as  that  of  the  crown, 
he  would  very  justly  excite  jealousy ;  because  he  would  in.** 
glibly  have  great  authority  in  the  government.   And  sucK 


THE  BBITI8H  GOVERNMENT.  45 

4tti  ilT^;iibr  authoriQr,  not  avowed  by  di6  laws,  is  always 
more  ckmgeroos  than  a  much  greater  authority  derived 
£roin  them.  A  man  possessed  of  usurped  power  can  set 
joo  bounds  to  his  pretensions :  His  partisans  have  liberty 
to  Irape  for  every  thing  in  his  favour :  His  enemies  pro^ 
voke  his  ambition  with  hb  fears,  by  the  violence  of  their 
opposition :  And  the  government  being  thrown  into  a  fer- 
ment, every  corrupted  humour  in  the  state  naturally  ga^ 
thers  to  him.  On  the  contrary,  a  legal  authori^,  thouj^ 
great,  has  always  k>me  bounds,  which  terminate  both  the 
hopes  and  pr^ensions  of  the  person  possessed  of  it :  The 
lawa  must  have  provided  a  remedy  against  its  excesses : 
Such  an  eminent  magistrate  has  much  to  fear,  and  little 
to  hope  frcmi  his  usurpations :  And  as  his  legal  authority 
is  quietly  submitted  to^  he  has  small  t^nptation  and  small 
opportuni^  of  extendii^  it  farther.  Besides,  it  happois 
with  regard  to  ambitious  aims  and  projects,  what  may  be 
observed  with  r^;ard  to  sects  of  philos<^hy  and  rdigion. 
A  new  sect  excites  such  a  ferment,  and  is  both  opposed 
and  defended  with  such  vehemence,  that  it  always  spreads 
fiister,  and  multiplies  its  partisans  with  greater  rapidi^,  than 
any  old  established  opinion,  recommended  by  the  sancticm 
of  the  laws  and  of  antiquity.  Such  is  the  nature  of  novej* 
ty,  that,  where  any  thing  pleases,  it  becomes  doubly  agree^ 
Ue,  if  new;  but  if  it  displeases,  it  is  doubly  displeamig 
upon  that  very  account.  And,  in  most  cases,  the  violence 
of  ^lemies  is  favourable  to  ambitious  projects,  as  well  as* 
the  zeal  of  partisans. 

It  may  farther  be  said,  that,  though  men  be  much  go* 
vemed  by  interest ;  yet  even  interest  itself,  and  all  human 
affairs,  are  entirely  governed  hy^ggioisgh^  Now,  there  has 
been  a  sudden  and  sensible  change  in  the  opinions  <^  men 
within  these  last  fifly  years^  by  the  progress  <^ learning  and 


4^  XSSAY  VII. 

of  liberty.  Most  peoplet  in  this  island,  have  divested  themu 
selves  of  all  snperadtions  reverence  to  names  and  anthoii- 
iy:  The  clergy  have  miich  lost  their  credit:  Their  pre- 
t^isions  and  doctrines  have  been  ridicaled ;  and  even  r^ 
.»-4igion  can  scarcely  snpport  itself  in  the  world  The  fliere 
tiaitie  of  Ung  commands  little  respect;  and  to  talk  of  n 
Jung  as  God's  vicegerent  on  earth,  or  to  give  him  any  of 
those  magnificent  titles  which  formerly  dazaled  mankind, 
would  but  excite  laughter  in  every  on^  Though  the 
crovrn,  by  means  of  its  large  revenue,  may  maintun  its  auv 
thori^,  in  times  of  tranquillity,  upon  private  interest  and 
inflnence;  yet,  as  the  least  shock  or  convulsion  must  break 
all  these,  interests  to  pieces,  the  royal  power,  being  no 
longer  supported  by  the  settled  principles  and  opinions  of 
men,  will  immediately  dissolve.  Had  men  been  in  the 
same  disposition  at  the  JUtfohMcmj  as  they  are  at  present^ 
monarchy  would  have  run  a  great  risk  of  being  entirely 
lost  in  this  island. 

Durst  I  venture  to  deliver  my  own  sentiments  amidst 
these  opposite  arguments,  I  would  assert,  that,  unless 
there  happen  some  extraordinary  convulsion,  the  power 
^  the  crown,  by  means  of  its  large  revenue,  is  rather 
upon  the  increase ;  though  at  the  same  time  I  own,  that 
its  progress  seems  very  slow,  and  almost  insensible.  The 
tide  has  mn  long  and  with  scmie  rapidity  to  the  side  of 
popular  government,  and  is  just  beginning  to  turn  towards 
monarchy. 
p-^  [  ^  ^  r^  1  ^^  ^  ^^^  known,  that  every  government  must  come  to 
I  1  a  period,  and  that  death  is  unavoidable  to  the  political  as 
weU  as  to  the  animal  body.  But,  as  one  kind  of  death  may 
be  preferable  to  another,  it  may  be  inquired,  whether  it 
be  more  desiraUe  for  the  British  constitution  to  terminate 
in  a  popular  government,  or  in  an  absolute  monarchy  ? 


THE  BRITISH  GOVERNMENT.  4Sf 

Utfe  I  would  fnuikly  dedafe^  that^tfacHigkUt^ 
femfale  taaltt^ery,  ia  almost  &nigy.oo»;  ytt  I  Aoidd  ra^  i 
iher  wish  b>  see  an  absolute  mosiurek  tfaan  a  repoblio  i4  \ 
dttLisland.  .  For  Itit  us  consider  what  kind  of  repi»l\Iic  we 
luoas  rtason  to  expect  TJw  qnestioii  is.  notlcoaveiteing 
any  fine  imaginary  republic,  of  which  a  man  may.&mi# 
plan  in  his  closet*  There  is  no  doubt,  but  a  popular  go- 
vernment may  be  imagined  more  perfect  than  absolute 
monarchy,  or  even  than  our  present  constitution.  But 
what  reason  have  we  to  expect  that  any  such  government 
will  ever  be  established  in  Great  Britain,  upon  the  dissolu- 
tion of  our  mcmarchy  ?  If  any  single  person  acquire  power 
enough  to  take  our  constitution  to  pieces,  and  put  it  up 
anew,  he  is  really  an  absolute  monarch ;  and  we  have  al^^ 
ready  had  an  instance  of  this  kind,  sufficient  to  convince 
us,  that  such  a  person  will  never  resign  his  power,  or  es- 
tablish any  firee  government.  Matters,  therefore,  must  be 
trusted  to  their  natural  progress  and  operaticm;  and  the 
house  of  commons,  according  to  its  present  constitution, 
must  be  the  only  l^slature  in  such  a  popular  govern- 
ment. The  inconveniences  attending  such  a  situation  of 
affidrs,  present  themselves  by  thousands.  If  the  house  of 
commons,  in  such  a  case,  ever  dissolve  itself,  which  is  not 
to  be  expected,  we  may  look  for  a  civil  war  every  elec- 
tion. If  it  continue  itself,  we  shall  suffer  all  the  tyranny 
of  a  &cti(Hi  subdivided  into  new  factions.  And,  as  such  a 
violent  government  cannot  long  subsist,  we  shall,  at  last, 
i^r  many  convulsions  and  civil  wars,  find  repose  in  ab- 
solute monarchy,  which  it  would  have  been  happier  for 
us  to  have  established  peaceably  from  the  beginning.  Ab- 
solute monarchy,  therefore,  is  the  easiest  death,  the  true 
Euikamma  of  the  British  constitution.  ' 


A 


48  KSSAY  VII* 

Thiifli  if  we  have  reason  to  be  more  jealous  of  monarchy^ 
because  the  danger  is  more  imminent  from  that  quarter; 
we  have  also  reason  to  be  more  jealous  of  popoLur  govern^ 
nient,  because  that  danger  is  more  terrible.  This  may 
teach  us  a  lesson  of  moderation  in  all  our  political  control 
Tersies* 


ESSAY  VIIL 


OF  KASTIPS  IN  GESrSBAIr 

\Js  fill  m^i  that  ^sth^^nish  tbemsdiras  by  metnartkie' 
adueTemeBtSy  the  first  phce  of  honcMir  secpns  due  to  Ls-' 
oisjATOMS  and  Ibimdftrs  of  states^  who  transmit  a  qrstem 
of  laws  and  institutioiis  to  secure  the  paac^  hafipioMV  indi 
liber^  of  future  generations*  .  The  influence,  pfusefidhv^ 
mentions  in  the  arts  and  sciences  may,  peribsps,  extend' 
fitrther  than  that  of  wise  laws,  whose  e£bcts  are  limitsd: 
both  in  time  and  place;  but  the  benefit  ariai^  fma  the 
former  is  n^  so  sensible  as  that  which  resultafroiaJthe  latf 
tm*.:  S^[>ecoktiyeacienoes.do,  indeed,  in^rove  the  Bimd, 
butifais  adyantage  reaches  only  to  a  few  pt^raons,  who  haye' 
leisure:to  apply  themselves  to  them.    And  as  to  practkid 
arts,  whkdi  increase  the  commodities  and  enjoyments  of 
life,  it  is  well  known,  thatmen's  happiness  c(msists  not  )k>' 
mnqh  in  an  abundance  of  these,  as  in  the  peace  and^seciir' 
rity  widi  which  they  possess  them;  and  those  blessing' 
can  only  be  derived  from  good  government    Not  to  ttien- 
tion,  that  general  virtue  and  good  morals  in  a  state,  which 
are  so  requisite  to  hi^^iness,  can  never  arise  frrnn-tlie' 
most  r^ned  precepts  of  philos^Ay,  or  eyeli  the  severest 
injunctions  of  rel^rion ;  but  must  proceed  entirely  from  dje 
virtuous  education  of  youth,  the  efiect  of  wise  laws  and  ill- ' 
stitntions.     I  must  therefore  presume  to  differ  from  Lord  ' 

VOL*  I.  E       ' 


50  ESSAY  VIII. 

Bacon  in  this  particular,  and  must  regard  antiquity  as 
somewhat  ui^ust  in  its  distribution  of  honoursi  ^en  it 
made  gods  of  all  the  inventors  of  useful  arts,  such  as  Cere^ 
Bacchus,  iEsculapius;  and  dignified  legislators,  such  as 
Romulus  and  Theseus,  only  with  the  appellation  of  demi- 
gods and  heroes. 

As  much  as  legislators  and  firanders  of  states  ought  to  be 
honoured  and  respected  among  men,  as  much  ought  the 
founders  of  sects  and  factions  to  be  detested  and  hated ; 
because  the  influence  of  faction  is  directly  contrary  to  that 
Q(h^9k  FagtioDs  subvert  gfyvB^nmeut,  render  laws  im* 
potint,  tod  beget  the  fiercest  animosaties  among  men  of 
iImi  flfwe  QAtiaOf  who  ought  to  give  motual  assistance  and 
pyptpfilkm  lo  eafih  other.  And  what  should  render  the 
jGanideri  of  parties  more  odious,  is  the  difficolly  of  eKtirpa* 
ting  the^  weeds^  when  once  they  have  taken  root  in  any 
stats*  Thfij  D^urally  propagate  themselves  for  many  cen«* 
tnries^  and  seldom  end  but  by  the  total  dissolution  of  that 
go^nemment^  in  which  they  are  sown.  Tliey  are,  besides, 
{^tS:  wh}<^  gmw  roost  pkntifiiUy  in  the  richest  soil;  and 
though  libsohite  govenunents  be  not  wholly  firee  firom  them, 
it  iwf  t  be  confessedf  that  they  rise  more  easily^  and  propa* 
g^  tbi^ipselves  &ster  in  firee  governments,  where  they  al- 
ways ip&ct  the  legislature  itself  whidi  alone  could  be  alde^ 
by  th^  steady  application  <^  rewards  and  pumshments,  to 
eradicate  thflm^ 

Ff^Qm  may  be  divided  into  Personal  and  Real;  that 
i%  fflftx^  fap^QlMSf  foundid  on  personal  friendship  or  anioio* 
sitgr  am^Wg  such  as  compose  the  contending  |>a|ties,  and 
iptQ  t}^o»e  ^iuh}^  <Kn  some  re$l  dlffereqce  of  sentiment  or 
int^r^Mrtr  71)^  reason  <^ this di«tiiictioD is  obvious;  though 
I  must  lu^pwledg^  thai  parties  are  seldom  found  pure 
apd  mwixedi  eHher  of  the  one  kind  or  the  other.    It  is 


OF  PARTIES  IV  GEHTERAL.  1^1 

not  ofiiM  s^diif  'that  a  goTermnent  divides  into  faotions, 
wkerf  there  is  no  diflereBeein  the  views  of  the  conflrituent 
membew,  eithetr  >eal  or  appaBMrt,  trivial  dot  mate  ml ;  Ab4 
19  those  fiustuHUy  whieh  are  foipded  on  the  mo^t  veal  and 
nioft  material  diflferenee,  diere  is  alwaTS  observed  a  great 
deal  of  pensoDal  animosity  oar  affection,  Qut  notwithstaad* 
iag  this  mixtiiFe,  a  par^nay  be  denomiiiated  either  pei>r 
•onal  or  reel,  acdurj^ing  to  that  principle  vAkk  is  predo* 
minant^  and  is  found  to  have  the  greatest  influence*  ^ 

Perscmal  fections  arise  most  easily  in  small  republics.  -^^ 
Every  domestic  quarrel,  there,  becomes  an  affiiir  <^  stale. 
Lovie,  ypnily,  emulation,  any  passion,  as  well  as  ambition 
and  reseptment,  begets  public  diyigion.  Hie  Nbri  and 
PiAKCHi  of  Florence,  the  Freoocz  and  AafMxi  ciQmoa, 
the  CoLOKHi^  and  Obsini  of  modem  Rcmie,  were  parties 
ofthbkhsd. 

Men  have  such  a  ^wapexiaity  to  divide  into  pers^Md 
fitftions,  that  the  smallest  lypearance  of  real  difltoence  will 
produce  them.  What  can  be  imaguied  more  trivialthan 
the  difference  between  one  colour  of  livery  and  another  in 
hane^rfuxB?  Yet  this  diffisr^nce  begat  two  most  inveterate 
fiictJons  ifi  the  QreA  empire,  the  Pbasini  end  Vbkbti, 
who  never  suspended  their  animosities  till  they  ruined  that 
unhaj^^  govwimient. 

W^  find  in  the  Roman  history  a  reraaiicaU^  dissension 
between  two  tribes,  the  Pollia  and  Papi^^ia,  which  cou- 
tupoed  for  the  sp^ce  of  near  (hreie  hundred  yews,  anddisr 
eov^ed  ij^df  in  their  suffirages  at  every  election  of  ma<* 
gblrates  *.  This  faction  was  the  more  remarkable,  as  it 
cpuld  continue  for  so  long  a  tract  of  time ;  even  though  it 

*  As  fhls  fiict  has  not  been  much  obserred  by  antiquaries  or  politicians, 
I  sfaaH  deliTer  it  in  the  words  of  the  Roman  historian.  "  Populus  Tuscula- 
nus  cum  conjugibus  ac  liberis  Romam  venit :  £a  multitude  veste  mutata, 

e2 


&2  ESSAT  VIII. 

did  not  spnead  itself  nor  draw  any  of  the  other  tribes  into 
ashare  of  theqnarreL  If  mankind  had  not  a  strong  pro* 
pensity  to  such  divisicxis,  the  indifference  of  the  rest  of  the 
Gomnuinily  must  have  suppressed  this  foolish  animosi^^ 
that  had  not  any  aUment  of  new  benefits  and  injuries,  of 
general  sympathy  and  antipathy,  which  never  fail  to  take 
plac^  when  the  whole  state  is  rent  into  two  equal  Mictions. 
Nothing  is  more  usual  than  to  see  parties,  whidi  have 
begun  upon  a  real  difference,  continue  even  after  that  dif-* 
ference  ia  lost.  When  men  are  once  inlisted  cm,  opposite 
sides,  they  ccmtract  an  a£fectt<m  to  the  persons  with  whom 
thc^ are  united,  and  an  animosity  against  their  antagonists: 
And  these  pasi^ions  they  often  transmit  to  their  posterity* 
The  real  diflferenoe  between  Ouelf  and  Ghibbelline  was  long 
lo^t  in  Italy,  befi>re  these  fa^ions  were  extinguished  The 
Guelfs  adhered  to  the  pope,  the  Ghibbellines  to  the  em- 
peror ;  yet  the  family  of  Sforsa,  who  were  in  alliance  with 
the^emperor,  though  they  were  Guelfis,  being  expelled  Milan 
by  the  ki)ig  ^  of  France,  assisted  by  Jacomo  Trivulzio  and 
the  GfaiUbellines,  the  pope  concurred  with  the  latter,  and 
they  formed  leagues  with  the  p<q>e  against  the  emptor. 

.The  l^ivil  wars  which  arose  some  few  years  ago  in  Mo^ 
rocco,  b^ween  the  blacks  and  whiUSy  merely  on  account  of 
their  complexion,  are  founded  on  a  pleasant  diflference.- 
We  laugh  at  them;  but;,  I  b^eve,  were  things  rightly  exa- 
ct specie  ireonim,  trlbus  qrcuit,  genfbus  se  omnium  advolvens.  Plus  itaque 
miserioordia  ad  pi^im  Teniam  impetrandam,  quam  causa  ad  crimen  pur- 
gandtim  Talnit.  Xtibos  omnesy  pnster  Polliam,  andquarunt  legem.  PolUss 
senteotia  fult*  puberes  yerberatoe  necari ;  liberos  coDJugesque  sub  conma 
lege  belli  venire :  Memoriamque  ejus  ir»  Tusculanis  in  pceme  tam  atrods 
auc^ores,  mansisse  ad  patrum  atatem  constat,  nee  quemquam  fermeex  Pollia 
tribu  candidatum  Fapiriam  ferre  solitum.*'  T.  Livii,  lib.  8.  The  Castklami 
and  NiootLOTi  are  two  mobbish  factions  in  Venice,  who  firequently  box  to-i 
getbeTi  and  then  laj  aside  their  quarrels  presently. 

•  Lewb  XII. 


e  and  a. 
tide  off 
is  not/I 
nd  ex«' 


OF  PARTIES  IK  GENERia*  53 

nuned,  we  afford  much  more  occasion  of  ridicule  to  the 

Moors.  For,  what  are  all  the  wars  of  feligion,  which  hare 

prevailed  in  this  pcdite  and  knowing  part  of  the  world  ? 

They  are  certainly  more  absurd  than  the  Moo^sh  civil 

wars.    The  difference  of  complexion  is  a  sensiUe  and  a 

real  difierence :  But  the  controversy  about  an  article  i 

fiuth,  which  is  utterly  absurd  and  unintell%ifale, 

a  difference  in  sentiment,  but  in  a  few  phrases  and  ex« 

pressions,  which  one  party  accepts  of,  without  under^ 

standing  them ;  and  the  other  refuses  in  the  same  manner.  f)       . 

Real  factions  may  be  divided  into  those  fixMoa  intirat,  jX    ^"^*^  ^ 
fromprwtct/ife,  and  from  ^{^^cltofi.     Of  all  factions,  the  first  ^ 

are  the  most  reasonable  and  the  most  excusable.    Whm'e     4    Ux  ^  t-^  r  ^"^ 
two  orders  of  men,  such  a^  the  nobles  and  people  Ji«ve&  -  ^''^  ^' 

distinct  authority  in  a  government,  not  very  accuratdy 
balanced  and  modeled,  they  naturally  follow  a  distinct  in^ 
terest ;  nor  can  we  reas<mably  expect  a  difierent  conducty 
eonsidering  that  degree  of  selfishness  implanted  in  humui 
nature.  It  requires  great  skill  in  a  legislator  to  prevent 
such  parties;  and  many  philosophers  are  of  opinion,  that 
this  secret,  like  the  gAmd  eKxir^  or  petpehitd  moHmj  niay> 
amuse  men  in  theory,  but  can  never  possibly  be  reduced  to 
practice.  In  despotic  governments,  indeed,  factions  often 
do  not  appear;  but  they  are  not  the  less  real ;  or  rather, 
they  are  more  real  and  more  pernicious,  up^i  that  very 
account.  Hie  distinct  orders  of  men,  nobles  and  poc^le, 
soldiers  and  merchants,  have  all  a  distinct  interest;  but 
the  more  powerfiil  oppresses  the  weaker  with  impunity, 
and  withdut  resistance ;  which  begets  a  seeming  tranquil-* 
Bty  in  such  governments. 

There  has  been  an  attempt  in  England  to  divide  die 
kmded  and  trading  part  of  the  nation;  but  without  success. 
The  interests  of  these  two  bodies  are  not  really  distinct, 


S4  £88 AY  VIII, 

and  never  will  be  so^  till  our  public  d^bta  i^oreftse  to  sbdi  a. 
\  degrke^a^tobecotaiiefdtogetherDt)pre88iveandi]rtol6raUe. 

^^  r  /  5  Ptartiet  frdm  prind^  e^iteiaUy  abstract  spieciilaliTe 
'  ^;vv  v^i^^P^^  <^^  known  only  to  ihodem  tiities^  and  arc,  pei> 
hapSy  the  most  extraordinilry  and  unaccountable  jbA^nemeu 
Hon  that  has  yet  appeared  in  hnmaii  affiilrs.  Where  di^ 
ferent  principles  bq;et  a  coiitrarlety  of  conducit^  irhidi  is 
the  c&se  with  all  different  political  principle^  the  nifttter 
may  be  more  easily  explained.  A  man,  ^ho  esteenis  the 
true  right  of  government  to  lie  in  one  foan,  or  dne  fitimly^ 
cimndt  eanly  agree  with  his  fello#*«ids5en9  wh6  di&ks 
diat  aikother  mati  ct  family  is  possessed  of  this  r^hL 
Em&  haturally  wishes  that  right  may  take  place,  accord- 
ing to  his  own  ikoticoif  of  it  But  where  die  difierence  of 
prindple  is  attended  with  no  ccmtnurtety  of  aeticm^  but 
ev^  one  may  follow  his  own  Way,  Whhout  inferieritii; 
with  his  neighbdury  as  happ^ils  in  all  religious  controvert 
SMI  #li^t  madhesi^  whatftfry,  oanbegbtsuth  ail  iddiap^ 
py  and  such  tMl  divisions? 

Two  liicn  tfuveUing  ob  the  highway^  the  one  east^  d» 
odier  westy  cw  easily  pass.each  bther^  if  the  Way  be  broad 
enougitt  but  two  lnen»  reasoning  upon  opposite  prindples 
of  religion,  c&nnot  so  easily  pass  without  shdckihg ;  tlioi^ 
<Mie  should  thinks  that  Ae  way  were  ialso,  in  that  case,  su& 
ficiently  broadi  and  that  eadi  might  proceed,  without  in* 
terruptiGai,  in  his  own  course*  But  such  is  the  nature  of 
the  human  niind^  that  it  always  lays  hold  on  every  miiid 
that  af^oacbes  it ;  and  al»  it  is  wcmderfully  fortified  hy  ah 
unanimity  of  sentiments,  sb  it  Li  shocked  and  disturbed  by 
any  contrariety.  Hence  the  eagerness  which  most  peo* 
pie  diiicoter  in  a  dispute ;  and  h^iee  thdr  impatience  of 
opposition)  even  in  the  most  speculative  and  indiffsrent 
opinloiiK 


OF  PARfits  m  Mneral,  5& 

TMb  prfaidpld,  howidY^r  6nt<A&t^  it  itt&y  Appaar,  dMaoi 
to  b(«rd  bett  the  otigitt  df  dtl  td%ioitt  wars  and  divMdil^ 
But  as  this  princ^le  b  universal  in  hmnattt  natufe^  Hk  t4^ 
fects  would  nol  hi(ve  beisn  eonflned  to  om  age^  and  to  one 
«eet  dP  ifel^on,  did  it  not  fh^  eonenr  with  oHi^  moi^ 
aceidentftl  cau^e^  which  raise  it  M  dttch  a  height^  tiS  tS 
produce  fh^  greatest  misety  mA  A^mte^atL  Most  Nti*" 
gions  of  the  BikSeat  world  aiNMl^  in  tlio  ttfkhomi  &g6§'<A 
govemmettt,  when  men  Wei^  n»  yet  baiiMtfoRO^  antf  ntrnn 
ttmcted^  a^  the  {Aince^  as  well  Aii  pea0«n^  warf  ^^poied 
to  receiTe,  wfih  hnplidt  fiddi,  etaliy  plOQi  f«te  <^  fietioil^ 
winch  was  d0bt>ed  him.  The  mi^sti^te  embftf^  iis^ 
religion  of  the  people;^  «nd>  enteiring  eot^dtaUy  info  ^ 
care  o^  sacred  matteiT^  i^turdly  dcqnired  M  Mih^^^ih 
them»  and  nnited  the  ecclesiastical  with  the  Cfvff  pbim. 
But  the  ChridioH  rdi^on  arising,  While  princ1|)te»  diredtt 
Ij  opposite  to  it  were  firmly  estftUished  in  the  p^lbM  pdti 
cfihe  world,  who  despised  the  Mtion  that  fll^t  bi^O^^cid 
this  notelly ;  no  wondei^  that,  in  snoh  ch'e^edrrces^  ii 
WAS  hot  fi^fe  coimteiumc^  by  tk€  dv^  tteigfalttai^:^ 
that  the  priesthood  was  alloWed  to  e^ftgfo^  dll  t^d  UttdkO^ 
rity  in  the  new  sect  ^bad  ilnse  dUf  they  ihiOse  dfiMk 
power,  ev^  in  those  earfy  tintes^  th«t  the  pittfAlS^  pe^fee^ 
cations  nlay,  peA^ps,  Mpari^t  ^  li^eribed  to  the  f!6letiM 
instilled  by  them  into  theii^  MOweri^. 

And  the  same  principles  of  priestfy  gotetriment  conti^ 
nnhig,  after  Chris^ity  became  the  estaMJ^hed  religion ; 
they  have  engendered  a  ^ndt  of  persecntion,  which  htfi 
ever  smee  been  the  poison  of  htiman  society,  and  tfie 
source  of  the  most  hrrdterate  factions  in  every  government 
Such  dit^ion^  tikerefore,  on  the  part  Of  the  people  tMf 


66  fiSfiAY  VIII. 

JMftdy  be  e»toeiiied  factictts  cfpmiefgfkj  but,  on  the  piuct 
of  the  priests,  who  are  the  prioie  mov^ris,  th^  are  rettUy 
factkODs  of  Meneal. 

There  is  another  cause  (beside  the  authority  of  the 
priests^  and  the  ag[fflm*ifln  .o£  ^  ^ cd^i^^icfll  an^  c^yil 
powers)  which  has  conitributied  tp  j-^d^r  Chri/4«md<N|i  the 
scene  of  religtous  wars  and  di?isip«s%  Religions  that 
i^rise  in  ages  totallyignprant  and  barbarous,  consist  mostly 
xrf*  ti:a4iti9nal  lalss  and  fi<^n«^  which  may  be  difier^it  jn 
jpveaty0^f^  irithout  being  contnMj  to  each  other:  andeyeo 
ythm  tl^iQpe  ^^atuary,  every  cm^  adhere  to  th^  tradition 
p£)4$  pwn  sec^  wfthput  much  reasoning  or  disputation* 
*34t,as;i4iilpQc^^  was  widely.^read  over  the  world  at 
iha  tifue  ,when  Christianity  arps^  the  teachers  of  die  new 
fi^weija  obliged  to  ferm  a  s^tmi  of  speculative  ^[^unions; 
to  divide,  with  some  accuracy,  their  articles  of  faith ;  and 
to  exp^,  comment,  confute,  and. defend,  with  all  the 
subtlety  of  aigument  and  science.  Hence  naturally  arose 
keenness  in  dilute,  when  the  Christian  religion  came  tp 
be^plit  into  new  divisions  and  heresies :  And  this  keenness 
assisted  the  priests  in  their  policy,  of  begetting  a  mutual 
hatred  and  ant^>athy  funcmg  their  deluded  fc^ower^  Sects 
of  i^iilosophy,  in  the  ancient  world,  were  more  zealpus 
jthan  parties  of  religion  ^  but,  in  modem  times,  parties  of 
religion  are  more  furious  and  enraged  than  the  most  cruel 
ihcticins  that  ever  arose  from  interest  and  ambition. 
I  have  mentioned  parties  frpm^jjg^Mn  as  a  Idnd  of  reo/ 
X  r  r  ,^T  c  '■  parties,  beside  those  from  interest  and  principle.  By  par- 
-  Tfc  \i^  ;  ^  v<>^ties  from  affection,  I  underst^d  those  which  are  founded 
'  on  the  different  attachments  of  men  towards  particular  fa- 
milies  and  persons,  whom  they  desire  to  rule  over  them. 
These  fisictions  are  oflen  very  violent ;  though,  I  must  own, 
it  may  seem  unaccountable,  that  men  should  attach  them- 


or  PARTIES  IN  GENERAL.  57 

sdTes  so  fttrongly  to  persons,  with  whom  they  are  nowise 
acqiuinted,  whom  periiaps  tbqr  never  saw,  and  from  whom 
they  never  received,  nor  can  ever  hope  for,  any  favour. 
Yet  this  we  oRai  find  to  be  the  case,  and  even  with  men, 
who^  on  other  occasions,  discover  no  great  generosity  of 
spirit^  nor  are  found  to  be  easily  transported  by  friendship 
beyond  their  own  interest  We  are  apt  to  think  the  reU- 
tion  between  as  and  our  sovereign  very  close  and  intimate. 
The  splendour  of  majesty  and  power  bestows  an  impor- 
tance cm  the  fortunes  even  of  a  single  person.  And  when 
a  lean's  good  nature  floes  not  give  him  this  imaginary  in- 
terest^ his  ill  nature  wSl,  from  spite  and  opposition  to  per* 
sons  whose  sentiments  are  different  from  his  own. 


ESSAY  tJC 

^^^^^^ — ^  ^ — ^. >   --1  t^ 

Ot  THE  PARTIES  OF  GREAT  BRITAllT. 

W^JBAB  the  British  gOTetniMiit  proposed  as  a  suli^ecl  of 
qpeoulittioii9  one  wDaU  immediately  peroeive  in  it  a  seuffoe 
of  division  end  par^  which  it  woidd  be  ehoost  impossiMe 
for  it,  under  any  administration^  to  avoid.  The  just  ba- 
lance between  the  republi^  and  moriarc^ij^^rt  of  our 
constitution  is  really,  in  itself,  so  extremely  delicate  and 
uncertain,  that,  when  joined  to  men's  passions  and  preju- 
dices, it  is  impossible  but  di£ferent  opinions  must  arise  con- 
cemiqgit,  even  among  persons  of  the  best  understanding. 
.  Those  of  mild  tempers,  who  love  peace  and  order,  and  de- 
test sedition  and  civil  wars,  will  always  entertain  more  &- 
vourable  sentiments  of  monarchy  than  men  of  bold  and  ge- 
nerous spirits,  who  are  passionate  lovers  of  liberty,  and 
think  no  evil  comparable  to  subjection  and  slavery.  And 
though  all  reasonable  men  agree  in  general  to  preserve  our 
mixed  government;  y^t,  when  they  c«me  to  particulars, 
some  will  incline  to  trust  greater  powers  to  the  crown,  to 
bestow  on  it  more  influence,  and  to  guard  against  its  en- 
croachments with  less  caution,  than  others  who  are  terri- 
fied at  the  most  distant  approaches  of  tyranny  and  despo- 
tic power.  Thus  are  there  parties  of  PaiMaPLE  involved 
in  the  very  nature  of  our  constitution,  which  may  proper- 
ly enough  be  denominated  those  of  Court  and  Country. 


THE  PARTIES  OF  QREAT  BRITAIN.  Q9 

The  strength  and  Tiolenoe  of  each  of  these  parties  wtH 
ffiift^  depend  upon  the  partioofaur  adiiiiiintration%  An  ad« 
iftbiistratlcm  nu^  be  so  bad,  aa  to  throw  a  great  majority 
faitd  tiie  opposition;  as  a  good  admiitisdratioa  will  recoii'i 
eOe  to  the  eoort  many  of  the  most  passionate  lorers  of  11* 
beny.  But  however  the  natkm  rai^  flnctoate  between 
them^  the  parties  tlitanselres  wIU  always  subsist,  so  long  as 
we  toe  governed  by  a  limited  monardiy.  ^ 

Bnt^  besides  this  d^rasEoe  of  Prtmiipkj  those  partk#  '  ]  ^  ~  y^  ^ 
are  rery  much  fomented  hy  a  dHFeremce  of  IittebesIv 
Irithout  which  Aey  could  scarcely  erer  be  dangerous  en 
tkdent    The  crown  will  naturally  bestow  all  trust  and 
(Myw^if^itpoa  dios^  whose  prinoiple%  real  or  pretended,  are 
most  ihyonrable  to  monarcfaioal  goremmait;  and  this 
temptation  wHl  naturally  engage  l&em  to  go  greater  lengths 
thm  their  principles  would  otherwise  carry  them*     Their  / 
antagonists^  who  are  dlsi^ipointed  hi  thmr  ambitioM  aims,  co^^( 
throw  diemsdves  into  the  party  wlmse  sentiments  incline 
them  to  be  most  Jealous  of  tOfal  power,  and  naturdUy  car**     ^ 
tf  those  sentiments  to  a  greater  height  than  sound  poli- 
tics will  jtiStify.    Thus  Qmrt  and  OmOry^  which  are  the 
genume  o^bpring  of  the  British  government,  are  a  kind  of 
mixed  x>arties,  and  are  influenced  both  by  principle  and  by 
interest*    The  heads  of  the  faethms  are  conunonly  most 
g<yvemed  by  the  latter  motive ;  the  inferior  members  of 
them  by  the  fofmer. 

As  to  eccleriastical  parties,  "we  may  observe,  that,  in  all 
ages  of  the  world,  priests  have  been  enemies  to  liberty)  "*" 
And  it  i^  certan^,  that  this  steady  conduct  of  tiieirs  must 
have  been  founded  on  fixed  reasons  ofjnterest  and  ambj^ 
tign.  Liberty  of  thinking,  and  of  expressing  our  thoughts, 
is  always  fatid  to  priestly  power,  and  to  those  pious  frauds 
on  whidi  it  is  commonly  founded ;  and,  by  an  infallible 


^,ac  L^^-»t*  Us 


60  /  ESSAY  IX. 

oonnection,  which  prerails  among  all  kinds  (^liberty,  this 
privilege  can  never  be  enjoyed,  at  least  has  never  yet  been 
enjoyed,  but  in  a  free  government     Hence  it  most  hap- 
pen, in  such  a  constitution  as  that  of  Great  Britcun,*  that 
the  established  clergy,  while  things  are  in  their  natural  si- 
^  tuation,  will  alwilys  be  of  the  CpusftrP^nrty ;  0Sy  on  the  con- 
t^\  trary,  dissenters  of  all  kinds  will  "be  of  the  Ccmn/irj/^party; 
since  they  can  never  hope  for  that  toleration,  which  they 
stand  in  need  of,  but  by  means  cf  our  free  government 
All  princes  that  have  aimed  at  d^iq>otic  power  have  known 
of  what  importance  it  w&s  to  gabi  the  established  clergy; 
as  the  clergy,  on  their  part,  have  shewn  a  great  facility  in 
entering  into  ikhe  views  of  such  princes  ■.     Oustavus  Vasa 
was,   perhaps,  the  only  ambitious  monarch  that  evtir  de- 
pressed the  church,  at  the  same  time  that  he  discouraged 
liberty.     But  the  exorbitant  power  of  the  bishops  in  Swe- 
den, who,  at  that  time,  overtopped  the  crown  itself^  to- 
gether with  their  attachment  to  a  foreign  family,  was  the 
reason  of  his  embracing  such~an  unusual  system  of  politics. 
This  observation,  concerning  the  propensity  of  priests 
to  the  government  of  d  single  perscm,  is  not  true  with  re- 
^   gafd  to  one  sect  only.    The  Presbyterian  and  CaMttiiiie 
clergy  in  Holland  were  professed  friends  to  the  family  of 
Orange ;  as  the  Arminiansj  who  were  este^ned  heretics, 
were  of  the  Louvestein  faction,  and  zealous  for  liberty. 
But  if  a  prince  have  the  choice  of  both,  it  is  easy  to  seo 
that  he  will  prefer  the  episcopal  to  the  presbyterian  form 
of  government,  both  because  of  the  greater  affiaify  betweeu 
monarchy  and  episcopacy,  and  because  of  the  facility  which 

■'  Judari  sibi  ipd  regis  imposuere ;  qni  mobilltate  vulgi  expulsi»  resump- 
ta  per  armA  dominatlonet  fugas  civium,  urbium  eversiones,  fratrum,  con- 
juguin,  parentum  neces  aliaque  solita  regibus  ausi»  superstitionem  fovebant ; 
quia  honor  saoerdotii,  finnamentum  potential  asaumebatur.  Tacit.  Hist  lib.  u» 


THE  PAKTIE8  OF  GREAT  BHITAIN.  61 

he  will  find,  in  suA  a  government,  of  ruling  the  clergy  by 
mejans  of  their  ecclesiastical  superiors  *. 

If  we  consider  the  first  rise  of  parties  in  England,  during 
Ike  great  rebellion,  we  shall  observe  that  it  was  conform- 
able to  this  general  theory,  and  that  the  species  of  i^vem- 
aieiit  gave  birth  to  them  by  axegular  and  infallible  opera* 
tion.  The  English  oonstitutioii,  before  that  period,  had 
lain  in  a  kind  of  confusion;  yet  so  as  that  the  subjects 
possessed  many  noble  {nivileges,  whicl^  thou^  not  exact* 
ly  bounded  and  secured  by  law,  were  universally  deemed, 
firom  loatig  possession,  to  belong  to  them  as  their  birth* 
righL  An  ambitious,  or  rather  a  misgiuded,  prince  arose, 
who  deemed  aH  these  privileges  to  be  concessions  of  his 
pri^cessors,  revocable  at  pleasure ;  and,  in  prosecution 
of  this  principle^  he  openly  acted  in  violation  of  liberty 
dnring  the  course  of  several  years*  Necessity,  at  last^  con- 
strained him  to  call  a  parliament:  The  i^urit  of  liber^ 
arose  and  spread  itself:  The  prince,  being  without  any 
support,  was  obliged  to  grant  every  thing  required  of  him ; 
And  his  enemies,  jealous  and  implacable,  set  no  bounds  to 
their  pretensicms.  Here^  then»  began  those  contests,  in 
which  it  was  no  wonder  that  men  of  that  age  were  divided 
into  difiPerent  parties;  since,  even  at  this  day,  the  impar- 
tial are  at  a  loss  to  decide  concerning  the  justice  of  the 
quarrel.  The  pretensions  of  the  parliament,  if  yielded  to^ 
broke  tbe  balance  of  the  constitution,  by  rendering  the 
government  almost  entirely  republkan.  If  not  yielded  to, 
the  nation  was,  perhaps,  still  in  danger  of  absolute  power, 
firom  the  settled  principles  and  inveterate  habits  of  the 
king,  which  had  plainly  appeared  in  every  concession  that 


*  PopuU  impeiium  jozU  libertatexn :  paucorum  dominatio  regie  libidini 
jiropior  ^st.     Tacit.  Ann.  lib.  vi. 


62  ESSAY  IX. 

l|tt  h«d  been  <«n9Ci!aiiied  to  make  to  hii  people.    In  dm 

^pertion,  so  delicate  and  mcertaioy  men  natwalljr  fidl  to 

the  side  which  was  most  c^Nifonnahle  to  their  Miial  priiir 

df^es :  and  the  aiore  passioiuite  finrourcrs  of  «t*«^rfhy 

declared  for  the  kiz^  as  the  aaalons  friends  cf  liber^  sided 

with  the  parliament.    The  hopes  of  success  being  ncavly 

e^ial  on  both  sides^  iaierut  had  no  general  inflnence  in 

this  contest :  So  that  Bou9PHS4d  and  Cavaliek  were 

I  ^    .  merety  parties  ^jir'"^Vtf  neither  ot  which  disowned 

other  monardiy  or  liber^;  but  the  finrmer  party  inditted 

^i^,.^^    ^^         most  to  the  lepubliom  piprt  of  our  govenunsK^  the  latter 

(  to  the  monarchical.    In  this  req>ec^  th^  may  be  coQsi« 

^,  u  v\^  !.(<?.<     dered  as  coort  and  country  party,  inflamed  into  a  cavil 

war,  by  an  unhappy  amcnrrence  of  oiroumstanoes,  and  by 

the  tnrbulent  spirit  of  the  ag^   The  commonwealth's  men, 

and  the  partisans  of  absolute  power,  lay  ocmcealed  in  both 

parties,  and  fi^rmed  but  an  inconsideraUe  part  of -them. 

The  dergy  had  concurred  with  the  kii^s  arbi^ry  de« 
signs ;  and,  in  return,  were  allowed  to  persecute  (heir  f|d* 
versaries,  whom  they  called  heretics  and  schismatics.  The 
established  clergy  were  episcopal;  the  non-conformists 
presbyterian:  So  that  all  diings  concurred  to  throw  the 
former,  without  reserre,  into  the  king^s  party,  and  the  laJb* 
ter  into  that  of  the  parliament. 

Every  one  knows  the  event  of  this  quarrel ;  fatal  to  the 
king  first,  to  the  parliament  i^rwards.  After  many  con- 
iusions  and  revcdutions,  the  royal  fiimily  was  at  last  restored, 
and  the  ancient  government  re-established.  Charles  IL 
was  not  made  wiser  by  the  example  of  his  father,  but  pro- 
secuted the  same  measures,  though,  at  first,  with  more 
secrecy  and  caution.  New  parties  arose  under  the  ap- 
^   '^    ^  pellation  of  Whig  and  Tory,  whidi  have  continued  ever 

since  to  confound  and  distract  our  government.    To  de- 


THE  PARTIES  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN.  68 

^|]OiM  tlie  Mtiitzfi  of  those  partttB  is  peaeb^is  4Joe  of  the 
MPt  difficHlt.  luroblenii  that  cm  be  m^  .with,  and  is  a 
IMXK>f  that  biatofjr  noay  ocmtam  qaestiens  as  n«ccrtaifi  as 
aiiirloJbi^fiMliuliiitheiBOitabstiaotaeiettce^  .We  have 
f0to^ejBQ»diictQfthe.twopArtie8y  during  the  coavse  of 
9»wi»^ywnk  in  a  yyt  rariely  of  dnaimrtanocBy  possasoad 
of  power,  and  deprived  of  st»  during  peae^  and  dipriBg 
wop;  PeiMMwi^fUTDfosstbeiDsdvaiixfanf  sideoroiber^ 
we  ineet  with  every  hottTt  in  ecmipaaj,  inoQrplaasiires»  in 
our  amoiii  ocenpatioaa:  We  oorsdvesare  oonstrained^  in 
1^  manmr,  to  take  parly;  and  living  in  a  country  of  the 
hi^est  liberty^  ^viery  one  may  openly  dedare  all  his  sen«- 
tjimpotsaiid pinions:  Yrtareweataloss  tDtellthena- 
tmii^  piliMaWoAS}  and  principles,  of  the  diflSarent  fi^etioM. 
Whw  we  CMipare  the  parties  of  Whi^  and  Tory  with 
thP^  of  BoovpiMSAj)  and  Gavaukb^  the  most  obvious 
di^r^npe  that  appears  between  them  consists  ia  the  ptin^ 
eipleii  of  pami»  cbpXmcef  and  ind^ft(mUe  rijfit,  which 
Wer^  bist  <little  heard  of  among  the  jCavaUecs,  bui  became 
the  poivi^sal  ddctrinef  and  were  esteemed  the  true  charao^ 
teristicofaTory.  Were  these  principles  pushed  into  their 
most  obvious  cQPsequenceSt  Aey  imply  a  formal  renimoia*- 
tion  of  all  our  liberties,  and  an  avowal  of  absolute  mo- 
narchy;  since  nothing  can  be  a  greater  absurdity  than  a 
limited  powers  which  mu^  not  be  restated^  even  when  it  ex- 
ceeds its  limitations.  But»  as  the  most  rational  principles 
Bre  often  but  a  weak  counterpoise  to  passion,  it  is  nawoo- 
d&r  that  these  absurd  principles  were  found  too  weak  for 
that  effect.  The  Tories,  as  men,  were  enemies  to  oppres- 
sion ;  and  also  as  Englishmen,  they  were  enemies  to  arb^ 
trary  power*  Their  zee)  for  liberty  was,  perhaps,  less  feiu 
vent  than  that  of  their  antagonists,  but  was  suQdent  to 


64  ESSAY  JX. 

make  them  forget,  all  their  general  principles,  when  they 
saw  themsdves  openly  threatened  with  a  subversion  of  the 
micient  government.  From  these  sentiments  arose  thtf 
revobiiion ;  an  event  c^  mighty  ooBseqnence,  and  ike  firm* 
eat  foundation  of  British  liberty.  The  conduct  of  the 
Tories  during  that  event,  and  after  it,  will  affinrd  us  a  true 
insight  into  die  nature  of  idiat  party. 

In  the^sl  place,  they  appear  to  have  had  the  gentune 
sentiments  of  Britons  in  their  affection  for  liberty,  and  in 
their  determined  resolution  not  to  sacriQee  it  to  any  ab* 
stract  principle  whatsoever^  or  to  any  imaginary  rights  of 
princes.  This  part  of  th^ir  character  mi^t  justly  have 
been  doubted  of  before  the  revobOian,  from  the  obvious 
tendency  of  their  avowed  principles,  and  from  their  com* 
pliances  with  a  court,,  which  seemed  to  make  little  secret 
.  of  its  arbitrary  designs.  The  revohOkm  shewed  them  to 
have  been,  in  this  respect,  nothing  but  a  genuine  coidi-' 
parijf,  such  as  might  be  expected  in  a  ^ntish  government; 
that  is.  Lovers  of  Ubertg^  bvtgreaier  lovers  efimmarehg. 
It  must,  however,  be  confessed,  that  they  carried  their  mo- 
narchical principles  fiurther  even  in  practice,  butmore  so  in 
theory,  than  was,  in  apy  d^g^^  consistent  with  a  limited 
government. 

Secondfyy  Neither  their  principles  nor  a£kctIons  ooncmv 
red,  entirely  or  heartily,  with  the  settlement  made  at  the 
EevoltUionf  or  with  that  which  has  since  taken  place.  This 
part  of  their  character  may  seem  opposite  to  the  former ; 
since  any  other  settlement,  in  those  circumstances  of  the 
nation,  must  probably  have  been  dangerous,  if  not  fatal  to 
liberty.  But  the  heart  of  man  is  made  to  reconcile  contra^ 
dictions ;  and  this  ccmtradiction  is  not  greater  than  that 
between  passive  obedience^  and  the  resistance  employed  at 


THE  PARTIES  OF  aRlAT  BRITAIN.  65 

the  Revolation.  A  Tort»  theirefora^  since  die  BevobMm^ 
may  be  defined  in  a  fienur  wDids»  to  be  a  hcer  ^mom&rchg^ 
tkfmffh  withtmi  tibimdamng  Uberty:  and  a  pariiaaH  nf  Ae 
fitmUif  tfStmri :  As  a  Whio  may  be  defined  to  be  a  iS>- 
tferofN^ertyy  Aough  without  remnmcing  momarchy ;  and  a 
JHend  to  tik  settlemefU  in  the  Proiestani  line. 

These  difierent  views,  with  regard  to  the  settlement  of 
the  croiwn,  were  accidental,  bot  natural  additions  to  the 
principles  of  the  court  and  comdrp  parties,  which  are  the 
genuine  divisicms  in  the  British  govenunent  A  passion- 
ate lover  of  monarchy  is  i^t  to  be  displeased  at  any  change 
of  the  succession;  as  savouring  too  much  of  a  common- 
wealth :  A  passionate  lover  of  liberty  is  apt  to  think  that 
every  part  of  the  government  ought  to  be  subordinate  to 
the  interests  of  liberty. 

Some,  who  will  not  venture  to  assert,  that  the  reo/ diffe- 
rence between  Whig  and  Tory  was  lost  at  the  BevoluOon^ 
seem  inclined  to  think,  that  the  difference  is  now  abolish- 
ed, and  that  ai&irs  are  so  far  returned  to  their  natural 
state,  that  there  are  at  present  no  other  parties  among  us 
but  cowi  and  country ;  that  is,  men  who,  by  interest  or 
principle,  are  attached  either  to  monarchy  or  liberty.  The 
Tories  have  been  so  long  obliged  to  talk  in  the  republican 
sQrle,  diat  diey  seem  to  have  made  converts  of  themselves 
by  their  hypocrisy,  and  to  have  embraced  die  sentiments 
as  well  as  language  of  dieir  adversaries.  There  are,  how- 
ever, very  considerable  remains  of  that  party  in  England, 
with  all  their  old  prejudices ;  and  a  proof  that  court  and 
country  are  not  our  only  parties,  is,  that  almost  all  the  dis- 
senters side  with  the  court,  and  die  lower  clergy,  at  least 
ci  the  church  of  England,  with  die  opposidcm.  This  may 
convince  us^  that  some  bias  still  hangs  upon  our  constitu- 

VOL.  !•  F 


66  BSSAT  IX.    . 

timi)  some  extrinuc  weight,  vhich  turns  it  from  it&  natii^ 
rid  course,  and  causes  a  eonfiision  in  our  parties^,   i 

^  3oid4  oCthB  opIaioBs  deliTerad  in  tbeteEisi^  with  ngardto  Ifce  yu* 
blic  tnnsactkma  in  the  lad  century^  the  Author,  on  more  accurate  examiQa. 
tion,  found  reason  to  retract  in  his  llistoiy  of  Great  Britain.  And  as  he 
would  not  ensUve  himself  to  the  systems  of  either  party,  neither  would  he 
fetter  his  judgment  by  his  own  preconceived  opinions  and  prindplefl ;'  nor 
is  he  ashamed  to  acknoirledgt  bis  mistakes.  These  mistakes  vevo  indeed* 
at  that  time^  ahuost  unitenal  in  this  kiog;dom. 


ESSAY  X. 


OF  SUPEHSTITION  AND  ENTHUSIASM. 

1  UKT  the  c(m'%yiiim  (^  the  be^  of  things  produces  the  WW 
is  gi^owfi  into  a  maxim,  and  is  commonly  proved,  among 
oth^r  instances,  by  the  pernicious  efifects  of  superstiiion  and 
ttttkma$mj  the  coirupUons  of  true  religion. 

These  two  species  of  false  religion,  though  both  pemi* 
ciouS,  are  yet  of  a  very  difierent,  and  even  of  a  contrary 
nature.  •  The  mhid  of  man  is  subject  to  certain  unaccount- 
able terit)(rs  and  apprehensionsj  proceeding  either  from  the 
«inhat>py  situatioh  of  private  or  public  afiairs,  from  ill 
health,  from  a  gloomy  and  melancholy  disposition,  or  from 
the  concurreilce  of  all  these  circumstances.  In  such  a  state 
of  mindy  infinite  mknown  evils  are  dreaded  from  unknown 
agwts;  and'where  real  ol^ects  <^ terror  are  wanting,  the 
soul,  actiice.to  its  owti  prejudice^  and  fostering  its  predo*- 
minaDt  JpcIiiiiitiQn,  finds  imagin&ry  ones,  io  whose  power 
^ip4  mi^evolttce  it  sets  no  limits.  As  these  enemies  ace 
entirely  invisible  and  unknown,  the  methoids  taken  to  ^>- 
pease  tb^m  aiie  equally  unacooua  table,  and  consist  in  cere- 
moaies,  obsarvances,  mortifications,  sacrifices,  presents^  or 
in  finy*  practice  however  absurd  or  frivolous,  whidi  e^ither 
foUy  or  knavery  recommends  to  a  blind  and  terrified  cre- 
dulity* Weakness,  fear,  mehQ]icholy»  together  with  igno-  - 
ranee,  are,  dievefore,  the  true  sources  of  Superstition. .    ^  | 

f2 


68  ESSAY  X. 

But  the  mind  of  man  is  also  subject  to  an  unaccount* 
able  elevation  and  presumption,  arising  from  prosperous 
success,  from  luxuriant  health,  from  strong  spirits,  or  from 
a  bold  and  confident  disposition.  In  such  a  state  of  mind, 
the  imagination  swells  with  great,  hnt  confused  concep- 
tions, to  which  no  sublunary  beauties  or  enjoyments  can 
correspond.  Every  thing  mortal  and  perishable  vanishes 
as  unworthy  of  attention.  And  a  full  range  is  ^ven  to 
the  fancy  in  the  invisible  regions,  or  world  of  Spirits, 
where  the  soul  is  at  liberty  to  indulge  itself  in  every  imar 
gination,  which  may  best  suit  its  present  taste  and  dispo- 
sition.— Hence  arise  raptures,  transports,  and  surprising 
flights  of  fancy;  and  confidence  and  presumption  still  iii« 
creasing,  these  raptures,  being  altogether  unaccountable, 
and  seeming  quite  beyond  the  reach  of  our  ordinary  fa- 
culties, are  attributed  to  the  immediate  inspiration  of  that 
Divine  Being,  who  is  the  object  of  devotion.  In  a  litde 
time^  the  inspired  person  comes  to  regard  himsdf  as  adia- 
lingnished  favourite  of  the  DiviniQr ;  and  when  this  6tenzy 
(mce  takes  place,  which  b  the  summit  of  enthusiasm,  every 
whimsy  is  consecrated :  Human  reascm,  and  even  morafi* 
ty,  are  rejected  as  fiillacious  guides :  A»d  the  Ihnalic  mad- 
man delivers  himself  over,  blindly,  and  without  reserve, 
to  the  supposed  iHapses  of  the  spirit,  and  to  inspiration 
from'  above.-^Hope^  pride,  presumption,  a  warm  imagi- 
nation, together  with  ignorance,  are,  therdbr^  the  trve 
sources  of  Enthusiasm. 

These  two  i^ieoies  of  &lae  re^ioa  m^fatafibrd  occaskm 
to  many  speculations ;  but  I  shall  confine  mysdf,  at  pre^ 
seat^  to  a  fbw  reflections  concerning  thdr  diftureat  inflfi* 
enoe  on  govermnent  and  society. 

VLj  first  reflection  is,  Oiai  mtper&iiikm  is  finxmwik  to 
\jprie$tly pomer^  ondenffmHamnoi  km  or  mfkernmtcm' 


OF  SUPERSTITION  AND  ENTHUSIASM.  69 

trmrjf  iQ  iif  OoH  mmki  reamm  and  jMhtopky.  As  super-  f 
stitton  is  foimcled  on  fear,  sonrow,  and  a  depression  of  spi« 
rits^  it  represents  the  man  to  himself  in  such  de^cableco^ 
lours,  that  be  a{q>ears  onworthy,  in  his  own  eyes,  of  ap« 
pi^oaching  die  Dtvine  presence  and  naturally  has  recourse 
to  any  other  person,  whose  sanctity  of  life,  or,  perha^  im* 
podenoe  and  cunning,  have  made  him  be  supposed  more 
&voared  by  the  Divinity.  To  him  the  superMitions  en* 
trust  their  devotions :  To  bus  care  they  recommend  their 
prayers,  pelitioi»,  and  sacrifices :  And  by  his  means,' they 
hope  to  render  their  addresses  acceptable  to  their  incensed 
Dei^*  Hence  the  origin  of  Priests,  who  may  justly 
be  regaided  as  an  invention  of  a  timorous  and  abject  sib- 
perstitfam,  which,  ever  diffident  of  itself  dares  not  ofler  up 
its  own  devotions,  but  ignorantly  thinks  to  recommend  it- 
self to  the  Divinify,  by  the  mediation  of  his  supposed 
irsuids  aiid  servants.  As  superstition  is  a  omsiderable  in- 
gredient in  almost  all  religions,  even  the  most  iaDiatical; 
there  being  nothing  but  philosophy  able  entirely  to  con- 
•quer  these  unaccountable  terrors;  hence  it  proceeds,  that 
m  idnost  every  sect  of  religicm  there  are  priests  to  be  found : 
Birt  the  stronger  mixture  there  is  of  superstition,  the  highr 
er  is  the  authority  of  the  priesthood. 

On  the  odier  hand,  it  may  be  observed,  that  all  enthn- 
siaate  have  been  fi:ee  firiHn  die  yoke  of  eedesiasdcs,  and 
have  eiq>re8aed  great  independence  in  their  devotion ;  with 
4  contempt  of  forms,  ceremonies,  and  traditions.  The 
Qwifaff  are  the  most  egregious,  diough,  at  die  same  time, 
the  most  inoocent  enthusiasts  that  have  yet  been  known; 
and  are  perhaps  the  only  sect  that  have  never  admitted 
priests  amcmg  diem.  The  ^fiidlgaewfai^  of  all  the  English 
aaetaries^  iqpproach  nearest  to  die  Quahtn  in  fimatician, 
and  in  dieir  fireedom  from  priestly  bondage.    The  iVet- 


70  ESSAY  X. 

hgUruuw  follow  after,  at  an  equal  distance,  m  both  parlki> 
culars.  In  short,  this  observation  is  founded  in  experience ; 
and  will  also  appear  to  be  fmmded  in  reason,  if  we  consi- 
der, that,  as  enthusiasm  arises  from  a  presuo^ptuous  pride 
and  confidence,  it  thinks  itself  suflScieutly  qualified  to  €^ 
proack  the  Divinity,  without  any  human  mediator.  Its 
rapUktaas  devotions  are  so  fervent,  diat  it  even  imagines 
itself  octed^  to  approackhim  by  the  way  of  conleniplation 
and  inward  ocmverse;  which  makes  it  n^ect  all  tboise  out* 
ward  ceremonies  and  dbservances,  to  whidi  the  assistance 
of  the  priests  appears  so  requisite  in  the  eyes  of  tlKir  su« 
perstidous  votaries.  The  fanadc  oonsecratea  hilnsel^  and 
bestows  on  his  own  person  a  sacred  chaticter,  niudi  supe* 
rior  to  what  forms  and  ceremonious  institutions  can  coa*^ 
fer  on  any  other* 

My  second  reflecti<m  with  regard  to  these  sfiecks  o£  fake 
religion  is,  that  rdigknSy  wkU^  partake  of  enMuiaami  are^ 
m  their  first  rise^  m(n^  fitrioHS  and  violent  than  ikose  which 
partake  tf  siq)erstition  i  but  in  a  Httk  time  become  more 
gende  and  moderate.  The  violence  of  thb  species  of  reli*- 
gion,  when  excited  by  novdty,  and  animated  by  efpomh 
tion,  appears  fixun  nnmberiess  instances;  of  the  Anabap- 
tists in  Germany,  the  Camisars  in  France,  the  JjBveUers 
and  other  fanatics  in  England,  and  the  Covenanters  in  Scot- 
land. Enthusiasm  being  founded  on  strong  ispiiit^  and  a 
presumptuous  boldness  of  character,  it  naturally  begets  the 
most  extreme  resoluticms ;  especially  after  it  rises  to  thai 
^height  as  to  inquire  the  deluded  fenatic  with  the  opiakm.of 
<divine  illuminations,  and  with  a  contempt  fer  tbeoonmon 
rules  of  reason,  morality,  and  prudence.  .     i  .  - 

It  is  thus  enthusiasm  produces  the  most  crud  disorders 
in  human  society;  but  its  fury  is  like  that  of  thunder  and 
tensest,  which  exhaust  themselves .  in  a  little  time,  .and 


OF  SUPERSTITION  AND  ENTHUSIASM.  HI 

Umte  tile  air  more  calm  and  sereiie  tbao  before*.  i.A)f  bett 
the  fiiM  fire  of  ienlhiisiaflm ia  speAt^  mm  BalitfaUy».  m>aU 
fanalical  sect%  sink  into  the:  greatest  rraUsda^ss.  tod  oad^. 
oessin^^rediaatlers;  there  bcdng.oo  body  of  jmen  am<iQg 
tbe]<i>  eod^wed  witb  sofficieiit  audior%)  wbpte  ittt<rest.i& 
eoDQeniedtO0ii|ifMinthere%b9as]|w  Nb  ritefi  no  t^e? 
remoAieS}  bk>  bdy  observances,  whidi  may  ester  into^ibe 
oeinifioQt  train  of.  Uf<v  Md  preserve  the  sacrad  prmeifiles 
fromoblhrion*  8aperfltitiQ%oiitl^contrar]r)  steals  i^^iMt 
dodlgiaiidiaseiisiUy;  reiiders  mto.tame  and  iittl)iiMsei?e ; 
isatice|itaUe  to  the  mi^jistJtate,  add  seems  iiiaffeqaiy^  tx)*the 
paddle :  TiU  at  last  the  priest,  havjng  firmly  e$tpbU9t|ed  hh 
antbQtjts^  .bepomes  the  tyrant  and  dist«trl^  ^  humioi  spr. 
W$^:by  his  endli^s  contention^  p^nMJctttkmd^^and  reljU 
gious  wars.  How  stiiootbly  did  the  Romish  ehurch  ad-' 
taiMC^  at  fhei:  acquisition  of j^0wer?  B^t  into,  whfi[t  dismal 
Wtt^^ttlNQns'did'f^.thrpw  all  Surope,  in  order  to  main;; 
tainiit  ?  On  the  other  hand,  our  sectarl^  who  w^re  Sor^ 
merly  such  daqgero^is  b^ts,  are  now  become  very  £ree 
reasopers;  and  the  Quakers  seem  to  approach  nearly  thp 
oply  jreguhar  body  of  XtetsCs  in  the  umverse,  th^  lUeritfi^Qv, 
the(disdplesofCp^ufiiis  in  China? ^  .   !- 

My.tiUrd  observaticm  on  this  head  is,  t6e)t'9jii$0'$iitim.\t 
is  m.eneiffsfio  doH  ISbertih  and^fitfixmm'^  afrimiUi  H^. 
A^  B^q^^ti^  groana  .under  the  d(>miaion  oC  prints,  an^ 
enlhusiasm  is  dastructiye  of  all  eoele^iaiitical  po^er,  ,tht«t 
sirficj^tly  acjQounts  for  the  present  pbiervation.  ;  Not  to 
ai^ti(M|,,thf|t  enthusiasp^  being  th^  infim^ity  of  bold  Aud 
amhi^o|its  l^eofi^s,  is  m^tfvrally  accmaipanied  if  ith  a  spj^t 
of  Ubiety.;  assup^ti||oi^  on  thelcontrary,  renders  4)te 
tame  and  abjec^  and  fits  them  for  slavery.   We  learn  fi;om 

*  The  Chinese  litcnui  have  no  priests  oi  ecclesiastical  estabUshmcDt. 


TS  E6&AY  X. 

Eo^h  hadory,  that,  diirii^  die  mil  wtsmt  th«  AcA|Mpn 
SrnH  and  /Mito^  though  the  mott  opposite  in  their  rdi* 
gkms  pnnciples,  yet  were  mited  in  their  political  ones, 
iikd  were  i£ke  passionate  for  a  Gommoiiweaith.  Andeinee 
tkeot^tdWkigmd  Tovy,  die  leaders  of  the  WkiffahAye 
ekher  been  IkidB  <Hr  ptofessed  Lamndmariam  in  their 
prindples;  ihatis^  friends  to  k^ratioBi  and  indifferent  to 
anyparticulttrsiictofCSinMieiNf.*  While  the  sectaries,  who 
ha?e  idl  a  strcmg  tinctare  of  endmsiasm,  have  always,  widi- 
oiit<«xceptaon,  concnrred  with  diat  party,  indeftnoec^dh 
vil  liberty.  Hie  resemUanoe  in  their  svperstitions  loi^ 
muted  die  H^h-Caiurch  T^riai^  and  die  itoawi  CartafrWi 
in  sof^ott  of  pr^t^gaiiTe  and  king^  pow^;  though  ex^ 
pmeiiceofthetoleradDg  spirit  <rf' die  ff?>^  seems  of  lale 
to  have  reocMwiled  die  CaiMicB  to  that  party. 

The  MiHwiiit  and  JaPtae»M»  in  France  have  a  thoBsaad 
nniaftelligible  disputes,  which  are  not  worthy  die  reflection 
of  a  mim  of  sense  2  But  what  piincipfdlydistitigiiishes  these 
two  sects,  and  alone  merits  attention^  is  the  di&rent  spi* 
rit<J  their  rdigton.  The  JMoiipm^  condulctedby  die<^ 
MtUif  are  great  friends  to  supersdtion,  ri^d  ob^ervrars  of 
external  tanas  and  ceremomes,  and  devoted  to  die  autho- 
rity of  die  priests,  and  to  tnufidon.  Tlie  Jiam$enut$  are 
entlnisiasts,  and  secdons  pnMnofeers  of  the  passionale  devo- 
tion, imdcf&e  ki  ward  hlb;  litde  influenced  by  auttearity; 
and,  cnaword,  bttthalf  CadiolicSf  The  ccmseqoenoes  are 
exactly  confiirmable  to  the  foregoing  reasonii^. .  The  Jb^ 
suto  itfe  the  tyrants  of  the  pec3^)Ie,  and  the  daves  of  the 
court  :^  And  the  Jimsepii^  preserve  alive  the  small  qfmrks 
of  the  love  of  liberty  which  are  to  be  fontid  in  the  F^^ench 
nation* 


ESSAY  XL 


Of  THS  DIGKIIT  OJH  HSAKN£SS  07  BSUA»  VATVME. 

7hebs  are  cortion  sects,  wbidi  secredjfbrmtbemsdTes 
IB  the  leatnad  wiHrld^  as  weH  as  fiwtions  in  thepofilical; 
and  tboi^  someliines  tfiey  come  not  to  an  open  ruptnre, 
dwy  ghre  a  diftiwt  ton  to  the  ways  of  AUking  of  Aose 
who  have  taken  pait  on  either  side^  The  most  remarfc- 
aMa  of  tUs  kfaid  a>e  the  aects  fiMmded  on  die  diibrent 
sendments  wkh  Mgard  tv  die  dtgtritif  qfktman  matrnt: 
wfaksh  is  a  pokit  du^  scans  to  have  dhrided  phflosophers 
and  poets,  as  well  as  dhruies,  from  the  banning  of  the 
world  to  tUsdaj.  SoneeMaltoorspedestodieddes^atid 
repressHt  man  as  «  kind  of  hmnan  denrigbd,  who  derives 
his  origiii  fitmi  faeaven,  and  retains  evident  marks  of  his 
lineage  «id  descent,  Odiers  insist  upon  the  Mind  sides 
of  hmnan  natOM^  and  can  diseofer  nofliing,  esicept  vani^, 
is  whleh  man  smpasscB  the  other  anhnals,  whom  he  aiftcte 
so  much  to  demise.  If  an  author  possess  the  trient  of 
rhetoric  and  dedssaaticm,  ho  commonly  takes  part  with 
llm  former:  If  his  torn  Be  towards  irony  and  ridioale,  he 
natnraDy  thsows  hiaMtelf  into  the  other  extreme. 

I  am  fiur  fttmi  thinking,  that  all  those,  who  hate  depre^ 
cialed  our  apeoies,  have  been  enemies  to  Tirtne^  add  have 
exposed  the  firaikies  of  their  feUow^creatureS  widi  any  bad 
intention.    On  the  contrary,  I  am  srasiMe  that  a  delicate 


74  ESSAY  XI. 

sense  of  morals,  especially  when  attended  with  a  splene- 
tic temper,  is  apt  to  give  a  man  a  disgust  of  the  world,  and 
to  make  him  consider  the  common  course  of  human  afiairs 
with  too  much  indignation.  I  must,  however,  be  of  opi- 
nion, that  the  sentidients  bf  those^  who  are  inclined  to 
think  favourably  of  mankind,  are  more  advantageous  to 
virtue,  than  the  contrary  principles,  which  give  us  a  mean 
opinion  of  our  nature.  When  a  man  is  prepossessed  with 
a  high  n6tK>ii  of  hts  rank  and  character  in  the  cteotiori,  he 
will  naturally  endeavour  to  act  up  to  it,  and  will  scorn  to 
do  'a  bascf  or  vieious  action,  which-  migbt  .sink  him  bdow 
that  figure  which  he  makes  hd  bis  own*  imaginatioil.  .  Aa* 
coordiiigly  we  find,4hat  all  our ^pdite  and  -feshionidbie  ifadodh 
jsts  insist  vipon  lOkis  topic,  andiendeaxronr  to  ropreseiit  vide 
utiworthy  of  man^  as  well  as  odious  in  Kkseid  / 

Wtt  find ' few dispnites^  tint  are  not  fduhded.^Dhvisotaie 
awbignity  in  Ihe  e^cp^eitslan;  and!  I  am  p^vuaded,  itfaat 
the  ^HreseiEkl  dispbte^  concerning  liie  dignity  or  meanndss 
ofihumaflinalure,  ik  not  miore'eMen^t.lnmi  ittfanr  any 
6then  It  mdy,  therefore,  he  ivorthwhUe  to 'consider,.' wkfH 
is.reai^anA^Jfait^isoidy'verb^iiithiscQiitrennefsy*  :  > 
,  That  tbeare  is  a  natural  difierence  between  merit  and  db* 
m^tit^  virtue  and  vice,  wisdom  and  Goliy,  no  treasonable 
m«n  will  dttny :  Yet  it'  is  evident,  thdt  in  affixing  jkhete^hiy 
whieb  dehotes  eithte  oiir  apparobatiooorl^laiiie^  ww  ateiiam* 
monly'moreinfluenoed:  b^  comparison  than'by^ahy  rfixed 
lindtQisa^estlmdahliBthenalui^oftlik)^^  Inlikeman-f 
ner,  ^jiMMity^  and  extedsio%  and  bnlk,  ate  Iby  leveryl  eab 
acknowledged il». he Jreal  UiiogsTBtti  ividMftiiPe>eUlrfRiji 
aninml  ^^.^t/liA^^^  always  form  a  sepr^Rcp«apwri|on 
betwei^  jtluit  '^Uimal  and  others  of  the  sa$ae.  e^pefiies  t  »od 
it  ,i$  that  <^mparj^i<^!wluct^  fiegulfitts  o^if;  jtf^UpcJiit  c^^R- 
cerixipg  Ustgreatpwss.    4-  dog  and  a  horSe  tfiiLy  b(^>pf:  tbp 


DIGNITY  OE  MEAKKE8S  Olf  HUMAN  NATURE.  75 

very  same  site^  while  the  one  b  adnubred  for  the  greainesd 
oTits  bulk)  and  the  otfier  for  die  smaUiiess.  When  laul 
presait,  therefi)re,  at  aoy  dispute,  I  always  oousider  witli 
niysd^  whether  it  be  a  qtiesCkm  ef  compomon  or  not  that 
18  the  sohject  of  the  oontrover^ ;  and  iTit'be,  whether  the 
dbpntants  compare  the  same  cft)jectft^txigetfaer,^  or  tMi  of 
thii^  that  are  widely  d^reot. 

In  forming  bur  notions  ot  httinan^  natm^  we  are  apt 
to  make  a  compiarisoti  between -men  and' anisials^  the.only 
creatures  endowed  wftk  thought,  that  fliU  under  our  sen^esi 
Certify  this  eomparisen  is  fayourable  to  mankhid.  On 
die  one-hand,  we  see  a  creature^  whose  ihoog^  are  not 
fimited  by  any  narrow  bounds, ^ther< of  pbipe  or  timeji 
who  carries  his  researches  into  tbe  most  distant  Mgimsof 
thb  globes  and  beyond  Ais  glob^  to  the  placets  and  hisa* 
venly  bodies ;  looks  bcuskimrd  to  eonnder  the  flratdrlgin,  at 
feast  die  history  of  the  humim  race;  casts  his  eye  ibrw]ard 
to  see  the  influence  of  his  aott<»6  upon  posterity,  4Uid  th4 
judgments  which  will  be  fmned  of  his  dbaraoter  a  tfaoo^ 
sand  years  hence;  acreature,  who  traces  causes  and  et 
iects  to  a  greatltagth  and  intrica^^;  exjyacts  gta6r|dflrinA> 
ciples  from  particular  i^pearances ;  improves  upon  bis  disf- 
coTeries ;  corrects  hb  mistakcs^;  (und  makes  his  very  ertors 
pn^taUe.  On  the  either  hand,  we  are  pres^tedwidi  4 
creature  the  very  reverse  ^  ijtm;  limited  in  its  obaervii^ 
tioos  and  reasonings  to  a  few  sensible  objects*  which  siirr 
ronnd  it ;  w^out  curiosilT,  without  'foresight ;  blindly 
oondttcied  by^inslinct,  and  adCatnin^  in  a  sborttinie^  i^ 
vUtmostperfeedM,  beyond  whjch  it  as  never  aUa  to  ituWaKc^ 
a  sii^  step.  What  a;wide  cKfinence  is  ^Moe  betwieeh 
these  creatures !  And  how  eooaltied  a  nottcmnmst  we  en^ 
tertain  of  the  former,  in  comparison  of  the-ktter  !• 

There  arc  two  me«as  commonly  employed  Co  deatFO)' 


79  M0SAY  XI. 

thb  GOodusioQ :  Firsi^  By  tnakii^  an  onfiur  represepi^- 
tioD  of  the  case»  and  laNstJng  ody  upoo  the  weaknesses  of 
buinan  nature.  Andf  sectmj^  By  formiiig  a  new  and  se- 
cret eoflspaiison  between,  oaan  and  beings  of  the  most  per- 
fect wisdem.  Among  the  o(iier  eoboeUencies  of  man,  this 
is  one^  that  be  can  fiHrm  an  idea  of  perfecti^ws  nmcl^  be- 
I  yond  what  he  has  experience  of  in  himself;  and  is  pot  li<- 
I  mited  ia. bis  eooc^tion  of  wisdom  and  virtue*  He  can 
easily  exalt  his  notiftns>  and  conceive  a  degree  of  know*- 
ledgi^  whicby  when  compared  to  his  own^  will  make  the 
latter  appear  very  ooRtemptUde,  and  will  canae  the  dife- 
rence  between  liiat  and  tfas  si^^ty  irfanimalst  in  aman- 
neTv  to. disi^ipear  and  vanish.  Now  this  being  «  point,  ipt 
which  all  the  world  is  agceed,  that  human  undemtandiqg 
ftlls  infinitely  short  of  perfect  wisdom  ;  it  is  proper  we 
should  know  when  this  coa^pariaon  takes  place,  tlu^  we 
nu^  not  diq>iiie  wherethere  is  no  real  diflferenoe  in  our  senr 
timentfc  Man  £Uls  aouch  mose  short  of  perfisct  wisdom,  and 
evm  of  his  own  ideas  of  perfect  irisdom,  than  animals  do 
of  man;  jwt  the  latter  difference  is  so  considerable,  that 
nothing  butaconofMuriaon  with  the  former  can  make  it  f^ 
penr  of  little  moment 

It  is  also  usual  to  esMjpors  one  man  with  another;  and 
finding  very  few  iiriicmi  we  can  caU  IMS  cNrewfuQitf^  we  are 
npi  to  entertain  a  ccmtemptiMe  notkm  of  our  qpecjes  in 
generaL  That  we  may  be  sensible  of  the  feUacy  of  this 
way  of  reasoning,  wemsy  obs<gve,  that  the  hoooumMe^fy- 
pel|ations  of  wise  and  virtuous  are  MA  annesed  tp  any 
paetieular  digreeof  thoae  qualities  of.tMsdsm  and  virtmj 
butariseatocgetberfinom  the  comparison  we  make  between 
o«e  man  and  another.  When  we  find  a  man,  wh9  arrives 
at  such  a  pitch,  of  wisdom  as  is  very  uncommon,  we  pro- 
nounce him  a  wise  man:  So  tl»t  to  say,  there  are  few 


DIGNITY  OR  MEAMNEflS  Of  HUMAN  NATURE.  77 

wise  men  in  the  worid,  is  reMy  to  say  notfaiiig;  since  k  is 
onfy  by  tbdr  scardty  diat  diey  mezil  that  appdbtiom 
Were  the  lowest  of  onr  species  as  wise  as  TnUy,  or  Lord 
Bacon,  we  sfaoidd  still  hare  reason  to  say  Ihat  there  are^few 
wise  men.  For  in  that  case  we  idioidd  exalt  our  ndtiQiis 
of  wisdom,  and  should  not  pqr  a  singular  konoiir  to  air^ 
one,  who  was  not  singolarly  dii^tii^;inshed  by  his  talents. 
In  like  manner,  I  have  heard  it  observed  by  thoogfatless 
peq[)le,  that  there  are  few  women  possessed  of  beauty,  in 
comparison  of  those  who  want  it;  not  oonsidering,  that 
we  bestow  the  epidiet  of  Aeenil{^<Mdy  On  such  as  possess 
a  degree  c^  beauty  tbat  is  common  to  them  with  a  few« 
Th^  same  degree  of  beauty  in  a  woman  is  cdled  ^^mni- 
1y,  whidi  is  treated  as  real  beauty  in  oiie  of  our  sex* 

As  it  is  usual,  in  forming  a  notion  of  4>ur  species^  to 
conqnre  h  with  the  other  specie  above  or  b^low  it,  or  to 
compare  th^  individuals  of  the  species  amo]%  themadves; 
so  we  often  coa^iare  together  the  difierent  motived  or  m^ 
tua^ing  principles  of  human  nature^  in  order  to  regnkle 
our  jod^^ment  concemiiq;  it»  And,  indeed,  dns  is  the  on- 
ly kind  of  comparison  whidi  is  wi^rth  ouri&tteiilicn,  or  de« 
cides  any  thing  in  the  present  question*  Were  our  selfish 
and  viaoosprincipka  so  much  predominant  above  omr  so* 
cial  and  i^irtnous,  as  is  asserted  by  somejABosophcfs,  we 
ought  lasdonbtedly  to  entertaitf  a  coolmplible  mtfionof 
bumaii  nature. 

Tberfe  b  ttulah  of  a  di^fe  cif  wordi  in  att  lUa  ciiirtikK 
versy*  When  a  manf  denies  ike  sincerity  of  dfl  puUk 
ufmt  or  a&etion  to  a  oowtvy  and  tsmmm^  I  an  at  a 
loss  ¥4iat  to  think  of  Idm.  P^topaheneterfekthispal^ 
sion  in  so  dear  anddistincta  maim^  m  to  KWK>yeatt  his 
doubts  concmiing  its  force  and  realiQr.  Bat  wfcdn  he' pro- 
ceeds afterwards  to  re^  all  privale  frioadshipy'if  no  in* 


78  ES8AY  xr. 

terast  or  ^elf-IoTe  intermiK  itself;  I  am  tlien  confident  that 
he  iElbuses;ternis^  tfnd  confounds  the  ideas  orthmgs;'  sihee 
tt  Js^nqiossible  for  any  one  to  be  bo  Helfaiit  6t  rather  so 
n/tapiA^  as  to  niake  no.diffisrcnre  ibetwBte  one  man  aifd 
onochcr,  and  give  no  preference  to  qnallties^  vhioh  engage 
his  appnobatibn  and  esteem.  Is  he  also,  sajl^  us  insensi* 
ble  to  angerilshelprelehds  to  be  to  friendship  ?  And  does 
injnry  and  wrong  no  more  affect  [him  than,  kindness  or  be- 
nefits? ImpossiUe :  He.  does  not  know  himself:  He 
has  forgotten  the  movemeMs  of  his  heart ;  or  rather,  he 
makes  use  of  a  diffiN^t  languiige  fVbm  tbe  rest  of  bis 
countrymen^  and  caUs  not  things  by  their  proper  names. 
What  say  you<^  natoral  afiection  !  (I  subjoin)  Is  that  al- 
so a  species  of  self«Iove  ?  Yes :  :Ali  is  selMove.  lour 
children  are  loved  ohlybecauise  they  aiie  yours:  Your 
firiend  for  a  like  reason :  And  yonr  country  engages  yoa 
only  so  far  as  it  has  a  connection  with  pourul/:'  Werpi  the 
idea  of  self  removed,  nothing  wonkl  afibct  yon :  You 
would  be  altogether  unactive  smd  insensible :  Or,  if  you 
ever  give  yourself  any  movement^  it  would  otily  be  from 
vanity,  and  a  desire  of  feme  and  reputation  to  this  same 
self.  I  am  wilKng,  ttpiy  I,  to  receive  your  interpretation 
of  human  actions^  provided  yon  admit  the  facts.  That 
species  of  sel'C'lctve,  which  dlqilays  itself  in  kindness  to 
others,  yon  niusl^Bow  to  have  great  Muence  over  human 
actions,  and  even  greater,  on  many  occasiom,  than  that 
whk4i  reniaitis  ki  its  original.Bbape  andform.  For  how 
tmm^  AetBf  havmg  a  feniily,  iohtld^en,  and  relations,  who 
do  not  ^end  more  on  the  maintenance  aiid  education  of 
tbeie  dMl  on  theit  ownpleasures?  Hiis,  indeed,  you  justly 
observe,  may  pitooeedficom  thdr  sd&Iove,  since  the  pro- 
nfwrity  tf  Aeirftmily  and  friends  is  <Mie,  or  the  chief,  of 
their  pleas^es,  ai  well  as  their  chief  honour.     Be  you  al- 


DIGNITY  OR  MEAKKESg  OV  HUMAN  NATURE.  79 

90  one  of  these  selfish  .meii|  ftod  yoa  are  sareof  et^ry  tone's 
gobd  cfpiikmemdgood  will  ;•  or,  not  to  cbo^tyattreai^ 
wkh  these  tepressUmsy  lihd  sdf«ioire  cifWeiy'One^  aBdmine 
among  the  rest,  will  then  ihoUnie  us  to>  seryeyou^  anipl'Speak 
well  of  you*      *  .  . 

In  my  opinion,  there  are  two  things  which  have  led 
astray  those  philosophers,  that  have  insisted  so  much  on  the 
selfishness  of  man.  In  the  Jirst  place,  they  found,  that 
every  act  of  virtue  or  friendship  was  attended  with  a  secret 
pleasure ;  whence  they  concluded,  that  friendship  and  vir- 
tue could  not  be  disinterested.  But  the  fallacy  of  this  is 
obvious.  The  virtuous  sentiment  or  passion  produces  the 
pleasure,  and  does  not  arise  from  it*  I  feel  a  pleasure  in 
doing  good  to  my  friend,  because  I  love  him ;  but  do'not 
love  him  (or  the  sake  of  that  pleasure. 

In  the  second  place,  it  has  always  been  found,  that  the 
virtuous  are  far  from  being  indifierent  to  praise;  and 
therefore  they  have  been  represented  as  a  set  of  vain-glo- 
rious men,  who  had  nothing  in  view  but  the  applauses  of 
others*  But  this  also  is  a  iallacy.  It  is  very  unjust  in  the 
world,  when  they  find  any  tincture  of  vanity  in  a  laudable 
action,  to  depreciate  it  upon  that  account,  or  ascribe  it  en- 
tirely to  that  motive.  The  case  is  not  the  same  with  va- 
nity, as  with  other  passions.  Where  avarice  or  revenge 
enters  into  any  seemingly  virtuous  action,  it  is  difficult  for 
us  to  determine  how  far  it  enters,  and  it  is  natural  to  sup- 
pose it  the  sole  actuating  princq>le.  But  vanity  is  so  close- 
ly allied  to  virtue,  and  to  love  the  fame  of  laudable  actions 
approaches  so  near  the  love  of  laudable  actions  for  their 
own  sake^  that  these  passions  are  more  capable  of  mixture^ 
than  any  other  kinds  of  affisction ;  and  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  have  the  latter  without  some  degree  of  theformer. 
Accordmgly,  we  find,  that  this  passion  for  glory  is  always 


80  XS8AT  XX. 

warped  and  vari^  according  to  the  particular  taste  or  dia- 
poattion  of  tlie  mind  on  which  it  fidla.  NeiohadtheaaaM 
vanity  in  driving  a  cfaariot^  that  Trajan  had  in  governing 
the  empire  with  jttstice  and  ability.  To  love  the^^y  of 
virtuous  deeds  is  a  sure  proof  of  the  love  of  virtue. 


ESSAY  XII. 


OF  CYYZI.  UB£BTY. 

X  HOSE  who  employ  their  pens  on  ptifitical  subjects,  ftee 
0mm  party-n^^  and  partyi-prejndices,  evdtitttt^  a  seience» . 
which,  of  an  others,  contributes  most  to  publientili^,  and 
even  to  the  private  satisfaction  of  those  who  addict  tfieKI-^' 
selves  to  the  study  of  it  I  am  ap;t,  however,  t6  entertain 
a  suspicion,  that  the  world  is  still  too  youiig  to  ^  many' 
general  truths  in  politics  which  will  ronain  true  to  the 
latest  posterity.  We  have  not  as  yet  had  experience  of 
three  thousand  years ;  so  that  not  only  the  art  cf  reason- 
ing is  still  imperfect  in  this  science,  as  in  all  othens,  but 
we  ev^i  wont  sufficient  materials  upon  which  we  can  rea- 
son. 11  is  not  fully  known  what  degree  ^f  re&iement, 
either  in  virtue  or  vice,  human  nature  is  susceptible  of, 
nor  what  may  be  escpected  of  mankind  firinn  any  great 
nsvdlution  in  their  education,  customs,  or  principles*  Ma-' 
cbiavel  was  certainly  a  great  genius ;  but^  havitig  con&ied  • 
his  study  to  the  furious  and  tyrannical  gov^mnents  of 
ancient  times,  or  to  the  little  disorderly  principalities  of 
^ly,  his  reasonings  especially  upon  monarchieal  govern- 
ment, have  been  found  extremely  defective ;  and  there 
scarcely  is  any  maxim  in  his  Prince  which  subsequent  ex- 
perience has  not  entirely  refuted.  "  A  weak  prince,*'  says 
he,  "  is  incapable  of  receiving  good  counsel;  for,  if  he 
VOL.  I.  o 


82  ESSAY  XII. 

consist  with  several,  he  will  not  be  able  to  choose  amoiig 
their  diftrent  counsels.  If  he  abandon  hlmsdf  to  oiiet 
t^t  minister  may  perhaps  have  capacity,  but  he  will  not 
IpDg  be  a  minister.  He  will  be  sure  to  dispossess  hi^ 
master,  and  place  himself  and  his  fain|ly  up<m  the  throne.'' 
I  mention  this,  among  po^y  iiis^nces  of  the  errors  of  that 
politician,  proceeding,  in  a  great  measure,  from  his  having 
)ived  in  too  early  an  age  of  the  world,  to  be  a  good  judge 
of  pcditical  truth.  Aknost  all  the  princes  of  Europe  are 
at  present  governed  by  dieir  ministers,  and  have  been  so 
tor  near  two  centuries;  and  yet  no  such  event  has  ever 
ba{q[>ene^,  or  can  possibly  happen.  Seja|)us  iiMght  pro* 
j^  dethrpnii^  the  Caew^  but  Fleury^  tboi;^  ever  sq 
vkipqs,  copld  upt,  whilfs  in  his  senses,  entertain  the  leaM 
hopes  of  tfiqposspssing  the  Bourbons. 

Trade  was  never  esteemed  an  a£Biir  of  state  till  the  last- 
cemwry  f  aad  th^e  scarcely  19  wy  an^nent  writer  on  politics 
who  has  fldiide  ynention  of  it  ^  {lyefi  the  Italians  have  kept 
a  pfpfouod  silence,  with  r^eg^  to  it,  though  it  hfis  now 
ei^aged  the  ohief  i^egtion,  1^  wfill  of  ininisters  of  state 
as  of  specolative  reasoners.    The  great  c^iilenee^  gvan-. 
deur,  and  miUtary  achievements  of  the  two  maritime' 
powensi  9eein.first  to  have  instructed  mankind  in  tbe  imx- 
portance  of  an  ext^isive  oMnmerce. 

Having  ther^qre  iptende^  in  tl^s  essyj,  to  mal^e  a  ful) 
compariiaii  pf  civil  liberty  an^  ^t^so^Rte  govenm^^t,  ao^r 
to  show  the  great  advantages  of  the  fi>|rmer  above  the  hotter. . 
I  b^an  to  entertain  a  suspicion  that  no  man  in  this  age; 
was  sufficiently  quahfied  for  such  an  mulertaking;  andtha^; 
whatever  ^ny  pni^  ^lioiUd  {uivl^lce  fin  that  hea4  would,  ij^^ 

"  Xenophon  mcntipiis  it,  but  with  a  dopht  if  U  be  of  any  adrantage  to  ^ 
•tate  £^  mt7if*9f^t»  tfifiuri  ^Ktf,  Ac.  Xm.  HixAO.<.-F]ato  to« 
<alljr  excludes  it  from  his  jip^ginar}'  republic     J)c  Lcgibus,  lib.  it, 


OF  CIVIL  UB&KTr.  gg 

all  protMibiiity,  be  refuted  by  further  experience,  end  be 
rejected  by  posterity*  Such  mighty  revolutions  have  hap- 
p»ed  in  human  affairs,  and  so  many  events  have  arisen 
contrary  to  the  expectation  of  the  ancimts,  that  they  are 
sufficient  to  beget  the  suspicion  of  still  further  changes. 

It  had  been  observed  by  the  ancients,  that  all  the  arts 
and  sciences  arose  among  free  nations;  and  that  the  Per- 
sians and  Egyptians,  notwithstanding  their  ease^  opulence^ 
and  luxury,  made  but  feint  efforts  towards  a  relish  in  those 
finer  pleasures,  which  were  carried  to  such  perfection  by 
the  Greeks,  amidst  continual  wars,  attended  with  poverty, 
and  the  greatest  simpUcity  of  life  And  miners.    It  had  i^ 
so  been  observed,  that,  when  the  JGjreelks  lost  their  liberty, 
though  they  increased  mightily  in  riches  by  means  otthe 
conc|uests  of  Alexander ;  yet  the  arts,  from  that  moment, 
dedioed  among  them^  and  have  never  since  been  able  to 
raise  their  head  in  that  jclinmte.  Learning  was  transplanted 
to  fiom^  the x>nly  free  mUion  at  that^me  jn  the  universe; 
and  having  met  .with  so  favourable  a  soil,  it  made  prodi- 
gious shoots  for  above  a  century;  till  the  decay  of  liber- 
ty lurodttced  also  the  decay  of  letters,  and  spread  a  total 
barbarism  over  the  world.     From  these  two  experiments, 
of  which  each  was  double  in  its  kind,  and  shewed  the  fall 
of  learning  in  abscdute  governments,  as  we]l  as  its  rise  iu 
pqptdar  ones,  Ixmginus  thought  I^mself  sufficiently  justi- 
fied in  asserting,  tjhat  the  arts  ^nd  i^iences  could  never 
flourish  but  in  a  free  govenimeat :  And  in  this  opinicm  he 
has  been  folloiwed  by  several  ^mijient  writers  *  in  our  own 
coofitry,  who  eith^  coti^ned  their  view  merely  to  ancient 
fiKts,  or  entertained  too  great  a  partiality  in  favour  of  that 
form  of  govexnment  established  among  us. 
But  what  would  these  writers  have  said  to  the  instances 

*  Mr  Addison  iind  I^^rd  Shaftrs^urf . 

G  i 


84  SS8AY  XII. 

of  modem  Rome  and  FWenee  ?  Of  which  the  former  car* 
ried  to  perfection  ail  the  finer  arts  of  sculptare,  paintings 
and  music,  as  well  as  poetry,  though  itgroaned  under  tyran- 
ny, and  under  the  tyranny  of  priests:  While  the  latter  made 
its  chief  progress  in  the  arts  and  sciences  after  it  began  to 
lose  its  liberty  by  the  usurpation  of  the  fiunily  of  Medici. 
Ariosto,  Tasso,  Oalileo^  no  more  than  Raphael  or  Michael 
Angelo,  were  not  bom  in  republics.  And  thou^  the 
LcHubard  school  was  famous  as  well  as  the  Roman,  yet  the 
Venetians  have  had  the  smallest  share  in  its  honours,  and 
seem  rather  inferior  to  the  other  Italians  in  their  genius 
for  the  arts  and  sciences.  Rubens  established  his  schoc^ 
at  Antwerp,  not  at  Amsterdam.  Dresden,  not  Hamburgh, 
is  the  centre  of  politeheto  in*  Germany. 

But  the  most  eminent  instance  of  the  flourishing  of  leam^ 
ing  in  absolute  governments  is  that  of  France,  which  s^arce^ 
ly  ever  enjoyed  any  established  liberty,  and  yet  has  car-» 
ried  the  arts  and  sciences  as  near  perfection  as  any  other 
nation.  The  English  are,  perhaps,  greater  philosc^hers ; 
the  Italians  better  painters  and  musicians ;  tiie  Romans 
wer^  greater  orators :  But  the  French  are  die  only  people^ 
except  the  Greeks,  who  have  been  at  once  philosophers^ 
poets,  orators,  historians,  painters,  architects,  sculptors^ 
and  musicians.  With  regard  to  the  stage,  they  have  ex-> 
celled  even  the  Greeks,  who  far  excelled  the  English* 
And,  in  common  life,  they  have,  in  a  great  measure^  per^ 
fected  that  art,  the  most  useful  and  agreeable  of  any,  PAri 
de  Fivrey  the  art  of  society  and  conversation. 

If  we  consider  the  state  of  the  sciences  and  polite  arts  in 
our  own  country,  Horace's  observation,  with  r^ard  to  the 
Rbmans,  may  in  a  great  measure  be  applied  to  the  British* 

— ~>  Sed  in  longum  tmnen  crum 
Manterunty  hodie<pie  maaent  vediffia  rwrith 


OF  CIVIL  LIBfiRTT.  86 

The  elegance  and  propriety  of  style  have  l>een  very  much 
neglected  among  us.  We  have  no  dictionary  of  our  lan- 
guage, and  scarcely  a  tolerable  grammar*.  The  first  polite 
prose  we  have  was  writ  by  a  man  who  is  still  alive  *•  As 
to  Sprat,  Locke,  and  even  Ten^le^  they  knew  too  little  of 
the  rules  of  art  to  be  esteeated  diegant  writers.  The  prose 
of  Bacon,  Harrington,  and  Milton,  is  altogether  stiff  and 
pedantip,  though  their  sense  be  excdlenU  Men,  in  this 
country,  have  been  so  much  occupied  in  the  great  disputes 
efltdigionj  PoUticSj  and  Philasophyj  that  they  had  no  re- 
lish for  the  seemingly  minute  observiU;ions  of  grammar  and 
criticism.  And,  though  this  turn  of  thinking  must  have 
considerably  improved  our  sense  and  our  talent  of  reason- 
ing, it  must  be  confessed,  that  even  in  those  scieices  above 
mentioned,  we  have  not  any  staikbrd4Kx>k  which  we  can 
tratvnmt  to  posterity :  And  the  utmost  we  have  to  boast  of 
are  a  few  essays  towards  a  more  just  philosophy;  whith 
indeed  promise  well,  but  have  not  as  yet  reached  any  de- 
gree of  perfisction. 

It  has  become  an  established  opinion,  that  commerce 
can  never  flourish  but  in  a  fire^  government ;  and  Aiii 
opinion  seems  to  be  founded  on  a  longer  and  larger  ex- 
perience than  the  foregoing,  with  r^ard  to  the  arts  and 
sciences.  If  we  trace  commerce  in  its  progress  through 
Tyre,  Athens,  Syracuse,  Carthage,  Venice,  Florence 
G^UMi,  Antwerp,  Hidland,  England,  &c  we  shall  always 
find  it  to  have  fixed  its  seat  in  firee  governments.  The 
diree  greatest  trading  towns  now  in  Europe,  are  London, 
Amsterdam,  and  Hamburgh;  all  free  cities,  and  Protestant  f  I 
cities ;  that  is,  enjoymg  a  double  liberty.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  observed,  that  the  great  jealousy  entertained  of 

•  l>r  Swilt 


/  f 


86  BSSAY  XII. 

liUe  with  regard  to  tlie  commerce  of  France,  seems  to  ptbve 
that  this  maxim  is  no  more  certain  and  inTalltbie  than  the 
foregoing,  and  that  the  subjects  of  an  absolute  prince  may 
become  our  rivals  in  commerce  as  well  as  in  learning. 

Durst  I  deliver  my  opinion  in  an  affiiir  of  so  much  un« 
certainty,  I  would  assert,  that  notwithstanding  the  efforts 
of  the  French,  there  is  something  hurtful  to  commerce  in*" 
herent  in  th^  very  nature  of  absolute  government,  and  in- 
separable from  it;  through  the  reason  I  should  assign  for 
this  opinion  is  somewhat  different  from  that  which  is  com< 
monly  insisted  on.  Private  property  seems  to  me  almost 
as  secure  in  a  civilized  European  monarchy  as  in  a  repab-^ 
lie ;  nor  is  danger  much  apprehended,  in  such  a  govern-^ 
ment,  from  the  violence  of  the  sdvereign,  more  than  we 
commonly  dread  harm  from  thunder,  or  earthquakes,  or  any 
accident  the  most  unusual  and  extraordinary.  Avarice,  the 
q>ur  of  industry,  is  so  obstinate  a  passion,  and  works  its 
way  through  so  many  rei4  dangers  and  difficulties,  that  it 
is  not  likely  to  be  scared  by  any  imaginary  danger,  which 
is  so  small,  that  it  scarcely  admits  of  calculation.  Com-. 
jmerc^^  therefore,  in  my  (pinion,  is  apt  to  decay  in  absolute 
governments,  not  because  it  is  there  less  secure^  but  because 
it  is  les^JmaufMe*  A  subordination  of  rank  is  Absolutely 
necessary  to  the  support  of  monarchy.  Birth^  titles^  and 
places  must  be  honoured  above  industry  and  riches.  And 
while  these  notions  prevail,  all  the  considerable  traders 
willbe  .tempted  to  throw  up  their  commerce,  in  order  to 
purchase  some  of  those  employments,  to  which  privileges 
and  honours  are  annexed. 

Since  I  am  upon  this  head,  of  the  alterations  which  time 
has  produced)  or  may  produce.in  politics,  I  must  observe, 
that  all  kinds  of  government,  free  and  absolute,  seem  to 
have  undergone,  in  modem  times,  a  great  change  for  the 


OF  CIVIL  LIBERTY.  87 

better,  with  regaard  both  to  foreign  and  domestic  manage- 
ment. The  bmkmee  of  power  is  a  secret  in  {yolitics,  fully 
iouywn  only  to  the  present  Hf^;  and  I  must  add,  that  the 
internal  police  of  states  hafi  also  received  great  improve- 
ments within  the  l«st  century.  We  are  informed  by  Sal- 
hiMtf  that  CadHineV  army  was  much  augmented  by  the  ac- 
cesskm  of  the  highwaymen  about  Rome^  thoi^  I  believe^ 
thatall  of  that  profemon  whoare  i^  present  dis][)ersed  over 
Evrope  would  not  amoimt  to  a  r^imenu  In  Cicero's 
pleadings  for  Milo,  I  find  this  argument  among  others^ 
made  use  of  to  prove  that  his  client  had  not  asi^assitiated 
Clodiiis.  Had  Milo,  said  he,  intended  to  hav^  killed  Clo- 
dfais,  he  had  not  attacked  hSmin  Ae  day-4jme^  and  at  such 
a  distance  from  the  city?  Kte  had  Waylaid  himt  at  night, 
near  the  suburbs,  where  it  might  have  been  pretended  that 
he  was  kiUed  by  robbers ;  and  the  frequency  of  the  acci- 
dent would  have  fiivoured  the  deceit  This  is  a  surprising 
proof  of  the  loose  policy  of  Rome,  and  of  the  tramber  and 
foroe  of  these  robbers^  since  Clodius  *  was  at  that  time  at- 
tended by  Aitty  slaves,  #ho  w^re  completely  armed,  and 
sufficiently  accustomed  to  blood  and  danger  in  the  frequent 
tomuhs  excited  by  that  seditious  tribune. 

But  though  all  kinds  of  government  be  improved  in  mo- 
dem times^  yet  monarchical  government  seems  to  have 
made  the  greatest  advances  towards  perfection.  It  may 
now  be  affirmed  of  civilized  monarchies,  what  was  former-f 
]y  said  in  praise  of  republi<»  alone,  Aat  they  are  a  gcvertiA 
metU  ^Laws^  not  of  Men.  They  are  found  susceptible  or  t 
order,  method,  and  constancy,  to  a  surprising  degree. 
Property  is  there  secure ;  industry  encouraged ;  the  arts 
flourish ;  and  the  prince  lives  secure  among  his  subjects, 

■  Vide  Asc.  Fed.  tn  Om.  pro  MHone. 


8$  ESSAY  XU. 

like  a  &th6r  an^png  his  childreo.  There  are,  perliaps^  aod 
hs^vt  been  fpr  two  oenturi^s^  neiu:  twa  bUndml  absolottt 
prkioeSi  ^reat  and  amftU,  in  Europe;  wd  aUomngtwen* 
ty  years  to  each  reigii»  we  may  Huppose,  that  thea«  hmn 
If^W  in  the  whole  two  tboui^aod  looMUcha  or  tyrmita^  as 
the  Gneeks. would  have c^dl^themr  YeCof  these  there  b«i 
pot  hem  one,  not  even  Philip  IJ.  of  Spain,  so  bud  aa  Ti^ 
beiriMSp  Caligula,  Nero^  or  I>omitf«n»  who  wene  fiiiur  in 
twelve  amongst  the  Romw  ^emp^rora^  It  muat,  howmmv 
1^  confessed,  that  though  anentoebica^  govemnn^tp  Vfty^ 
approached  nearer  to  p<^u)ar  0}u^  kk  g^tloness  and  atft« 
bility,  they  are  still  inferior.  Our  modem  edttcatiott  m^ 
customs  instil  more  humani^  and  moder^tioda  tbm  the  ^^ 
cieat;  but  hgve  not  as  yet  been  able  tP  ^vercQpie  entirely 
the  disadvantages  pf  that  form  of  gov^vmn^oyU' 

.  Buthere  J  must  b«;g  leave  toadyi^)i^'9Cpq}fpt»ii:e»  which 
seems  prob^le,  but  which  posterity  ^lo^e  €M  fu%  judge 
of..  I  am  apt  to  think^  that  |p  i^onarcbical  goverpn^ants 
there  is  a  source  of  improvement,  and  in  pQpn^r  ff^y^u^ 
ments  a  source  of  d^fenen^,  whi^,  in  t^q^  will  btMi^ 
these  species  of  civil  polity  stiU  nearer  «a  e^i^Uty^  'Sh^ 
greatest  abuses,  which  arise  in  Fr^^oe,  the  Df^pst  pfyrffWb 
model  of  pure  monarchy,  proceed  AOt  &qm  the  nutnfa^t  or 
weight  of  the  taxes,  beyond  what  are  to  be  met  with  in&ee 
countries;  but  from ihe expensive,  lui^qual,  arbitrary,  tod 
intricate  method  of  levying  thenv  by  which  the  industry  of 
the  poor,  especially  of  the  peasants  and  farmers,  i%  in  a 
great  measure,  discouraged,  and  agric^lture  rendered  a^ 
beggarly  and  slavish  employments  But  to  whose. adv^n* 
tage  do  these  abuses  tend  ?  If  to  that  of  the  npbiliityj  thfitV 
might  be  esteemed  inherent  in  that  form  of  govemm^t ; 
since  the  nobility  are  the  true  supports  of  monarchy;  and 
it  is  natural  their  interest  should  be  more  consulted,  in  such 


OF  CIVIL  LIBERTY.  §9 

»  OontftitttUott)  tlian  that  of  the  people*  'But  the  nobility 
ai\9t  ia  reidily^  the  chief  losers  by  this  oppression;  simse  it 
miM  their  eslate%  and  beggars  their . tenants*  The  otAf 
gf^xff^tshf  k  are  the  Financiers  ^  a  i^ee  of  men  nfcther  o* 
4ioiia4o  the  lu^ility  and  the.wfacSe  kingdom.  If  a  prince 
or  qdiilislery  ^er^are^  ahoiiU  ariset^  endowed  with  sufii^ 
ejei^  discernment  la  knofwhif  own  and  the  paUk  iiHeresf^ 
and  with  sufficient  force  of  mind  tq  bi«ak  ihrough  andent 
cuaUMiks,  ve  mi^t  espect  to  see  these  abuses  remedied:' 
in  which  ease  ibt  difference  betsmen  that  absolute  goVerAM 
ment  and  our  free  one  would  not  appear  so  cohsMenUH^ 
as  at  present 

The  source  of  degeneracy,  which  may  be  remarked  in 
free  governments,  consists  in  the  practice  of  contracting 
debt,  and  mortgaging  the  public  revenues,  by  which  taxes 
may,  in  time,  become  altogether  intolerable,  and  all  the 
property  of  the  state  be  brought  into  the  hands  of  the  pu- 
blic This  practice  is  of  modem  date.  The  Athenians, 
though  governed  by  a  republic,  paid  near  two  hundred /ler 
cent  for  those  sums  of  money,  which  any  emergence  made 
it  necessary  for  them  to  borrow ;  as  we  learn  from  Xeno- 
phon  *.  Among  the  modems,  the  Dutch  first  introduced 
the  practice  of  borrowing  great  sums  at  low  interest,  and 
have  well  nigh  ruined  themselves  by  it.  Absolute  princes 
have  also  contracted  debt ;  but  as  an  absolute  prince  may 
make  a  bankruptcy  when  he  pleases,  his  people  can  ne- 
ver be  oppressed  by  his  debts.  In  popular  govemments, 
the  people,  and  chiefly  those  who  have  the  highest  offices, 
being  commonly  the  public  creditors,  it  is  difficult  for  the 

?iM0W€tf  Uf  T«v  «^«^f— •!  }f  yt  irXiM^  aAimcmw  irAfMM  Xtri^rrm  umr 
ifMitrr«y9  mw  vf  unnyiunvy  i  yk^  ftutf  w^tnXtrmmsy  tyyvf  itmv  ft9mf 

ufm.   lEN.  noroL 


90  ESflAY  XIX. 

State  to  make  use  of  this  remedy,  which,  however,  it  maj 
sometimes  be  necessary,  is  always  cruel  and  barbnroHs. 
TUs,  therefore^  seems  to  be  an  incontenience,  whick  near- 
ly threatens  $11  free  governments ;  especially  our  own,  at 
ihe  present  juncture  of  affiors.  And  what  a  strong  motive 
is  this,  to  increase  our  frugality  of  public  money;  lest^  for 
want  of  it^  we  be  reduced,  by  the  mnk^licity  of  taxes,  or 
what  is  worse,  by  our  public  impotence  and  inability  for 
defence^  to  curse  our  very  liberty,  and  wish  oursdves  in 
the  same  state  ef  servitude  with  all  the  nations  that  sur- 
round us? 


ESSAY  XIII. 


OP  ELOQITBNCE. 

jThose  who  consider  the  periods  and  revoliitions  of  hu-i 
man  kind,  as  represented  in  history,  are  aitertained  with 
a  spectacle  full  of  pleasure  and  variety,  and  see  with  sur-i 
prise,  themanners,  customs  and  q[>ini<Mis  of  the  same  spe» 
eies  susceptible  of  such  prodi^ous  changes  in  difierent  pe- 
riods of  time.  It  may,  however,  be  observed,  that,  in  dvU 
history,  there  is  found  a  much  greater  uniibrmily  in  the 
history  of  learning  and  science,  and  that  the  wars,  nego* 
dations,  and  politics  of  one  age,  resemble  more  those  of 
another,  than  the  taste,  wit,  and  speculative  principles!  In- 
terest and  ambition,  honour  and  shame,  friendship  and  en- 
mity^ gratitude  and  revenge,  are  the  prime  movers  in  all 
public  transactions ;  and  these  passions  are  pf  a  very  stub- 
bom  and  untractable  nature^  in  comparison  of  the  senti- 
nients  and  understanding,  which  are  easily  varied  by  edu- 
cation and  example.  The  Goths  were  much  more  infe- 
rior to  the  Romans  in  taste  and  science,  than  in  courage 
and  virtue. 

But  not  to  compare  together  nations  so  widely  different ; 
it  may  be  observed,  that  even  this  latter  period  of  human 
learning  is,  in  many  respects,  of  an  opposite  character  to 
the  ancient ;  and  that,  if  we  be  superior  in  philosophy,  we 


92  '  E6SATXIII. 

are  still,  notwithstanding  all  our  refinements,  much  infe^ 
rior  in  eloquence. 

In  ancient  times,  no  work  of  genius  was  thought  to  re^ 
quure  so  great  parts  and  capacity,  as. the  speaking  in  pu- 
blic ;  and  some  eminent  writers  have  pronounced  the  ta- 
lents, even  of  a  great  poet  or  philosopher,  to  be  of  an  in- 
ferior nature  to  those  which  are  requisite  for  such  an  un- 
dertaking. Greece  and  Rome  produced,  each  of  them, 
but  <Hie  accomplished  orator ;  and  whatever  praises  the 
other  celebrated  speakers  might  merit,  they  were  still  es- 
teemed much  inferior  to  these  great  models  of  eloquence. 
It  is  <A>servtable,  that  the  anoint  critics  could  searodiy  find 
twoorators  inanyage^  whodeserved  to  be  placed  preciae« 
ly  in  the  same  rank,  and  possessed  die  $ame  degree  <rf' me* 
rit<  Calvus,  Qelius,  Curio,  Hortensius,  CsMar,  rose  oae 
above  another  :  Bat  the  greatest  of  that  age  Was  isferior 
to  Cicero,  die  most  eloquent  speaker  that  hadevet  appear** 
ed  i^  Rome.  Those  of  fine  taste,  however,  pronoonoed 
this  judgment  of  the  Roman  orator,  m  irell  as  ofthe.  Ghre* 
cian,  that  both  of  them  surpassed  in  doqu«EipeaH  that  had 
ever -appeared,  but  that  they  were  far  from  reachuig  the 
perfec^n  of  their  art,  which  was  infinite,  and  not  only  exf 
eeeded  human  force  to  attain,  but  human  imagination  to 
conceive^  Cicero  declares  himself  satisfied  widi  his  own 
performances;  nay,  even  with  those  of  Demosdienes.  Ita 
imU  cttridiB  et  capaces  metB  amresj  says  he,  tt  mmptr  aUgmid 
immentum^  h^btUumque  desiderant. 

Of  all  the  polite  and  learned  natioas,  England  alone  poa^ 
sesses  a  popular  government,  or  admits  into  the  legislatnm 
such  numerous  assemblies  as  can  be  supposed  to  lie  under 
die  dominion  of  eloquence*  But  what  has  England  to  boast 
6f  in  diis  particular  ?  In  ^lumerating  the  great  mmh  ^ho 
have  done  honour  to  our  country,  we  exult  in  our  poets 


OK  ELOgUSNCE.  98 

juid.phiiosopliers;  bvt  what  orators  are  ever  mentioned? 
-or  where  are  the  nmnimeiits  of  their  gaiius  to  bemet  irith? 
There  are  fiMind,  indeed,  in  onr  histories^  tbenaneadf  se- 
veral, who  directed  the  resolutions  of  our  parliament:  But 
^neilicr  themselves  nor  jot&ers  haro  takep  the  pams'to  pre- 
Miye  their  speeches  .-.and  the  autkbrityy  wfaiehihtty  po^ 
aessed^  seems  to  Have  been  owing  to  their  experienee,  wiss- 
4Ek)tn,or{kmer9  more  than  to  theurtdent6fiir'o]»to^  At 
fMresent,  there  are  above  half  a  dozen  speakers  in  the  tw^ 
liovses,  who,  in  the  judgment  of  the  public,  have-reaohed 
very  tiear  the  same  pitch  6f  eloquence;  and  no  nan  prd- 
itendalogive  any  one  the  preference  above  die  vest.  Hiis 
see^oa  to  me  a  certain  proof,  diat^ime  of  them  hove  attain- 
ed mndi  beyond  a  mediocrity  in  their  art,  and  that  *thfe 
species  of  eloquence,  which  they  a^re  to,  g(vef»  no  etdt^ 
else  to  the  sublimer  faculties  of  die  mind,  but  may  be  i^cb^ 
^  by  ordinary  talents  and  a  sUght  af^Iioation.  A  httt»- 
4dred  cabinet  makers  in  London  ijian  wo^  ■  a  taUe  or  'a 
t^aif  equally  well ;  but  no  one  poet  can  write  vema  with 
imdi  spirit  and  elegance  as  Mr  Pope. 

We  are  told,  that  when  Demosthenes  waa  to  pkad,  iril 
Ingenoous  men  flocked  to  Athens  from  the  most  remote 
parts  of  Greece,  as  to  die  most  celebrated  spectacle  of  the 
world  */  At  London  you  mi^  see  meti  sauMevlng  in  the 
court  of  requests,  while  the  most  important  debate  is  caa^- 
rying  on  in  the  twd  houses ;  and  many  do  not  thinktbenh- 
s^kes  sufficiendy  compensated  for  the  losing  of  their 
dinners,  by  all  the  eloquence  of  our  most  celebrated  speak- 

*  NftiHodqitideiiiiiitQlfigiiiitt  Bon  inodoitaiiMmioriaprvdkiini  e«e^  sed 
it*  Decease  fuisse,  eum  Demoetheiiefl  dictnrus  esset^  ut  ooaeunua,  jnidleBcK 
-ettttssy  €Z  0ott  Gnseiti  flereiit.  At  earn  isti  Attid  dicnnt,  noa  modo  a  co- 
-foiift  (qttoi  est  iptwa  inlvAibile)  eed  etiam  ab  adroeatis  reKnqnontiir. 


M  EMAY  XIII. 

iastu.  Wkcn-gU  Cabber  is  to  act,  die  puriotity  of  several 
is  mon  excited,  thfii  when  our  prime  minister  is  to  da- 
iisiid  htaself  fipom  a  motion  for  Us  WEOfini  or  in^teack- 


Even  a  parion,  unaoqaaiiitedivith  tlie  nofaJe  remains  of 
ancient  omtors,  umy  jadge,  from  a  fiiw  strokee,  that  the 
eljle  or  speeies  of  their  eloqueaee  jres  infinitely  mpse  sur 
Mime  dian  thst  which  modem  orators  aqiire  ia.    How 
absmd  woidd  it  appear,  in  oar  temperate  and  calm  speak- 
lera,  to  make  ^ae  of  an  ^poiCrtynAe^  like,  that  noUe  one  of 
Demesthenes,  ao  nuidi  celebrated  by  Qftintiltanand  Loo- 
ginvs,  when  justifying  the  imsuocesfifol  battle  of  Gtuenm^ 
he  breaks  a«t,  No»  my  fisllow-citizttiis,  No:  Y<m  havje 
not  emd.    I  swear  by  the  snhm  of  those  heroes,  wfaio 
foi^t  for  the  same  caaise  in  the  plains  of  Marsthon  and 
PlateBa."    Who  could  now  endure  such  a  bpld  and  poetir 
cal  figure  as  that  which  Cicero  employs,  af^r  describii^ 
in  the  most  tragical  terms,  the  .crucifiwm  of  a  fioman 
^cttiaen?  ^^fiKiouldlpaintthelMHrrorsof  this  scene,  not  to 
Roman  citiz^is,  not  to  the  allies  of  our  state,  not  to  those 
srho  have  ever  heard  of  the  Roman  name,  not  even  to 
men,  bat  to  brute  creatures;  or,  to  go  farther,  should  I 
lift  up  my  voice,  in  the  most  desdiate  s<dkude,  to  the  rocks 
and  mountains,  yet  should  I  surely  see  those  rude  and  io- 
aaimate  parts  of  nature  moved  with  honpr  an|I  iodigna- 
iion  at  the  recital  of  so  enormous  an  action  K"    With 
jHFfaat  a  bl^uie  of  eloqiience  must  such  a  9enteniQ^  be  surr 

*  The  original  is :  ^  Quod  ti  hme  non  ad  citcs  Romanoa,  non  ad  aliquos 
Amkoa  noflra  civitati%  non  ad  eoa  qui  populi  Ronani  nomen  aadlnent ; 
jdcniqiM^  ai  nan  ad  bomiBcsi  venim  ad  bcsUai ;  ant  etiam,  ut  longtus  pro- 
grediar»  ti  in  aliqna  descrtiuima  soUtudine,  adiaxa  at  ad  aeopulos  bcc  ton^ 
queri  ci  deplorare  vcUcin»  tamcn  oinnia  mitta  Alqiit  inanima,  tanta  et  taqn 
indigaa  xtrvat  atrodtale  jcoamoverentuir.  Ctc,  in  Fer, 


OF  six>eu£^i:£.  95 

yonndnj  tQ  give  it  fftf^Mh  <^  CMm  U  tp  nudw  any  in{ucest 
^ifm  PM  tfee  hearer^  ?  And  what  i¥>Ub  i^  rad  sidblime 
talents  are  requisite  to  arrive^  by  just  degrees,  at  a  seolir 
ment  so  bold  acid  recessive :  To  inflaioe  tbe  aucUeuM^  so 
as  tp  m^  Ihcm  aooompaoy  llie  speiAer  ia  sueh  mdeat 
pfsric^iyi  aad  such  devafted  ecmoeptkms;  and  to  cmosaI« 
under  a  ti^rreis^t  of  elpqQ^i»€e»  tl^e  artifice  by  which  all. tfa^ 
is  effectuated !  /Should  tim  swthawt  eyen  appear  to  ua 
exeessivey  as  perhaps  jufKtty  i^fffy^  itwitt  at  least  sai^eto 
gjuva  an  idea  of  the  s^le  oC  ancient  ^Ipqueitee,  wbdi^  such 
ffcellijag  expr^ssig^  were  ^  njectbed  f^ 
andgiganticw 

Suitable  to  this  vehepten^  of  thought  and  elqfweswfiy 
irfsthe  vet^meoceofactjo^Hrfiserted  in  the  ancienit  on^ 
tofs*  TbesiiniMoj^etff^orslyunpiD 
one  of  the  most  usual  |uid  modarate  gestures  which  diey 
made  use  of*;  thoa^  that  is  now  esteemed  too  Tiden^ 
dther  Jbr  the  senate^  bai;».or  jiijdpil^  and  is  coily  admitted 
ijQito  the  theatre^  to  accompany  the  most  violent  pastt^mif^ 
w|iich  ^e  there  representedf 

Que  k  BQmeyfh^t  jst  a  loss  tfi  whjst  cause  w^  may  ^scriha 
sodeiusajde^.^^lipepf  eloqifienpem  Tbfsger'- 

nius  of  mankindy  at  all  times,  is  pe|rbi^  eqi^;  Th/e  mpn 
4^jrqa  hava  applied  thenfselyefs,  wi|h  gr^  indi«|try  a|i4 
s^cpessy  to  all  the  other  ^rtsfuid sciences:  Andaleam^ 
na)i^po4^j«S9(BS.a.popi^r  government;  a  circumstaii^ 
whii^  seems  jcc^iiisifefipr  the  fall  dispby  of  these  noUis  i^ 
lents :  But  notwithstanding  all  these  advantages,  oifr  prp« 

•  Ubi  dokr?  Ubt, ardor  anioiiy  qui  etiMp  ex  intetium  iDg«iius.«licfff| 
▼oce^  et  querelas  solet  ? ,  t^uih  perturbatio  Btanu,  nulla  corporis :  finons  noi^ 
percuflsa,  noo  femur  ;  pedis  tquod  mimmum  est  J  nulla  supplosio.  Itaque 
tuUum  aHuit  ui  inflammares  nostros  toimos  \  somnum  Isto  loco  if  a  tene- 
^Mttus.  I  Cketo  <U  diarU  0rttt9ribu9, 


M  t&SS  AY  JLUU     ' 

gun  m  eloquMO^  i»  vei^  iMonsideraUe^  i&  oomparmm^or 
the  idwahom  vdkichwt  hme  made  )n  all  other  ^art^  of 
Iconiiiig:  ^ . 

t  Shall weassert) thiit the stntins of aneieM eloqnetice ar^ 
ttDfloilabk  to  ourage,  ofid  ought  not  to  be  imitated  by*  mo*' 
^km  osatolrs?'  Whatever  reasons  maybe  made  dse  of  to 
prb^e  tht%  I'am  petvattded  ibtfyimll  be  fbond^  upon  exA^ 
BHOtftiOD^  to^be  tmttoimd  and  M«at»fiu;(ory. 
•  JVM^  It  may  be -satd^.lhaty  in  ancient  iimesy  during  (hcf 
flomriAfa^  period  of  Greek  and  Boman  learning,  the  mu-^ 
nieipal  law^i  in  every  state^  "weTe  but  few  and  simple,  and 
the  decision  of  causes  was,  in  a  great  measur^  left  to  Ale 
ei|ahy  and  coBttion  sense  of  the  jodges.  The  study  of  the 
laws  was  not  then  a  laborious  occupation,  requiring  the 
drudgery  of  a  whole  Kfe  to  finish  it^  and  incompatible  witff 
Mivwy  ooier  study  or  professibh.  Tb^  g^^^^  statesmenf  and 
generals  am6ng  the  Romans  were  all  kwyers ;  and  CSce- 
fo»  to  shew  the  fedKty  of  acqturmg  this  science,  declares,' 
that  in  tfte  midst  <^  all  his  occupadom^  he  Would  under- 
take, in  a  few  days,  to  make  himself  a  complete  civilian: 
Now,  where  a  pleader  addresses  himself  to  the  equity  of 
hii  judges,  he  has  mudi  more  room  to  display  his  elo- 
quence than  where  he  mustdraw  his  arguments  from  strict 
laws,  statutes,  and  precedents.  In  the  former  case,  many 
eiroumstances  must  be  taken  in ;  many  personal  considera- 
tions regard^;  and  even  fkvour  and  Inclination,  which  i€ 
belongs  to  the  orator,  by  his  art  and  eloquence,  to  conci- 
liate^ may  be  di^uised  under  the  appearance  of  equity. 
But  how  shall  a  modem  lawyer  have  leisure  to  quit  his 
toilsome  occupations,  in  order  to  gather  the  flowers  of 
l^amassus  ?  Or  what  opportunity  shall  he  have  of  display- 
ing them,  amidst  the  rigid  and  subtle  arguments,  objec- 
tions^ and  rallies,  whidi  he  is  obliged  to  make  use  of?  Hie 


OF  ELOQUENCE.  97 

greatest  genius^  and  greatest  orator,  who  should  pretend 
to  plead  before  the  CkomcBBar^  after  a  numth's  stody  of 
the  laws,  woi|ld  only  labour  to  make  himself  ridieoloiis. 

I  am  ready  to  own,  that  this  circumstance,  of  the  mul- 
tiplidty  and  Intricacy  of  laws,  is  a  discouragement  to  elo- 
quence in  modem  times:  But  I  assert,  thatit  will noten-> 
ttrely  account  for  the  decline  of  that  noble  art  It  may 
banish  oratory  from  Westminster-Hall,  but  not  fhmi  ei- 
ther house  of  Parliament  Among  the  Athenians,  the 
Areopagites  expressly  forbade  all  allurements  of  eloquence ; 
aiid  ^soihe  have  pretended,  that  in  the  Greek  oraticms,  writ- 
ten in  the  judiciary  form,  there  is  not  so  bold  and  rheto^ 
rical  a  style  as  appears  in  the  R<Mnan.  But  to  what  a 
jntch  did  the  Athenians  carry  their  eloquence  in  the  cfcJH 
Aenrim  kind,  when  affitirs  of  state  were  canvassed,  and  the 
liberty,  happiness,  and  honour  of  the  rqipblic  were  the 
subject  of  debate?  I^lqsutes  of  this  nature  devate  thege-> 
nius  above  all  others,  and  give  the  fullest  scqpe  to  do- 
quence;  and  such  disputes  are  very  frequent  in  this  nan 
tion.    . 

Secqmdiyj  It  may  be  pret^ded,  that  the  decline  of  do? 
quence  is  owing  to  the  superior  good  sense  of  the  modems, 
who  rqect  widi  disdain  all  those  rhetorical  tricks  employ- ' 
ed  to  seduce  the  judges,  and  will  admit  of  nothing  butso^ 
lid  argument  in  fmy  debate  of  deliberation.  If  a  tban  be 
accused  of  murd^,  the  hcX  m\ist  be  proved  by  witnesses 
and  evidence,  and  the  laws  wil^  afterwards  determine  the 
punishment  of  the  crimind.  It  would  be  ridiculous  to 
describe,  in  strong  colours,  the  horror  and  crudty  of  the 
action;  to  introduce  the  relations  of  the  dead,  and,  at  a 
signal,  make  them  throw  tfaenuelves  at  the  feet  of  the 
judges,  imploring  justice,  with  tears  and  lamentations: 
And  still  more  ridiqulous  would  it  be,  to  employ  a  picture 

yoL.  I.  11 


09  ESSAY  xiti. 

tts^it&euiitig  tlm  hloi^y  4eed,  in  order  to  move  ibe  jttdgei» 
by  tbe  di^p^y  oC  so  tn^N^  a  speetAcie;  4oiigh  wd  know 
that  Oik  artifice  wiib  spm^Umea  practiaed  by  tbe  pleadfers 
of  old  ^.  ^9w»  baoMb  tb6  pathetic  from  public  diseoiMr^es, 
aodyciii  reduce  tbe  speid^rs  merely  to  modem  eloqueaeef 
that)i%  to  good  seftse^  debvered'in  proper  elpresuons* 

Perbaps  it  may  be  acknowledged^  tbdt  oitr  modern  ottsh 
tonvS}  or  our  ^Hp^rior  good  sedse^  if  you  wiH,  should  mAke 
our  orators  more  cautious  and  reaerr^d  ^ah  tbe  anciept^ 
in  attempting  to  inflame  tbe  passions^  or  elevate  the  ima-* 
gination  of  their  audi^ice:  But  I  see  na  reason  why  it 
should,  make  tbetn  det^iaii^  absolutely  of  succeeding  m  that 
attempt  It  ^ould  make  them  redcmble  their  art»  not 
aba^on  it  :entirely«  The  ancient  orators  seem  also  to 
have  been  on  their  guard  against  this  jealousy  of  thenr  an^ 
diencef  buttbeyiook  a  dafferentway of  eludii^  it^  Tbejr 
hurried,  away  with  such  a  totcestt  of  subliixie  i^  patbetio^ 
that  they  left  their  hearers  no  leisure  to  perceive  the  arti-* 
fice.by  which  they  i^ere  deceived.  Nay^  to  conaider  die> 
matter  aright,  they  were  not  deceived  by  any  artifice.  The 
orator,  by  tbe  fort;e  of  hid  owirgenius  and  eloquence,  first 
inflamed  biiidself  with  «ager^  indignation,  pity,  scnrrow;' 
and.  then  commuiucated  tboito  impetuous  movements  to 
his  audience* 

IDpes  any  man  pretedd  to  have  more  good  sense  than 
Julius  Caesar?  yet  that  haughty  conqueror,  we  know^  was 
so  !iubdued.  by  tbe  diarmsn>f  Cicero's  eloquence,  that  he 
was,  in  a  mtmnejr,  ccmstrained  to  change  his  setded  pur- 
pose and  ^resolution,  and  to  absolve  a  criodira],  whom,  be^ 
fore.that  orator  plea^d,  he  was  determined  to  condemn. 

^ome  objectioi^  I  own, .  notwithstanding  his  vast  suc- 

•  Quiimi-  lib.  Ti,  c«p.  1.  fc  LQNaiin;»>  cap.  15. 


OF  ELOQtfit^Cfi.  99 

tMf  ftUtf  li6  ftgiiiiibt  sdme  peuli»ages  <rf  th^  lUmftti  eftBUir. 
He  is  too  florid  dUd  ttn&SoiitAi  Hb  figtoes  ^<  tdd  ^ti^- 
faig  aad  [Mdpable :  Tbe  ditisidm  dtt&S  6i!bc&srBe  ait^  ArbWti 
cIikAjr  from  (be  rules  of  the  schodl^ :  Abd  his  wit  dUAaxtiT 
not  ahtrajs  the  artifice  even  of  a  pmi^  rhytii^  61^  jiiigte  of 
Words.  The  Grecian  addi^essed  himself  to  ah  ati^nce 
much  less  refined  than  the  Roman  senate  or  judges;  'Hie 
towest  vulgar  of  Athens  were  his  sOTeretgns,  and  &e  itrbi- 
(ers  of  hi^  eloquence  *.  Yet  is  his  manner  more  chitotife  nhA 
Austere  than  that  of  the  otlier.  Could  it  be  copiedy  its  8U6* 
eess  would  be  infalUf>le  oyer  a  modem  assembly.  It  is  ra* 
pid  harmony^  exactly  adjusted  to  the  sense :  It  is  Vehe* 
ment  reasoning,  without  any  appearance  of  ^rt:  Iti^  dis^ 
dain,  anger,  boldness,  freedom,  iny(dved  in  li  contiiitted 
stream  of  argument:  And,  of  all  humto  productions^' di<i 
6rattons  of  Demosthenes  present  to  us  the  models  i¥tA&i 
approach  the  nearest  to  perfecticm* 

Tktrdtjfj  It  mdy  be  pretended,  that  the  disoi^d^s  df  tb<^ 
ancient  gotdminents,  and  the  enormous  crimes,  ^  which 
(he  dtia^ns  were  oi^  guilty,  fltffi>rded  much  ampler  txM^ 
ter  for  eloquence  than  can  be  met  With  among  the  mo^ 
dems.  Were  there  no  Verres  or  Catiline  there  w6uld  be 
no  Cicero.  But  that  ii^  reason  can  have  ho  great  influ- 
ence is  evident.  It  would  be  easy  td  fi^  a  Philip  in  nio* 
dem  times;  but  where  shall  we'&id  a  Demosthenes? 

What  remains,  then,  but  that  we  lay  the  blame  on  Ae 
want  of  genius,  or  of  judgment,  in  our  speakers,  who  ei- 
ther found  themselves  inci^able  of  reaching  die  he^^hts  of 
ancient  eloquence,  or  rejected  all  such  endeavours,  as  un« 
Btdtable  to  the  spirit  of  modern  assemblies  ?  A  few  sttocess^ 
ful  attempts  of  this  nature  mig^t  rouze  the  genius  of  the 


See  Non  [D.] 
h2 


100 .  ESSAY  XIII. 

natioiif  excite  the  emulation  of  the  youth^  and  accustom 
our  ears  to  a  more  sublime  and  more  pathetic  elocution^ 
than  what  we  have  been  hitherto  ^itartained  with.  There 
is  certainly  soi^ething  accidental  in  the  first  rise  and  pro* 
gress  of  the  acts  in  any  nation.  I  doabt  whether  a  very 
satisfiictory  reason  can  be  given,  why  ancient  Rome,  though 
it  received  all  its  refinements  fix>m  Greece,  could  attain  on- 
ly to  a  relish  for  statuary,  painting,  and  architecture,  with- 
out reaching  the  practice  of  these  arts :  While  modem 
Rome  has  .been  excited  by  a  few  remains  found  among  the 
ruins  of  antiquity,  and  has  produced  artists  of  the  greatest 
ennnence  and  distinction.  Had  such  a  cultiv^i^  genius 
for  oratory,  as  Waller's  for  poetry,  arisen  during  the  civil 
wars,  when  liberty  beggui  to  be  fully  established,  and  popu- 
lar assemblies  to  enter  into  all  the  most  material  points  of 
govemm^t;  I  am  persuaded  so  illustrious  an  example 
would  have  given  a  quite  different  turn  to  British  eloquence,^ 
and  made  us  reach  the  perfection  of  the  ancient  modeL 
Our  orators  would  then  have  done  honour  to  their  coun-. 
try,,  as  well  fus  omr  poets,  geometers,  and  philosophers;  and 
British  Ciceros  have  appi^r^,  as  well  as  British  Archime- 
d^a^aand  Vii^^ 

In  ia  seldom  or  never  found,  when  a  false  taste  in  poetry 
or  eloquence  prevails  among  any  people,  that  it  has  been 
preferred  to  a  true,  upon  comparison  and  reflection.  It 
commonly  prevails  merely  firom  ignorance  of  the  true,  and 
from  the  want  of  perfect  mpdels  to  lead  men  into  a  juster 
apprehensicm,  and  more  refined  relish  of  those  productions 
of  genius.  When  these  i^pear,  they  soon  unite  all  suffir»* 
gjS^  in  their  favour,  and  by  their  natural  and  powerful 
Ghar|[;i%  gain  over,  even  the  most  prejudiced,  to  the  love 
and  admiration  of  them.  The  principles  of  every  passion, 
and  of  every  sentiment,  is  in  every  man ;  and,  when  touch- 


OF  ELOQUENCE.  101 

ed  properly,  they  rise  to  life,  and  warm  the  hearty  and  con- 
vey that  ^tisfaction,  by  which  a  work  oT  genius  is  distin- 
guished irom  the  adulterate  beauties  of  a  capricious  wit 
and  fiuicy.  And,  if  this  observation  be  true,  with  regard 
to  all  the  liberal  arts,  it  must  be  peculiarly  so  with  r^ard 
to  eloqu^ice;  which)  being  merely  calcidated  for  the  pu- 
blic, and  for  men  of  the  world,  cannot,  with  any  pretence 
of  reason,  appeal  from  the  pec^le  to  more  refined  judges, 
but  must  submit  to  the  public  verdict  without  reserve  or 
limitation.  Whoever,  upon  comparison,  is  deemed  by  a 
common  audience  the  greatest  bratbr,  bughjt  mobt  ce^tuil- 
ly  to  be  pronounced  such  by  men  of  science  afhd  erudltidri. 
And  though  an  indifferent  speaker  may  triumph  for  alcmg 
time,  and  be  esteemed  altogether  perfect  by  the  vulgar,  who 
are  satisfied  with  his  accomplishments,  and  know  not  in 
what  he  is  defective ;  yet,  whenever  the  true  genius  arises, 
ke  draws  to  him  the  attention  of  every  one,  and  immedi- 
ately appears  superior  to  his  rival. 

Now,  to  judge  by  this  rule,  ancient  eloquence,  that  is^ 
the  sublime  and  passionate,  is  of  much  juster  taste  than  the 
modem,  or  the  argumentative  and  rational;  and,  if  pro- 
perly executed,  will  always  have  more  command  and  au- 
thority over  mankind.  We  are  satisfied  with  our  mediocri- 
ty, because  we  have  had  no  experience  of  any  thing  better : 
But  the  ancients  had  experience  of  both ;  and  upon  com- 
parison, gave  the  preference  to  that  kind  of  which  they 
have  left  us  such  applauded  models.  For,  if  I  mistake 
not,  our  modem  eloquence  is  of  the  same  style  or  species 
with  that  which  ancient  critics  denominated  Attic  elo- 
quence, that  is,  calm,  elegant,  and  subtile,  which  instmct- 
ed  the  reason  more  than  afiected  the  passions,  and  never 
raised  its  tone  above  argument  or  common  discourse. 
Such  was  the  eloquence  of  Lysias  among  the  Athenians, 


103  ESSAY  xm. 

and  pf  Q^us  ^mong  tbe  RcNsaans.  These  were  esteemed 
mthwtixf^;  but, wl)ea<^i^p9^#d with Deoiostbenes and 
Ci/oei^  w;eris  ^c^psed  like  a  ti^r  when  seit  in  the  rays  df  a 
il^f^djan  sup.  lliose  latter  orators  possessed  the  same  ele* 
gwce^  a^d  su)>tUty»  and  forc^  of  argument  with  the  former; 
but^  n^ait  rendered  them  chiefly  ad^iirable,  was  that  pa^ 
thetic  ^fkd  subll|Be>  whieh,  oix  proper  ocoagions,  they  threw 
ipto  their  dfeicvHir^e,  and  by  whiich  they  commanded  the 
resohition  of  their  audience* 

Of  thU  specks  of  dbquence  we  have  scarcely  had  any 
in$|b99oe  in  Gngland»  at  least  in  our  public  speakers.  In 
Qur  writers,  we  have  had  some  instances  which  have  met 
with  great  applause,  and  might  assure  our  ambitious  youth 
of  equal  <x  superior  glory  in  attempts  tofc  the  revival  of  aa- 
cienit  eloquence.  Lord  BoUngbroke's  productions,  with  all 
Aeit  defects  in  argument,  method,  and  precision,  contain 
a  force  and  energy  which  our  orators  scarcely  ever  aim 
at;  though  it  is  evident  that  such  an  elevated  style  has 
jjfkVLok  better  grace  in  a  speaker  than  in  a  writer^  and  is  as- 
mvpi  of  more  prompt  and  more  astonishing  success.  It 
is  therie  seconded  by  the  graces  of  voice  and  action :  The 
nipiirements  are  mutually  communicated  betwet^  Uie  ora- 
tor and  the  audience :  And  the  very  aspect  of  a  large  as-* 
$eidbly,  attentive  to  the  discourse  of  one  man,  must  inspire 
him  with  a  peculiar  elevation,  sufficient  to  give  a  propriety 
to  the  strongest  figures  and  expressions.  It  is  true,  there 
is  a  great  pr^udice  against  sei  9peeches ;  and  a  man  can- 
not escape  ridicule,  who  repeats  a  discourse  as  a  school- 
boy does  his  lesson,  and  takes  no  notice  of  any  thing  that 
has  been  advanced  in  the  course  of  the  debate.  But  where 
is  the  necessity  of  falling  into  this  absurdity  ?  A  public 
speaker  ibust  know  beforehand  the  question  under  debate. 
^e  may  compose  all  the  arguments,  objections,  and  an*^ 


OF  ELOQUENCE.  103 

swers,  such  as  he  thinks  will  be  most  proper  for  his  dis- 
course^. If  any  thing  new  occur,  he  may  supply  it  from 
his  invention ;  nor  will  the  di£Eerence  be  very  apparent  be- 
tween hb  elaborate  and  his  extemporary  compositions. 
The  mind  naturally  continues  with  the  same  impetus  or 
Jbrce,  which  it  has  acquired  by  its  moti<m ;  as  a  vessel, 
once  impelled  by  the  oars,  carries  on  its  course  for  some 
time,  when  the  original  impulse  is  suspended. 

I  shall  conclude  this  subject  with  observing,  that,  even 
though  our  modem  orators  should  not  elevate  their  style, 
or  aspire  to  a  rivabhip  with  the  ancient ;  yet  is  there,,  in 
most  (^ihek  speeches,  a  matenal  dc^t^  w^ich  4h^y  might 
correct,  without  departing  from  tii^t  coapOMd  air  of  ar^ 
gum^it  and  reasoning,  to  which  diey  limit  tfaefar  ambWdti: 
Their  great  affectation  of  extemporary  disco^rseslias  SH^ 
them  reject  all  order  and  metbod^  which  se^s  so  •I'equidit^ 
to  argument,  and  without  which  it  is  soaroely  pod^Ie  td 
produce  an  entire  ccmviction  on  the  mind*  it  i»  ntit^  th^t 
one  would  recommend  many  divisions  in  a  public  c^scourse, 
nnless  die  subject  very  evidently  offer  them  t  Bot  It  i«  eaiy, 
without  this  formaU^,  to  observe  a  method,,  and  mak^  thai 
aaetbod  conspioupus  to  tl^e  hearers,  who  will  be  iafinkely 
pleated  to  see  the  arguments  rise  naturally  fuMi  mmt  bjo^ 
other,  ttod  will  retain  a  moce  thorough  peDsuasIoi),  than 
can  arise  from  the  strongest  veasons,  which  are^  thrown 
together  in  conftision* 

*  Vm  ftivt  of  tbe  AHMiiumsy  wbo  mapoMd  And  wrote  hit  sp^e^io^wiAv 
Poridesy  •  man  of  buainesB  «iid  A  Hmui  of  feeose,  if  ^v^  $^?F  yi¥  ^9*i 

Suidas  in  Ut^tzXif 


feSSAY  XlV. 


bF  THE  RISE  AND  PROORESS  OF  THE  ARTS  ANI^ 
SCIENCES* 

iNt  OTHIKO  Ireqliires  greater  nicety,  in  oar  inqniries  con** 
eeming  human  a£Burs,  than  to  distinguish  exactly  what  is 
owing  to  ckakce^  and  what  proceeds  from  cau$e8  ;  nor  is 
there  any  subgeot)  in  which  an  author  is  more  liable  to  de^ 
oeive  himself  by  fisdse  subtleties  and  refinem^its* .  To  say^ 
that  any  event  is  derived  from  chance,  cuts  short  all  farther 
inquiry  concerning  it,  and  leaves  the  writer  in  the  same 
state  of  ignorance  with  the  rest  of  mankind*  But  when 
the  event  is  iu[^x>sed  tb  proceed  from  certaiii  and  stable 
causes,  he  may  then  display  his  ingenuity,  in  assigning 
these  causes;  and  as  a  man  of  any  subtle^  can  never  be  at 
a  loss  in  this  particular,  he  has  thereby  an  opportunity  of 
swelling  his  volumes,  and  discovering  his.profound  know* 
ledge,  in  observing  what  escapes  the  vulgar  and  ignorant 
The  distinguishing  between  chance  and  causes  must  de- 
pend upon  every  particular  man's  sagacity,  in  considering 
every  particular  incident  But^  if  I  were  to  assign  any 
general  rule  to  help  us  in  applying  this  distinctiot^,  it  would 
be  the  fcdlowing^  What  dg)ehds  %ip(m  ajk^  persons  isy  in  ^ 
a  great  meaeurey  to  be  ascribed  to  chance^  or  secret  and  wtr 
hicwn  causes ;  What  arises  from  a  great  number^  may  qfUm 
he  acooMted/br  by  determinate  and  known  causes^ 


THE  RISE  OF  AkTS  AND  SCIENCES.  105 

I'wo  natural  reasons  may  be  assigned  for  this  role. 
#Sr0^  If  you  suppose  a  dye  to  have  any  bias,  however 
^mall,  to  a  particular  side,  this  bias,  though,  perhf^)s,  it 
may  not  appear  in  a  few  throws,  will  certainly  prevail  in 
a  great  number,  and  will  cast  the  balance  entirely  to  that 
side.  In  like  manner,  when  any  causes  beget  a  particular 
incUnation  ot  passion^  at  a  certain  time^  and  imaong  a  cer* 
tain  people;  though  many  individuals  may  escape  the  con- 
tagion, and  be  ruled  by  passions  peculiar  to  themselves, 
yet  the  multitude  will  certainly  be  seized  by  the  common 
efiecticm,  and  be  governed  by  it  in  all  their  actions. 

SeoomOj^f  Those  principles  or  causes^which  are  fitted  to 
tspearate  on  a  multitude,  are  alwajrs  of  It  grosser  and  more 
stubborn  nature,  less  subject  to  accU^it^^  and  less  influen- 
ced by  whim  and  private  iancy,  than  those  which  operate 
on  a  few  only.  The  latter  are  commonly  so  delicate  and 
refined,  that  the  smallest  incident  in  the  healthy  eduoaiion, 
or  fortune  of  a  particular  person,  is  sufficient  to  divert 
their  course  and  retard  their  operation ;  mx  is  it  possible 
to  reduce  them  to  any  general  maxims  or  observations. 
Their  influence  at  one  time  will  never  assure  us  concern* 
ing  their  iiduence  at  another ;  even  though  all  the  ge- 
neral citcumstancss  should  be  the  same  in  both  cases^ 

To  judge  by  this  rule,  the  domestic  and  the  gradual 
revolutions  of  a  state  must  be  a  more  proper  subject  of 
reasoning  and  observation,  than  the  foreign  and  the  vio* 
lent,  which  are  commonly  produced  by  single  persons,  and 
are  more  influenced  by  whim,  folly,  or  caprice^  than  by 
general  passions  and  interests.  The  depression  of  the 
lords,  and  rise  of  the  commons  in  England,  after  the  sta« 
tntes  of  alienation  and  the  increase  of  trade  and  industry^ 
are  more  eamly  accounted  for  by  general  principles,  than 
the  depression  of  the  Spanish,  and  rise  of  the  f^nch  mo^ 


106  ESSAY  XIV. 

narchy  after  the  deaith  of  Chiurles  Quint.  Had  H^rry  i  V. 
Cardinal  Rididieu,  and  Louis  XIV.  been  Spaniards ;  and 
Fhil^  U.  III.  and  IV.  ind  Charles  11.  been  Frenchmen, 
the  history  of  these  two  nations  had  been  entirely  rever- 
sed. 

For  the  same  reason^  it  is  more  easy  to  account  for  the 
rise  and  progress  of  commerce  in  any  kingdom,  than  £6r 
that  of  leammg ;  and  a  state,  which  should  apply  itself  to 
the  encouragement  of  the  one,  would  be  more  assured  of 
anccess,  than  one  which  should  cultivate  the  other.  Ava- 
rice, or  the  desire  of  gain,  is  am  universal  pas^on,  whicb 
operates  at  all  times,  in  all  places,  and  upon  all  persons : 
But  cnriosi^,  or  the  love  of  knowledge,  has  a  very  limitr 
ed  influence,  and  requires  youth,  leisure,  education,  ge^ 
nius,  and  example,  to  make  it  govern  any  person*  You 
will  never  want  booksellers,  while  there  are  buyers  of 
books:  But  there  may  frequently  be  readers  where  there 
are  no  authors.  Multitudes  of  people,  necessity  and  li-^ 
berty,  have  begotten  commerce  in  Holland :  But  study 
and  applicaticm  have  scarcely  produced  any  eminent  wri- 
ters. 

We  may,  therefore,  conclude,  that  there  is  tio  subject, 
in  iriuch  we  must  proceed  with  more  caution,  than  in  tra*- 
cing  the  history  of  the  arts  and  sdences;  lest  we  assign 
causes  which  never  existed,  and  reduce  what  is  merely 
contingent  to  stable  and  universal  principles.  Those  who 
cultivate  the  sciences  in  any  state,  are  always  few  in  num« 
ber :  The  passion,  which  governs  them,  limits :  Their 
taste  and  judgment  delicate  and  easily  perverted ;  And 
their  application  disturbed  with  the  smallest  accident 
Chance,  therefore,  or  secret  and  unknown  causes,  must 
have  a  great  influence  on  the  rise  and  progress  of  fdl  the 
refined  arts. 


TH£  RISE  OF  AUTS  AND  SCIENCES.  107 

f  But  there  is  a  reason,  which  induces  me  not  to  ascribe 
the  matter  altc^ther  to  chance.  Though  the  persoas, 
who  cultivate  the  sciences  with  such  astonishing  success, 
as  to  attract  the  admiration  of  posterity,  be  always  few,  in 
all  nations  and  all  ages ;  it  is  impossible  but  a  share  of  the 
same  spirit  and  genius  must  be  antecedently  difibsed 
through  the  pec^le  among  whom  they  arise,  in  <^der  to 
produce,  fc^rm,  and  cultivate,  from  their  earliest  infancy, 
the  taste  and  judgmait  of  those  eminoit  writers.  The 
mass  cannot  be  altogether  insipid,  from  which  sudli  refr* 
ned  spirits  are  extracted.  TTiere  ii  a  God  within  u$y  says 
Oridji  who  breatieg  thai  dwmefiref  bp  which  wg  are  anma^ 
ied\  Poets  in  all  ages  have  advanced  this  daim  to  iiH 
spirati<Mi.  There  is  not,  however,  any  thing  supernatural 
in  the  case.  Their  fire  is  not  kindled  from  heaven.  It 
only  runs  along  the  earth ;  is  eaUght  from  one  breast  to 
another;  and  bums  bright^  whern  the  materials  are  liest 
prepared^  and  most  happily  di^Mised*  The  question,  there- 
fore, concerning  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  arts  and 
sdences,  is  not  altogether  ^  question  copceming  the  taste, 
geniu^  and  qpirit  of  a  few,  but  conoeming  those  of  a  whole 
people ;  and  may,  therefore,  be  accounted  for,  in  some 
measure  by  general  causes  and  prindples.  I  grant,  that 
a  man,  who  should  inquire,  why  such  a  purticnlar  poet,  as 
Homer,  for  instance,  existed,  at  such  a  place,  in  such  a 
time,  would  throw  himself  headlong  into  chimsera,  and 
could  never  treat  of  such  a  subject,  without  a  multitude  of 
false  subtleties  and  refinements.  He  might  as  well  pre- 
tend to  give  a  reascm,  why  such  particular  generals,  as 
Fabius  and  Scipib,  lived  ii>  Rome  at  such  a  time,  and  why 
Fabius  came  into  the  world  before  Scipio.     For  such  in^ 

*  Est  Deus  in  nobis ;  agitante  calescimus  illo  : 
Impetas  hic;  sacrae  semina  mentis  habet         Ovia.  Fast*  Ub,  i. 


108  ESSAY  XiV. 

cidentr  as  these^  no  other  reason  can  be  given  than  that  of 
Horace : 

Scit  geniufly  natale  cmnei,  ^qui  lemporat  aitruiD, 
Vatarm  Dens  humanaB,  mortalis  in  unum 

■  Quodque  caput,  Tultu  mutabilify  albus  et  ater. 

But  I  am  persuaded,  that  in  many  cases  good  reasons 
might  be  given,  why  such  a  nation  is  more  polite  and 
learned,  at  a  particular  tirne^  than  any  of  its  neighbours. 
At  least,  tiiis  is  so  curious  a  subject,  that  it  were  a  pity  to 
abandon  it  entirdy,  before  we  have  found  whether  it  be 
susceptible  of  reasoning,  and  can  be  reduced  to  any  gene- 
ral principles. 

My  first  observation  on  this  head  is,  T^at  it  is  impo89i- 
hkfor  the  arU  and  sciences  to  arise,  at  first,  ama/^anypeo- 
pie,  unkss  that  peqpk  efffoff  the  blessing  (^  a  Ji^ee^ovenifnef^ 

In  the  first  ages  of  the  world,  when  men  are  as  yet  bar- 
barous and  ignorant,  they  seek  no  farther  security  against 
mutual  violence  and  injustice,  than  the'choice  of  some  ru- 
lers, few  or  many,  in  whom  t^ey  place  an  implicit  confi- 
dence, without  providing  any  security,  by  laws  or  politi- 
cal instituticms,  against  the  violence  and  injustice  of  these 
rulers.  If  the  authority  be  centered  in  a  single  person, 
and  if  the  people,  either  by  conquest,  or  by  the  ordinary 
course  of  prq[)agation^  increase  to  a  great  multitude,  the 
monarch,  finding  it  impossible,  in  his  own  person,  to  exe- 
cute every  ofiice  of  sovereignty,  in  every  place,  must  dele- 
gate his  authority  to  inferior  magistrates,  who  preserve 
peace  and  order  in  their  respective  districts.  As  expe- 
rience and  education  have  not  yet  refined  the  judgments 
of  men  to  any  considerable  degree,  the  prince,  who  is  him- 
self unrestrained,  never  dreams  of  restraining  his  ministers, 
but  delegates  his  full  authority  to  every  one,  whom  he  sets 
over  any  portion  of  the  people.     All  general  laws  are  at- 


THE  RISE  OF  iCRTS  AN9  SCIENCES.  109 

tended  with  inoonveniences,  when  applied  io  particular 
cases ;  and  it  requires  great  penetration  and  experience^ 
both  to  perceive  that  these  inoonveniences  are  fewer  than 
what  result  fhnn  full  discre^onary  powers,  in  every  ma* ' 
gi8trate»  and  also  to  discern  what  general  laws  aret  upon 
the  whole^  atte^ided  with  fewest  inconveniences.  This  is 
a  matter  of  so  great. difficult j»  that  men  may  have  made 
some  advances,  even  in  die  sublime  arts  of  poetry  and  elo- 
quence, where  a  rapidity  of  genius  and  imagination  as- 
sists their  progress,  before  they  have  arrived  at  any  great 
refinement  in  their  municipal  laws,  where  frequent  trials 
and  diligent  observation  can  alone  direct  their  improve- 
ments. It  is  not,  therefore,  to  be  supposed,  that  a  barbae 
rous  monarch,  unrestrained  and  uninstructed,  will  ever 
become  a  legislator,  or  think  of  restr^uing  his  Bashctwsp 
in  every  province,  or  even  his  CacUSi  in  every  village.  We 
are  tdd,  that  tb^  late  CsfCfr^  though  actuated  with  a  noble 
genius,  and  smit  with  the  love  and  admiration  of  Euro* 
pean  ^rts ;  yet  professed  an  esteem  for  the  Turkish  policy 
in  this  particular,  and  approved  of  s^ch  siynmary  d^isiona 
of  causes,  as  are  practised  i9  that  barb^ous  monarchyj^ 
where  the  judges  are  not  restrained  by  any  methods,  ibrms^ 
or  laws.  He  did  not  perceive,  how  contrary  such  a  prac- 
tice would  have  been  to  all  his  other  endeavours  for  refi- 
ning his  people.  Arbitrary  power,  in  aU  cas^s,  is  Sippi^ 
what  oppr^sive  find  debasing;  but  it  is  altogether  ruinous 
and  intolerable,  when  contracted  into  a  small  compass  ^ 
and  becomes  still  worse,  when  the  person,  who  possesses  it^ 
knows  that  the  time  of  his  authority  is  limited  and  uncer^ 
tain.  Habet  subfedos  tanquam  mos ;  mles,  tU  alienos  ^.  He 
governs  the  subjects  with  full  authority,  as  if  they  were^ 

*  Tacit.  Hist.  lib.  \f 


110  tSSAYtlf. 

own ;  and  with  negligence  or  tyranny.  Us  belonging  td 
another.  A  people,  goTemed  after  such  a  manned,  ai^ 
^aves  in  the  fall  aUd  proper  seliale  of  the  #ord :  and  it  is 
impossible  diey  can  eiret  aspire  hb  any  re&ietzients  of  tast^ 
or  reason.  They  dlire  not  sd  mneh  as  pr#t^d  tb  enjoy 
the  necessaries  of  life  in  pksntf  of  security. 

To  ^3tpect,  therefor^  that  the  arts  and  science^  should- 
take  their  first  rise  iii  a  monarchy,  is  to  expect  a  contra-* 
diction.  Before  these  refinements  have  taken  place,  thd 
monarch  is  ignorant  and  uninstructed ;  and  not  having 
knowledge  sufficient  to  make  him  sensible  of  the  necessity 
of  balancing  his  government  upon  general  laws,  he  dele* 
gates  his  full  power  to  all  inferior  magistrates.  This  bar^ 
barous  policy  debases  the  people,  and  for  ever  prevents  all 
improvements.  Were  it  possible,  that,  befi>re  science  were 
known  in  the  world,  a  monarch  could  possess  so  much  wis- 
dom as  to  become  a  legislator,  and  govern  his  people  by 
law,  not  by  the  arbitrary  will  of  their  fellow-subjectsi  it 
.might  be  possible  for  that  species  of  government  to  be  the 
first  nursery  of  arts  and  sciences.  But  that  snppositi<m 
seems  scturcely  to  be  consistent  or  rationaL 

It  may  happen,  that  a  republic,  in  its  infant  stale,  may 
be  supported  by  as  few  laws  as  a  barbatous  mcmarchy,  and 
may  entrust  as  unlimited  an  authority  to  its  nu^riatrates  or 
judges.  But,  besides  that  the  frequ^it  elections  by  th^ 
people  are  a  considerable  check  upon  authority ;  it  is  iat* 
possible,  but  in  time,  the  necessity  of  restraining  the  magss* 
trates,  in  order  to  preserve  liberty,  must  at  last  appear,  and 
^e  rise  to  general  laws  and  statutes.  The  Roman  Cdti^ 
suls,  for  some  time,  decided  all  causes,  without  being  eoB« 
fined  by  any  positive  statutes,  till  the  people,  bearing  this 
yoke  with  impatience,  created  the  decemvirSf  who  promul- 
gated the  twelve  tables ;  a  body  of  laws,  which,  though, 


TUB  HlSE  OF  ARTS  ANQ  SCIEKCSS.  Ill 

perhiq^s,  they  were  not  equal  in  bulk  to  one  English  act  of 
parliament,  were  almost  the  only  written  rules,  which. re- 
gulated property  and  punishment,  for  scwe  ages,  in  that 
famous  r^puUic  They  wei'e,  however,  sufficient,  together 
with  the  forms  of  a  free  government,  to  secure  the  lives  and 
properties  of  the  citizens ;  to  exe&ipt  one  num  from  the 
dominion  of  another ;  and  to  protect  every  one  against  the 
violence  or  tyranny  of  his  fellow-citizens.  In  such  a  situa- 
tion the  sciences  may  raise  their  heads  and  flourish ;  but 
never  can  have  being  amidst  such  a  scene  of  oppression 
and  slavery,  as  always  results  from  barbarous  monarchies, 
where  the  people  alone  are  restituned  by  the  authority  of 
the  magistrates,  and  the  magistrates  are  not  restrained  by 
any  law  or  statute*  An  unlimited  despoti^n  of  this  na- 
ture, while  it  exists,  ^ectually  puts  a  stop  to  all  improve- 
ments, and  ke^  men  from  attaining  that  knowledge) 
which  is  requisite  to  instruct  thetn  in  the  advantages  a- 
rising  from  a  better  police,  and  more  moderate  authority. 
Hete  then  are  the  advantages  of  free  states.  Though 
a  republic  should  be  barbarous,  it  necessarily,  by  an  in- 
fallible operation,  gives  rise  to  Law,  even  before  mankind 
have  made  any  cohsiderable  advances  in  the  other  scien- 
ces. From  law  arises  security :  From  security  curiosity : 
And  fit>m  curiosity  knowledge*  The  latter  steps  of  this 
progress  may  be  more  accidental ;  but  the  former  are  al- 
together necessary.  A  republic  without  laws  can  never 
have  any  duration.  On  the  contrary,  in  a  monarchical 
government,  law  arises  not  necessarily  from  the  forms  of 
government  Monarchy,  when  absolute,  contains  even 
something  repugnant  to  law.  Qreat  wisdom  and  reflection 
can  alone  reconcile  them*  But  such  a  degree  of  wisdom 
can  never  be  expected,  before  the  greater  refinements  and 
impi-ovements  of  human  reason.    These  refinements  re- 


112  £S6AT  XIV. 

quire  curiosity,  security,  anfl  law.  The ^firsi  grpwih,  there- 
fore, of  the  arts  and  scieqees,  can  never  be  ei^pected  in 
despotic  governments. 

There  are  other  causes  which  discourage  the  rise  of  the 
refined  arts  in  despotic  governments ;  though  I  take  the 
want  of  laws,  and  the  delegation  of  full  powers  to  every 
petty  magistrate,  to  be  the  principal.  Eloquence  certainly 
springs  up  more  naturally  in  popular  govemmeBts:  Emu- 
lation, too,  in  every  accomplishment,  must  there  be  more 
animated  and  enlivened ;  and  genius  and  capacity  have  a 
fuller  scope  and  career.  All  these  causes  render  free 
governments  the  only  proper  nursery  for  the  arts  and 
sciences. 

The  next  observation  which  I  shall  make  on  this  head 
is,  That  nothing  is  marefinfovrabk  to  tie  rise  of  politeness 
and  learning^  than  a  mtmber  of  neighbouring  and  independ-^ 
ent  staiesj  eofinected  together  by  commerce  and  policy.  The 
emulation,  which  naturally  arises  among  those  neighbour^ 
ing  states,  is  an  obvious  source  of  improvement :  But  what 
I  would  chiefly  insist  on  is  the  stop,  which  sudi  li^^ted 
territories  give  both  to  power  and  to  authority^ 

Extended  governments,  where  a  single  person  has  great 
influence,  soon  become  absolute ;  but  small  ones  change 
naturally  into  commonwealths.  A  large  government  is 
accustomed  by  degrees  to  tyranny ;  because  each  act  of 
violence  is  at  first  performed  upon  a  part,  which,  being 
distant  from  the  majority,  is  not  taken  notice  of,  nor  excite 
any  violent  ferment.  Besides,  a  large  government,  though 
the  whole  be  discontented,  may,  by  a  little  art,  be  kept  in 
obedience;  while  each  part,  ignorant  of  the  resolutions  of 
the  rest,  is  afraid  to  begin  any  commc^ion  or  insurrection. 
Not  to  mention,  that  there  is  a  superstitious  reverence  for 
princes,  which  mankind  naturally  contract  when  they  do 


THE  RISE  OF  ARTS  AND  SCIENCES.  113 

Bot  often  1^  the  sov^ceign,  and  when  many  of  them  be* 
oom^  not  acquainted  with  him  so  as  to  perceive  his  weak- 
nesses. And  as  large  states  can  affinrd  a  great  expense^  in 
order  to  support  the  pomp  of  majesty;  this  is  a  kind  of 
fascination  on  men,  and  naturally  contributes  to  the  misla- 
ying of  them. 

In  a  small  govemmenti  any  aot  of  oppression  is  imme- 
diately known  throughout  the  whole :  The  murmurs  and 
discontents  proceeding  from  it»  are  easily  communicated  t 
And  the  indignation  arises  die  higher,  because  the  subjects 
are  not  apt  to  apprehend,  in  such  states,  that  the  distance 
is  very  wide  between  themselTes  and  their  sovereign.  <<No 
man,''  said  the  prince  of  Cond^  ^  is  a  hero  to  his  VaM 
dt  Ckambre.**  It  is  certain  that  admiration  and  acquaint-^ 
ance  are  altogether  incompatibletowards  any  mortal  ctta^ 
Cure.  Sleep  and  love  convinced  even  Alexander  himself 
that  he  was  not  a  Ood :  But  I  suppose  that  such  as  daily 
attended  him  could  easily,  from  the  numberless  weaknesses 
to  which  he  was  subject,  have  given  him  many  still  more 
convincii^  prooA  of  his  hnmani^. 

But  the  divisions  into  small  states  are  favouirable  to 
learning,  by  stopping  the  progress  to  (ndkoritif  as  well  as 
that  of  power.  Rqmtation  is  often  as  great  a  £fMcination 
upon  men  as  sovereignty,  and  is  equally  destructive  to  the 
freedom  of  thought  and  examination.  But  where  a  nunb- 
ber  of  neighbouring  states  have  a  great  intercourse  of  arts 
and  commerce,  their  mutual  jealousy  keeps  than  from  re- 
ceiving too  lightly  the  law  from  each  other,  in  matters  of 
taste  and  of  reasoning,  and  makes  them  examine  every  work 
t>f  art  with  the  greatest  care  and  accuracy.  The  contagion 
€»f  popular  opinion  spreads  not  so  ea^yfrom  one  place  to 
another.  It  readOy  receives  a  check  in  some  state  or  other, 
where  it  concurs  not  with  the  prevailing  prejudices.    And 

VOL.  I.  I 


114  ESSAY  XIV. 

nothing  but  nature  and  reason,. or  at  least  what  bears  them 
•a  strong  resemblance,  can  force  its  way  through  all  ob- 
'  stacles,  and  unite  the  most  rival  nations  into  an  esteem  and 
admiration  of  it 

Greece  was  a  cluster  of  little  principalities,  which  soon 
became  republics;  and  being  united  both  by  their  near 
neighbourhood,  and  by  the  ties  of  the  same  language  and 
'  interest,  they  entered  into  the  closest  intercourse  of  com- 
merce and  learning.  There  concurred  a  hi^py  dimate,  a 
.  soil  not.  unfertile,  and  a  most  harmonious  and  compreh^- 
sive  language ;  so  that  every  circumstance  among  that 
people,  seemed  to  favour  the  rise  of  the  arts  and  sciences. 
*£ach  city  produced  its  several  artists,  and  philosophers, 
who  refused  to  yield  the  preferaice  to  those  of  the  Deigh<» 
bomring  republics :  .Their  contention  and  debates  sharpeo-* 
ed  the  wits  of  men :  A  varie^  of  objects  .was  presented  tft 
.  the  judgmait,  while  each  challenged  the  preference  to  the 
I'est ;  and  the  sciences,  not  .being  dwarfed  by  the  restraint 
of  ^autfiority,  .were  enabled. to  inake  such  considerable 
shoots,  as  are  even  at  this  time  the  objects  of  our  admira- 
tion. Afler  the  Roman  Christian. or  Catholic  church  had 
Bptesid  itse}f  over  the  civilized  world,  and  had  engrossed 
.  all  the  learning  of  the  times ;  being  really  one  large  state 
:within  itself,  and  united  under  one  head;  this  variety  of 
•sects  immediately  disappeared,  and. the  Peripatetic  philo- 
sophy was,  alone  admitted  into  all  the  schools,  to  the  utter 
depravation  of  every  kind  of  learning.  But  mankind.ha- 
ying  at  length  thrown  off  this  yoke,  affairs  are  now  re- 
turned nearly  to  the  same  situation  as  before,  and  Europe 
is  at  present  a  copy,  at  large,  of  what  Greece  was  formeriy 
^  a  pattern  in  miniature.  We  have  seen  the  advantage  of 
this  situati<m  in  several  instances.  What  checked.the  pro- 
'gress  of  the  Cartesian  philosophy,  to  which  the  French 


THE  RISE  OF  ARTS  AND  SCIENCES.  115 

nation  shewed  such  a  strong  propensity  towards  the  end  of 
the  last  century,  but  the  opposition  made  to  it  by  the  other 
natimui  of  Europe^  who  soon  discovered  the  w^Jc  sides  of 
that  philosc^hy?  The  severest  scrutiny,  which  Newton's 
theory  has  undergone^  proceeded  not  from  his  own  eoim- 
bymen,  but  from  foreigners ;  and  if  it  can  oveiPcome  the 
obstacles,  which  it  meets  with  at  present  in  all  parts  of 
Enrc^e,  it  wiU  probably  go  down  triumphant  to  th^  latest 
pbsterity.  The  Ei^lish  are  become  sensible  of  the  scaih- 
dldous  licentiousnais  of  Aeir  stage,  from  the.exaniple  df 
the  French  decency  and' morids.  The  French  areicdd^ 
yjnced,  that  their  theatre  has  become  somewfiaHefiPeminitte^ 
by  too  mudi  love  and  gallantiy ;  and'begin  to  approve ef 
the:  moremasculine  tai^  of  sdme  neighboiifiBg  nadont. 

In  CSiina,  there  seems  to  be  a  pretty  considehible  stock 
of  poltts^ness  and'  sdeiioe^  which>  in  the  course  of  so  niaay 
centuries,  n%ht  naturally  be  expected  to' ripen  inio  some- 
thing more  perfect  and  finished,  than  what  has  yet  arisen 
from  them.'  But  China  is  one  vast  empire,  -^^eaking  one 
language,  governed  by  one  law,*  and  sympathising  in  the 
same  manners.  The  authority  of  any  teacher,  such  l» 
Cdnliiciiis,  was  propagi^ed  easily  from  one  comer  of  tHe 
empire  to  the  other.  None  had  courage^  to  resist  die  tcMt- 
rent 'of  popular  opinion.  And  posteari^  was  not  boli 
enough  to  dispute  what  hud  been  universally  im^vedJb^ 
their  ancestors.  This  seems  to  be  one  nat^uralreiisQiQS  .why 
the  adenoes  haVe  mfade  so!  slow  a  progress  ia.tfaat  niightjr 
empire  *. 

If  we  consider  the  face  of  the  globe,  Europe  of  aU  tbe 
four  parts  <£the  w6rld  1$  tfoe  toost  bnoken  by  sea^  ntets, 
and  mbuntakis';  and  Greece:  of  all  countries  .of  Eurbp^ 

•  SeeNofi[F.]    '^  ,    ^^ 

I  2 


116  XSSAT  XIT. 

Hence  iliese  regions  were  natnrally  diTided  into  seYsral 
t&tiBcl  governments*  And  liMce  the  soieBoes.aBKise  in 
Greece ;  and  Europe  has  been  hitherto  the  most  constant 
habttaticm  of  them. 

I  have  somedmes  been  indined  to  think»  that  intemip# 
ttons  in  tibe  periods  of  learnkig^  were  tbej  not  attended 
!vitb  such  a  destmction  of  ancient  books,  and  the  records 
of  histovy,  vonld  be  rather  fiivourable  to  the  nts  and 
«eience6y  by  breaking  the  progress  of  authorlQr)  and  de^ 
throqing  the  tyranmcal  nsnrpers  cner  human  reason.  In 
thi&particniaf  they  have  the  same  influence  as  interrup* 
fiofis  in  political  govenunetits  and  societies.  Consider  the 
Wind  snbmiision  of  the  ancient  phikm^ers  to  th^  sevei^ 
masters  in  each  school,  and  you  will  be  conirinoed,  that 
fitdie  good  could  be  expected  from  a  hundred  centuries  of 
snch  a  servile  philosophy •  Eten  die  Eclectics)  who  arose 
about  the  age  of  Augustos^  notwithstanding  their  profess* 
ing  to  dioose  freely  what  pleased  them  from  every  difie* 
rent  sect,  wiere  yet,  in  the  main,  as  slavish  and  dqf)endent 
as  any  of  their  brethren ;  since  they  sought  for  truth,  not 
in  Nature,  but  in  the  several  schools ;  where  they  supposed 
she  must  necessarily  be  found,  though  not  united  in  a  bo* 
dy,  yet  diq>ersed  in  parts.  Upon  die  revival  of  learning, 
ihose  sects  of  Stoics  and  Epicureans,  Platoiusts  and  Py* 
t^mgorioians,.  could  never  regain  any  credit  or  authoriQr ; 
and,  At  the  same  time,  by  the  example  of  iimt  fidl,  k^ 
HUffii  from  submittmg^  with  such  blmd  deference,  to  those 
new  sects,  which  have  attempted  to  gain  an  ascendant  ov«r 
tbein. 

r  The  Oml  pbsnrvation,  whkh  I  shall  form  on  this  head^ 
of  :die  rise  and  progress  of  the  arts  and  scienoes,  is,  Tkai 
though  the  only  proper  nursery  (^  these  nobk  plants  be  a 
free  state;  yet  may  they  be  tranq)lanied  into  any  gooenur 


TU£  RISE  OF  ARTS  AMP  SaENCES.  UT 

md  ikai  a  rqmblic  is  modjhmwrabk  k>  He  grcwik 
qfAemskmBUfOmiaeMliisdmomarckpia  ikatqftikpoUifL 

To  balance  a  large  state  or  aocie^,  whether  monarchical 
er  rqpubHcan,  on  general  laws>  is  a  work  df  so  grealdiflH 
otltj,  that  no  human  genhi%  however  cxHoaprehawve^  ii 
aUe,  by  the  mere  dint  of  reason  and  reflection^  to  effbd 
it*  The  judgments  of  many  must  unite  in  this  work:  E&^ 
perience  must  guide  their  labour:  Time  must  bring  U  to 
perfection :  And  the  ieelingof  inoonreniences  must  conreet 
the  mistakes^  which  they  inevitably  fiedl  into^  in  their  firal 
trials  and  experiments.  Hence  appears  the  imposstt)iUly» 
that  this  undertaking  should  be  b^fun  and  carried  on  in 
any  monarchy;  since  such  a  form  of  govemmeni,  erexi- 
▼iliaed)  knows  no  other  secret  or  pdicy^  than  that  of  eo* 
trusting  unlimited  powers  to  every  governor  or  nu^pa* 
trat^  and  subdividing  die  peojde  into  so  many  classes  ai^ 
orders  of  slavery.  From  such  a  situaition,  no  knprove* 
ment  can  ever  be  expected  in  the  sciences,  in  the  liberal 
arts,  in  laws,  and  scarcely  in  the  manual  arts  and  manu* 
fiictures.  The  same  barbarism  and  ignorance^  with  which 
die  government  commences,  is  prqpagated  to  all  posterity^ 
and  can  never  come  to  aperiod  by  the  edbrts  or  ingenuii' 
ty  of  snc^  unhappy  slaTCS. 

But  though  law,  the  aomroe  of  all  aeoartty  and  hmppv- 
ness^  arises  late  in  any  gorvemment,  and  is  the  slow  product 
of  oMkr  and  of  liberty,  it  is  not  preserved  vnth  the  same 
dHicnlty  with  which  it  is  produced ;  but  when  it  has  once 
taken  root,  is  a  hardy  plant,  which  will  scarcely  ever  pe«- 
Irish  througih  the  ill  culture  of  men^  or  the  rigour  of  the 
seasons.  Hie  arts  erf*  luxury,  and  much  more  the  Uberal 
arts,  whidi  dqnend  on  a  refined  taste  or  senttmen^  ase 
eas^y  lost;  because  they  are  ahri^  rdidbed  by  a  few  cdi- 


118  ESSAY  XIV. 

ly,  whose  leisure,  fortune)  and  genius,  fit  them  fer  sock 
amusements.'  But  what  is  profitable  to  every  mortal,  and 
in  common  life,  when  once  discovered,  can  scarcely  fall 
into  oblivion,  but  by  the  total  subversion  of  society,  and 
by  such  furious. inundations  of  barbarous  invaders^  as  ob- 
literate all  memory  of  former  arts  and  civility.  Imitation 
ako  is  apt  to  transport  these  coarser  and  more  osefol  aHa 
from  one  climate  to  another,  and  make  them  precede  the 
refined  arts  in  their  progress;  though, perhaps,  they  ^rang 
$fter  them  in  their  first  rise  and  prc^agation.  From  thesci 
causes  proceed  civilised  monarchies ;  where  the  arts  of  go-i 
yemment,  first  invented  in  free  states,  are  preserved  to  the 
mutual  advantage  and  security  of  sovereign  and  subject  . 
Howler  perfect,  therefore,  the  monarchical  form  may 
i^eiEur  to  some  ^politicians,  it  owes  all  its  perfection  to  the 
republican ;  nor  is  it  possible,  that  a  pure  despotism,  esta- 
blished among  a  barbajf'ous  people,  can  ever,  by  its. native 
ibroe.and  energy,  refitie  and  polish  itself..  It  must  borrow 
Ua  laws,  and  n^ethods,  and  institutions,  and  consequently 
its  stability  and  order,  from  free  governments.  The3e  adr 
vantages  ar/s  the  sole  growth  of  republics.  The  ecxtensivis 
despotism  of  a  barbarous  monarchy,  by  entering  into  t)i£e 
detail  of  the  government,  ais  well  as  into  dbe  principal  pobxts 
of  administration,  for  ever  prevents  all  such  improvemi^ts. 
-.  .In  a  civilized  monarchy,  the  prince  ak»ie  is  unirestrain- 
ed  in  the  exercise  of  his  authority,  and. possesses  alone  a 
power,  which  is  not  bounded  by  any  thitig.but  custom^ 
example,  and  the  sense  of  his  own  interest.  Every  mi£is- 
ier  or  mi^istrate,  however  eminent,  must  submit. to  tbe 
l^eral  laws  which  govern  the  vrtiole  society,  and.otast 
exert  the  authority  delegated  to  him  after  the  manner  which 
is  prescribed. .  The  people  depend  on  none  but  their  so- 
verdgn  for  the  security  of  their  property.     He  is  so  &r 


THE  RISE  OF  ARTS  AND  SCIENCES.  119' 

removed  from  them,  and  is  so  much  exempt  frcmi  private, 
jealousies  or  interests,  that  this  depoulence  is  scarcely  feh> 
And  thus  a  species  of  government  arises,^  to  which,  in  a> 
high  political  rant,  we  may  give  the  name  of  T\/rcamg ;: 
but  which,  by  a  just  and  prudent  administration,  may  af-^ 
ford  tolerable  security  to  the  peopled,  and  may  answer  most) 
of  the  ends  of  political  society. 

But  though  in  a  civilized  monarchy,  as  well  as  in  a  re-' 
public,  the  people  have  security  for  the  enjoyment  of  their 
prc^rty;  yet  iti  both  these  forms  of  government,  those* 
who  possess  the  supreme  authority  have  the  disposal  of 
many  himours  and  advantages,  which  excite  the  ambition' 
and  avarice  of  mankind.  The  only  difference  is,  that,  in 
A  republic^  the  candKlates  for  office  must  look  downwards 
t6  gahi  the  suffirages  of  the  people ;  in  a  monarchy,  they  ■ 
nJOSt  turn  thieir  btt^tion  upwards,  to  court  the  good 
grac^  Bud  favour  of  the  great  To  be  su^essful  in  the 
finrmer  way,  it  is  necessary  for  a  man  to  make  himself  ii^e- 
yk^  by  his  industry^  capacity,  or  knowledge  x  To  be  pro- 
sperous in  the  latter  way,  it  is  requisite  for  him  to  render 
himself  itgtfstalMi  by  his  wit,  complaisance,  or  civility*  A' 
strong  gehiiis  succeeds  best  iii  republics  t  A  refined  taste' 
in  monardues :  And^  consequently,  the  sciences  are  the 
HMM«  natural  growth  bf  the  one,  and  the  peliteartsof  the 
other. 

Mbt  to  mention,  that  monarchies,  receiving  their  chief 
stability  from  a  ^iopetstitious  reverence  to  priests  and 
princes,  have  commbnly  abridged  the  liberty  of  reasonings 
with  r^ard  to  rehgion  and  politics,  and  consequently  me^* 
taphysics  and  morals.  All  these  form  the  most  consider^ 
able  branches  of  science.  Mathematics  and  natural  phi- 
losophy, which  only  remain,  are  not  half  so  valuable. 

Among  the  arts  of  conversation,  no  one  pleases  more 


ISD  BMAT  xiy. 

Aaamiitaddefareiioe  or  civility,  which  kadi  ug  to  rougn 
our  own  iacUiuitkuis  to  those  of  our  oompnkmf  imd  to 
ontb  and  conceal  that  presomptiim  and  arrogance^  so  na* 
tural  to  the  human  mind.  A  good-natured  man,  who  is 
wdl  educated,  practiaea  this  ciirility  to  erery  mortal,  wid>> 
out  premeditation  or  interest.  But  in  order  to  render  tbet 
valuable  quality  general  among  any  people  it  aeema  no* 
ceaaary  to  asaist  the  natural  du^xMiticm  by  gome  general 
motive.  Where  power  riaes  upwards  frmn  the  pecqple  to 
the  great,  as  in  all  republics,  such  refinements  of  civility 
are  apt  to  be  little  practised;  since  the  whole  state  is,  by 
tjkaft  means,  brought  near  to  a  level,  and  every  member  of 
ilisMiidered,  in  a  great  nieasure,  independent  of  another. 
The  people  have  the  advanti^;^  by  the  authority  of  their 
ssdBn^gesi  (he  great  by  the  superior!^  of  their  statioiit 
But  in  a  civiliaed  monarchy,  there  is  a  long  train  of  de- 
peodende  fipom  the  prince  to  Ihe  peasant,  which  is  not  great 
enough  to  render  property  precarious,  or  dq>re9s  the  minds 
of  the  people;  but  is  snflBdent  to  bq^et  in  everyone  an  in- 
clination to  please  hb  superiors,  and  to  form  himaelf  upon 
those  models,  which  are  most  accqptable  to  people  of  con^* 
dikieii  and  education*  PoUteneas  <tf  manners^  therefor^ 
arises  moat  naturally  in  mcmarchiesand  courtss  and  whev«i 
Aat  flourishes,  none  of  the  Ubetel  arts  will  be  altqg^th^ 
neglected  or  despised. 

The  republics  in  Europe  are  at  present  noted  for  want 
of  poUteueas.  7%s  ifPod-matmer$  qf  «  iSic^  ^ivilmim 
HollnQd  S  is  an  expression  for  rusticity  among  the  French. 
The  English,  in  smne  degree,  fell  un^  the  sam^  censure 
notwithstanding  their  learning  and  genius*    And  if  the 

En  Hollande  ciyilis^  Rouukad. 


THE  RISE  or  ABSB  ABB  SCIENCES.  131 

VcnetiMs  be  an  cKoepdon  to  the  vule^  tliey  owe  It,  per- 
haps,  totliMrecimmiinicationwitlttheoth^  most 

of  whose  goTemmeots  beget  a  dqpend^iee  more  than  suf- 
ficient for  civilimig  their  manners. 

.  It  ia  diffienlt  to  pronomc^  any  jndgment  oonceraiiig  the 
refinements  of  the  ancient  repnblica  in  this  particnlar  >  But 
I  am  apt  tosaqpect,  that  the  arts  of  coni^ersation  were  not 
brought  so  near  to  periection  amcmg  them  as  die  nrts  of 
writing  and  composition*  The  soirrility  of  the  andent 
orators,  in  many  instances,  is  quite  shoddi^  and  esceeda 
all  belief.  Vanity  too  is  o&isa  not  a  little  offiaasive  in  an- 
thors  of  diose  ages  * ;  as  well  as  the  commcn  licentiousness 
and  immodesty  c^dieir  style.  QmeMiijimut^miicH$^4mhil^ 
UTy  ffOf^Mf  tiun^Uy  ve9iiif$f  peof,  foiM  poifin  taco^uctnxi^ 
saysSallust  in  one  of  the  grayest  and  most  moral  passagee 
of  his  history.  Nam/mi  mtte  Helmam  Qm$m^  tetarrimm 
beOi  cmtBOf  Is  aa  ezprestton  ^  Horace,  in  tracing  the  eri« 
gte  of  moral  good  and  eviL  Ovid  and  Lucretiua^  am  al- 
most as  Ueentioos  in  their  style  as  Lord  Roehesler;  though 
the  former  were  fine  gend^nen  aad  delicate  writers,  and 
the*  latter,  from  the  e^mplions.of  that  ooiurt  in  idiioh  hm 
Ui^  seems  to  ha^e  thrown  off  all  regard  to  shame  and  de<* 
oency.  Juvenal  inculcates  modesty  with  great  aeal ;  but 
sets  a  very  bad  example  of  it»  if  we  consider  the  in^Mideacfr 
of  his  expressions. 

*  It  !i  noedleis  to  cit»  dceroor  Pliny  on  this  head :  They  ore  tbo  much 
noted.  But  one  is  m  little  surprised  to  find  Anian,  a  yery  graye^  judicious 
writer^  itttenrupt  the  duvad  of  hii  narration  au  or  snadian«  to  tell  fats  readert 

was  for  arms.     Lib,  L 

^  Thiipoet  (aea  lib,  iv.  1 1^)  rorommwidis  Twy  extraordinary  cure  far 
loye.  and  wlitt  one  axpeelanol  to  meet  with  in  so  elegant  and  philosophical 
a  j^oem.  Itseems  to  haye been  the  orig;inal  of  some  of  Dr  Swift's  imiges. 
The  elegant  C|i|ull9«  ^  Fhpdr^  £ill  under  the  upm  QNMmre. 


18S  ESSAY  XIV. 

I  shall  also  be  b<^  to  aSurm,  that  among  die  aadent^' 
ihere  was  not  much  delicacy  c^breeding,  or  that  polite  de-^ 
ference  and  respect,  which  civili^  obliges  us  either  to  ex*- 
press  or  counterfeit  towards  the  persons  with  whom  we 
converse.  Cicero  was  certainly  one  of  the  finest  gehtle- 
men  of  his  age;  yet  I  mui^  confess  I  have  fi^quendy 
been  shocked  with  the  poor  figure  under  which  he  repre- 
sents his  friend  Atticus,  in  those  dialogues  where  he  him- 
self IS  intrckluced  as  a  speaker.  That  learned  and  virtuous 
Roman,  whose  dignity,  though  he  was  only  a  private  gei;i- 
tleman,  was  inferior  to  that  of  no  one  in  Rome,  is  th^re 
shown  in  rather  a  more  pitiful  light  than  Philalethes's 
friend  in  our  modem  dialogues.  He  id  a  humble  itdmil-er 
of  the  orator,  pays  him  frequent  compliments,  and  receives 
his  instructions,  wldi  all  the  defertoce  which  a  scholar 
owes  to  his  nmster  K  Even  Cato  is  treated  in  sot^ewhat 
of  A  cavalier  manner  in  the  dial(>gues  De  Fimlms^ 

One  of  the  most  particular  details  of  a  real  dialogue 
which  we  meet  with  in  antiquity,  is  related  by  Polybius  ^ ; 
when  Philip  king  of  Macedon,  a  prince  of  wit  and  parts» 
met  with  Titus  Flanuninus,  one  of  the  pditest  of  the  Ro- 
mans^ as  we  learn  from  Plutarch  ^,  accompanied  with  amr 
bassadors  fix>malmost  all  the  Greek  cities.  The  ^tolian 
ambassador  v^ry  abruptly  telU  die  king^  diat  he  talked  like 
a  fool  or  a  madman  (ah^v.)  <<  That's  evident,  (says,  his. 
Majesty),  even  to  a  blind  man  9*  which  was  a  raillery  on 
the  blindness  of  his  excellency.  Yet  all  this  did  not  pass  the 
usual  bounds :  For  the  c<mference  was  not  disturbed ;  and 
Flaminimis  was  very  well  diverted  with  diese  strokes  of  hu^ 

*  An.  Non  mihl  videtur  ad  beatc  ▼irendum  satis  esse  Yirtutem.  Mau. 
Athercule  Bruto  meo  videtur ;  cujiis  ego  judidttm*  pace  tua  dizerim,  longo 
anftepono  tuo.     3W.  Quasi*  Ub*  v. 

*  Lib.  XTiL         .  «  In  Vita  Flamiii. 


TU£  ItlSE  OF  ARTS  AND  «ClfiNCK&  1S8 

nour.  At  the  end,  when  Philip'  craved  a  little  time  ta 
consult  with  his  fiiends,  of  whcuBi  he  had  nbiie  present, 
the  Roman  general,  being  desirons  also  to  show  his  wit,  as 
the  historian  says,  tells  him,  <<  That  perhaps  the  reason 
why  he  had  none  of  his  friends  with  him,  was  because  he 
had  murdered  them  aU;^  which  was  actoally  the  case. 
This  mo^Nroyoked  piece  of  rusticity  is  not  condemned  by  the 
historian;  caused  no  farther  resentment  in  Philip  than 
to  excite  a  Sardonian  smile,  or  what  we  call  a  grin ;  and 
hindered  him  not  from  renewing  the  conference  nextday« 
Plutarch  %  too,  mentions  this  raillery  amongst  the  witty 
and  agreeable  saymgs  of  Flamininus. 

Cardinal  Wolsey  apologized  for  his  fimKms  piece  of  in^ 
science,  in  saying.  Ego  et  bex  msus,  loMdw^  Kimgi^  by 
obsendng,  that  this  expression  was  conformable  to  the  Zo- 
Un  Idiom,  and  that  a  Roman  always  named  himself  befiire 
the  person  to  whom,  or  of  whom,  he  spake.  Yet  this  seems 
to  have  been  an  instance  of  want  of  ctTility  among  that 
people. '  The  ancients  made  it  a  rule,  that  the  person  off 
the  greatest  dignity  should  be  mentioned  first  in  the  disb 
course;  insomuch,  that  we  find  the  spring  of  a  quami 
and  jealousy  between  the  Romans,  and  JEtoUans,  toihava 
been  a  poet's  naming  the  ^toliand  before  the  Romaiisin 
celdbrating  a  victory  gained  by  their  united  Arms  oiw 
the  Maeedonians.^  Thus  Livia  disgusted  Tiberins  fagr 
placing  her  own  name  before  lus  in  aa  inacripiion  <^.    ! 

No  advantages  in  thi^  world  are  pure  imd  uiimixedk  In 
like  manner,  as  modern  politeness,  .whidi  is  naturally  so 
ornamental,  runs.oftea  into  affectation  and- foppery,  A»* 
guise  and  insincerity ;  so  the  ancient  simplicity,  which  is 

■  Plut  in  Vita  Flamiii.        ^  Ibid.        «  lVK»t  Ann.  libb  iii.  cap.  64. 


IM  xsgAT  xnr. 

aatttrally  to  anriaMe  and  affisdiiigy  often  degenerates  into 
rusticity  md  abuse,  scurrility  and  obscenity. 

If  tke  superiority  in  politeness  should  be  a^wed  to  nio- 
dern  times,  the  modern  notions  of  gc^UmOnfj  the  natural 
pTodoce  of  eonrts  and  monarchies,  will  probably  be  as* 
signed  as  the  causes  of  this  refinement.  No  one  denies 
this  invention  to  be  modem  * :  But  some  of  the  more  zeal- 
oos  partisans  of  the  ancients  have  asserted  it  to  be  foj^Msk 
and  ridiculous^  andareproach,  rather  than  a  credit,  to  the 
present  age^  It  may  h^re  be  proper  to  examine  this 
qaesti<Hi.  ^ 

Nature  has  implanted  in  all  livii^  creatures  an  aflfection 
between  the  sexes,  which,  even  in  the  fiercest  and  most 
fBpaoions  anhnals^  is  not  merefy  confined  to  the  satisfiic- 
tkm  of  die  bodily  appetite^  but  bq;ets  a  friendship  and  mo* 
toal  sjnnpadiy,  which  runs  through  the  whole  tenor  c^thefar 
lives.  Nay,  even  in  those  species,  where  nature  limits  the 
iadolgenoe  of  this  aj^ietite  to  one  season  and  to  <»e  ob« 
ject,  and  forms  a  kind  of  marriage  or  association  b^wem 
a  sin|^  male  and  fiunale^  there  is  yet  a  visible  complacency 
and  benevolence,  which  extends  fiurther,  and  mutually  so& 
tna  the  atibctions  of  the  sexes  towards  each  other.  How 
mnoli  more  mnst  this  have  place  in  man,  where  tlie  con* 
fiaement  of  the  appetite  is  not  natural^  but  either  is  derived 
acddentafly  from  some  strong  charm  of  lov^  or  arises  from 
reflectioBS  on  duty  and  convemence.  Nothii^,  therefore, 
can  proceed  less  fit>m  a£fectation  than  the  pasdmi  of  gal- 
lantry. It  is  notarial  in  the  highest  degree.  Artandedu* 
eationy  in  Ae  most  elegant  courts,  make  no  more  i^ra* 

•  In  the  Sdf-Tormetiiwtsi  Tenaee,  Cliiiia%  whenerer  he  comes  to  town, 
initMd  of  iraituig  on  lus  miftreiiy  lencU  for  her  tocone  to  him* 
»  Lord  ShaHeilHiiy.    See  his  MoraHtis. 


THE  RISC  OF  ARTS  AND  SCIENCES.  185 

tiofr  on  it  than  on  all  the  other  Uradable  pesikms.  Thej 
only  txau  llie  mfaid  more  towards  it ;  they  refine  it ;  they 
polish  it;  and  giTO  ita  proper  grace  and  expression. 

But  gaUantry  is  as  gmiiwu  as  it  is  nahari.  To  eor- 
red  snoh  gros»  vices^  9s  lead  ns  to  commit  real  injury  on 
etber%  is  thepartof  morals,  and  the  object  of  the  most  oiv 
dinary  education.  Where  HActf  is  AotattaadedtO)  in  some 
d^ee,  no  human  society  can  subsist  But,  in  order  to 
render  conym'sation)  and  Ae  interconrse  of  mmds  msjste 
easy  and  agreeaftde^  good  manners  have  been  indented,  and 
have  carried  the  matter  somewhat  fiirther.  Wherever 
natnre  has  given  the  mind  a  propensitjr  to  any  vice,  or  to 
any  passion  disagreeable  to  others,  refined  breeding  has 
taught  men  to  throw  the  bias  on  the  of^iosite  side,  and  to 
preserve^  in  all  thdr  behaviour,  the  iqppearance  of  senti*> 
ments  different  from  those  to  which  they  naturally  incline. 
Thus,  as  we  are  commonly  proud  and  selfish,  and  apt  to 
assume  the  preference  above  others,  a  polite  man  learns 
to  b^ave  with  deference  towards  his  companions,  and  to 
yield  the  superiority  to  them  in  all  the  common  incidents 
of  society.  In  like  manner,  wherever  a  person's  situation 
may  naturally  beget  any  disagreeable  suspicion  in  him,  it 
is  the  part  of  good  manners  to  prevent  it,  by  a  studied  dis- 
play of  sentiments,  directly  contrary  to  those  of  which  he 
is  apt  to  be  jealous.  Thus,  old  men  know  their  infirmitie% 
and  naturally  dread  contempt  from  the  youth :  Hence 
well-educated  youth  redouble  the  instances  of  req^ect  and 
deference  to  their  elders.  Strangers  and  foreigners  are 
without  protection :  Hence,  in  all  polite  countries,  they 
receive  the  h^hest  civilities,  and  are  entitled  to  the  first 
place  in  every  company.  A  man  is  lord  in  his  own  fami* 
ly ;  and  his  guests  are,  in  a  manner,  subject  to  his  autho- 
rity :  Hence,  he  is  always  the  lowest  person  in  the  compa- 


126  ESSAY  XIV. 

ny;  attentive  to  the  wants  of  every  one;  and  giving  him- 
self all  the  trouble^  in  order  to  please,  wMch  may  not  be- 
tray too  visible  an  a£Eectation,  or  impose  too  mncb  con- 
straint on  hiagoesti^  Gallantry  b  nothing  biU  an  in- 
stance of  die  saii»  generons  attention*  As  nature  has  ^ 
ven  man  the  superiority  above  taomoHf  by  endowing  Jhii^ 
widi  greater  strength,  both  of  mind  and  body;  itishispart 
to  alleviate' that  superiority,  as  much  as  posixble,  by  the 
generottty  ofhis  b^taviour,  and  by  a  studied  deferenie^  and 
complaisance  for  all  .her  inclinations  and  bpinions.  Bar- 
barous nations  display  this  superiorily,  by  reducing  their 
females  to  the  most  abject  slavery ;  by  confining  them,  by 
beating  them,  by  selling  them,  by  killing  them.  But  the 
male  sexi,  among  a  pdite  people,  discovet  their  authority 
in  a  more  generous,  though  not  &  less  evident  manner ;  by 
civility,  by  respect,  by  cotaplaisanciei,  and,  in  a  word,  by 
gallantry.  In  good  company,  you  need  not  ask.  Who  is 
the  master  of  the  feast  ?  The  man  who  sits  in  the  lowest 
plaice,  and  who  is  always  industrious  in  helping  every  one» 
is  certainly  the  person* '  We  must  either  condemn  all  such 
instances  of  generosity,  as  foppish  and  affected,  or  admit 
of  gallantry  among  the  rest  The  ancient  Muscovites 
wedded  their  wives  with  a  whip,  instead  of  a  ring.  The 
same  people,  in  their  own  houses,  took  always  the  prec^ 
dehcyaboveforeigners^eveh^fore^  ambassadors*  These 
two  instances  of  their  g^erosity  and  politeness  q^  much 
of  a  piece* 

*  The  frequent  mention  in  ancient  autbon  of  that  ill-bred  custom  of  the 
master  of  the  family's  eating  better  bread,  ot  drinking  better  wine  at  table, 
than  he  afforded  his  guests,  isbut  an  indiffenntmark  of  ^e  cii^hy  <tf  tbost 
ages.'  See  Jurenal*  sat.  5.t;  PUn^  lib.  ziv.  capw  19, ;  al^  Plinii  Ej^st  lii- 
cian  de  mereede  conductis,  Satunudia»  &c« ;  There  is  scarcdy  any  part  of 
Europe  at  present  so  undyilixed  a&  to  admit  of  such  a  custom. 

^  See  Relation  of  three  Embassies,  by  the  Earl  of  Carlisle. 


THE  RISE  OF  ARTS  AND  SCIENCES.  127 

.  Gallantry  is  jiot  less  compatible  with  wisdom  and  pm^ 
4emxj  than,  with  nature  and  generosity  j  and,  when  under 
proper  regulations,  contributes  more  than  any  other  inven- 
tion to  the  entertainment  and  improvement  of  the  youth  of 
both  sexes.  Among  every  species  of  animals,  nature. has 
founded  on  the  love  betwe^Li  the  sexes  their  sweetest  and 
best  enjoyment.  But  the  satisfaction  of  the  bodily  appe^ 
tite  is  not  alone  sufficient  to  gratify  the  mind ;  and,  even 
among  brute  creatures,  we  find  that  their  play  and  dalU^ 
ance,  and  other  expressions  of  fondness, .  form  the  great* 
est  part  of  the  entertainment.  In  rational  beings,  we  must 
certainly  admit  the  miud  for  a  considerable  share.  Were 
we  to  rob  the  feast  of  all  its  garniture  of  reason,  discourse, 
sympathy,  friendship,  and  gaiety,,  what  remains  would 
scarcely  be^ worth  acceptance,  in  the  judgment  of  the  truly 
elegant  and  luxurious. 

^What  better. school  for  manners  than  the  company  of 
virtuous  women,  where  the  mutual  endeavour  to  please  must 
insensibly  polish  the  mind,  where  the  example  of  the  fe^ 
male  soilness  and  modesty  must  communicate  itself  to  their 
admirers,  and  where  the  delicacy  of  that  sex  puts  every 
one  on  his.  guard,  lest  he  give  offence  by  any  breach  of 
decency? 

Among  the  ancients,  the  character  of  the  fair  sex  was 
considered  as  altogether  domestic ;  nor  were  they  regard- 
ed, as  part  of  the  polite  world,  or  of  good  company.  This, 
perhaps,  is  the  true  reason  why  the  ancients  have  not  left 
jis  one  piece  of  pleasantry  that  is  excellent  (unless  one  may 
,  except  the  Banquet  of  Xenophon,  and  the  Dialogues  of 
Lucian),  though  many  of  their  serious  compositions  are  al- 
together iniiQitable.  Horace  condemns  the  coarse  raille- 
ries and  cold  jests  of  Plautus :  But,  though  the  most  easy, 
agreeable,  and  judicious  writer  in  the  world,  is  his  own 


188  £»AT  XIV« 

ident  for  ridiciile  verj  striking  or  refined  ?  Thi%  there- 
fore,  is  one  considerable  improrenent^  which  the  polit* 
arts  have  received  from  gallantry,  and  from  conrta  ^iHiere 
it  first  aroee. 

But,  to  retmn  from  this  digression,  I  shall  advance  it  as 
$kJbuHk  observation  on  this  subject,  of  the  rise  and  pro- 
gress of  the  arts ,  and  sdenees,  That  whm  He  art9  ami 
9cuMC€$  cfMM  to  ptrfeMtM  in  ong  $Me^  flxM  ihatwiotMKi 
iheg  wOmtaUff  or  raOiar  nscesiarily  decUm^  and  mUkm  ct 
never  revive  ta  thai  nation^  where  AefJbrmerfyJkmriehetL 

It  must  be  confisssed,  that  this  nUbdm,  though  confor* 
mable  to  experience,  may  at  first  sight  be  esteemed  oon^ 
trary  to  reason.  If  the  natural  genius  of  mankind  be  the 
iame  in  all  ages,  and  in  almost  all  countries  (as  seems  to 
be  the  truth,)  it  must  very  much  forward  and  cidtivate  diis 
genius,  to  be  possessed  of  patterns  in  eveiy  art,  which  may 
regulate  the  taste,  and  fix  the  objects  of  imitation.  The 
models  left  us  by  the  ancients  gave  birth  to  all  the  artd 
about  200  years  ago,  and  have  mightily  advanced  their 
progress  in  every  country  of  Eurqpe:  Why  had  they  not 
a  like  effect  during  the  reign  of  Tn^  and  his  suocea* 
sors,  when  they  were  much  more  entire,  and  were  sliU 
admired  and  studied  by  the  whole  world  ?  So  late  as  the 
empenur  Justinian,  the  Poet,  by  way  of  distinction,  was 
understood,  among  the  Gbedcs,  to  be  Homer  |  amcmg  the 
Romans,  VirgiL  Such  admirations  still  remained  for  diese 
divine  geniuses;  though  no  poet  had  appeared  for  many 
centuries,  who  could  justly  pretend  to  have  imitated  them. 

A  man's  genius  is  always,  in  the  beginning  of  life,  as  mueh 
unknowntohimself  as  to  others:  and  it  is  only  after  frequent 
trials,^  attended  with  success,  that  he  dares  think  himsdf 
equal  to  those  undertakings,  in  which  those,  who  have  sue- 
oeeded,  have  fixed  the  admiraticm  irf'maBkind.    If  his  own 

\ 


THE  RISE  OF  A«T8  AND  SaSNCES.  199 

Hatfam  be  already  posidessed  of  many  modeb  of  eloquenoe^ 
he  ttatttfally  compares  his  own  juvenile  exercises  with  these ; 
alKl  being  sensible  of  the  great  disproportion,  is  di6coa«-> 
raged  from  any  fkrther  attempts,  and  never  aims  at  a  ri-* 
▼alship'  with  those  authors,  whom  he  so  mnch  admiraSr 
A  noble  emulation  is  the  source  of  eveiy  excellence.  Ad** 
miration  and  modes^  naturally  extinguish  this  enmlation. 
And  no  one  is  so  liable  to  an  excess  of  admiration  and 
modesty  as  a  truly  great  genius. 

Next  to  emuladon,  the  greatest  enoourager  of  die  noble 
aitS'is  praise  and  glory..  A  writer  is  animated  with  new 
ferce^  when  he  hears  the  applauses  of  the  world  for  has  for- 
mer productions;  and,  bring  roused  by  sindi  a  motive,  he 
often  reaches  a  pitch  of  perfeoticm,  which  is  equally  sur« 
pTtting  to  himself  and  to  his  readers.  But  when  the  poata 
of  honour  are  all  occupied,  his  first  attempts  are  but  cold- 
ly received  by  the  public;  being  compared  to  prodne* 
tton^  whidh  are  both  in  themselves  more  excdlent^  and 
have  already  the  advantage  of  an  established  rqmtation.- 
Were  Moliere  and  Comdlle  to  bring  upon  the  stage  at 
present  thefar  early  productions,  which  were  formerly  so 
weH  received,  it  would  didoourage  the  youi^poets,  to  see 
^indiffisrence  and  disdain  of  the  public  The  ignorance 
of  the  age  alone  could  have  given  admission  to  the  PrUoe 
qfTjfre;  but  it  is  to  diat  we  owe  7%e  Jfesr  .•  HAdEverp 
Man  m  hi$  Hmmmr  been  rejected,  #e  had  never  seen 

Perhaps,  it  may  not  be  for  the  advantage  of  any  nation 
to  have  the  arts  imported  from  their  neighbours  in  too 
great  perfection.  This  extinguishes  emulation,  and  sinks 
the  ardour  of  the  generous  youth.  So  many  models  of 
Italian  painting  brought  to  England,  instead  oS  exciting 
our  artists,  is  the  cause  (^  their  small  progress  in  thi^  no- 

VOL.  I.  K 


ISO  X8flATXIV«' 

Ue  Art  The  stme^  perhaps^  Was  the  case  of  Romc^  when 
it  received  the  arts  firdm  Greece.  That  multitude  of  po* 
lite  producticms  in  the  French  language,  dispersed  all  OTer 
Gerodany  and  the  North,  hinder  the^e  nations  from  cul- 
tivating their  own  language,  and  keep  them.itiU  di^pen- 
dent  on  their  neighbours  for  those  elegant  entartainm<entsif 
.  It  is  true,  the  ancients  had  kA  us  models  in  every  kind 
of  writings  which  are  highly  worthy  of  admiration.  But 
besides  that  they  were  written  in  languages  knoum  only 
to  the  learned ;  besides  this,  I  say,  the  comparison  is  not 
80  peciect  or  entire  between  modem  wits,  and  those  who 
Uved  in  so  remote  an  age^  Had  Waller  been  born  in 
Rome,  during  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  his  first  produotiooff 
kadbebn  despised,  when  compared  to  the  finished  odes  of, 
Horace.  But  in  this  island  the  superiority  of  the  Roman 
poet  diminished  nothing  from  the  fame  of  the  EngUih* 
W«  esteemed  ourselves  sufficiently  happy,  that  our  climate 
ind  language  could  produce  but  a  famt  copy  of  so.e^cd- 
lent  an  origiHaL 

In  riiort,  the  arts  and  sciences,,  like  some  {giants,  require 
afresh  soil;  andhoweverrichthelandmaybe,  and  how- 
ever you  may  recruit  it  by  art  or  carci,  it  will  never,  whm 
onee  exhausted,  produce  any  thing  that  is  perfect  or  finish* 
ed  in  the  kind* 


ESSAY  XV. 


THE  EPICUREAN  *. 


,'i-.i  •: 


•Lt  :  if  ^.  ffreat  mpriiiQcation  to  1^  vanity  .of  ikiim3,,;4^  l^  t 
%4foiqetf  art  a^^  mdnstry  can  n^yer  equal  the  meanest  of  / 
l^|i^^>  pi^odfiCtiopsy  eUber  fS^r  b^fity  9r:value».:^  ;^  Is 
o^ljr  thfi.M^^wpikmany  and  is.  emplo jied  togiveiaf^ 
strokes  o^  embellishment  to  those  pieces  which  cpmp  frpfok 
thiel^^  of  the  m^»ter*     Some  of  the  drapq^;  n^gr  be.pf 
Im  dfai^rinf^  but  he  is  not  alloifed  to  touch,  j^  pij^o^ip^ 
Agoxef^    Art  may  make  a  suit  of  clothes^  but  nature  must  ^ 
produce  a  man. 

flyenin  those  pro4uctionscommonly denominated  works 
of  art,  we  find  that  ftbe  i^oblest  of  the  kmd  arebdn^il^ 
for  t^ir  c^>€^bewty  to  the  force  a^  happy  ipfluepce  o£ 
nature.  To  the  native  ^ithusiasn^  of  thepo^  ^e  ow^^, 
what^er  is  admirable  in  their  productions.  The  ^eatests 
g^iu^^whesjenature^at  apytin^. fails  lf^\{fqr  s^e  jsiipW 
eq\ials)',tIiroDfs  aside  ,t^a  lyre,  and  hc^es  not,  frwM  the^ 
rules  of  art,  to  reach  that  divine  hanpony^  wh;ch  nnist 
proceed  fromher  inspiration  alone.    How  poor  are  those 

^^  Kh.^ktfikait  ^  a0§anc$  taUpUeawre.  The  Utention  ot  ibk  ahd  ttt^ 
tiraft  fdlimi^  gjfji  \^  ttottd^Antcfa  to  «l:]plaiii  aceanitely  the  wokihaek^ 
of  lbo.«iiaMy|l,ipel»  drj|ii>otoihy^  ipo  to  d4^«  the  sentinmitv  of  Mct>  <liiti 
natimlly  fona  thoiBMlT«i  in tiio  wprid»  «id enfe]1«in  different ic^i^  pf  hv-. 
map  Ufq  and  happiiieM.  I  haye  ^Ten  each  of  them  tho  name  of  thef  hilo- 
•ophical  Beet  to  which  it  bean  the  greatest  affinity. 


132  ^  ESSAY  XV. 

sohgs,  where  a  happy  flow  of  fimcy  has  notfurnifihed  ma^ 
terials  for  art  to  embellish  and  refine  ! 

But  of  all  the  fruitless  attempts  of  art,  no  one  b  so  ridi- 
culous, as  that  which  the  severe  philosophers  have  under- 
taken, the  producing  of  Bnafi^kialktyyriness,  and  making 
us  be  pleased  by  rufes  of  reason,  and  by  r^ection.  Why 
did  none  of  them  claim  the  reward,  which  Xerxes  promised 
to  him,  who  should  invent  a  new  pleasure  ?  Unless,  per- 
hi^s,  they  invented  so  many  pleasures  for  their  own  use, 
that  they  despised  riches,  and  stood  in  no  need  of  any  en^ 
joyments,  which  the  rewards^  of  ihat  monarch  could  pro^ 
cure  diem.  I  am  apt^  itidec^  to  think,  that  they  were 
hot  willing  to  fuxliiidi  die  Persian  conit  widi  a  new  pfe»- 
dure,  by  presenting  it  widi  so  new  and  unusual  &u  object 
6r  ridicule.  Then:  speculations,  when  confined  to  dieory, 
and  gravely  delivered  in  the  schools  of  Greece,  might  ex* 
tite  admiration  in  dieir  igriorant  pupih  $  but  Aesttenipt^ 
ing  to  i^uoe  such  prindples  to  firacttcewoiild^oonluitve 
betrayed  their  absurdity.  / 

You  pretend  to  makemehilppy  by  reasoii,  and  bymles 
of  art  Yotf  must  dien  create  me  ibieW  by  rules  of  ar<^ 
jft»r  on  my  original  firame  and  structure  does  nty  happiness* 
depend.  •  But  you  want  power  toefiect  diis,  and  skiH  too, 
I  am  afirald  t  nor  can  I  entertain  a  less  opinion  of  nature's 
wisdoni  dlan  of  yours;  and  let  fa^  conduct  die  machine 
Which  she  has  so  wisely  finuned,  I  find  that  I  adiould  only 
spdiS^  it  by  tampering. 

'  To  #hat  purpose  should  I  pretend  to  regtllate,  refine^  ^ 
or  invigorate  any  of  tlH>se  springs  or  principles  which  na- 
ture has  implanted  in  me  ?  Is  this  the  road  by  whick  I 
must  reach  happiness  ?  But  hqipiness  implies  ease,  coh<^* 
tentment,  repose,  and  pleasure ;  not  watchfiilnes^  caif e, ' 
and  fatigue.     The  health  of  my  body  consists  in  the  &- 


tHE  EPICUBEAN.  ISS 

ciUty  with  which  all  its  (^rations  are  performed.  The 
stomach  digests  the  aliments;  the  heart  circulates  the 
bliMHl;  the  hr^m  separates  and  refines  the  spirits ;  and  all 
thiS;  iwitboot  my  concerning  myself  in  the  matter.  A^hen 
hgr  my  w91  ^dde  I  t$n  stop  the  blood,  as  it  rqns  with  hni 
petAOsiQr  lUong  its  ^^anak^  then  may  I  hope  to  change  thf 
course  of  my  senlijpi^ts  and  passions.  In  vain  should  I 
strtiia  My  &en}ties,  imd  endeavour  to  receive  pleasure  from 
an  object^  which  is  not  flttei)  by  nature  to  affect  my  organs 
yffUh  delight  I  may  give  myself  pain  by  my  fr uitlesp[  en- 
deav/cmrsy  but  diall  never  reach  any  pleasure. 

Awiiy  then  with  aU  those  vain  pretences.of  making  our- 
selves happy  within  ourselves^  of  feastiD^  on  our  own 
thougbtS)  <£  being  sl^isfied  with  the  consciousness  of  well- 
doi|3g;  l^d.of  deq^skig  all  assistance  and  all  supplies  frooa 
extemtA  ^Agects..  TImb  is  the  voice  of  pride,  not  of  naf- 
tttret  i^Adlt  were  wdi  if  even  this  pride  could  support 
itlet^  and  <)0mmunicat9  a.  real^  mward  pleasure,  however 
melMlehoiy  <^  sevareK  But  thi§  impotent  pride  can  do  no 
moqej^W  regulate  tb«4MtfsJd^  aud  with  infinity  pains  and 
irtlentioti  impose  tb^  language  a^d  countenance  to  a  pbi- 
kMophifltl  dS^tj^  itt  order  to  deceive  the  i^orant  vulgar. 
TheJbefurft  ivi^lia^rhleyis^n^ty  of  adl  ^qjpument,  and  the 
jnind>  laiiiipportod  by  it^  j^^'^pier  (AgectSf  $in)csintp  the 
deejpeW  sorrow  and  df|)9eti(ni»  Misc^Uc^  but  vain  mortal  I 
!n{|r490ldb^lMppy  within  ilself^^  With  what  resource^  is 
itiwdbwd  to£U  40  inm^nse  a  void,  andaig>ply  llie^Iace 
of  all  tky  bodily  senses  and  &cultie^?  Cafi  thy  head  sub- 
Mst  wUhowt  thy  otb^ members?  In  8i»h  a  situation,     \ 

Whai  fcolkb  figure  Bum  it  make  ? 
Do  notiiing  dae  but  sleep  and  ake. 

Into  such  a  lethargy,  or  such  a  melancholy,  must  thy 


iS4  E8SAY  XV. 

mind  be  plunged^  when  depriTed  of  foreign  occnpations 
and  enjoyments. 

Keep  me,  therefore,  no  longer  in  this  violent  constraint.' 
Confine  me  not  within  mysdi^  but  point  out  to  me  those 
objects  and  pleasures  which  afibrd  the  chief  ^nj«y|nent« 
But  why  do  I  apply  to  yon,  prond  and  ignorant  sieges,  to 
shew  me  the  road  to  happmess  ?  L^t  me  consult  my  own 
/  passions  and  inclinations.  In  them  must  I  read  the  dic- 
'  tates  of  nature,  not  in  your  frivolous  discourses. 

But  see,  propitious  to  my  wishes,  the  divine,  the  aA^ble 
Pleasure  *,  the  supreme  love  of  Gods  and  men,advaue0s 
towards  me.  At  her  approach,  my  heart  beats  with'  ge- 
nial heat,  and  every  sense  and  every  fiumlty  is  dissolved  in 
joy;  while  she  poors  around  me  all  the  wibelbhmeiltftiU 
the  spring,  and  idl  the  treasures  of  tlife  ajatjmm.  The  me^ 
lody  of  her  voice  charma  my  ears  wiiii  the  s^^slt  musics 
as  she  invites  me  to  partake  ofthodedelic^iouaffintiit^  whichi 
with  a  smHe  that  dtfiuises  ai  gloi^  oti^  the  licwveiis  iOkS  iiit 
^^rdi,'8ihi^  presents  to  me.  The  spottive  Ctlpljis  who  sd^ 
iML  hei^  or  fiin  me  with  their  odc^iferous  wingi^  far  pour 
oh  my  h^d  flie  most  fragrant  oSs,  at  othtvp^  thdriEfpark^ 
Hi^ntectar  in  golden  goblets:  Ol  fiNr^erletnetiprsaA 
%  Wibi  onihiiB  bed  of  rpse^  and  thM,  thvs  fed  ihe^^ 
lidbiis  mdments,  with  soft  and  downy  6teps,  glide  A6h§. 
-bat  crud  ihtoce !  Whither  do  yob  fly  so  fast?  Wh(y do 
hiy  anient  wishes,  and  that  load  icif  plelt^uiies  iuMter^w^^ 
ybii  labour,  ratiler  hast^  thatf  rettfd  y^iu^  bttefetllulg 
pice.  Suffer  W  to  enjoy  this  sk)ftrepoBe»aft^$fiiiyfiK 
tigues  in  search  of  haziness,  l^d^rme  to>s4cia)leinys^ 
with  these  delicacies,  after  the  pains  of  so  long  and  so 
foolish  an  abstinence.  .  >/: 


THE  SPICUltEAN.  1$5 

But  it  will  not  do.    Hie- roses  bare  lost  their  hue,-  the 
fruit  its  6«TOur,  and  that  delicious  wine,  ^ose  furaes  ho 
late  mtoxicated  all  ray  senses  with  such  delight^  now  soG- 
cits  in  vain  the  sated  palate*    Pkiuure  smiles  at  my  lan- 
guor.    She  beckons  her  sister,  FMue,  to  come  to  her  as- 
sistance.   The  gay,  the  frolic  Virtue,  observes  the  call,  aiid  , 
brings  along  the  whole  troop  of  my  jovial  friends.     Wei-   I 
oome,  thrice  welcome,  my  ever  dear  companions,  to  these  / 
shady  bowers,  and  to  this  luxurious  repast    Your  pre-  / 
sence  bas  restored  to  the  rose  its  hue,  and  to  the  fruit  its  | 
flavour.    The  vapours  of  this  sprightly  nectar  now  again 
|dy  Around  my  heart;  while  you  partake  of  my  deligbts, 
and  discover,  in.  your  cheerful  looks,  the  pleasure  wkidi 
ybu  receive  fitmi  my  ha{^iness  and  satis&ctiob.    The  Eke 
do  I  receive  froin  yours ;  and,  enisouraged  by  your  joyoiis 
presence,  shall  again  renew  the  feast,  with  which,  fitun  top 
much  «tyoyment^  my  senses  are  well  nigh  satied.  While     | 
tfae.mind  kept  not  pace  with  the  bo^,  nor  afforded  relief     1 
loJie^  overburdened  partner. 

In  oar  dieerfnl  discourses,  better  than  in  the  fonnal/ 
feasoning  of  the  schocds,  is  true  wisdom  to  be  found.  hk( 
^0ur  %iendly  endetonents,  better  than  in  the  hollow  debates 
of  statesmen  and  pretended  patriots,  does  tme  virtue  dis- 
-pby  itself.  Foi^^etful  of  the  past^  secure  of  die  future^  let 
Mt  hearis  ttijoy  the  presentr, and  while  we  yet  possess  a  bdng, 
let  us  fix  some  dood,  beyond  the  power  of  fate  or  fortune. 
T<Hnort6w  will  »bring  its  own  pleasures  along  wfth  it: 
Or»  should  it  di^ippoint  our  fond  wbhes,  we  shall  at  least 
enjoy,  the  pleasure  of  reflecting  on  the  jdeasures  of  to-di^. 

Fear  not,  my  friends,  that  the  barbarous  dissonance  q{ 
Bacchus,  and  of  his  revellers,  should  break  in  up<m  this 
entertainment,  and  confound  us  with  their  turbulent  and 
clamorous  pleasures.    The  sprightly  muses  wait  around ; 


196  3B88AY  XT. 

likl  Willi  llunrcbiupnwgsyoipboDys  ndScient  to  soften  the 
wolves  and  tygen  of  the  savage  desert^  inspire  a  soft  joy 
into  every  bosom.  Peace^  harmony,  and  concord,  reign 
in  thia  retreai;  nor  is  the  silence  ever  broken  but  by  tibe 
mttric  of  onr  flongs,  or  the  cheerful  accents  of  our  friendly 
voices. 

Bnthaiki  the fimNuriteofthennisesytiM gentle Damoti 
strikes  the  lyre;  and  while  he  accompanies  its  haemooiaos 
notes  widi  his  more  hannonious  song^  he  inspires  us  with 
die  same  happy  debauch  of  fanqr,  by  vrUoh  he  is  himsalf 
transpcnied.  ^  Ye  happy  youths,"  he  sings,  ^  Ye  &- 
voured  of  Heaven  %  while  the  wanton  ^ring  pours  upon 
yon  all  her  blooming  honours,  let  not  fhrff  seduce  yon, 
with  her  delusive  Uase,  to  pass  in  perils  and  dangers^tUs 
ddickms  season,  thb  prime  of  life.  Wisdom  points  out  to 
you  die  road  to  pleasures  Nature  too  bedcons  you  to  fol- 
low her  in  that  smooth  and  flowery  path.  Will  you  shut 
your  ears  to  their  commanding  voice?  WSll  you  harden 
your  heart  to  their  soR,  allurements?  Oh,  deluded  mor- 
tals I  dras  to  lose  your  youth,  thus  to  throw  away  so  in* 

•taluaUe  a  present,  to  trifle  widi  so  perishfa%  a  blessing. 
ContnmplatB well yonr recompeoce.    CJonsidertfaatghiry, 

f  which  sodfames  your  proud  hearty  and  seduces  yon  with 
your  own  |^*aises.  It  is  an  echc^  a  dream,  nay  the  bImi* 
dow  of  a  dream,  dissqmted  by  every  wind,  and  lost  liy 
every  contrary  breathof  the  ignofrant  and  iU-judging  mul- 
titude.  Yonfearnotthatenrendeathitself  shall  ranish  it 
ficom  you.    But  behold  I  while  you  are  yet  alive,  caluniny 

.bdveavesyouof  it;  ignorance  negkcta  it;  nature  enjoys  it 

*  Ap  iinitettoo  of  th^  Syrens  song  in  Tmpo  :' 
^  O  GioTinettf,  mentre  Aptile  et  Maggio 
-      :  ^^'V^MmMiliBdiftorH^elTeidetpogKc^ftc. 


airjr  recogipemwy  ein>^  ^^  jiMlable  as  heinalC^'     : 

Thua  tbe  hours  pfu»  iiiq^€8iY«d|doiig»  and  lead  in  dieiir 
wa&toa  train  all  the  pleasiires  of  aense»  ahd  all  the  joysof 
hainMmyaod  firifBdahip*  Siailiiig  umooeme  dofes  the 
prooeaiion;  aad^irhileahiepreaentshqradftoourrayiilind 
eym^  ahaiwriyilliihcaAe  whole  aeg»i^  apdrefaders  Ae  vkw 
of  thaeeftewjgeaaa  tgaagportlDg,  after  thiey  haw  past  m, 
aa  when^  viih  bmgl^iig  cantiteaance^  <hey  w^ie  ye^  {ut 
Yaticaog  toarardt  OS*  '  ^ 

But  the  aim  has  sunk  below  the  horizon  I  and  daifaiea% 
stealing  ailentfy  upon  us^  has  now  buried  all  nature  in  an 
unireraal  shade*  <<  Rejoice^  my  fifiends^  contipueyour  re^- 
pasty  or  change  it  fi>r  soft  repose.  Tlioiigh  absentr  ymr 
joyoryourtrimqiuMity^hallstillbeBuaew'V  BmwSiiktr 
ihpm  gofOrta^ai  new  fiUamn^^  calf  you  fivrnqur  a^ 
eidlft  htiikreaitgUmgreeaUtwMM  Aki 

em  migU pleatt  m  wl^A  we  pmtatkBmot9  ^  Ye%'>my 
fiieods;  the  joy  whloli  I  now.seelr,.  admits  not  ef  your 
participatiott.  Here  dione  I  wish  your  abaeaoes  And 
here  alone  eaa  I  Aud  |i  sufficient  compeosatiOB  Ibr  the  ioii 
f^youraociety.'^  • .  .'-'\'': 

Bat  I  have  not  advanced  far  llireiigh  ^e  dmdes  df  the 
thick  iiwaodyWhiehspi^adda  double  idghtitrDHnd  me^iM«^ 
methints,  I  perceive  through  ^the  gloonl  the  charttAMU 
Ctdim^  the  mist^esa^  my  wishes^  wh<y  Srimlders  impatieiit 
through  the  gMVQ^flM,  jpreventfhg  Ae^iqjipdtttted  ho^'  et- 
loitly  chides  i^y  tardy  eteps*  Btet  ihe  joy,  which  ttiie'te^ 
orives  Jrom  my  presence^  best  {deads  my  eareuse;  and^iie^ 
aipating  e^ry  ontioiis  aind  every  mgry  thoiq^' ^etf^ 
room  for  novght  but  mutual  jey  and  rapture.  Widt.i«4ik 
worchs  ny  Mroh^  ishaft  I  eiq)i^  iny  tendehteSs,  o^'d^ 
aeiibe  <b«  eiMtobs  whMi  now  warm  my  tiMisj^orted'bd- 


I8B  >l$SAT&¥^    ^ 

som !  WoiiU  aro  lioo  jfiunt  t^  diB$cfAbe  my  tote;  knd  if^ 
idas  I  you  fad  not-  the  dame  flam^  ^irHhin,  m  ifahi*  sball 
lettdsaiwiir  tO'ConTeytoyouajiiitconoeptioii^ilPit;  But 
your  every  wotd  aud  every  motioD  $uffie^  Co  reiilave  this 
doubt ;  and  wksk  they  express  y<Nir  possMiH  Mrvie  also  to 
influne  snina  .  How  amidbte.tlM  solitude^  tfaktileiioe^ 
thisdarknefls  I  No  oiqectanow  importune  the  ravidiMaouL 
The  thought,  the  sense,  all  full  of  nothuig  but  <ifr  mutual 
happineis,  whcUty  possets  the  mind^  and  oobv^  a  plea- 
sure, which  deluded  mortals  vainly  sedc  fiir  in^very  other 
enjoymentw  '     ■ 

But  why  does  your  bosom  hea:fe  with  these  sighs,  while 
tears  bathe  your  glowii^  cheeks  ?  Why  distract  your  heart 
with  such  vain  anxieties  ?  Why  so  often  ask  me,  ǣ&ȣ;  iltwy 
aiy  knfe  $ktiU  yet  endure  f  Alas  I  my  Gaelia,  can  i  resolve 
tins  questidfi?  Do  I  kmno  h^  bmg  niylifk  ekoB  yei  ei^ 
dtiref  Butdoesthisrakodistiirbyoutteiider  bk^east?  And 
is  the  image  of  our  frail  mortality  ibr  ever  present  with 
youy  to  throw  a  damp  on  your  gayest!  houra,  and  poisiok 
iBven  Uioae  joys  which  love  itispirefc  ?  Cotaiiider  rather,  that 
if  Hfe  be  frail,  if  youth  be  transitory^  we  should  wdl  tm^ 
ploy  the  present  moment,  and  lose  no  part  of  so  pemshable 
aN^  eipstence.  Yet  a  litde  moment,  tmd  tfsie  shall  be  no 
mor^  WeshaUb%  asif  we hdd never b^to«.'^tii m6^ 
mory  .of  us  be  left  up<^  earth^a^d  ev^  the  fkbulous 
9bii4esb|dowinU4iotafi|Hd  ;  Ow^fruiOess 

>i>iyjf)tilVS  our  vain  prcjfeot^  -ow  «mej4wi  q>6cirtatioirt^ 
shall  :aU  be  «widlowed  upland  Ip^  0m  presMU  doubts, 
cwoenjing  tha-priginal  cause  pf  all  tfapigs,'  must  neuter^ 
a)|i^  (  be  TesoLyed«  llus^pne  weipa(yfoi^oeiskiun.o4:4^ 
ifany  governing  mind  preside,  he  mi}at]be  pleased  to  see  us 
fulfil  the  ends  pf  our  bein^^  and  enyoy  that  pleasutiQ  ftr 
'  which  alone  i«r?  were, created.,  LetMus^efled^on  giveiease 


THE  EPICUREAN. 


1S9 


to  your  anxious  thoughts ;  but  render  not  your  joys  too 
serious,  by  dwelling  for  ever  upon  it  It  is  sufficient,  once 
to  be  acquainted  with  this  philosophy,  in  order  to  give  an 
unbounded  loose  to  love  and  jollity,  and  remove  all  the 
scruples  of  a  vain  superstition:  But  while  youth  and  pas- 
sion, my  fair  one,  prompt  our  eager  desires,  we  must  find 
gayer  subjects  of  discourse  to  tntermhc  with  these  amorous 
caresses. 


i  •     'I.  ".    :[    'kI  lyfAVj.  '['.    '!;  [,i  '  i .   ij    -  ■'  ,*.  ^     i     ■• 

i"A      .  'i'i'::i\;u  i-.u:  ', :.  J  ::  r-i  >,.[  \\l 
'^  'J  u  '-  .    )  I  :  .     -  II  :: .  ..... 


I   :   •'  )'.   in 


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.-.:  IJ>. 

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;i- ;;:  ■. 

ESSAY  XVL 


'  >■     ■! 


THE  STOIC  *. 

J.  HERE  is  this  obvious  and  material  difference  in  the  con- 
duct of  nature,  with  regard  to  men  and  other  animals, 
that,  having  endowed  the  former  with  a  sublime  celestial 
spirit,  and  having  given  him  an  affinity  with  superior 
beings,  she  allows  not  such  noble  fiumlties  to  lie  lethargic 
or  idle ;  but  urges  him  by  necessity  to  employ,  on  every 
emergence,  his  utmost  art  and  indiutry.  Brute-creatures 
have  many  of  their  necessities  supplied  by  nature,  be- 
ing clothed  and  armed  by  this  beneficent  parent  of  all 
things :  And  where  their  own  indiutry  is  requisite  on  any 
occasion,  nature,  by  implanting  instincts,  still  supplies  them 
with  the  art^  and  guides  them  to  their  good  by  her  unerr- 
ing precepts.  But  man,  exposed  naked  and  indigent  to 
the  rude  elements,  rises  slowly  from  that  helpless  state,  by 
the  care  and  vigilance  of  his  parents ;  and,  having  attained 
his  utmost  growth  and  perfection,  reaches  only  a  capacity 
of  subsisting,  by  his  own  care  and  vigilance.  Eveiy  thing 
is  sold  to  skiU  and  labour ;  and  where  nature  furnishes  the 
materials,  they  are  still  rude  and  unfinished,  till  industry, 
ever  active  and  intelligent,  refines  them  from  their  rude 
state,  and  fits  them  for  human  use  and  convenience. 

*  Or  the  man  of  action  and  Tirtiie. 


rmtnoic 


141 


luMte ;  ibx>  sh«r  IbM  gh^eo  th«d  Aat  lutelligMioe  wiiicil  slip>« 
plies  aU  thy  BeMttdiltes*  Bvl  l6t  floti  iedcdaio^ 
fideje  BJ)p4iiit«nee  of  gradtudd^  penuBdt  thee  to  rest  eon- 
tented  ivtth  ber  pt^Mtti.  t  Wbiddst  tfaou  return  to  tke  r aW 
herbage  for  thytoeH^  to>  di6  optti  Ocj  for^y  co¥eriii|^, 
aad  Cd^  atimea  andcli^  Ibr  thy^d^fibce  ag^iat  the  ra^n- 
oas  adiiiiflla  of  llio  d«fiett?  Then  ret^ 
tnantiens  ^  lliy  tanoi^oua  siiperkillon}  to  thy  brutal  igno^ 
vanco^^d  sfaflc-lliy^elf  WekwllK^ai^imitdi^  W^ 
tioti'thop  adiii»^  aild  woiMflt^so  feiMfy  iMn^  . 
-  They  fatid  pareiMv  '^^u^  ha^u^  gitien  Aree  art  and  in^ 
tell%8tiee^  hm  tt&6d  the  #hbie  globe  with  materiald  to  em-> 
ploy  thes^  takiita :  Haricta  t^  her  rcioe,  whidi  so  pi dnly 
tella  iliee,  that  iinm  thyself  shouldst  ako  be  the  objeet  of 
thyindiutry,^  oad  that  by- art  and  attention  idone  AotL 
cabst  Aoqtui^  that  abi%  which  will  raise  thee  to  thy  pro- 
perratatdonrik  llMFMEhrMSe:  Behold  this  artisan  who  con- 
wtssiradeaiiA  abapelesi^tone  into'a  nblde metal;  and, 
HuyuUfag  Aak  jtwtBl  by  hfa  cumimg  hands^  creates,  as  ft 
ifemfa^ms^^eTeiyweiipmifoi^  his  defence^  and  erery 
uteniAforihis  poanrenitnca  He^ b*s  not  this  skill  from 
natnre :  Uar^and  pir^adce  harve-taught  'H  bins :  and  if  thou 
^iddstenmhiit  his  kmkeds^Aiaa  adust Ibllowhis  laborious 


;j'.  i;.)  t  I  ".. 


'  &it  wUhr  Ihoii  4mikkm9fy  i^j^itte^  to  jpei^fecting  thy 
bodiy  foimeAsad  faculties,  wouldst  thou  meanly  n^Ject 
tlqr]miid,lBiidtfitim|ipreposteriMis6k)(^  leave  t^  mde 
and  uncnitivaliadt  as  it  xxom  ftom^the  hands  of  nature  ? 
Far  be  sacli  foUy  and  iM|g^igkK»  from  e^ery  imion^l  ^ 
If  natnire  has  been  fri^-  in'  her  gifts  and  endowment^ 
t^reislbem<Htt need ofaittosoppfy her ddkitk  Ifshe 
baa  been  generous  and  liberal,  know  that  she  still  expects 


CA-' 


^^..^ 


>  v- 


H9  sasAjv  «Yf4 

^99tl7  wdi^>pU9a|iQaoniOiif>.p^  i»DdretMgM  herself 
i]|,,p]Yip(»UcaiU>QUrJie|^y|gei^  The  ridiest 

g<l»Hi»iIi|Letbfitirt)tffeiTifle^«fctwh 
up(ipt}ot]i^  rarest:  iree^ikf  99(d.U)^aiMl^f  Tims  sod  oUites 
^ir  ith^  pleasure  wd  n^eic^  iiipi»  .{nrod«ce%  AO  Jt$  ^bImMiI 
9nfn^>^tbei||09ta))iui4mMrQt)<^  -t  -i^a 

I    /Xb^gr^0pd.of9ll;bl9ip^ 

pi^iind  wi^dcm  of  patriot,  olidt  l^lM;dnU  Even  dbe 
lonely  sav^^get  who  lieft  ^i3>0i9od  to  the  dtaieiici^jof  ttfae 
elenp^ent^  and  4e  fury  <^  wild  Jbe^ff^^.fpffg^ba^ii^  fi>r  aiMo- 
ment»;th^sg^:i^d  objjectofbUbjgj^^  IgnormaLMheU^ 
^reiy  ^rt  of  lile»  h^^ Btill  k^ep^  ^  319^  thcs  fitiiioSM  jtbote 
firtst  wd  eagefly  $f^  forfetf^tjjTwiki^ttihEat.dafkBBaB 
viA  whi^  he  ig  e^Yirwed*  : 5*  MlPittl*  ^  Ae  wildctt 
savage  is  inferior.  tx>  the  p9^«bed  ,cil«Jw*/  ]*ih^ifipdsrdi5 
protection  of  lafw%  i^joys;  e^rery  conveiMeiite  lilfaiotu  imlvflN 
tQT  has  ipvented;  so  nmch  i^ihis  Qitin&i  Suma^  onfatior 
to  the  ma^a^of  yirtue»  aiid  4he  ttUe'^WfaMoph^  ^w^'  got« 

Iverpshi^appetitesb  subdnds  hia  passicmSfa^A^lataKdy 
&omi,]reBSon»  to  set  a  just  l^alue^ooi.eveiypabsiiit'aiid  eii«4 
yiym^t    Fpr  is  therfe .  anitft  andjappytatioa^p  neceiN 
\  saiy  fof  eve^  oth^  atMwn^P|r?  Attd  ;lsi  thdreiiio  act  of 
\  life,  no  rule,  no  precepts  to  direct  us  in  this  princqppl  oon* 
^  ^rp  ?  Can  no  particda^  ple^^ur^teitttaiiidd  witftoutsKill; 
/  i|9d  can  die  whole  be  fc^gulat^d^  .witkbilutjoefieotioi^  or'ion 
\  tel%epice,  bythe  blind  gui^no€{0f^petife,iuid&riuict9 
8ur^y  then  np,  odstakes  aife  evar  ^conmiitlfcwianiAb  afl9»ry 
but  every  mai^  Mwe?er  /disadliite  and  nc^U^fckit^  proceeds 
in  the  pursuit  of  happintsai  witbaaiiherni^cadnotMby  as 
tti#l  li^ich  ibt  ce\e9ABi  ^f^diesjofaaeinr^.viien^cDndlietai  by 
the  hand  of  the  Almigbl;^,  Ithey  rdi.  along^ihe  tgAninti 


TQS  ^TOIC.  14S 

pbiins.  .9»tifiiust^e9be<>%ii»b(eiaeidtablycptp^ 
IjeA  us  i^rj^t&r  Uiese  iid$l;$ke8 ;  let  ^  consider  til 
l^  U3  weigh  their  importance ;  let  us  inquire  for  their  ice^ 
m^ie^  .  Wh^  from  thi^  we  ha>?e  fi^^ed,  aU ,  the  xj^l^  :pf 
conduct,  we,  ar^  p/iilo^fpkms.    When  i^^ih^ve  ^te4iuce4 
thtt^  m]^  to  praclicef  Mre  »r«i  «tws*'  .^  ■      .    i 

Like  many  subordinate  artists,  enqiloyed  to  ijo^nn  th^  se* 
▼oral  wheek  and  springs  of  a  machine^;  such  are  thosQ  who 
excel  }n  all  the  particular  arts  of  life.  Be  is  the  Juaat^. 
worlmanwho  patB  those  severajl  pwrts  together  ;'iQoye^ 
them  according  to  just  harmony  and  prppor^on ;  and  pirp-f 
duces. true  felicity  as. the  result  of  their  conspiring; o^der^ 

While  thottlhust  such  an  alluring  object  in  \i^w,  shall 
that  labour  ^nd:  attention,  ret^ite  to  the  attaii^nentpf 
thy  end,  ever  $einn  burdensome  and  intolerable?  K^ow, 
that  thi3  labour  itself  is  the  chief  is^predient  of,  the  felici^ 
tOk  which  thou  aspkest,  mid  that  every  enjoyment  «Don  be-. 
OQBuesjnsipid  alul  distasteful,  when  not  acquired  by  fatigMQ 
aqd  induitiT-  See  the  hardgr  hunters  rise  from  their 
dpwny  couches,  shakis  <jff  the  slumbers  which  still  weigh 
dfifwxk  their  hei^vy  eye^lids,  ami  ere  Awrora  haK  yet  covered 
the  heaven^  with  her*  fl^t)g  wmd^  Imsten  to  the  fore^ 
They.leave  bel^pid,  in  their  own  houses,  and  in  the  nei^n 
bomru^  phuD%  aoimals  of  every  ki^afd,  whose  flesl^  fiimis^es 
the^  ,mo9(  deUcions  %e^  a^d.  wjiich  offer  theffiselv/^  jtq  4^ 
$ital  st(oke«  {4boriou«  i^en  disdains  spj^asy  a  puircha^r 
He,  seeK^.  fi>r  a,  prey«  which  hjlAes  itself  |rom  hia.sear^  /^ 
fliep  from  his  pursuit^,  ox.  defends  itself  from  hi^  yiolence. 
Having  ei^rted  in  the  chase  evjc^  pas^V^n  of  >  ^e  j^v^, 
m4  qveiy  iMmber  ofth^  b€|4y>  1^  then  fii^s  th?t  cham». 
of  jrqpqse,  apd  with  jcQf.compares  his  pl^i^re^  tp  iSm^fki 
hiseqgeghigliibours..  - ;,    .  ,:. 

And  can  vigorous  industry  give  pleasure,  to  the  pursuit 


144  ESSAY  XVT. 

even  of  the  most  worthkas  prey,  which  fi^eqoently  esetipei 
Mr  tirfls  ?  And  cannot  the  same  indnstry  render  the  cuhi*- 
▼ating  of  our  mind^  the  moderadng  of  oar  passions^  the 
enlightening  of  onr  reason^  an  agreeable  oc^cnpation;  while 
We  are  every  day  sensible  of  oiurprogress»  and  behold  oat 
inward  features  and  oonntienance  brightening  incessantly 
with  new  charms  ?  d^;in  by  curing  yourself  of  this  lethar- 
gic indolence ;  the  task  is  not  difficult :  You  need  but 
taste  the  sweets  of  hcnoest  labour.  Proceed  to  learn  the 
just  value  of  every  pvlfsuit ;  loi%  study  is  not  reqoisiter 
Compare,  though  but  for  onoe^  llie  mind  to  the  body^  vir^ 
tue  to  fortune,  and  glory  to  pleasure.  You  will  then  per-' 
ceive  the  advantages  of  industry :  Von  will  then  be  sensible 
what  are  the  proper  objects  of  your  industty* 

In  vain  do  you  seek  repose  ftom  beds  of  roses :  In  vtin 
do  you  hope  for  enjoyment  from  the  most  delicioiiB  wines 
and  fruits.  Your  indolence  itself  becomes  a  fatigue ;  ytw 
pleasure  itself  creates  disgust  Hie  mindy  une:iterdded| 
finds  every  delight  insipid  and  loathsome ;  and  ere  yet  the 
body,  full  of  noxious  humours,  feels  the  torment  of  its 
multiplied  diseases,  your  noUer  ps^  is  senttble  of  the  in- 
vading poison,  and  seeks  in  vain  to  relieve  its  anxie^  by 
new  pleasures,  which  still  augment  the  fatal  malady. 

i  need  not  tell  you,  that,  1^  this  eager  pursuit  of  plea- 
sure, you  more  and  more  expose  yourself  to  fortune  and 
accidents,  and  rivet  your  a£fections  on  external  objects^ 
which  chance  may,  in  a  moment,  ravish  from  you.  I  shall 
suppose  that  your  indu%ent  stars  favour  ybii  st^  with  the 
enjoyment  of  your  riches  and  possessions.  I  pr^vetoyoa^ 
that  even  in  the  midst  of  yonr  luxurious  pleasures,  yiMi 
are  unhappy ;  and  that,  by  too  mudi  indulgence,  yoo  are 
incapable  of  enjoying  what  prosperous  ibrtsne  stitt  allowa 
you  to  possess. 


«^E  STOI<$.  145 

But  SQi^y  tke  instabMity  Of  fortune  is  a  ccmsideraticm 
not  to  be  overlook^  or  neglected.  Happiness  ciEinnot  po9<« 
sibly  etLsrt  whef e  diere  is  no  security;  and  security  can 
have  no  plaee  where  fortune  has  any  dominion.  Though 
that  unstable  ^efty  should  not  exert  her  rage  against  yo% 
the  dread  offt  would 'StSfttomentyoo;  woidd  disturb  your 
Hrkanbers,  haunt  your  di^etais>  «nd  throw  a  damp  on  die 
jollity  of  yonr  most  ddicious  banquets. 

The  temple  of  wisdom  is  seated  cm  a  rock,  above  die 
rage  of  t!he  fighting  elements,  and  hiacoessiUe  to  all  the 
malice  of  man.  The  rolling  thunder  breaks  below ;  and 
tfiose  more  terrible  instruments  of 'human  &ry  readi  not 
1»  so  subMme  a  htt^lit.  The  sage,  while  he  breathes  that 
serene  air,  looks  down  with  pleasure,  mixed  with  compas^ 
sibn,  oA  die  errors  of  mistsdcen  mortals,  who  blindly  seek 
lor  the  true  path  of  lifi^  and  pursue  riches,  nobilily,  ho- 
nOttr,  or  power,  for  genuine  felicity.  The  greater  part  he 
beholds  ^bappohfted  ^  ^ir  fbnd  widics :  Some  lament, 
diat  having  once  possessed  the  object  of  their  desires,  it  is 
ravished  from  them  by  envious  fortune;  and  all  complain, 
that  eten  their  mm  vows,  diough  granted,  cannot  give 
dMn  hapinness,  or  relieve  the  anxiety  of  dieir  distracted 
mindt.    - 

But  does  die  sage  always  preserve  himself  in  Alaphilo- 
sophioid  indifference,  imd  rest  contented  with  lamenting 
iise  ioiiseries  of  mankind,  withjOUt  ever  employing  himself 
for  their  relief?  Does  he  constantly  indulge  diis  severe 
wisdom,  which,  by  pretending  to  elevate  him  above  human 
accidents,  does  in  reality  hetdien  his  heart,  and  render  him 
careless  df  the  interests  of  ttankind,  and  of  society  ?  No; 
he  knows  that  in  difs^suUto  ApatJ^  neither  true  wiadom 
n(ft  trkt  happiness  can  be  found.  He  feels  too  strongly 
die  charm  of  the  social  afiPections^  ever  to  counteract  so 

VOL.  I.  L 


/ 


146  £«8AY  XVJ. 

tweet,  so  natural,  so  virtuous  a  propensity.  Even  wfaeOf 
bathed  in  tears,  be  bunents  the  miseries  of  the  bmnan  race^ 
of  his  country,  of  his  friends,  and  unable  to  ^ve  succour, 
cim  only  relieve  them  by  compassion;  he  yet  rejoices  in  the 
generous  disposition,  and  feels  a  satisfaction  superiOT  to 
thatofthe  most  indulged  sense.  So  engaging  are  the  sen- 
timents of  humanity,  that  they  br^^hten  up  the  very  face 
of  sorrow,  and  operate  like  the  sun,  which,  shining  on  a 
dusky  doud  or  falling  rain,  paints  on  them  the  most  glo- 
rious colours  which  ere  to  be  found  in  the  whole  circle  of 
nature. 

But  it  is  not  here  alone  that  the  social  virtues  diqplay 
their  energy.  With  whatever  ingredient  you  mix  them, 
they  are  still  predominant.  As  sorrow  cannot  overcome 
th^n,  so  neither  can  sensual  pleasure  obscure  them.  The 
joys  of  love,  however  tumultuous,  banish  not  the  tender 
sentiments  of  sympathy  and  afiScction.  They  even  derive 
dieir  chief  influence  from  that  generous  passion;  and  when 
pussented  alone,  afford  nothing  to  the  unhiq>py  mind  but 
lassitude  and  disgust.  Behold  this  sprightly  debauchee^ 
who  professes  a  contempt  of  all  other  pleasures  but  those 
of  wine  and  jollity:  Separate  him  bom  his  companions^ 
like  a  spark  from  a  fire,  where  before  it  contributed  to  the 
general  blaze:  his  alacrity  suddenly  extinguishes;  and, 
though  surrounded  with  every  other  means  (^delight,  he 
loaths  die  dumptuous  banquet,  and  prefers  evoi  the  most 
abstracted  study  and  speculation,  as  more  agreeable  and 
entertaining. 

But  the  social  pa8si<ms  never  afford  such  transporting 
pleasures,  or  make  so  glorious  an  iqipeanuioe  in  the  eyes 
both  of  God  and  man,  as  when,  sba^g  off  every  earthly 
mixture,  they  associate  themselves  with  the  sentiments  of 
virtue,  and  prompt  us  to  laudable  and  worthy  acticms.    As 


THE  STOIC  147 

faamionioiis  colours  mutually  give  and  receive  a  lustre  by 
their  firioAdly  wakm ;  so  do  these  ^mobling  sentiments  of 
the  human  mind.  See  the  triumidi  of  niU;ure  in  parental 
affiaction  I  What  selfish  passion;  what  s^isual  delight  is 
a  match  fiaor  it;  whether  a  man  exults  in  the  prosp^tgr 
and  virtue  of  his  o£^rin^  or  flies  to  their  succour,  through 
the  most  threatening  and  tremendous  dangers  ? . 

Proceed  still  in  purifying  die  gen^ous  passion^  you  will 
still  the  more  admire  its  shining  glories*  What  charms 
are  there  in  the  harmony  of  minds,  and  in  a  friendship 
founded  on  mutual  esteem  and  gratitude  I  What  satisfiuv 
tion  in  relieving  the  dtstressed,  in  comforting  the  afflicted, 
in  raising  the  fiiUen,  and  in  stopping  the  career  of  cruel  for- 
tune, or  of  more  cruel  man,  in  their  insults  over  the  good 
and  virtuous!  But  what  supreme  joy  in  the  victories  over 
vice  as  well  as  misery,  when,  by  virtuous  example  or  wise 
exhortation*  our  fellow-creatures  are  tai;^bt  to  govern  their 
passions,  reform  their  vices,  and  subdue  their  worst  ene- 
mies, which  inhabit  within  their,  own  bosoms  1 

But  these  objects  are  still  too  limited  for  the  human 
mind,  which,  being  of  celestial  origin,  swells  with  the  di- 
vinest  and  most  enlai^^  afiections,  and,  carrying  its  at- 
tention beycmd  kindred  and  acquaintance,  extends  its  be- 
nevolent wishes  to  the  most  distant  posterity*  It  views  li- 
berty and  laws  as  the  source  of  human  happiness,  and  de- 
votes itsdf,  with  the  utmost  alacrity,  totbeir  guard  inqsbip 
and  protection.  Toils,  dangers,  death  itself  carry  their 
charms,  when  we  brave  than  for  the  public  good,  and  en- 
noble that  beings  which  we  generously  sacrifice  for  the  in- 
terests -of  our  country.  Hi^y  the  man  whom  indulgei^t 
fortune  allows  to  pay  to  virtue  what  he  owes  to  nature^  and 
to  make  a  generous  gift  of  what  must  otherwise  be  ra  vi^- 
ed  from  him  by  cruel  necessity. 


.146  cssAT  xn. 

in  Che  trae  sage  and  patriot  «re  anited  vdkaisver  can 
diitiiigiiifiii  fatuiiaii  notare,  or  dbvate  aaoftal  ttuai  to  a  re- 
§MAfbmm  with  Ihe  lUviBify.  Ti^  soOwt  baiemteacto, 
the  moift  tedauntdd  vcsohokn,  tfe  teadere6t  sentiments, 
tli«ilMBtiBaibliiiiakrrQ«f«rirtue^  all  diese  antnuAe  sODiDes- 
>sit«}y  hii^  €nMM{M)MMl  boaoniv  What  satk&etioii^  wfam 
he  looks  ivMihi^ltt  fliidliMiw>sit)nrbulentpas8l(lB^  tuMd 
tb  j«tllluMiotiy  mi  'cmocftA^  and  every  jarring  somd  ba- 
inl^icid  from  this  ^ndiantiaignmsie!  If  thecomemplatioii, 
e^«n^  ibatiiaiate  boauty,  is  60  deli^tfiil ;  if  it  raMsb^ 
the  senses,  eten  ii^en  die  fidr  fcmn  isforeigii  to  w:  what 
must  be  the  «ifeetB  of  tMral  beauty  ?  and  what  influence 
must  ittiave,  wben  it  embeUishes  our  own  mnid^  and  is 
the  resHll  rfwir  own  reflection  and  indnBtry  ? 

i^^xkdfi^ftvtiUiWAk^v^  itf  Ob,  sons 

dfeartht  Areyeigncvaittof  die  value  of  (Ads  cdesdakniA- 

tress?  Anddoye«baaulyifaii^it«  far  her iMTtion,  when y^ 

'dbs«rve  her  geMiie  dharms^?  Bat  kmm^  that  Natat^  has 

i)«en  indulgent  td  femaim  weakness,  Md  haa  not  left  tirib 

-firvonrke  child  nakad  and  unendowed.    She  has  prodded 

Tirtiie  w«h  the  richest  ^dqwiy^  bilt  bebig  carcft*,  lest  the 

Mhirements  eCinterest  ^tucmiA  wga^  stfdi  isuhors,  as  weils 

inseniifUe  bf  ibe  nalive  w^i^  ^cf  «o  tM^«  abeauty,  she  htts 

wisely  provided,  that  tMs  doiv^ry  lean  have  no  charms  btft 

in  the  ey^  of  those  who  are  idneady  transported  w4th  ibfe 

love  <jf  v^rtoe.    Glory  is  tiie  paition  of  viitee^  the  fewest 

/  -reward  t>f  %onottTable  tails,  the  ttiumphant  Crown  whi<$h 

;    covers  the  tiiofi^lytftil  bead  of  tike  dif^terested  patriot,  or 

;    the  dusty  brow  of  the  wctorioas  warrior.    Elevailed  by  so 

'    siibtime  a  pri^  the  man  of  tirtae  faxA^  down  wilk  oo*i*- 

tempt  on  all  the  allurements  of  pleasure,  and  all  ^e  me- 


THE  STOIC.  149 

naces  of  danger.     Death  itself  loses  its  terrors,  when  he 
considers,  that  its  dominion  extends  only  over  b  part  of 
him,  and  that,  in  spite  of  death  and  time,  the  rage  of  the 
elements,  and  the  endless  vicissitude  of  human  affairs,  he    | 
is  assured  of  an  immortal  fame  among  all  the  sons  of  men.    * 
There  surely  is  a  Being  who  presides  over  the  universe ;    \ 
and  who,  with  infinite  wisdom  and  power,  has  reduced  the    \ 
jarring  elements  into  just  ordei*  and  proportion.     Let  spe-    * 
culative  reasoners  dispute^  how  fyx,  this  beneficent  Being 
extends  his  care,  and  whether  he  prolongs  our  existence 
beyond  the  grave,  in  order  to  bestow  on  virtue  its  just  re-^ 
waftt,  and  render  kfii&y  triaaiph«nt  Thedbah'of'mor«iI%    j 
wilhont  deddiag  anything  oa  so  dubious  a^cfutj!^  te  6a-  | 
tiifidd  with  the  pOrticuLmarked  out  U>  Uni'bTilthe  SUfiftYtHr'  ^ 
DiiIMNMafakltiiiiig&    OnU»&U;f  ke  aoee^^tfiflit  ^' 
tber  lewaid  pvcparsd  Urn  bim;  but  if^  dteat^poilMed,  he^ 
tMsksiiiot  virtue  aa  enpt^  nmmef  but  justify  esteeming  k' 
its  aim  ttwatd,  he  gtnttfcTiy  a^nowledgecr  the  b^nty  of 
hisC^netoK^  idioy  byciffiiif  himivld  ^xisletice^hastkei'^^' 
fay  dfcgded  kin  an  opportunity  of  onise  acqmring  so.  iiiv^  ^ 
lutaUe.apotscesiaii.  "'.'<         "'-^ 

;,  r    :    ■  '..:       .  .     •  *.     ''     ;  t 
.'      •     ::■    /:i 

.i  •    ."'.V  'i  t/o 

•  '   '    '..   '  i  •   'r   .     ^     i^'  >f:7^,i 
.    .  :  ;        '     '  ■     .  -        tU:  -'I  /  '.  V  ■  :' *  w  oflT 

':        '  •'  '       '<■:  iif  I'.:    '  ■  .:   !.:!':.!  nf>ni 

'    •  .  '      .       ■  '.     '      ".  ,"'\\'^  jiL   •"    rij    :  )  c'.iU 

-  ,  ■.  .         .  ••■  •  .  :^/;  <-  /»;  ■  J  Ijm'-  .S  ot 

-'  ..  ■'  ■  '      '     :i    I.''  nt  1'  »/f')>:i)  r*.\  IJ     .noii 

':  '■'        ...  .  .:-   •  \\v:    lyjiiil  .  M'^    .')  '")rlj  ,i\ 

'    't    f  .        ''»'■'!.'•;      '  r:-^  i    I):    ■"'     :■  ''^^  o')   .Jtij-iiot 


ESSAY  XVII. 


THE  PLATO NI8T  *. 


/ 


X  o  some  philosophers  it  appear^  matter  of  surprise,  that 
all  mankind,  possessing  the  same  nature,  and  being  en- 
dowed with  the  same  faculties,  should  yet  difier  so  widely 
in  their  pursuits  and  inclinations,  and  that  one  should  ut- 
terly condemn  what  is  fondly  sought  after  by  another.  To 
some  it  appears  matter  of  still  more  surprise,  that  a  man 
should  differ  so  widely  from  himself  at  different  times; 
and,  after  possession,  reject  with  disdain  what,  before,  was 
the  object  of  all  his  vows  and  wishes.   To  me  this  feverish 

I  uncertain^  and  irresolution,  in  human  conduct,  seems  al- 
together unavoidable;  nor  can  a  rational  soul,  made  for 

/  the  contemplation  of  the  Supreme  Being,  and  of  his  works, 
/  ever  enjoy  tranquillity  or  satisfaction,  while  detained  in  the 
I  ignoble  pursuits  of  sensual  pleasure  or  pc^ular  applause. 
The  Divinity  b  a  boundless  ocean  of  bliss  and  glory :  Hu- 
man minds  are  smaller  streams,  which,  arising  at  first  Gcom 
this  ocean,  seek  still,  amid  all  their  wanderings,  to  return 
to  it,  and  to  lose  themselvea  in  that  immensity  of  perfec- 
tion. When  checked  in  this  natural  course  by  vice  or  fol- 
ly, they  become  fiirious  and  enraged ;  and,  swelling  to  a 
torrent,  do  then  spread  horror  and  devastation  on  the 
neighbouring  plains. 

*  Or>  tfM  maa  of  conttrnplatioii^  9nd  phQotophital  derotioiL 


THS  PLATONIST.  151 

In  vain,  by  pompous  phrase  and  passionate  expression, 
each  recommends  his  own  pnrsnit,  and  invites  the  credulous 
hearers  to  an  imitation  of  his  life  and  manners.  The  heart 
belies  the  countenance,  and  sensibly  feels,  even  amid  the 
highest  success,  the  unsatisfactory  nature  of  all  tliose  plea^ 
sures  which  detain  it  from  its  true  object  I  examine  the 
voluptuous  man  bef<Nre  enjoyment^  I  measure  the  vehe- 
mence of  his  desire,  and  the  importance  of  his  object;  I 
find  that  all  his  happiness  proceeds  only  from  that  hurry 
of  thought,  which  takes  him  from  himself  and  turns  his 
view  fixun  his  guilt  and  misery.  I  consider  him  a  moment 
after ;  he  has  now  ^oyed  the  pleasure,  which  he  foddly 
sought  after.  The  sense  of  his  guilt  and  misery  returns 
upon  him  with  double  anguish  :  His  mind  tormented  with 
fear  and  remorse;  his  body  depressed  with  disgpst  and 
satiety. 

Bat  a  more  august,  at  leasta  more  haughty  personage, 
presents  himself  boldly  to  our  censure;  and,  assumii^  the 
title  of  a  philosopher  and  man  of  morals,  offers  to  submit 
to  ihemost  rigid  examination.  He  challenges,  with  a  vi- 
siUe,  thou^  concealed  impatience,  our  approbation  and 
applause ;  and  seems  offisnded,  that  we  should  hesitate  a 
HKNnent  before  we  break  out  into  admiration  of  his  virtue. 
Seeing  this  impatience,  I  hesitate  still  more ;  I  begin  to 
examine  the  motives  of  his  seeming  virtue :  But,  behold  I 
ere  I  can  enter  upon  this  inquiry,  h^flings  himself  from 
me;  and,  addressing  his  discourse  to  that  crowd  of  heed- 
less auditors,  fimdly  amuses  them  by  his  magnificent  pre- 
tensions. 

O  philosopher  !  thy  wiadom  is  vain,  and  thy  virtue  ua- 
profitable.  Thou  seekest  the  ignorant  a{q)lauses  of  man, 
not  the  solid  reflections  of  thy  own  conscience,  Or  the  more  • 


152  EfiaiT  XVII. 

solid  approbation  of  that  Beii^  who^  widi  one  regard  of 
his  all^-fleeiiig  eye,  penetratei  the  vsabrmst^  Thoa  aureljr 
art  conscious  of  the  hoUowness  of  thypsKfenckd  piobi^; 
whilst  caUh^  thyself  a  ckizen,  a  son,  a  firknd,  thJoa  for^ 
gettest  thy  highar  soterergn,  thy  tme  fidher,  thy  greatest 
benefifustor.  Where  is  die  adoration  due  to  infinite  pex^ 
fection,  whence  erery  dnng  good  and  vahidsle  is  derived  1 
Where  ia  the  gradtude  owing  to  thy  Creator,  wha  eaUed 
thee  forth  firm  nothing,  who  phued  thee  in  all  these  rela- 
tions to  thy  iellow^creatnres,  and  re<{airing  thee  to  6dfil. 
the  dsty  of  each  relation,  forbids  thee  to  n^ect  what  thou 
owest  to  himself,  the  most  perfect  bring,  to  whom  thou 
art  connected  by  the  closest  tie  ? 

Bat  thou  art  diyself  thy  own  idol.  Thoii  worshipf^est 
thy  imagmary  perfections :  or  rather,  sensible  of  tky.  real 
imperfections,  thou  seekest  only  to  deceive  the  world,  and 
to  pleaae  thy  fancy,  by  nmltipljring  thy  ignorant  admirers. 
Thms  not  content  with  ne^eottng  what  is  most  excciknt 
in  the  uuverae,  diou  desirest  to  substitute  in  his  plaoa 
what  is  mo^  vile  and  contempdhle.  i 

Consider  all  the  works  of  umu's  hands,  all  the  inventions 
of  human  wit,  in  which  thou  affisctest  so  nice  a  cybeenK 
ment  Thou  wUt  find,  that  the  most  perfect  productioi» 
stiQ  proceeds  from  the  most  perfect  thought,  and  that  it  i& 
MiHB  alone  which  we  admire,  while  we  bestow  our  ap-« 
plause  on  the  graces  of  a  wdl^prqportkmed  statue,  or  the 
symmetry  of  a  noble  pile.  The  statuary,  the  arduteet, 
come  stiU  in  view,  and  makes  us  reflect  on  the  beauty  of 
his  art  and  contrivance,  which,  from  a  heap  of  un^cnrnied 
ma(fcter»  could  extract  such  repressions  and  iMropor|;ions. 
This  superior  beauty  of  thought  and  intdlig^cethoo  thy- 
self acknowledgest,  while  thou  invitest  us  to  contmipl^le. 


THE  nATONlfir.  163 

id  ihj  condnfity  the  haroiany  of  aftctkuM^  tlw  dignily  of 
scBtiiiMiOv  and  alLdiQfie  gnues  of  a  m6md  lirUdi  d^9% . 
menHQdor  aiteatiott.    BuLwhyi Bkifspt^  tkmk9h«%l  S^esir 
tbottnothitigfusdbiertliatkvabiaUft?  Ap^thgr^t^MfciM 
applauses  of  beauty  sjoA  ordaiy  att  ibm  atfll  %i¥if<iti^' 
where  is  to  be  found  the  most  consummate  beauty,  the 
most  perfect  order  ?  Compare  the  works  of  art  with  those 
of  nature.    The  one  are  but  imitations  of  the  other.    The 
nearer  art  approadies  to  nature,  the  more  perfect  is  it 
esteemed.     But  still,  how  wide  are  its  nearest  approaches, 
and  what  an  immense  interval  may  be  observed  between 
them  ?  Art  copies  only  the  outside  of  nature,  leaving  the 
inward  and  more  admirable  springs  and  principles,  as  ex- 
ceeding her  imitation,  as  beyond  her  comprehension.   Art 
copies  only  the  minute  productions  of  nature,  despairing  \ 
to  reach  that  grandeur  and  magnificence,  which  are  so  \ 
astonishing  in  the  masterly  works  of  her  original.     C!an    \ 
we  then  be  so  blind  as  not  to  discover  an  intelligence  and     i 
a  design  in  the  exquisite  and  most  stupendous  contrivance 
of  the  universe?  Can  we  be  so  stupid  as  not  to  feel  the 
warmest  raptures  of  worship  and  adoration,  upon  the  con- 
templation of  that  intelligent  Being,  so  infinitely  good  and 
wise? 

The  most  perfect  happiness,  surely,  must  arise  firom  the 
contemplation  of  the  most  perfect  object  But  what  more 
perfect  than  beauty  and  virtue?  And  where  is  l>eauty  to 
be  found  equal  to  that  of  the  universe,  or  virtue  which  can 
be  compared  to  the  benevolence  and  justice  of  the  Deity  ? 
If  aught  can  diminish  the  pleasure  t>f  this  contemplation, 
it  must  be  either  the  narrowness  of  our  faculties  which 
conceals  from  us  the  greatest  part  of  these  beauties  and 
perfections,  or  the  shortness  of  our  lives,  which  allows  not 
time  sufficient  to  instruct  us  in  them.     But  it  is  our  com- 


154>  ESSAY  XVtI. 

fort,  that  if  we  employ  wmthily  the  fiu;ulties  here  assigned 
at,  they  will  be  enlarged  in  another  state  of  existence,  so 
as  to  render  us  more  soitable  worshippers  of  our  Maker ; 
and  that  the  task,  which  can  never  be  finished  in  time^ 
will  be  the  business  of  an  eternity. 


ESSAY  XVIII. 


TUB  SGBPnc. 


I  HAVK  long  entertained  a  suspicion  with  r^^ard  to  the 
decisions  of  philosophers  upon  all  subjects,  and  found  in 
myself  a  greater  inclination  to  diqiute  than  assent  to  their 
omclusions*  Th^re  is  one  mistake,  to  which  they  seem 
liable,  almost  without  exception ;  th^  confine  too  much 
their  principles,  and  make  no  account  of  that  vast  yariety 
which  nature  has  so  much  aflbcted  in  all  her  operations. 
When  a  philo6<q>her  has  once  laid  hold  of  a  &vourite 
princ^le,  which  perhaps  accounts  for  many  natural  effects, 
he  extends  the  same  principle  over  the  whole  creati9n, 
and  reduces  to  it  every  phenomenon,  thoi^h  by  the  most 
vicdent  and  absurd  reasoning.  Our  own  mind  being  nar- 
row and  contractedy  we  cannot  extend  our  concepticm  to 
the  variety  and  extent  oi  nature^  but  imagine  that  she  is 
as  much  bounded  in  her  (^rations,  as  we  are  in  our  spe- 
culation. 

But  if  ever  this  infirmity  of  philosc^hers  is  to  be  sus- 
pected on  any  occasion,  h  is  in  their  reasonings  concem- 
ipg  human  life,  and  the  methods  of  atttiuiiy  bappjness. 
In  that  case  they  are  led  astray,  not  oidy  by  the  narrow- 
ness of  their  understandings,  but  by  that  also  of  their  pas- 
sions. Almost  every  one  has  a  predominant  inclination, 
to  which  his  other  desires  and  affections  submit,  and  which 


156  ESSAY  XVIII. 

governs  him,  though  perhaps  with  some  intervals,  through 
the  whole  course  of  his  life.  It  is  difficult  for  him  to  ^- 
prehend,  that  any  thing  which  appears  totally  indifferent 
to  him  can  ever  give  enjoyment  to  any  person,  or  can 
possess  charms  which  altogether  escape  his  observation. 
His  own  pursuits  are  al\i^ays,  in  his  account,  the  most  en- 
gaging, the  objects  of  his  passion  the  most  valuable,  and 
the  road  which  he  pursues  the  oidy  one  that  leads  to  hap- 
piness. 

But  would  these  prejudiced  reasoners  reflect  a  moment, 
there  are  many  obvious  instances  and  arguments  sufficient 
to  ilmteceive  them,  attd  miike  them  €tilai^  their  maxims 
smd  principle.  Do  they  not  ^e  the  vast  variety  of  in- 
dinatioAs  and  pUTStttls  among  om*  species,  wh^re  eath< 
nuov  seems  fblly  satisfied  wil^  his  own  course  of  yife^  and 
y^oM  edteem  it  the  greatest  Hnha^ness  to  be  coi^ned 
t«  diat  of  his  neighbour?  Do  they  not  feel  in  themselves, 
that  wiiBt  pleases  tit  one  tune,  ^Ispleeses  at  another  by  the 
diange  of  inclinatioii,  anid  ^at  it  is  net  kt  their  p^wer,  by 
their  utmoM  eibrts,  to  recatt^hat  taste  or  appetite  which 
formerly  bestowed  charms  miwf^  new  appears  incKfler- 
enf  or  ^agreoaible?  What  is  the  meahtng  therefore  of 
those  generflS  preferences-  of  Ae  town  or  country  life^  of  a 
Kfe  'of  actibii  bp  one  of  pleasure,  *of  rerirement  or  society  ,- 
when,  besides  Ike  difliireiit  inelkiations  of  ^Bffecent  men, 
every '  ©lie's  ejcperience  mayconvfece  him,  tfiat  each  of 
these  kinds  of  life  is  agreeable  in  its  turn,  and  that  llieir 
variety  or  their  judieiem  mixture  ehieffy  eohtrttmtes  to  flie 
rei](detteg$il^th^m  agreeable?   ' 

BM^^^tbistmisiness  be  alleii^^  fo  go  akogefteir  alb 
ad^^totil^e^^  Aifidmttst  afman  bhly  consultMi  hanrour  and 
inclination;  in  ord^  to  detei*miiie  his  conrse  of  Kfe,  with^' 
out  eraployin]^  his  reason  to  m^crfh^hihi  What  road  isTwe- 


fHR  «CfeH^.  15*7 

i^aibfle,  BUnA  leads  most  s«ifc*ely  t<>  )iat>ptiftess»?  Is  there  tio 
^Hfefeiice,  tibeti)  betw^een  out  j^ti*^  (k^dncft  ahd  atiotker  ? 
I  am^wter,  tkere  is  a  gfeat  dilfetieilde*  One  man^  follow- 
jtig  his  lAclintrtioB,  in  cJhoosing  his  toarde  of  1^  mi^  em^ 
fk^  ttHttdb  'Mttft  itieMsfiM*^li€Ceeding  than  anodier,  who 
l»  I^  I^4iicli«atk)A  iMo  )h^  aafetle  cdfB^-of  life,  and  ptir^- 
mies  tfi^  s&rtie  fo^ett.  Are  fkheslhe  ^Mrf  olgedt  tf  ywtt 
desires?  Ac^ektt  iskill  ill yMt-  priftfessiofi:  be  diligent  in 
the  fe:feet(4se  of  it ;  enlar^re  Ate  d^e  ^  your  firt^ds  and 
iicquBultance ;  nvcAA  pleasure  and  expense :  and  never  be 
gehefotts^  but  with  a  view  of  gaining  more  than  you  could 
save  hf  frugality.  ffhuU  you  acquits  Ike  pnbiie  esteem  f 
<^MtA  ^ually  agabist  the  eMteiAes  of  attogance  and  fawn- 
ing. Let  it  atppear  that  y (Ri  set  ^  value  upon  yoUrself,  but 
without  <Wspising  others.  If  you  fiiH  into  either  of  the  el- 
tremes,  you  either  provoke  men's  piide  fey  yonr  insolence, 
or  teach  them  to  de^Mse  yon  by  your  fSmorous  submission, 
and  by  Ihe  mean  ophum  whidb  yoa  seem  to  entertain  <tf 
yourself. 

'  Theiie,  you  say,  are  the  ina&ims  bf  commbh  prudence 
teid-discretion ;  what  elvery  porettt  ineidcates  on  his  dtild, 
and  what  every  man  of  sense  pursues  in  the  course  of  lifb 
wbkb  he  bas  cferais^. — What  is  tl  *en  you  diesh^  more? 
l)oyt)U^eome  to  a  tdiiloso^e^  a^  to  e  cumnh^  mem,  tolbam 
sottietbmg  by  ikiagic  ot  witblicmft,  beyond  what  can  be 
knowid  by  ttdltttoon  pwAftUce  and  Akitoktf&m?iLJ^^\  ^ 
oome  to  a)>htlosopher  to  be  ilistnictfed,,  how  we  ^h^  dh6ose 
^mr  endi^  more  thM  the  means  i^t  attMning  th^sie  ends. 
We  want  td  taww  what  desire  we  shall  gratify,  what  pas- 
sicn  we  shall  CGtai{^  with,  what  appetite  we  shall  indulge. 
As  to  the  test,  we  trust  to  omimon  sense,  and  the  general 
maxims  of  the  world,  for  our  instruction. 
•  .  I  am  sorry,  then,  1  have  pretended  to  be  a  philosopher: 


1S8  ESSATXTIII* 

For  I  find  your  questicNOi  v^ry  perplexing ;  and  am  in  dan- 
ger, if  my  answer  be  too  rigid  and  «evepe,  of  passing  for  a 
pedant  and  scholastic;  if  it  be  too  easy  and  free^  of  being 
taken  for  a  preacher  of  vice  and  immorali^.  However, 
to  satisfy  you,  I  shall  deliver  my  opinion  upon  the  matter, 
and  shall  only  desire  you  to  esteem  it  of  as  little  conse-* 
quence  as  I  do  lAyself.  By  that  means  you  will  neither 
think  it  worthy  of  your  ridicule  nor  your  anger. 

If  we  can  depend  upon  any  principle,  which  we  learn 

'^from  philosophy,  this,  I  think,  may  be  considered  as  cer- 
tain and  undoubted,  diat  there  is  nothing,  in  itself,  valua- 
ble or  despicable,  desirable  or  hatefid,  beautiful  or  deform- 
ed; but  that  these  attributes  arise  from  the  particular  con- 

i^titution  and  fabric  of  human  sentiment  and  affection. 
What  seems  the  most  delicious  food  to  one  animal,  appears 
loathsome  to  another :  What  affects  the  feeling  of  one  with 
delight,  produces  uneasiness  in  another.  This  is  confessp 
edly  the  case  with  r€^;ard  to  all  the  bodily  senses :  But,  if 
we  examine  the  matter  more  accurately,  we  shall  find  that 
the  same  observation  holds  even  where  the  mind  concurs 
with  the  body,  and  mii^les  its  sentiment  with  the  exterior 
appetite. 

Desire  this  passionate  lover  to  give  you  a  character  of 
hismistress:  He  will  tell  you,  that  he  is  at  a  loss  for  words 
to  describe  her  charms,  and  will  ask  you  very  seriously,  if 
ever  you  were  acquainted  with  a  goddess  or  an  angel?  If 
you  answer  that  you  never  were:  He  will  then  say,  that 
it  is  in^xwsible  for  you  to  form  a  concq>tion  of  such  divine 
beauties  as  those  which  his  charmer  pouesses ;  so  complete 
a  shape;  such  well-prc^rtioned  features;  so  engaging  an 
air;  such  sweetness  of  disposition ;  such  gaie^  of  humour. 
You  can  infer  nothing,  however,  from  all  this  discourse 
but  that  the  poor  man  is  in  love ;  and  that  the  general  ap- 


THE  SCEPTIC.  159 

petite  between  the  sexes,  which  ihiturehas  infused  into  all 
animals,  is  in  him  determined  to  a  particular  object  by 
some  qualities  whidi  give  him  pleasure*  The  same  divine 
creature,  not  only  to  a  different  animal,  but  also  to  a  dif» 
finrent  man,  appears  a  m^re  mortal  being,  and  is  behdd 
with  the  utmoat  indi£ferenee. 

Nature  has  given  all  animals  a  like  prejudice  in  favour 
of  their  offipring*  As  soon  as  the  helpless  infimt  sees  the 
light,  thou£^  in  every  other  ty^  it  appears  a  despicable  and 
a  miserable  creature,  it  is  regarded  by  its  fond  parent  with 
the  utmost  affection^  and  is  prefisrred  to  every  other  objept, 
however  perfect  and  aecon^lished.  The  passion  alone^  ^ 
arising  from  the  original  structure  and  formation  of  human 
nature,  bestows  a  value  on  the  most  insignificant  object    , 

We  may  push  the  same  observatum  fiurther,  and  may 
condnde  that,  even  when  the  mind  opemtds  alone,  and 
feeling  the  s^itiment  of  bhune  or  approbation^  pronounces 
one  object  deformed  and  odious^  another  beautiful  and  ar 
unable;  I  say  thal^  even  in  this  ctte^  those  qualities  are  not  ^ 
really  in  the  ol^ects,  but  bekmg  entirely  to  the  sentiment 
rfthat  mind  which  blames  or  praises.  I  grant,  that  it  will  ^ 
be  more  difficult  to  make  this  proposition  evident,  and,  as 
it  were^  palpaUe,  to  negligent  thinkers;  because  nature  is 
mwe  uniform  in  the  saitiments  of  the  mind  than  in  most 
feelii^  of  the  body,  and  produces  a  nearer  resemblance  in 
the  inward  than  in  the  outward  part  of  human  kind.  There 
is  something  iqaproaehing  to  principles  in  mental  taste;  and 
antics  con  remK>u  and  diq[mte  more  plausibly  than  cooks 
or  perfumers^  We  may  observe,  however,  that  this  uni- 
formly among  human  kind,  hinders  not^  but  that  there 
is  a  considerable  diversity  in  the  sentiments  c£  beauty  and 
worthy  and  that  education,  custom,  prejudice,  cqyrice,  and 
humour,  frequentiy  vary  our  taste  o(  this  kind.    You  will 


166  1C86AY  xnu. 

never  conyinos  «  man,  iiiio  is  not  accustomed  to  Italian 
music,  aftd  hail  not  an  car  to  fafiov  its  intrioacaes»  that  a 
Scots  tone  is  net  preferable.  Tea  haire  not  even  juiy  mn* 
^  atg^t^eett  beyond  your  own  tasfee,  ^MA  you.aan  anr^ 
)4cy  fa^  your  b^alf  t'  Aadtoywraiatagoiiigthigpagticdar 
taste  will  always  appear  a  more  oonTincbig  argument  to  tha 
eotitraiy.  if  you  bd  wise,  each  of  you  will  allow  that  the 
eAer  may  be  in  the  r^t;  and  having  many  odier  in* 
isrtances  o^this£venity  of  tad^  you  will  both  confess,  that 
beauty  and  worth  are  merely  of  a  rriativie  nature,  and  cod* 
sist  in  an  agreeable  senrtmeut,  produced  by  an  object  in  a 
paMieuIar  mind,  according  td  the  peculiar  structure  and 
^eonstiiution  of  that  mind. 

By  l9iis  diversity  of  Mfftimeiit,  obsepvabie  in  iiutaw 
nature  hat,  f»erhap^  Itit^ided  4o  mal^e  us  senftUe  oT  her 
authority,  fo^  let  tis  see  what  surprising  changes  she  could 
produce  oh  the  passions  and  desires  of  mankind,  merely  by 
ifte  change-of  %heir  biimid  lilbvie,  without  afiy  alteration 
iM  tfie  eifajeeti!.  The  v«lgar  toay  e^a  be  eontrioced  by 
iMs  argulnikent.  But  men,  accustomed  to  thinking,  may 
dr&  w  a  more  eonvfaiciiig,  at  least  a  more  general  atgament^ 
ikxtt  ^e  vary  hMore  ef  tht  wbje<^ 

In  the  operatic^  of  reason^,  the  mnid  does  nothii^ 
-but  run  over  its  etijects^  as  tiiey  are  supposed  to  stand  in 
reality,  wfthoat  adding  Mrf  thing  to  them,  or  dnnhiishii^ 
any  thing  from  them.  If  I  examine  the  Ptolomaie  and 
Oopemkan  systems,  t  endeavour  only,  by  my  ini|«fies, 
to  know  the  real  sitafttionof  the  planets^  that  is,  hi  other 
words,  I  endeavour  to  give  them,  in  my  cenceptmn,  l9ie 
same  relations  that  they  bear  towards  eadi  oittier  m  the 
heavens.  To  this  operation  of  idie  ndnd,  tlwaefore,  there 
seems  to  be  always  a  real,  though  often  an  unknown  stan- 
dard, in  the  nature^  things;  nor  is  truth  or  falsehood 

2 


THE  SCEPTIC.  161 

i;«riA^le  by  the  various  apprehensions  of  mankind.  Though  ^ 
fUdie  human  race  should  for  ever  conclude,  that  the  sun 
moves,  and  the  earth  remains  at  rest,  the  sun  stirs  not  an 
inch  from  bis  place  for  all  these  reasonings;  and  such 
C€8idiisioiis  arp  eternally  false  and  erroneous.  ^ 

Bat  the  case  is  not  the  same  with  the  qualities  of  beau- 
t^  mud  d^ormedf  demrabk  and  ixUmuj  as  with  truth  and 
fidsehood.  In  the  former  case,  the  mind  is  not  content 
wkh  merely  surveying  its  objects,  as  they  stand  in  them- 
selves :  It  also  feels  a  sentiment  of  delight  or  uneasiness, 
a{q)robatioa  or  blame,  consequent  to  that  survey;  and^is 
s^otunent  determines  it  to  affix  the  qpithet  beautffid  or  de^ 
/bnmd,  duinMe  or  odkmi.  Now,  it  is  evident,  that  this 
sentiment  must  depend  upon  the  particular  fabric  or  struc- 
ture of  the  mi^'  which  enables  such  particular  forms  to 
Ofperate  in  such  a  particular  manner,  and  produces  a  sym- 
pathy- or  conformity  between  the  mind  and  its  objects. 
Vary  the  structure,  of  the  mind  or  inward  organs,  the  senti- 
ment no  longer  follows,  thoi^h  the  form  remains  the  same. 
The  sentiment  beingt  different  fi\>m  the  object,  and  arising 
from  its  operaticm  upon  the  organs  of  the  mind,  an  altera- 
tion upcm  the  latter  must  vary  the  effect,  nor  can  the  same 
olg^Qt,  presented  to  a  mind  totally  different,  produce  the 
same  sentiment 

This  conclusion  every  one  is  apt  to  draw  of  himself, 
wtithpQt;m|idi  phtloBophy,  where  the  sentiment  is  evidently 
djidnguishable^om  the  object  Who  is  not  sensible^  that 
power,  and  ^ry,  and  vengeance,  are  not  desirable  of  them- 
selves^ bat  derive  all  their  valuefrom  the  structure  of  bu- 
rn^, passions,  which^b^^ets  a  desire  towards  sudi  particu- 
lar pursuits?  Bi^t  with  regard  to  beauty,  either  natural  or 
moral,  the  case  is  oommonly  supposed  to  be  difierent  The 
agreeable  quality  is  thought  to  lie  in  the  object,  not  in  the 

VOL.  I.  M 


162  XSSAT  xviti. 

dendment;  and  that  metelj  because  the  sentiiiieilt  is  iioticr 
turbulent  and  violent  as  to  dtstingnish  itsd^  hi  aft  etidetif 
liianner,  from  the  perception  of  the  cAject 

But  a  little  reflection  suffices  to  distinguiA  tbem.  A 
man  may  know  exactly  all  Ae  cihrles  and  ellipses  (of  the 
Copernican  system,  and  all  tfie  iir^ubbr  spirals  of  die 
Pt6l&malc,  without  perceiving  dlM  the  former  istnor^b^t^i 
tiful  than  the  latter.  Euclid  has  folly  exfAained  every 
quality  of  the  circle,  but  has  not,  in  any  proposHiofi,  <said 
k  word  of  its  beauty.  The  reason  is  evldeilt  Beauty  la 
not  a  quality  of  the  circle.  It  lies  not  hi  ahy  part  of  die 
line,  whose  parts  are  all  equally  distant  from  a  comnkm 
centre.  It  is  only  the  eSbct,  idiich  thttt  Bgat^  prddncA 
upon  a  mind,  whose  particulikr  fabric  or  strulitttre  retiders 
it  susceptible  of  such  sentinlents*  In  vain  Would  ^oU  look 
for  it  in  the  circle,  or  seek  1^  either  by  fotxt  ^hies,  or  by 
m&themadcal  reasonings,  in  all  the  properties  ofthat  figure. 

The  Inathematician,  who  took  no  other  pleasure  in  read- 
ing Virgil,  but  that  of  examining  .^eas^s  voyage  by  die 
map,  mi^t  perfectly  tUidet^^tdnd  the  meaning  of  every 
Latin  word,  employe^d  by  that  divine  authoi^ ;  and,  con- 
isequently,  inigfat  have  k  distinct  idei  of  th^  whole  n^brtMbtt. 
He  would  feven  have  a  more  distinct  ide^  of  it,  thatr  thejr 
could  attain  who  had  not  studied  so  exactly  di^  geogmphy 
bf  tlie  poem.  He  knew,  therefore,  every  diihg  ih  the  pdem : 
But  he  Was  ignorant  *6f  its  beauty ;  because  die  bea«rty, 
properly  speakbg,  fie^  not  in  the  pbeih^  btit  in  the  l^nd- 
tnent  or  taste  of  die  read^.  Atld  where  a  man  has  nb  suth 
delit^cy  of  tempisr  ^  to  tftake  hM  T6A  diis  MMtoeitt,  fate 
tntisi  be  ignoratit  t6f  die  bi^autry,  dib«gfa  possliMed  of  di^ 
iKrience  and  tinderMAndifl^  of  iGin  fan^ «. 

•8tf»Koti(F.] 


THE  fiCEPTJC  169 

/  Xbe urferwM ^xp^  (b0  wlM^ iS| t^tk i«|iQt firom (b^^ 

we  can  dHe«mitiQlii»c^)tymeqt,  but  qmr^iruiothepii«(" 
umk  with  wliiolt  he  pwvtie^  i^  wd  U»e  wocea^  which  be 
meeta  with  in  hi»  ptgursv^  Qfajjeds  huve  ^baphib^y  na 
worth  or  vahio  in  thnmolvea.  They  deri^  tbeir  worth 
merely  from  the  pemoeu  If  diet  be  strong  w^  steady, 
end  amoeaflfttl^  the  peraon  is  happy*  It  cannot  reasonably j 
he  donblad>  blitaliltle  ioi»>  dressed  in  a  mew  go^n  fiir  ii 
dancing-school  beU^  reeeivea  as  opmplete  enjoyment  fis  Ihe 
geeatest  oraMTi  who  triumidis  in  the  splepdonr  of  bia  ^o- 
^pieoeei  whilehege^ems  thepestionaandreaohltionsofa 

AU  I|m  difierence»  tberdEbfe^  between  one  inauL  and  an* 
olber^  with  «egttd  to  hfei  oQiisisia  mther  in  the /w^^ 
m  the  ttp$ifm$iii:  And  these  difi»eni:ea  ate  aMflkient  te 
pufldoce  the  wide  cortr<Mnes  of  happlnesB  ^  nuscary*        -J 

To  be  happy,  the/iosstofi  must  nekher  be  too  violenti  nor 
loo  remiss^ .  In  the  first  oase>  the  mind  is  in  a  perpi^tnal 
hwary  and  tuMoU;  in  the  seoond^  it  sinks  intoe  disagree- 
idile  inddenoe  Md  ledbesMV* 

.  To  be  happy,  the  pession  mus^  be  benign ^and  social; 
90t  rongfa  or  fimae^  TheaJOS^ctjonsofthektter  kindare 
Mfc  Mar  f0  ^gmeable  to  the  feeUm^  as  tbose  of  the  former* 
Who  n^  epnqiereraaoettr  avd  enimosiQ^  envy  end  re^ 
,teeigei,te£rjendsbjp»  benignity,  elemenoj^  a^d gratitude? 
:  To  he  ba|yy»  tbepatwen  must  be  cheerfal  and  gey».  m>t 
gteomfandmehoidtoly.  Ap^qpeoMtytoh^eandjoyia 
jtealriohea:  One  to£m*andaoc*ow^realpovei;^.    ' 

Some  pas$ion#  or  imrlipatiQiiSj  in  Ae  mufoyinwif  ff  their 
^tfwn  are  not  so  steady  <HriKmsMNata»othy%ffori99»yey 
jaachdwaWe  pleeeiire  and  w»isfaction>  J^ikm*m^l^ 
p^tmh  S» 'mHmm,  hhe  the  «dmaeain  «f  a  po^  is  the 

u2 


\M  S88AY  XVfir/ 

transitory  etkct  of  high  spirits,  great  leisure^  a  tbae  gemuSf 
and  a  habit  of  study  and  contemplatioii:  Batnotwithstaad- 
ing  all  these  circnmstanees,  an  abstract,  invisible  object, 
like  that  which  natural  religion  al<»ie  presents  to  us,  can- 
not long  actuate  the  mind,  or  be  of  any  moment  in  lifis. 
To  render  the  passion  of  continuaaoe,  we  must  find  some 
method  of  affecting  the  senses  and  imagination,  and  must 
embrace  some  hisloricalas  well  as  pkilosqpkieal  account  of 
[  the  divinity.  Popular  superstitions  and  observances  an 
even  found  to  be  of  use  in  tiiis  particular. 

Though,  the  tempers  of  men  be  very  diffisr^t,  yet  we 
may  safely  pronounce  in  general,  that  a  life  of  pkasum 
cannot  support  itself  so  long  as  one  of  business,  but  is  much 
iliore  subject  to  satiety  and  disgust*  The  amusements 
which  are  the  most  durable  have  all  a  miztore  ctf  apfiliea- 
ticm  and  attention  in  tiiem ;  sudi  as  gaming  and  hunting. 
And,  in  general,  business  and  action  fill  up  all  the  great 
vacancies  in  human  life. 

But  where  the  temper  is  the  best  disposed  fer  any  -ai* 
joyment,  the  object  is  often  wanting :  And  in  this  respect, 
the  passions,  which  pursue  external  objects,  contribute  not 
so  much  to  happiness,  as  those  whkh  rest  .in  ourselves ; 
since  we  are  neitiier  so  certam  of  attaining  such  objects^ 
nor  so  secure  in  possessing  thenu  A  passion  for  leamfaig 
is  preferable,  with  regard  to  happiness,  to  one  for  riches. 

Some  men  are  possessed  of  great  strength  of  mind ;  and, 
even  when  they  pursue  eaOemal  objects,  are  not  much  af- 
fected by  disappointment,  but  renew  their  applicatiim  and 
industry,  with  tiie  greatest  cheerfulness.  Nothing  contri- 
butes more  to  happihess  t&an  such  a  turn  ctf  mind. 

Accon&g  to  this  short  and  imperfect  sketch  of  human 
life,  liie  happiest  disposition  of  mind  is  the  virtwmBt  or^ 
in  other  words,  that  which  leads  to  action  and  employment^ 


TiUS  fiCSFXIC.  165 

readers  us  sensible  to  the  social  passions,  steels  th^e  heart 
against  the  assaults  of  fortune,  reduces  the  affections.  jU>  a 
just  moderation,  makes  our  own  thoughts  m  entertainment 
to  us,  and  inclines  us  rather  to  the  pleasures  of  socie^  and 
conTersation,  than  to  those  of  the  senses.  This,  in.the 
mean  time,  must  be  obvious  to  the  most  cardess  reas<mer, 
that  idl  diq)ositioDS  of  mind  are  not  alike  favourable  to 
happiness,  and  that  one  passion  or  humour  may  be  ex- 
tremdy  desirable,  while  another  is  equally  disagreeable. 
Andy  indeed,  all  the  diffisr^ice  between  the  ccmdition^  of 
U&  depends  upon  the  mind ;  nor  is .  there  any  one  jsitua- 
tion  (tf  affiurs,  in  itsdl^  prefisrable  to  another*  Good  and 
ill^  both  natural  and  moral,  are  entirely  relatiye  tp  hupian 
sentiment  and  a£fection.  No  man  would  ever  be  unhap- 
py, oouUL  be  aher  his  feelingSi,  Proteus-Uke,  he  wQuld  j 
^ctode  all  attacks,  by  the  ccmtinual  alterations,  of  his  shape 
and  form* 

But  of  this  resource  nature  has,  in  a  gre^t  measure,  de- 
prived uiB.  The  fabrio  and  constitution  of  our  ]](iind  no 
mbre  depends  on  our  dunce,  than  that  of  Qurbpdy.  The  i 
generality  of  men  have  not  even  the  smallest  notiop,  that 
any  alteration  in  diis  r^pect  can  ever  be  desirable*.  As  a 
stream  necessarily  follows  the  sevend  indinations  of  the 
ground  on  wfaidi  it  nma ;  so  ar&the.ignorsnl,  and  tjiought- 
less  part  of  mankind  actuated  by  their  natural  propensi- 
tiesi  Such  are  tflb^l»aU}r  exduded  from  ei\  pi^tepsions 
to  phikato^yfBSidfhtmedMmqfthef^^ 
ed«  fiat  even  upon  the  wise  and  thoughtful,  nature  has 
a  prodKgious  influence ;  nor  is  it  always  in  a  man's  power^ 
bfili^  utmost  art  and  indnstryy  to  conrect  his  ^e^per,  and 
,atbMi  that  virtuous  character,  to  which  he  aspires*  The 
en^Hure  of  philosophy,  extends  over  a  few ;  0Bd.  with  rer 
gard  to  Uiese  too,  her  authpij^  is  Vjsry  weak,  woA  Iw^ted* 


)66  fi«6AV  XVtll* 

Men  nay  mM  be  sensMe  of  ike  Talae  of  Tiftoe)  aodvMiy 
desire  to  atUnhi  ft;  but  it  is  ftdt  elfmys  certain,  liiattlB^ 
iivffl  be  sMbessffhl  in  thdr  wieiieft. 

Whoever  considers,  widioutpre^dke,  the  cowrse  of  hu* 

man  actions,  wfll  find,  that  mankiod  ore  almoet  entbrdy 

guided  by  ooniAkntion  and  tenper,  and  thatgenemlttnx* 

ims  have  tittJelnfltteiioa,  but  aofiar  as  they  affect  otHT  ta0le 

onsMSHtimetit    ff^a  manlnrfie  « livdy  tense  of  honour  ^ad 

^irtne^  irith  modeMtef  aBsiont,  Us  ooadnet^apiUaltrajfabe 

oonferiBaUetotiieTaleaofmoMility;  or  if  hedqMrtifiwn 

tiiem,  Ms  r^Mmifill  be  oasy  «ttd  eitpeditieas.    On  die 

4otherhimd,  iviiere  one  is txnn  of  ao  perverse  a  ihuneof 

mind,  ^so  oaSous  and  insensible  odisporidon,  as  to  have 

no  fcSish  for  viitae  and  hwnanity,  no  sympathy  with  hsa 

JRdtow-ci'eatittcs,  no'desiieof  esteem  mimpj^bimt;  sock 

«<me  most  be  allowed  enlivelykioi»«t)ie,'BOriB  tbtitea»f 

remedy  in  philosophy.    He  reaps  no  satisfaction  but  &om 

leitr  and  ^KffiBurf  ob)6Ct%  or  ftoat  the  ittdnlgcDce  of  ^^ 

tentpassions:  He feAttoreOMrae  to  control  fas  vioiona 

indlinations:  He  has  not  even  that  sense  or  4aate,v4iidi  is 

itequisite%»HMdw  him -desire  abetter  chancier.    SW^gr 

"part,  Ilcnow  not  howl  idiouldoddioss  mysctf  to  auch  « 

^one,  ^r  lyf  Wha;t  argoments  I  ohould  ondeswwor  to  aufaim 

Irfn.    BhoiddlMllhimoftbeinwndsatislhctaonqRiw* 

Tresnks  ftomlandaWe^andhuniBne  natiens,  diedeiicateplen" 

wtre^dianterefTled  love  and  flimdriJp,  Ike  kating^o- 

joymettts  of  n  good  «ttttne  and  «n«8lrfi]iriied  iihawniu^  he 

n^fstS  reply,'ttiat*the»e^«pwe,  pethaps,  plea6nins:lo  such 

«8  ^(rere  susceptible  of •ihem ;  butthilt,  finr  3iis  part,  bojitds 

temsdf  of  a  <{n^  different  tirai  onA  disposkioiL    Cmipiit 

irepeat-it;  my  philMi^y  afiMks  te>>enMdy  ki  sia^  aosye, 

Hdrxotfld^Iidoimythfag^botlaBient  Ibis  persoiA  mifcap 

*py  condn9on«    'But  Oen  %  one,  ff  any  ^eAer  ^hilaaopby 


Jf$l^  SCEPTIC.  19H 

fftft  «jB^  ^  W^^fi  9^  if  it  f)e  possi^e,  by  aixy  ^y^p^m^ 
to  T^od^  aU  ffiapldpd  virtuous^  how<^er  perverse  may  ^ 
ti^  l^afw^  &W^  ^  i^d  ?  Experience  w^  mon  con* 
yjj^^  m  of  tti^  qpi^trarjr;  «jad  I  will  venture  t9  affiryp,^ 
tiMlf  P^fbapjib  ^  ^14^  b^pefit  wbiich  ^results  from  philo^ 
9ppfrj>  ^ri^.w  a^  Andireti^t  manneri  and  proceeds  morf 
firpfQ  jte  secret)  iw^i^iW^  influence^  than  from  Itf  unmet 
dmtejf^Ga|4P9« 

jl^  44  WF!^ml  M^(  f  seripus  afteption  I9  the  sciences  ap4 
-Wwr^ju^  sq%p*.  apdliumfipize^  the  t^mpi^p,  audch^ri^r 
«^  0io8^  %4^  ^p)QtiQnf»  |n  vjiich  true  virtue  and  bpnpnf 
WWlirtf  U  W^»  V(»ry  W^  J>?PPfi»Sj  th«t  a^n^an  of 
-We  m4  tewJMWis  »9fc  «it  lef^  an  Jjpnest  man,  i^hatr 
ever,  fi'ailties  may  attend  him.  The  bent  of  his  mind  U^ 
tfffifffiMiY»  <6(lldf¥  S<9^t  mf^rtify  ip  hifn  the  passipns  of  in* 

um9tM^mMim»  im^ptm^  »^  tl^  m^^  lim^  give  him 

lig^Mtor  imilbMfir.(^«a4be  ^/^ffp/^ax^  duties  of  li% 

naiUMMii  nor  ia  litt  SABie  iof  this  kind  diminifihedi  bnti  on 
jtfao  0O9Mvry»  U  h  WS^  mffpffis^,  by  speculation. 

diiq^itio%  it  is  highly  probable,  that  others  may  }}e  pro- 
Ai«i  >)y  f|;|i4y  md,  f^j^Uq^^t^Bf    Th?  pffgdig^oiis  effects  . 

of  AdaAation  inAxr  riniiirinf*^  iif,   that  the  mlsd  is  UOt  altO* 

gnAd^r  i^bbpwjpd  AiiwrJih]e»  bu$  fjM  §4!¥t  9^  pany  ^ 

tagiiiitwia-firiiifili  tMriirinal  mtilfir  aiid  stmiiiure*  I^t  a  man 
BikiBiii*  M  ihimaftf ithfl  iBAdaljof  a  fharantfir  whAd^Jie  an- 

A»xrkMat  b|a/9Wi  fl]|»]||$|;(^.deiwl#f  A^PP^j^ks^^  J^ 
•kMateiSE  Acmiii^Mit  wfti#»k  ^vi>>^if  nuMtUl  and  bendliisBuiiuL 

Iqt  AHMtiim^  «tfwt»  ^^m  t^  yii(p$i%  towards  the  wtuei^; 
^i][4MdHA9i(to^iPii;WW>  bewiUto4»ipJijiErt^n;ipfyr> 
an  alteration  for  the  better. 


148  £S8AY  xyiii. 

Habit  b  another  powerfiil  means  ctf  reforming  the  mmd, 
and  implanting  in  it  good  dispositions  and  indinatibns: 
K  man  who  continues  in  a  course  xX  sobrie^  and  tempe- 
ranee,,  will  bate  riot  and  disorder :  If  he  engage  in  btisi- 
ness  or  study,  indolence  will  seem  a  pnnishanent  to  him : 
If  he  constrain  himself  to  practise  beneficence  ^and  affit- 
bifity,  he  will  soon  abhor  all  instances  of  pride  and  ^io* 
lence.  Where  one  is  thoroughly  convinced  that  Ae  tit* 
tuous  course  of  life  is  preferable ;  if  he  have  but  resolu- 
tion enough,  f<Nr  some  time,  to  impose  a  violence  on  him- 
self, his  reformation  needs  not  to  be  despaired  of.  The 
misfortune  is,  that  this  conviction  and  this  resolution  never 
can  have  place,  unless  a  man  be,  beforehand,  tolerably  vir^ 
tuous. 

Here  then  is  the  chief  triumph  of  art  and  philosoiiiy  • 
It  insensibly  refines  the  temper,  and  it  points  out  to  us 
those  dispositions  ^n^ch  we  should  endeavour  to  attain,  by 
a  constant  had  of  mind,  and  by  repealed  AoM  Beyond 
this  I  cannot  acknowledge  it  to  have  great  influenoe^iand 
I  mustentertafai  doubts  concerning  all  those  exhortadons 
and  consolations,  which  are  in  such  vc^e  among  specu^ 
iative  reason^^ 

We  have  already  observed,  that  bo  objeeta  -an^  in 
-tfielkiselves,  desirable  or  odious,  valuable  or  despioahle ; 
bat l3iat objects ac^dre these qualttiesfiKmi'the  paitieukr 
diameter  and  constitntion  of  Ae  mind  whieb^iurvqw  th^i. 
'^To  diminish,  therefcre,  or  an^jmentany  panon^a  vttliipAir 
an  object,  toesx^teor  moderatehis  passions,  tbeieafeno 
direct  arguments  or  reasons,  whi^  can  be  eoqployed  widi 
anyferee  or  influence.  Hie  catching  of  fliesyUki^DMii- 
tian,  ^itgive  more  pkaabre^  k  prefiamUe  to  theJHuitio^ 
.of  wild  beasts,  like  William  Rufiis,  or  conquering  of  klog^ 
doms  like  Alexander. 


THE  acsFnc.  160 

fiat  though  the  Talueof  «?ery  o^ectcan  be  d^emuned 
only  by  the  sentinMnt  or  passion  of  every  individfial,  we 
may  cfaserve)  thi^  the  passion^  in  pronouncing  its  veccfid, 
oomiders  not  the  object  simply,  as  it  is  in  itsd^  but  stutr 
-^riyt  it  with  all  the  circumstances  idiidi  attend  it.  A  man 
transported  with  joy,  on  account  of  his  possessing  a  dia^ 
mondy  confines  not  Ihs  view  to  the  glittering  stone  before 
him :  He  also  consideiB  its  rarity,  and  hence  chiefly  arises 
hisi^kasure.andezultatioiL  Here  therdbre  a  philosopher^ 
may  stsp  m,  and  suggest  particular  views,  and  considers*- 
tions,  and  circumstances,  which  otherwise  would  have 
escaped  i»,  and  by  that  ineans,  he  may  either  moderate  or 
exdte  any  partimkr  passion. 

It  pmyseem  unreasonable  absolutely  to  deny  the  atidwip 
rityofphflosopbyinthis  resfpect:  But  it  must  be  oonfess>> 
«d,  that  there  Hen  this  strong  presumption  against  it,  thai, 
if  these  views  be  natural  and  obvious,  they  would  have  Qei>' 
curredof  tbem^elves^  without  i^assiBtkttce<rf'ph2oso|Ay ; 
if  they  be  hpt  natural,  they  never  can  have  any  influence 
4mtheafibctions»  SHIsas-areof  averydeUcotenatmre,  and, 
cannot  be  Iwced  or  conit]»i]^  by  the  utmost  itftor.i^ 
try.  A  consideration  ^hich  we  aeek  fcir  op  puipos^  which 
we  enter,  into  widi  difficulty,  whidi  we  cannot  attain  witfa«- 
oat  care  andaCtentiw,  will  nevier  produce  those  genubie 
<and  durable  aovementsofpiUsion,  which  «re  the  lesiiltidf 
nature,  and  itfae  ccmstttotion  jdf  .die.mnKL  A  man  may  iss 
weil  pretend  tocurehimsel£ofk)rve,  by  viewing  hfanustresB 
through  the  or^l^feia/ medium  of  a  nucrescope  or  [^^ 
-and  beholding  there  the  ooarscnest  of  her.  skin,  andmon- 
-atrous  di^pirdportSoa  of  lie»  feotores,  as  hope  to  es^eil^or 
nKklerate  any  jpasMon  by  the  wt^hM  argotaenA  of  9  8b- 
neca  or  an  Epictetus.  The  remembrance  of  the  natural 
aspect  and  situation  of  the  object,  will,  in  both  cases,  still 


tW  muutr  xnii. 


re(»irq9oahiin.  Thm  iteftectioiiscf  phHogopby  Mre  too  aib- 
^  and  iUfitttut  ta  lake  place  in  aHnman  Ufe^  otf  eradi^eale 
any  a&ction.  Theair  is  too  fine  tp  bnealhe  ^i|  vhere  it  b 
above  the  winds  and  clouds  of  the  atmo^diere, 
r  Another  defixst^  those  i3efinedreflection%.vU6hpUb]^ 
aopby  jioggests  to  us,  is»  jduit  oommc^y  they  cannot  diflaif- 
nisli  or  extinguish  our  ykioos  passions^  without  din^iBish- 
ing4>r  exttnguishing  su^  as  ace  Tirtnons,  and  remdeiing 
the  mind  tptaUy  indi£Eei»nt  andvinactiTe.  They  aie^  fiir 
4iie  moat  part,  general^  aad  are  fif^^k^e  10  ^  wr  a4E60^ 
iioBK.  In  vun  do  we  hope  to  direct  their  influence  only 
to  one  side»  Kby  incessant  stndy  and  meditatioa  Ke  have 
rendered  them  intimate  andpresen|;  to  us,  di^y  inUjOpef 
«ate  thmiagkoat,  and  ^nread  an  UBtyersdl  insensibjyUQr  over 
Ae  mind*  When  we  destcoy  Ihe  negvi^  we  .cK4)ii^;uiA 
Ae^^naaofi^leasure,  togetl^erwidithatof  paiBt  inthehur 
iMuihody. 

1^  wis  bf  ^asy,  byoneghuaee  ofibeeye^  to£ad.0iie.or 
4)dMr<of  these  defiots  in  most  of  tiio#e  philosophieid  rafleo- 
tiosi%  sosmchoelebridsedfaodiiaaDcifintandjBi^ 
IjamiiieuffmiuervMmceqfmienf  say  th0{>liik)6OpheiB % 
lioerdi^DompQtifpamtymgsr  at  hatred,    JfbuU  ^m  be,w^ 
^gff^aUiBaftfiHr  U^  ifialk^4^1haJtygerfari(bfir&m 
This  Inflection  leads  ps  into  a  bad  cpsoflai.Qf  limaMi  a^ 
tmie,  «nd*mufltaxdngvddiithe  iooiil  affbctaMis*    itjMaik 
<aisa.to{nKyflQtaHiiemoiBe£>ramsnVowninrimes;  .when 
iM  iMBaider^  tiittt  Tit^  is  as^  natural  ix^BMnkind^  M 
jlieu^rdbpstiiic^  telxrnte.Greaturies. . 

^Ar  fcr  UmMh^  ^,  |iMr  mh  jHfrtMer  mt^ftM?  WhtAif 


171 

lli»  flts  I  soffbr  mda^  finon  malipe  #r  toppresiibn  ?  BwiAe 

order  (f  At  univerms 

if  pUgiies  aod  earthquakes  break  not  heaTen*8  design, 
yrtkj  ihen  a  BomoiA  or  a  CatalimS  ? 

Let  this  be  allowed ;  and  my  own  vices  will  also  he^pari 
of  the  sane  wordier, 

'     X^-OM  wbo  saMt  ^thatnoiK^  wwe hi^/Qjy  wlw  tk&o^iw^ 
Afxwe^  ppiniicim  a  %Hgrt^  ^QQpl>^  Tl^^  ^Mme  ar^  k^igfjf 

Ma9ii9iomioUmmrdbk^  a^  U  he  $urpri^ 
particwkrniifartwft?  Jvid^umM  gi^wayjtae^rrmai^ 
ttmentatiw  191011  w;e(matjqf  {mj^dUoi^eff  Yeif :  H^  f^ 
jrea^QpaUj  lmnf9(rt%  that;  ^^  ah^nldrWJbom  to^^ifusi^f ab)^ 
y4H9r,€OQsolati9i^  jttfsenUAti^^  t^mJmk, 

j|VMi  pireteild  to  ^aape  Uopu 

oerfy,  btimbiesSi  exiky  cdbmnyy  andiatfamjfi  asHbtohickoi^ 
i^cyienitokwmmmfffarei^^    Jff'a9^qftke$eiB8/attiofwrloif 

Ijioshk^  if j¥ex»nfiQeK>ursfelvesio  a  ganeral^nd^di^tai^ 
idkctiop  on  tbe  iUsof  l^uxoaa  Jlife^  /Mcap  baeve^^0  eflEbsof 
^  prfp^  «3  fiur  thexD.  If  ^^^lase  m^  intense  modi^* 
JM^^  we  vender  th^|Q;i9;vf^QtmdMtimate  to  19^  tkfl/^i9^ib^ 
Ttroe  jieqret-f<y-pnif(mifg>aU  wr.plyywiiifrh  m^jtjrep^qgjty 
j|gfcipetiiaUy:inis^Bff^ble/  .  ; 

lAuiftfV.    VegrtiW/:  a^d  fi)r  that  veiyreason  I  am  apn]r« 

l^iiQ^s  ^xoMolaiiaa  ifor .  dea&es^  i»  aonaawJbat  /cp9i;jflm- 

Hifw  mam  lemguage$  are  (herfip  ^igrs  h^  wUif!h.}ffm  ^mf 

mder$Umd  f  The  Pumcy  Spamshy  GalliCj  Eggptitm^  ffc. 

*  Flut.  Lacom  Apophfkig. 


178  X8f  AT  XVIII. 

fVUh  tegatd  to  oH  tki$ey  you  an  d$ifyou  udert  deqf^  yet 
you  are  im^fiittii  aboui  Ae  waiter,  b  Utkm^  great  a 
mi^fiMrtimetobedeitfto(mekmgtMgenwin 

I  like  better  the  repartee  of  Antipater  the  Cyrenaic, 
when  some  women  were  condoling  with  him  for  his  blind- 
ness: What  f  says  he^  Do  you  think  there  are  no  pleasures  m 
the  dark? 

NoMng  can  be  more  destructhSy  says  Fontenelle,  to  am- 
MCfofi,  (xndthe  passion  Jbr  conquest,  than  the  true  system  qf 
astronomy.  What  a  poor  Mng  is  even  Ae  whok  gfobe  in 
comparison  of  the  if^biUe  extent  (f  Nature  f  This  consider- 
ation IS  evidently  too  distant  ever  to  l^ave  any  eflect  Or, 
if  it  had  any,  would'it  not  destroy  patriotism  as  well  as  am- 
bition ?  The  same  gallant  author  adds,  with  some  reason, 
-diat  the  br^ht  eyes  of  the  ladies  are  the  only  objects  wMch 
lose  nothing  of  Aeir  histre  or  value  from  the  most  exten- 
sive views  of  astronomy,  but  stand  proof  against  every  sys* 
tem.  Would  philosophers  advise  us  to  limit  ourafiections 
to  them? 

ExSej  says  Plutarch  to  a  friend  in  banishment,  is  no 
toil:  Mathematicians  tdl usj  Aat  the  whole  earOi  is  but  a 
pobfOj  compared  to  the  heavens.  To  change  onis  counltryj 
then,"  is  Ut(k  more  than  to  remove  from  one  street  to  orumer. 
Man  is  not  a  plant,  rooted  in  a  certain  spot  of  earth :  AU 
soils  arid  aB  cHmates  are  aUke  suited  to  himK  These  to- 
pics are  admirable,  could  they  fall  only  hito  the  hands  of 
banished  persons.  But  what  if  they  com6  also  to  the  kiiow- 
ifedge  of  those  who  are  employed  in  public  affairs,  and  de- 
stroy all  their  attachment  to  their  native  country  ?  Oi^  will 
-fiiey  operate  13te  the  quack's  medicine,  which  is  equally 
l^ood  foir  a  diabetes  and  a  dropsy  ? 

*  Tuac.  Qnest  U^  t.  ^  Dg  eiUio. 


TiTE  scsnrc  178 

It  IS  certain^  were  ft  superior  being  tbrttst  into  a  human 
b^y,  that  the  whole  of  life  would  to  him  appear  so  mean, 
contemptible,  and  puerile,  that  he  never  could  be  induced 
to  take  part  in  any  thing,  aild  would  scarcely  give  attai« 
tion  to  what  passes  around  him.  To  engage  him  to  sudi 
a ccMidescension  as  to  play  even  the  partof  a  Philip  with 
zeal  and  alacrity,  would  be  much  more  difficult,  than  to 
constrain  the  same  Philip,  after  baring  been  a  king  and 
a  conqueror  during  fifty  years,  to  mend  old  shoes  with 
propec  care  and  attention;  the  occupation  which  Ln* 
cian  assigns  him  in  the  infernal  r^ons.  Now,  all  the 
same  tc^ics  of  disdain  towards  human  affiiirs,  which  could 
operate  on  this  supposed  being,  occur  also  to  a  philo- 
sopher ;  but  beings  in  some  measure^  disproportioned  to 
human  capacity,  and  not  being  ftHrtified  by  the  &q^ 
rience  ot  any  thing  better,  they  make  not  a  fiiU  impres- 
sion on  him.  He  sees,  but  he  feels  not  sufficient  their 
truth :  and  is  always  a  sublime  philosopher^  when  b^ 
needs  not ;  that  is,  as  long  as  nothing  disturbs  him,  or 
rouses  his  aflections*  While  others  play,  he  wonders  at 
their  keeimess  and  ardour ;  but  he  no  sooner  puts  in  his 
own  stake,  than  he  is  commonly  tran^xirted  with  Am 
same  passionSf  that  he  had  90  much  condemned,  while  he 
remained  a  spectator. 

.There  are  two  considerations,  dxiefly,  to  be  met  w^  in 
bo(duofphilo6<^hy,  ftom  which  any  inqportanteflfect  is  t» 
be  expected,  and  that*  because  these  ccoasideratioiis  are 
drawn  from  common  life,  and  occur  upon  the  most  supei^ 
ficial  view  of  human'  affiurs.  When  we  reflect  on  the 
shartness  and  uncertainty  of  Mfe,  how  despicaUe  seem  all 
our  pursuits  of  hiqapiness?  And  ev^  if  we  would  extend 
our  concern  beyondour  own  life,  how  frivolous  appear  our 
roost  enlarged  and  mort  generous  progeets;  wlmiwecoo- 


114  SMAT  XTIII* 

sidir  the  tno^sBant  clmlg^  and  ler^tioiis  cf  Juwum  af* 
fiur8»  bgr  which  lawg  and  Ittaroing,  books  aad  govenuiiMitf 
Are  hurried  Awejr  by  timet  as  by  a  r^id  stream)  and  are 
jqet  in  th^imfiMHiae  ocean  ofiaatter?  Suchar^actioiioer^ 
ttinly  tendtf  to  mattiff  all  oar  paaaiona :  But  does  it  not 
thereby  counterwork  th^  artifice  of  nature^  who  has  hi^ 
pily  deceived  tia  into  an  opinion^  tibat  human  life  is  of  some 
importaitce  ?  And  may  not  such  a  reflection  be  empk>yed 
With  fucdessl  by  toluptuous  reaaonera^  in  order  to  )ead  iis» 
ftotn  the  paths  of  action  and  virtue^  into  Ibe  flowery  fidds 
of  indolence  and  pleasure* 

We  ar^  infiN*med  by  Thucydidesi  that»  during  the  &« 
mMspkigae  of  Athene  when  death  seeped  present  to  eve^ 
ry  k>iie»  adissolute  mirth  and  gaie^  prevailed  among  the 
pap[de»  irho  esOiOfted  one  another  to  make  the  meet  of 
Utt  em  long  as  it  endtiredw  The  same  observation  is  mad^ 
by  Boooaoct  with  regatd  to  the  plague  of  Florence.  Alike 
principle  mafcto  aoldiepr%  during  war^  be  more  addicted  t9 
riot  ahd  e±pc&se,  than  any  othef  race  of  men.  Present 
pleaatte  is  always  of  inptetanoe  $  iftnd  whiitever  dlminishea 
di^  importaaoa  of  att  atfier  Ol^jeetfl^  mUs4  bestow  oa  it  an 
•dditimal  iniaenoe  and  yidne* 

The  seocmd  pliflosqphical  cdasldetatidn  whidb  may  of- 
ten have  an  influence  on  the  affections,  is.derifedy  ibom  a 
cbiiiparison  of  oi^r  nwto  oonditioil  wilh  die  oonditipn  of 
«thers«  This  oomparisaii  «f^  are  cdntinuaUy  making  evea 
in  conmon  life;  but  the  mtsfiartann  is,  that  We  are  rathefr 
-apt^^  txHupare  onr  sitaaticm  with  that  t>f  our  sttperioni, 
tian  widi  that  of  oof  ihferion.  A  philosephar  cotoMs 
AiisnaitiliridinifrflBBtjs  b^tisniing  his  view  to  the  other  sid^ 
in  ordev  to  reader  .Unself  ^asy  in  the  sitnation  ta  whidi 
^MtBBieliasoonfiiiedJuii*  There  am  few  people  who  are 
«et  susoeptible  ^  wnve  ootokripsi  fmni  Uys  reflection, 


Tm  scxpTic.  179 

dunq^  ti>  a  retj  gooct-nalureil  rium^  thft  Iriew  of  liiuikfta 
iimries  sfaonld  rather  produce  torrow  ihaA  comfort,  and 
add,  to  his  lameDtationel  fiur  his  own  aiiifortimea^  a  deep 
eompassioD  for  those  of  others.  Sitchis  the  imptrfiictha^ 
ev^  of  the  best  of  these  phflosophkai  topios  of  ooriM^ 

I  shall  cmidude  this  subject  widi  obsenrin^  that,  though 
Tirtae  be  undoubtedly  the  best  chotce,  i^hen  it  iA  attaiftn 
able;  jet  rach  is  the  disorder  andeonfusioti  df  humanaft 
fairs,  that  no  perfect  or  regular  diittribution  of  happiii^ss 
atid  misery  is  ever,  in  this  life^  to  be  expected.  Notofaly 
the  goods  of  .fortune,  and  die  endowments  of  the  bo^ 
(bo4h  of  which  are  important,)  not  only  these  adranti^gesi 
I  say,  are.tmfequally  divided  between  the  Victttous  Atid  yh 
dotts,  biit  even  due  mind  itself  partakeft»  in  some  degrebi 
of  thk  disorder  ;  and  the  most  wordiy  diaracter^  by  the 
very  eoostttationof  the  passions^  ^^K7*  1^^  always  thi 

It  is  observably  that  though  every  bodily  pain  proceeds 
firom  sotne  disorder  in  the  part  oc  oigsb,  yet  the  pain  is 
not  always  properttoned  to  the  disorder^  but  is  geaatar  ctr 
less,  aJuoMrding'to  the  greater  arless  setasibffitj^crir tbe  pall; 
ttponwkieh  the  hokious  hurao'tifB  eosehrt  their  iniudnee.  A 
feolhitfa  produces  more  violent  mnvolsibas  of  pain  thaa 
tLphthumbmSnimi^  In  like kdamnov  with  regard t»  the 
economy  of  die  mind,  we  may  obseiife,  that  all  vice  sa  it^ 
deed  pemidous;  yet  the  disftnrbaUte  or  pdin  is  not  nikea- 
saiisd  out  by  nabore  wilh  exact  proportion  to  the  degrees 
tif  vice;,  not  is  theanui  of  barest  virtae^  even  distracting 
"fipam«tfrnda6ridtots»  idwqrsthemostha|)py*'  Agloooi}r 
and  BMlandioly  dis|fK»itio»  ii  eestaialy^  *  bar.  mitimikt$, 

•8«fKon(G.] 


176  ESSAY  XVItl. 

a  Ticebr  in^^erfection ;  but  as  kmay  be  aooompaaied  with 
great  sense  of  hoDonr  and  great  integrity^  it  maybefiKUid 
in  Tery  worthy  cbaractiMrs,  diongh  it  is  su&cmot  alone  to 
imbitter  life^  and  render  the  person  aftcted  with  it  oohk 
pletely  miserably.  On  the  other  hand,  a  selfish  vSiain  may 
possess  a  spring  and  alacrity  of  temper,  a  certain  ^qm^  qf 
hearif  which  is  indeed  a  good  quality,  but  which  is  reward- 
ed much  beyond  its  merit,  and  when  attended  with  good 
fortune,  will  compensate  for  the  uneasiness  and  remcme 
arising  from  all  the  other  vices. 

I  shall  add,  as  an  observation  to  the  same  purpose,  that, 
if  a  man  be  liable  to  a  vice  or  imperfection,  it  may  often 
happen,  that  a  good  qualiQr,  which  he  possesses  along  with 
it,  will  render  him  more  miserable,  than  if  he  were  com* 
pletdy  vicious.  A  person  of  such  imbecility  of  temper, 
as  to  be  easily  broken  by  affliction,  is  more  unhappy  for 
being  endowed  widi  a  generous  and  friendly  disposition, 
which  gives  him  a  lively  concern  for  others,  and  exposes 
him  the  more  to  fortune  and  accidents.  A  sense  of  shame, 
in  an  imperfect  character,  is  certainly  a  virtue ;  but  pro« 
duces  great  uneasiness  and  remorse,  from  which  the  aban- 
doned villain  is  entirely  free.  A  very  amorous  complexion, 
with  a  heart  incapable  of  friendship,  is  happier  than  die 
same  excess  in  love,  with  a  generosity  of  temper,  iriuch 
transports  a  man  beyvmd  himself  and  renders  him  a  total 
slave  to  the  object  of  his  passion. 

Inaword,  human  life  is  more  governed  by  fortune  than 
by  reason ;  is  to  be  regarded  more  as  a  did!  pastime  than 
a  serious  occupation;  and  is  more  influenced  byparticular 
humour^  than  by  general  principles.  Shall  we  engi^  our- 
selves in  it  with  passion  and  anxie^?  It  is  not  wordiy  of 
so  much  concern.  ShaU  we  be  indifferent  about  what 
happens?  We  lose  all  tlie  pleasure  of  the  game  by  our 


THE  8CSPTIC.  m 

phlegm  and  carelessness.  While  we  are  reasoning  con- 
cerning life,  life  is  gone;  and  death,  though  perhaps  they 
receive  him  diffisrentlj,  yet  treats  alike  the  fool  and  the  phi- 
losq[>her.  To  reduce  life  to  exact  rule  and  method  is  com- 
monly a  puinfid,  c^  a  firuitless  occupation :  And  is  it  not 
alaoaproo^  that  we  overvalue  the  prize  for  which  we  con- 
tend? Even  to  reason  so  carefully  concerning  it,  and  to  fix 
with  accuracy  its  just  idea^  would  be  overvaluing  it,  were 
it  not  that,  to  soqie  tempers,  this  occupation  is  one  of  the 
most  amusing  in  which  life  could  possibly  be  employed* 


VOL.  I.  N 


ESSAY  XIX. 


WWV««i*^«V«l 


07  FOLYGAAfY  AND  OIVORCSS. 

As  mnrriage  is  an  engagement  entered  6ttto  by  mtittiftl 
consent,  and  bas  for  its  end  the  propagation  of  the  species, 
it  is  evident,  that  it  must  be  susceptible  of  all  the  variety  of 
conditions  which  consent  establishes,  provided  they  be  not 
contrary  to  this  end* 

A  man,  in  conjoining  himself  to  a  woman,  is  bound  to 
her  according  to  the  terms  of  his  engagement :  In  begets 
ting  children,  he  is  bound,  by  all  the  ties  of  nature  and 
humanly,  to  provide  for  their  subsistence  and  education* 
When  he  has  performed  these  two  parts  of  duly,  no  one 
can  reproach  him  with  injustice  or  injury.  And  as  the  terms 
of  his  engagement,  as  well  as  the  methods  of  subsisting  his 
offspring,  may  be  various,  it  is  mere  superstition  to  ima- 
gine, that  marriage  can  bo  entirely  uniform,  and  will  ad* 
mit  only  of  one  mode  or  form.  Did  not  human  laws  re- 
strain the  natural  liberty  of  men,  every  particular  marriage 
would  be  as  different  as  contracts  or  bargains  of -any  other 
^ind  or  species. 

As  circumstances  vary,  and  the  laws  propose  different 
advantages,  we  find,  that,  in  di£(erent  times  and  places, 
they  impose  different  conditions  on  this  important  con* 
tract.  In  Tonquin,  it  is  usual  for  the  sailors,  when  the 
ship  comes  into  the  harbour,  to  marry  for  the  season ;  and, 
notwithstanding  this  precarious  engagement,  they  are  asr 


OF  POLTOAHT  AMD  DIVORCES,  l^fifj^ 

sored,  it  b  aaid,  of  tko  strictest  fidelity  to  thorbcd^  9»W€4 
as  in'tiie  wlioie  manBgwnent  of  th«r  albirs,  from  those 
temporary  qpouses. 

I  ceamot,  at  prascnty  raooUect  my  authorities ;  but  I  hate 
somewhere  r^d^  that  the  republic  of  Athensy  having  lost 
nia^y  of  its  citiaaus  by  war  and  pestMence,  allowed  every 
man  to  marry  two  wives,  in  order  the  sooner  to  repair  the 
waste  whidi  had  been  made  by  these  calamities.  The  poet 
fiuripides  happened  to  be  cotqiled  to  two  noisy  Vixens, 
-who  soplagncid  Jum  with  their  jealousiei  and  qfuurtda,  that 
habeoaaie  e^er  afteraprofi^ssedfSDfliMMirAafer^-  and  is  the 
oidy  theatnoaL  writer,  perhaps  the  only  poet^  that  ever  tx^ 
ttttained  an  avttsioii  to  the  sex. 

in  diat  agreeable  ramanee,  oall^  HmMktoiV  qfilUi  S^ 
parumSianft  where  a  great  ipaoor  meiii  and  a  few  womep 
are  supposed  to  be  shipwrecked  on  a  desert  coesti  thecap- 
tain  of  the  tiofipf  in  order  to  obviate  those  endless  qmu^- 
rds  which  aroae^  n^gulates  their  marriages  afier  the  fal<^ 
lowing  manner :  He.  takes  a  hend^ome  female  to  biipse)f 
done ;  assigns  one  to  every  couple  of  inferior  officersy  ao4 
to  five  of  the  lowest  rank  be  gave  one  wife  1^  cmmoUf 

The  ancient BritcHis had asingidec kind  ^f  marriage^  tp 
be  met  mth  among  no  other  peo|^  Any  number  of  tbfii^, 
aa  ten  or  a  doaeii>  joined  in  a  society  t<3^ther,  which  W4^ 
perhaps  raquiaite  for  mutual  defence  in  tbai^  baxbaroHs 
times.  In  order  to  link  thia  aocie^  the  closer*  the^  tpqk 
an  equal  number  of  wives  in  common  i  and  whatever  phil- 
dsen  wera  bonv  were,  rqmted  to  belong  tQ  aU  of  tbem» 
and  were  aocc^diai^  provided  fi»r  by  tlw  wMie.  iK>punif- 

^y*  ■-':',•.... 

AnoDg  the  inferior  creatures,  nature  heraelf^  Ip^eing  ^ 
suphenm  legislator^  prasecibBS  all  the  laws  whkb  r^gflate 

thak  mavriagas,  and  variea  those  laws  a^scoicding  j^ 

m2 


180  .EiSAY  XIX* 

ferent  oircuintUiioes  of  the  creatuxe.  Wh^e  abe  far« 
nishes,  with  ease,  food  and  defence  (o  the  new-born  ani- 
mal, the  present  embrace  termmates  the  marriage ;  and 
the  care  of  the  ofipring  is  comroitted  entirely  to  the  fe- 
male. Where  the  food  is  of  more  di£Bcult  purchase,  the 
marriage  condiraes  tor  one  season,  till  the  common  pro- 
geny can  proride  for  itself;  and  th^i  the  union  imme- 
diately dissolves,  and  leaves  eadi  of  the  parties  free  to  en- 
ter into  a  new  engagement  at  the  .ensuing  seascm.  But 
nature  havii^  endowed  man  with  reascMi, .  has  not  so  exr 
actly  regulated  every  article  of  his  marriage-icontract,  but 
has  left  htm  to  adjust  them,  by  his  own  prudence,  accord- 
ing to  his  particular  circumstances  and  aitnation.  Muni- 
cipal laws  are  a  supply  to  the  wisdom  of  each  individual ; 
and,  at  the  same  time,  by  restraining  the  natural  liberty 
of  men,  make  private  interest  submit  to  the  interest  of  the 
public.  All  regulations,  therefore,  on  this  head,  are  equally 
lawfiil,  and  equally  coniimnaUe  to  the  principles  of  na- 
ture ;  though  they  are  not  all^equally  convenient,  or  equally 
useful  to'  sodety.  The  laws  may  aUow  of  polygamy,  as 
among  the  Eagtem  nations ;  or  of  voluntary  divorces,  as 
among  the  Chreeks  and  Romans;  or  they  may  ccmfine  one 
man  to  one  woman,  during  thewhcdecourseof  their  lives, 
as  among  the  modern  Europeans.  It  may  not  be  dis- 
agreeable to  consider  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
which  result  from  each  of  these  institutions. 

The  advocates  for  p<dygamy  may  recommend  it  as  the 
only  effectual  remedy  for  the  disorders  of  love,  and  the<m- 
ly  expedient  for  freeing  men  from  that  slavexy  to  the  fe- 
males, which  the  natural  violence  of  our  passions  has  im^ 
posed  upon  us*  By  this  means  alone  can  we  regun  our 
right  of  so^ere^nty;  and,  sating  our  appetite,  re-establish 
the  authority  d*  reason  in  our  minds,  and,  of  conseqpcnoe, 


OF  POLYGAMY  AND  DIVORCES.  161 

oar  own  aothority  in  oar  families*  Man,  like  a  weak. so-  - 
Tereign,  being  imable  to  support  himself  against  the  wiles 
and  irikigues  of  his  subjects,  must  play  one  faction  against 
another,  and  become  absolute  by  the  mutual  jealousy  of 
the  females.  To  divide  and  to  gaoemis  an  universal  max- 
im; and  by  neglecting  it,  the  Europeans  undergo  a  more 
grievous  and  a  more  ignominious  slavery  than  the  Turics 
or  Persians,  who  are  subjected  indeed  to  a  sovereign,  that 
lies  at  a  distance  firom  them,  but  in  their  domestic  afiairs 
rule  with  an  uncontrollable  sway. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  urged  with  better  reason^ 
that  this  sovereignty  of  the  male  b  a  real  usurpation,  and 
destroys  that  nearness  of  rank,  not  to  say  equality,  which 
nature  has  established  between  the  sexes.  Weare,  by  na* 
ture,  their  lovers,  their  friends,  their  patrons :  Would  we 
willingly  exchange  such  endearing  appdlations  for  the  bar^ 
barous  title  of  master  and  tyrant  ? 

In  what  capacity  shall  we  gain  by  this  inhuman  proceed* 
ing?  As  lovers,  or  as  husbands  ?  The  looer  is  totally  an- 
nihilated ;  and  courtship,  the  most  agreeable  scene  in  Ms, 
can  no  longer  have  place  where  women  have  not  the  free 
disposal  of  themselves,  but  are  bought  and  sold,  like  the 
meanest  animaL  The  AtMtend  is  as  little  a  gainer,  having 
found  the  admirable  secret  of  extinguishing  every  part  of 
love,  except  its  jealousy.  No  rose  without  its  thorn ;  but 
he  must  be  a  foolish  wretch  indeed,  that  throws  away  the 
rose  and  preserves  only  the  thorn. 

But  the  Asiatic  manners  are  as  destructive  to  friendship 
astolove.  Jealousy  excludes  men  fit>m  all  intimacies  and 
familiarities  with  each  other.  No  one  dares  bring  his 
friend  to  his  house  or  table,  lest  he  luring  a  lover  to  his  niH 
merouswives.  Hence,  all  over  the  East,  each  fiunily  is  as 
much  separate  from  another  as  if  they  were  so  many  dia- 


IBSt  ESSAY  riJL. 

tinct  kingdomsi  No  wander  tben  that  Solomoiv  living 
like  on  eftistern  prince^  with  his  seven  hundred  wlves^  and 
three  hundred  concubinds^  without  one  firidid,  could  write 
9o  patheticalljr  concerning  the  vanity  of  the  world.  Had 
he  tried  tile  secret  of  one  wife  or  mistress^  a  few  friends, 
and  a  great  tnany  companions^  he  xsdf^  have  found  life 
somewhat  more  agreeable*  Destroy  love  and  friendship, 
whkt  remains  in  the  world  worth  accepting? 

The  bad  education  of  children,  espedally  children  of  coih 
dition,  is  another  unavoidable  consequence  of  these  eastern 
institutions*  Hiose  who  pass  the  early  part  of  life  among 
slaves^  are  only  qualified  to  be,  themselves,  slaves  and  ty* 
iBUts^  And  in  every  future  intercourse,  either  with  their 
inferiors  or  superiors,  are  apt  to  forget  the  tiatural  equality 
of  mankMd;  What  attention^  too^  can  it  be  supposed  a 
parent,  whose  seraglio  afibrds  him  fifty  sons,  will  give  to 
instilling  principles  of  morality  or  sdetice  into  a  progeny, 
with  whom  he  himself  is  scarcely  acquainted^  and  whom  he 
loves  with  so  divided  on  affisction  ?  Barbarism^  therefore^ 
i^pears,  from  reason  as  well  as  experience,  to  be  the  inse^ 
parable  attendant  of  polygamy. 

To  tender  polygamy  more  odious,  I  need  not  recount 
the  frightful  efiects  of  jealousy,  and  tht  constraint  in  which 
St  hdkls  the  fair  sex  all  over  the  east  In  those  countries 
men  are  not  allowed  to  have  any  icommerce  with  the  fe- 
males, not  even  physicians,  when  aackneas  may  be  suppo- 
sed to  have  extinguished  all  wantkm  passions  in  the  bosom^s 
of  the  fiuk*^  and^  at  the  same  time,  has  renderad  then  unfit 
(rii^tB  of  desire.  IVMimefort  teUs  us»  that  when  he  was 
broiighl  into  the  Qrcmd  Seigmoi^s  Seraglio  as  a  j^yfiaciatl, 
he  was  not  a  little  surprised^  in  looking  akng  a  gsUery, 
to  see  agreatnumber  of  naked  arms  standing  outfrcnn  the 
sides  of  die  room.  .  He  could  not  imagme  what  this  couUl 


OF  POLYGAMY  AND  DITORCE8.  )68 

mean;  tiU he  was toid  that  those  arms  bdoBged  to  bodiesi 
which  he.  must  curei  without  knowing  ai^  more  about 
them  than  what  he  cx>uld  leam  from  the  enns.    He  was 
not  allowed  to  ask  a  question  of  the  patient,  or  even  of  her 
attendants^  lest  he  mi^it  find  it  necessary  to  inquire  con* 
(:erning  circumstances  which  the  delicacy  of  the  l^raglio 
^lows  not  to  be  revealed.    Hence  pl\ysicians  in  the  East 
pretend  to  know  all  diseases  from  the  pulsei  asou^  quacks 
in  Europe  undertake  to  ci^re  a  person  merely  frcHn  seeing 
his  water.    I  suppose^  had  Monsieur  Tournefort  been  of 
this  latter  kind,  he  would  not,  in  Constantinople,  have  bj^en 
allowed  by  the  jealous  Turks  to  be  furnished  with  mate^ 
rials  requisite  for  cttercasing  his  art* 
.    In  another  country,  where  polygamy  is  al&o  allowed^ 
they  render  their  wives  cripples,  and  make  their  feet  of  no 
use  to  them,  in  order  to  confine  thera  to  their  ow)i  boUses« 
J^  it  Will,  pc^rbapsi  appeilr  strai^^  that,  in  a  European 
country,  jealousy  can  yet  be  carried  to  such  a  height,  that 
it  is  indecent  so  much  as  to  suppoise  that  a  woman  of  rank 
can  have  feet  or  legs.     Witness  the  following  story,  which 
we  have  from  very  good  anthority  K    When  the  mother 
of.  the  late  king  of  Spain  was  on  her  h>ad  towSards  Madrid^ 
«he  passed  through  a  little  town  in  Spain  £unou$  for  its 
maimfiu;tairyt)f  gloves  and  stockings*  .The  nia^strales  of 
jfehe  {dace  tjwyght  they  covid  not  better  express  their  joy 
-Sot  Utt  tteccption  of  their  |iew  queeo^  than  by  presenting 
her  with  a  sample  of  those  cominodities,  for  whkh  alooe 
kheir  toWn  was  leiaarkable.    The  mt^  domoj  who  oon- 
-ducted  the  princess,  Teoeived  the  gloves  very  graciou&Iy : 
bnlv  when  the  stackii^  were  presented,  he  flung  them 
away  witii  great  indignation,  and  severely  reprimanded  the 

*  M4inokv9  46  <q  C^ur  i*£9p<iitutt  pmr  Madame  d'4un9y. 


184  ESSAY  XIX. 

magistirates  for  this  egrefpous  piece  of  indecency.  KmWf 
says  he,  ^ai  a  qneen  qf  Spain  has  no  legs.  The  young 
queen,  who  at  that  time  understood  the  language  but  im- 
perfectly, and  had  often  been  frightened  with  stories  of 
Spanish  jealousy,  hnagined  that  they  were  to  cut  off  her 
legs.  Upon  which  she  fell  a-crying,  and  b^ged  them  to 
conduct  her  back  to  Gtermany,  for  that  she  never  could 
endure  the  operation ;  and  it  was  with  some  difficulty  they 
could  appease  her.  VhSSSap  IV.  is  said  never  in  his  life  to 
have  laughed  heartily  but  at  the  recital  of  this  story. 

Having  rejected  Polygamy,  and  matched  one  man  with 
one  woman,  let  us  now  c(msider  what  duration  we  shall  as- 
s^n-to  their  union,  and  whether  we  shall  admit  of  those 
vduntary  divorces  which  were  customary  amongtheChreeks 
and  Romans.  Those  who  would  defend  this  practice  may 
employ  the  following  rea8<m8. 

How  often  does  disgust  and  aversion  arise,  after  mar- 
riage, from  the  most  trivial  accidents,  or  from  an  incompa^ 
dbili^  of  humour;  where  time,  instead  of  curing  the 
wounds,  proceeding  fitmi  mutual  injuries,  festers  them 
every  day  the  more,  by  new  qusrrds  and  reproaches?  Let 
us  separate  hearts  whidi  ware  not  made  to  associate  to- 
gether. Either  of  them  may,  perhaps,  find  another  for 
which  it  is  better  fitted.  At  least,  nothii^  can  be  more 
cruel  than  to  preserve,  by  viol^ice,  an  union,  which,  at 
first,  was  made  by  mutual  love,  and  is  now,  in  eflfect,  dis- 
solved by  mutual  hatred. 

But  the  liberty  of  divorces  is  not  only  a  cure  to  hatred 
and  domestic  quarrels :  It  is  also  an  admirable  preserva- 
tive against  them,  and  the  only  secret  for  keeping  alive 
that  love  which  first  united  the  married  coupk.  Tlie  heart 
of  man  delights  in  liberty :  The  very  image  of  constraint 
is  grievous  to  it :  When  you  would  confine  it  by  violence, 


OF  POLYGAMY  AMD  DIVORCES.  185 

to  what  would  otherwise  have  been  its  choice,  the  inclina- 
tion immediately  changes,  and  desire  is  turned  into  aver- 
sion. If  the  public  interest  will  not  allow  us  to  enjoy  in 
polygamy  that  varieiy  which  is  so  agreeable  in  love ;  at 
least,  deprive  us  not  of  that  liberty  which  is  so  essentially 
requisite.  In  vain  you  tell  me,  that  I  had  my  choice  of 
the  person  with  whom  I  would  conjoin  myselE  I  had  my 
choice,  it  is  true,  of  my  prison;  but  this  is  but  a  small 
comfort,  since  it  must  still  be  a  prison.  _. 

Such  are  the  arguments  which  may  be  urged  in  favour 
of  divorces :  But  there  seem  to  be  these  three  unanswer- 
able objections  against  them.  First,  What  must  become 
of  the  children  upon  the  s^aration  of  the  parents?  Must 
they  be  committed  to  the  care;  of  a  stq>mothesr ;  and  in- 
stead of  the  fond  attention  and  concern  of  a  parent,  feel 
all  the  indi£ference  or  hatred  of  a  stranger,  or  an  enemy? 
These  inconveniences  are  sufficientiy  felt,  where  nature 
has  made  the  divorce  by  the  doom  inevitable  to  all  mor- 
tals: And  shall  we  seek  to  multiply  those  inconveniences 
by  multiplying  divorces,  and  putting  it  in  the  power  of 
parents,  upon  every  ci^rice,  to  render  their  posterity  mi- 
serable? ,.  *H  ,'-    • 

Seotmdfyy  If  it  be  true,  on  the  one  hand,  that  the  heart 
of  man  naturaUy  delights  in  liberty,  and  hates  every  thing 
to  which  it  is  confined ;  it  is  also  tru^  on  the  other,  that 
the  heart  of  man  naturally  submits  to  necessity,  and  soon 
loses  an  inclination,  when  there  appears  an  absolute  impos- 
sibility of  gratifying  it  These  principles  of  human  nature, 
you'll  say,  are  contradictory :  But  what  is  man  but  a  heap 
of  contradictions  I  Though  it  is  remarkable,  that  where 
principles  are,  after  this  manner,  contrary  in  their  opera- 
tion, they  do  not  always  destroy  each  other;  but  the  one 
or  the  other  may  predominate  on  any  particular  occasions 


186  ESSAY  XiX« 

According $^  Girciui|8tiiaQ#«  tur^ more  or  k»$ fi^v^urahleto 
it.  For  Aostancei  love  is  a  riisUess  and  Imjialmit  jMAsioo^ 
fpll  of  capricep  «nd  yarlatjpQs:  arising  in  a  moment  ficom 
a  feature,  from  an  airi  from  nothing,  ai^l  Kuddeidj  extin- 
guishiDg  after  the  saibe  manner.  Such  a  passion  requicea 
liberQr  above  all  thbgs ;  and  therefore  £lois«  had  reason, 
when,  in  order  to  preserve  this  passioot  she  refused  to  mar^ 
ry  her  beloved  Abelard* 

How  ottf  when  pressed  to  marriage,  hate  I  said. 
Cone  dti  mU  lawt  but  thdae  wlddi  lota  bM  iMder 
Lov€^  firae  aa  air>  at  aigbt  Vlmmaa  tksy 
Spreada  hia  light  wings,  and  in  a  moment  fliea. 

Brxt/riendMp  is  a  ealm  and  sedate  affection,  conducted  by 
reason  and  cemented  bj  habit ;  springing  from  long  iic^ 
^aintance  mid  matual  obligations ;  mthont  jealonsieis  or 
feiM^  andirithout  those  feverish  fits  of  heat  and  cold,  which 
cause  such  an  agreeable  torment  in  the  amorous  passion. 
So  sober  an  affection,  therefore,  asfriendship,  rafther  thrives 
under  constraint,  and  never  rises  to  such  a  height,  as  when 
any  strong  interest  or  necessity  binds  two  persons  tc^ether, 
and  i^ves  tibem  some  common  object  of  pursuit  We  need 
not,  therefore,  be  afraid  of  drawing  the  marriage^^not, 
whidi  chiefly  subsists  by  friendship,  the  closest  possible. 
Tlie  amity  between  the  persons,  where  it  is  solid  khd  sin^ 
ccr^,  win  rather  gain  by  it :  And  where  it  is  wavering  a  Ad 
uncertain,  this  is  the  best  expedient  for  fixing  it.  Mow 
many  frivolous  quarrels  and  disgusts  are  there,  which  peo^ 
pie  of  common  prudence  endeatour  to  forget.  When  they 
fie  under  a  necessity  of  passing  their  lives  together;  but 
which  would  soon  be  inflamed  mto  the  most  deadly  hatted, 
were  they  pursued  to  the  utmost,  under  the  prospect  of  aa 
easy  separation  ? 
^    In  the  third  place,  We  must  consider,  that  nothing  h 


OF  POLYCiAMV  AND  DIVORCES.  187 

more  daDgerous  than  to  imite  two  persons  so  closely  in  all 
their  interests  and  concerns,  as  man  and  wife,  without  ren- 
dering the  union  entire  and  total.  The  least  possibility  of 
a  separate  interest  must  be  the  source  of  endless  quarrels 
and  suspici6ns.  The  wife,  not  secure  of  h^  establishment, 
will  still  be  driving  some  separate  end  or  project ;  and  the 
husband's  selfishness,  being  accompanied  with  more  power, 
may  be  still  more  dangerous. 

Should  these  reasons  against  voluntttty  divorces  be  deem- 
ed insufficient,  I  hope  nobody  will  pretend  to  refuse  the 
testimony  of  eKperience.  At  the  time  when  divorces  were 
most  frequent  among  the  Romansi  marriages  were  most 
fare ;  and  Augustus  was  obliged^  by  penal  law%  to  forcp 
men  of  fashion  into  the  married  state :  A  circumstanjQe 
which  b  scarcely  to  be  found  in  any  other  age  ornation* 
.The  more  ancient  laws  of  Rome»  which  prohibited  divov- 
€e8|  are  extremely  praiised  by  Dionysius  Halycarnassaeus  ^« 
Wonderfiil  watf  tk%  baratooy,  says  the  historian,  which  this 
ms^mrable  union  of  interests  produced  between  married 
persons ;  while  each  <tf  them  considered  the  J^vitable  ne- 
cessity by  Kfhiek  they  wer6  linked  together,  and  abandon- 
ed all  jftovpect  of  any  other  choice  or  establishments 

The  exduflion  of  polygamy  and  divorce^  sufficiently  r^ 
conmieiids  our  present  Eurc^)e0n  practice  with  regard  to 
marriage 
' '  .  >      ' I,         .  '    , 


ESSAY  XX. 


OF  SIMPUCITT  AND  REFINEMENT  IN  WRITING. 

if  INE  writing,  according  to  Mr  Addison,  consists  of  sen- 
timents which  are  natural,  without  being  obvious.  There 
cannot  be  a  juster  and  more  oonds^  definition  of  fine  writ- 
ing. 

Sentiments,  which  are  merely  natural,  affect  not  the  mind 
'  with  any  pleasure,  and  seem  not  worthy  of  our  attention. 

*  The  pleasantries  of  a  waterman,  the  observations  of  a  pea- 
sant, the  ribaldry  of  a  porter  or  hackney  coachman,  all  of 
these  are  natural  and  disagreeable.     What  an  insipid  co- 

'  medy  should  we  make  of  the  chit-chat  of  the  tea-table,  co- 

*  pied  faithfully  and  at  full  length  ?  Nothing  can  please  per- 
sons of  taste,  but  nature  drawn  with  all  her  graces  and  or- 

*  naments,  la  beUe  nahtre  s  orif  wecopy  low  life,  the  strokes 
must  be  strong  and  remarkable,  and  must  ccmvey  a  lively 
image  to  the  mind.  The  absurd  nawete  of  Scmco  PamAo 
is  represented  in  such  inimitable  colours  by  Cervantes,  that 
it  entertains  as  much  as  the  picture  of  the  most  magnani- 
mous hero -or  the  softest  lover. 

The  caae  is  the  same  with  orators,  philosophers,  critics, 
or  any  author  who  speaks  in  his  own  person,  without  in- 
troducing other  speakers  or  actors.  If  hts  language  be  not 
el^;ant,  his  observations  uncommon,  hii  sense  strong  and 
masculine,  he  will  in  vain  boast  his  nature  and  simplicity. 


OF  SIMPLiaTT  AND  REFINEMCNT.  189 

He  maybe  correct;  but  he  never  will  be  agreeable.  Itb 
the  unhappiness  of  such  authors,  that  they  are  never  blam- 
ed or  censured.  The  good  fortune  of  a  book^  and  that  of 
a  man,  are  not  the  same.  The  secret  deceiving  path  of 
life,  which  Horace  talks  of,  faUenHs  semita  vUcBj  may  be 
the  happiest  lot  of  the  one ;  but  is  the  greatest  misfortune 
which  the  other  can  possibly  fall  into. 
.  On  the  other  hand,  productions  which  are  merely  sur- 
prising, without  being  natural,  can  never  give  any  lasting 
entertainment  to  the  mind.  To  draw  chimeras,  is  not, 
properly  q>eakh:ig^  to  copy  or  imitate.  The  justness  of  the 
representation  is  lost,  and  the  mind  is  displeased  to  find  a 
picture  which  bears  no  resemblance  to  anyoriginaL  Nor 
are  such  excessive  refinements  more  agreeable  in  the  epis- 
tolary or  philosophic  style,  than  in  the  epic  or  tragic.  Too 
much  ornament  is  a  fault  in  every  kind  of  producticm.  Un- 
conmion  ei^ressions,  strong  flashes  of  wit,  pointed  similes, 
and  qjjgrammatic  turns,  especially  when  they  recur  too 
frequently,  are  a  disfigurement,  rather  than  any  embellish- 
ment of  discourse.  As  the  eye^  in  surveying  a  Gothic 
buildings  is  distracted  by  the  multipUcily  of  ornaments, 
and  loses  die  whole  by  its  minute  attention  to  the  parts; 
so  the  mind,  in  perusing  a  work  overstocked  with  wit,  is 
fiitigued  and  disgusted  with  the  constant  endeavour  to 
shine  and  surprise.  This  is  the  casewherea  writer  over- 
abounds  in  wit,  even  though  that  wit,  in  itself  should  be 
just  and  agreeable.  But  it  commonly  happens  to  such 
writers,  that  they  seek  for  their  favourite  ornaments,  even 
where  the  subject  does  not  affi>rd  them;  and  by  that  means 
have  twenty  insipid  ccmoeits  for  cme  thought  which  is  real- 
ly beautifuL 

There  is  no  object  in  critical  learning  mere  copious 
than  this,  of  the  just  mixture  of  simplicily  and  refinement 


IM  ESSAY  X3r. 

m  writing  I  and  thcrrefore,  not  to  wander  in  too  large  d 
field,  I  sliall  confine  myself  to  a  few  general  obseryati<His 
on  that  Itead. 

Firstf  I  observe  Thai  though  excesses  of  Mh,  kinds  are 
to  b&avoided^  and  though  a  proper  medium  ought  to  be  <fa- 
died  in  atl  productions,  yet  this  medium  lies  not  in  a  pointy 
but  admits  of  a  considerable  latitude.  Consider  the  wide 
distance,  in  this  respect,  between  Mr  Pope  and  Lucre- 
tius. These  seem  to  lie  in  the  two  greatest  extremes  of 
refinement  and  simplicity  in  which  a  poet  can  indulge 
himself,  without  being  guilty  of  any  blameable  excess.  All 
this  interval  maybe  filled  with  poets  who  may dififer  from 
each  other^  but  may  be  equally  admirable,  each  in  his  pe-i 
ctiliar  style  and  manner.  Comeille  and  Congreve,  who 
carry  their  wit  and  refinement  somewhat  farther  than  Mr 
Pope,  (If  poets  of  so  different  a  kind  can  be  compared  to* 
gether,)  and  Sophocles  and  Terence,  who  are  more  simple 
than  Lticretiiis,  seem  to  have  gone  out  of  that  medium  in 
which  the  most  perfect  productions  are  found,  and  to  be 
gutlty  of  some  excess  in  these  opposite  characters.  Of  all 
the  great  poets^  Virgil  and  Racine,  in  my  opinion,  lie 
neiarest  thfe  centre,  and  are  the  farthest  removed  from  both 
Jhe  e^fetremlties. 

My  second  observation  on  thiis  head  is.  That  it  is  very 
dificutti  if  not  impossihk,  to  explain  by  words  where  thejw/t 
medium  ttei  between'  the  excesses  of  stmflicity  and  refine^ 
mentj  or  to  give  any  rule  by  which  we  can  know  precisely  A« 
bowids  between  the  fixuU  and  the  beauty.  A  critic  may  not 
onty  disCoui»se  very  judiciously  on  this  head  without  iiv- 
structfri^his  readers,  but  even  without  understanding  the 
matter  perfectly  himself.  There  is  not  a  finer  piece  of 
critidlsfn  than  the  tilssertaiionori  PastorcOs  by  Fontenelle, 
jrfi  which,*  l!ry^  &' number  of  reflections  and  philosophied 


OF  SIMPLICITY  AVD  REFINEMENT.  191 

feasbnings,  lie  endeavours  to  fix  ihe  just  mcditim:  vfhicb  u 
tuHable  to  that  species  of  writang.  But'  let  any  one  vead 
the  pasloraU  of  tb|ftt  author,  and  be  will  be  poi^¥i^[iced  that 
this  jvcHeioiis  etitie,  Dotwithstanding  his  fine  xei^toninga^ 
had  a  false  taste,  and  fixed  the  point  of  pev&ction  nmdi 
nearer  the  extireme  of  refinemiont  than  pastoral  poetry  Anil 
admit  of.  Hie  sendments  of  his  shepherds  are  better 
suited  to  tho  toilettes  of  Paris  than  to  the  forests  of  Asciif 
dia.  But  1^  it  is  impossible  to  discover  from  lua  criticskl 
reasonings*  He  blames  all  e:i^essive  fiainting  and  otnitf^ 
Bient  OS  much  as  Virgil  could  have  don^  had  that  great 
poet  wrotea  dissertation  on  this  species  of  poetry.  Hqw^ 
evet  d^rent  the  tastes  of  men,  their  general  discourse  ofi 
these  subjects  is  comQionly  the  sume.  No.  ^ritidsnt  can 
be  faistructive  which  descends  not  ta  particulars^  and  is 
•noib  fM  of  esan^iles  and  illustrations.  It  is  all«ir^an  a^ 
hands,  that  beauly,  as  well  as  virtue^  always  lies,  ki^'m^ 
dium  I  bat  where  this  medium  is  placed  is  a  gfeat  ques- 
tioB,  andcimilever  be  suHciently  expk^ied  by  geninral 
reasonings. 

I  diall  deliver  it  as  a  iki^d  obserwitkpi.  on  diis  snlgeot, 
Tk(tti»eimjiklt(>ie  mors  im  our  gf^m^  mf/drnMih^^aieetftitf 

meireedces^  <s  toil  kea  beautiful^  and  mon  dai^erous  tftfi 
ihebOkr. 

*  it  U  a  certi^n  rule,  that  wit  aiid'  passion  are  entkedly 
incompatible.  When  the  affections  are  moved^  there  is 
ik>  place  for  ^e  imagination.  The  mind  c^  man-ttfeing 
naturally  limited,  it  is  impossible  that  all  its  facukiea  can 
operate  at  once;  and  the  more  any  one preddmioates,.  khe 
less  rbom  is  there  for  the  others  to  ^xert  tUeir  rv^gour. 
For  this  reason,  a  greater  d^eie  of  simplicitgr  is  Required 
in  all  compositloiis  where  men,  apd  actions,  and  passions 


199  ES8AT  XX. 

are  painted^  than  in  such  as  consist  of  reflections  and  ob« 
seryadons.  And  as  the  former  species  of  writing  is  the 
more  engaging  and  beautifhl,  one  may  safely,  upon  this 
account,  give  the  preference  to  the  extreme  of  sim{dici^ 
abore  that  of  refinement 

We  may  also  observe,  that  those  compositions  which 
we  read  the  oftenest,  and  which  every  man  of  taste  has 
got  by  heart,  have  the  recommendation  of  simjdicily,  and 
have  nodung  surprising  in  the  thought,  when  divested  ci 
that  elegance  (^expression,  and  harmmiy  of  numbers,  with 
which  it  is  clothed.  If  the  merit  of  the  compositicm  lie  in 
a  point  of  wit,  it  may  strike  at  first;  but  the  mind  antici- 
pates the  thought  in  the  second  perusal,  and  is  no  longer 
afiBscted  by  it  When  I  read  an  epigram  of  Martial,  the 
firstline  recalls  the  whole ;  and  I  have  no  pleasure  in  re- 
peating to  myself  what  I  know  already.  But  each  line, 
each  word  in  Catullus  has  its  merit,  and  I  am  never  dred 
with  the  perusal  of  him.  It  is  suffident  to  run  over  Cow- 
Iq^once;  but  Pacnell,  after  the  fiftieth  reading  is  as  firesh 
as  at  the  first  Besides,  it  is  with  books  as  with  womeuj 
wh^  a  certain  plainness  of  manner  and  erf*  dress  is  more 
ei^^aging  than  that  (^are  of  paint,  and  airs,  and  appard, 
which  may  dazzle  &e  eye,  but  reaches  not  the  affections. 
Terence  is  a  modest  and  bashfiil  beauQr,  to  whom  we 
grant  every  thing,  because  he  assumes  nothing,  and  whose 
purity  and  nature  make  a  durable,  though  not  a  vident 
impression  on  us. 

But  refinement,  as  it  is  the  less  feoitfi^  so  is  it  the 
more  danffenms  extreme^  and  what  we  are  the  aptest  to 
fall  into.  Simplicity  passes  for  dulness,  wh^i  it  is  not  ac- 
companied with  great  elegance  and  propriety.  On  the 
contdhry,  there  is  something  "surprising  in  a  blaze  of  wit 
and  conceit    Ordinary  readers  ste  mightily  struck  with 

1 


ON  TASTE  AND  REFINEMENT.  193 

it)  and  falsely  imagine  it  to  be  the  most  difficult,  as  well 
as  most  excellent  way  of  writing.  Seneca  abounds  with 
agreeable  fiiults,  says  Qnintilian,  dbundat  dukibus  viiUs  i 
and  for  that  reason  is  ^e  mo|re  dimgifrous,  and  the  more 
apt  to  pervert  the  taste  of  the  young  and  inconsiderate. 

I  shaU  add,  that  the  excess  of  refinement  is  now  more 
to  be  guarded  against  than  ever ;  because  it  is  the  extreme 
which  men  are  the  most  ^pt  to  fall  into^  after  learning  has 
made  some  progress,  and  after  eminent  writers  haye  ap- 
peared in  every  species  of  composition.  The  endeavour 
to  pkase  by^  moifeky  bads  men  widm  of  mmfUc^  mi  ii»- 
tov^  aba  fills  their  milhgs  with  affbisMiail  md  OMMt 
It  waa  Ana  tlie  Asiaiio  aloquflBos  dagcAe>ato4  aft  mudb. 
fmnllieAltia  itwMAusAeageiif filaodiiisaiidVtm 
beeameaoranichkiferior  tothatofAugBstesiataote  and 
gwins.  And  periiaps  there  are,  alpr^senl^iffiiMftqmptoBit 
ofaUhed^psttMracyaftastaia  Fiaace,  aswdlasiBEi^ 
huid. 


vol..  !• 


ESSAY  XXI. 


OF  NATIONAL  CHARACTERS. 


L  HE  vulgar  are  apt  to  carry  all  national  characten  to  ex- 
tremes ;  and,  baving  once  established  it  as  a  principle,  that 
any  people  are  knavish,  or  cowardly,  or  ignorant,  they 
will  admit  of  no  exception,  but  comprehend  every  indivi- 
dual under  the  same,  censure.  Men  of  sense  condemn 
these  undistinguishing  judgments ;  though,  at  the  same 
time,  they  allow  that  each  nation  has  a  peculiar  set  of  man- 
ners, and  that  some  particular  qualities  are  more  frequent- 
ly to  be  met  with  among  one  people  than  among  their 
neighbours.  The  common  people  in  Switzerland  have 
probably  more  honesty  than  those  of  the  same  rank  in  Ire- 
land ;  and  every  prudent  man  will,  from  that  circumstance 
alone^  make  a  diflPerence  in  the  trust  which  he  reposes  in 
each.  We  have  reason  to  expect  greater  wit  and  gaiety 
in  a  Frenchman  than  in  a  Spaniard ;  though  Cervantes 
was  bom  in  Spain.  An  Englishman  will  naturally  be  sup- 
posed to  have  more  knowledge  than  a  Dane  ;  though 
Tycho  Brahe  was  a  native  of  Denmark. 

Different  reasons  are  assigned  for  these  national  charac- 
ters :  while  some  account  for  them  from  morale  other?  from 
p^ncof  causes.  By  mora/ causes,  I  mean  all  circumstances, 
which  are  fitted  to  work  on  the  mind  as  motives  or  rea- 
sons, and  which  render  a  peculiar  set  of  manners  habitual 


OF  NATIONAL  CHARACTERS.  195 

to  US.  Of  this  kind  are,  the  nature  of  the  government,  the 
revoluti<Mis  of  public  affairs,  the  plenty  or  penury  in  which 
the  people  live,  the  situation  of  the  nation  with  regard  to 
its  neighbours,  and  such  like  circumstances.  By  physical 
causes,  I  mean  those  qualities  of  the  air  and  climate, 
which  are  supposed  to  work  insensibly  on  the  temper,  by 
altering  the  tone  and  habit  of  the  body,  and  giving  a  par- 
ticular complexion,  which,  though  reflection  and  reason 
may  sometimes  overcome  it,  will  yet  prevail  among  the 
generality  of  mankmd,  and  have  an  influence  on  their 
manners. 

That  the  character  of  a  nation  will  much  depend  on 
morai  causes,  must  be  evident  to  the  most  superficial  ob- 
server ;  since  a  nation  is  nothing  but  a  collection  of  indi- 
viduals)  and  the  manners  of  individuals  are  frequently  de- 
termined by  these  causes.  As  poverty  and  hard  labour 
debase  the  minds  of  the  common  people,  and  render  them 
unfit  for  any  science  and  ingenious  profession ;  so,  where 
any  government  becomes  very  oppressive  to  all  its  subjects, 
it  must  have  a  proportional  effect  on  their  temper  and  ge- 
nius, and  must  banish  all  the  liberal  arts  from  among  them. 
The  same  principle  of  moral  causes  fixes  the  character 
of  different  professions,  and  alters  even  that  disposition, 
which  the  particular  members  receive  firom  the  hand  of 
nature.  A  sokSer  and  a  priest  are  different  characters,  in 
all  nations,  and  all  ages ;  and  this  difference  is  founded 
on  circumstances  whose  operation  is  eternal  and  unalter- 
able. 

The  uncertainty  of  their  life  makes  soldiers  lavish  and 
generous,  as  well  as  brave :  Their  idleness,  together  with 
the  large  societies  which  they  form  in  camps  or  garrisons, 
inclines  them  to  pleasure  and  gallantry :  By  their  frequent 
change  of  company,  they  acquire  good  breeding  and  an 

o2 


196  SaSAY  XXI. 

openness  of  behaviour :  Being  employed  only  against  (i 
public  and  an  open  enemy,  they  become  candid,  honest, 
and  undesigning :  And  as  they  use  more  the  labour  of  the 
body  than  that  of  the  mind,  they  are  commonly  thought- 
less and  ignorant '. 

It  is  a  trite,  but  not  altogether  a  fidse  maxim,  thi^t 
priesig  nf  all  rdigUms  are  the  same ;  «md  though  the  cha- 
racter of  the  profession  will  not,  in  every  instance,  prevaU 
over  the  personal  character,  yet  it  is  sure  always  to  pre<- 
dominate  with  the  greater  number*  For  as  chenusts  ob* 
serve^  that  spirits,  when  rabed  to  a  certain  height,  are  all 
the  same,  from  whatever  materiab  they  be  extracted ;  so 
these  men,  being  elevated  above  huiqanity,  acquire  a  uni* 
fipmn  character,  which  is  entirely  their  owA)  ^nd  which,  in 
my  opinion,  is,  generally  speaking,  not  the  most  amiable 
that  is  to  be  met  with  in  hum^n  so(;iety.  It  is,  in  most 
points,  opposite  to  that  of  a  soldier ;  as  is  the  way  of  life, 
from  which  it  is  derived  **. 

As  to  physical  canmSf  1  am  inclined  to  doubt  altogether 
of  theur  operation  in  this  particular ;  m^  dp  I  think  thai 
men  owe  any  thing  of  ih^  tamper  or  genius,  to  the  9ir% 
iood,  or  climate.  I  confess,  thai  the  ccmtnoy  opinion  may 
jnstly,  ait  first  sight,  seem  probable ;  since  we  find  that 
these  circumstances  have  an  influence  over  every  other  wai^r 
mslf  and  that  even  those  creatui^  which  are  fitted  to  live 
in  all  climates,  such  as  dogs,  horses,  &c»  do  not  attain  the 
same  perfection  in  all.  The  courage  of  buU^<ioga  and 
game-cocks  seems  peculiar  to  England.  Flanders  is  re* 
Barkable  for  targe  and  heavy  horses :  Spam  far  hoises 
light,  and  of  good  mettle.  And  any  breed  of  d^sse  orea;- 
tunea,  transplanted  from  one  oosntry  to  aootfier,  wiH  soap 

•  See  MoTi  [H-J  "  ^  ^m  [L] 


m^ 


OF  NATIONAL  CHARACTERS.  197 

lose  the  qualities  which  diey  derived  from  their  iiatiTe  di*^ 
mate.     It  may  be  asked,  ^y  not  the  same  wkh  men  *  ? 

Here  are  few  questions  more  curious  than  this,  or 
which  will  oftener  occur  in  our  inquiries  concerning  hu- 
man affiurs;  and  therefore  it  may  be  proper  to  give  it  a 
fidl  examination. 

The  human  mind  is  of  a  very  imitative  nature;  nor  is 
it  possible  fof  any  set  of  men  to  converse  often  together, 
without  acquiring  a  similitude  of  manners,  and  communi- 
cating to  each  other  their  vices  as  well  as  virtues.  The 
propensity  to  company  and  society  is  strong  in  all  rational 
cteatures ;  and  the  same  disposition,  which  gives  us  this 
propensity,  makes  u^  enter  deeply  into  each  other's  senti- 
ments, and  causes  like  passions  and  indinationB  to  run,  as 
4t  Wef e,  by  contagion,  through  die  whole  tlub  or  knot  of 
companions.  Where  a  number  of  men  are  united  into 
one  political  body,  the  occasions  <^  their  intercourse  muift 
be  so  frequent,  for  defence,  commerce^  and  government, 
that,  together  witii  the  same  speech  or  language,  they 
must  acquire  a  resemblance  in  their  manners,  and  have  a 
oMttnoil  or  national  character,  as  well  as  a  personal  one^ 
peddiar  to  each  individuaL  Now,  though  n$ture  produces 
all  kinds  of  temper  and  understanding  in  great  abundance, 
it  does  not  follow,  that  she  always  produces  them  in  like 
proportions^  and  that  in  every  society  the  ingredients  of  iti- 
dttstty  afiMl  indoleno^  valour  and  cowardk^e,  humanity  and 
br^ali(y»  Wiaddm  and  fcdly^  wiU  be  mined  aSbe/t  the  same 
maittier.  In  the  kAAcy  of  society,  if  any  of  these  diqM>si- 
tions  be  found  iti  greats  abundance  than  the  rest,  it  will 
naturally  prevail  in  th^  compositkm,  and  give  a  tincttu^  to 
the  natkmal  characM".    Or  should  it  be  asserted,  that  no 

•  See  Non  [K.] 


198  ESSAY  XXI. 

species  of  temper  can  reasonably  be  presumed  to  pre(k>- 
minate,  even  in  those  contracted  societies,  and  that  the 
same  proportions  will  always  be  preserved  in  the  mixture; 
yet  surely  the  persons  in  credit  and  authority,  being. a  stiU 
more  contracted  body,  cannot  always  be  presumed  to  be 
of  the  same  character ;  and  their  influence  on  the  manners 
of  the  people  must,  at  all  times,  be  very  considerable*  If, 
on  the  first  establishment  of  a  republic,  a  Brutus  shouM.be 
placed  in  authority,  and  be  transported  with  such  an  en- 
thusiasm for  liberty  and  public  good,  as  to  overlook  all  the 
ties  of  nature,  as  well  as  private  interest,  such  an  illustrious 
example  will  naturally  have  an  e£Pect  on  the  whole  sdbie^ 
and  kindle  the  same  passion  in  every  bosom.  Whatever 
it  be  that  forms  the  manners  of  one  generation,  the  next 
must  imbibe  a  deeper  tincture  of  the  same  dye ;  men 
being  more  susceptible  of  all  impressions  during  infancy, 
and  retaining  these  impressions  as  long  as  they  remain  in 
the  world*  I  assert,  then,  that  all  national  characters, 
where  they  depend  not  on  fixed  mcral  causes,  proceed  fix>m 
such  accidents  as  these,  and  that  physical  causes  have  no 
discernible  operation  on  the  human  mind.  It  is  a  maxim 
in  all  philosophy,  that  causes  which  do  not  appear,  are  to 
be  considered  as  not  existing. 

If  we  run  over  the  globe,  or  revolve  the  annals  of  history, 
we  shall  discover  every  where  signs  of  a  sympathy  or  con- 
tagion of  manners,  none  of  the  influence  of  air  or  climate. 

Ih'st^  We  may  observe,  that  wbere  a  very  extensive 
government  has  been  established  for  many  centuries,  it 
spreads  a  national  character  over  the  whole  empire,  and 
communicates  to  every  part  a  similarity  of  maimers.  Thus 
the  Chinese  have  the  greatest  uniformity  of  character 
imaginable,  though  the  air  and  climate,  in  difierent  parts 


OF  NATIONAL  CHARACTERS^  199 

of  those  vast  dominions,  admit  of  very  considerable  yaria- 
tions. 

Secondfyf  In  small  governments,  which  are  contiguous, 
the  people  have  notwithstanding  a  different  character,  and 
are  often  as  distingubhable  in  their  manners  as  the  most 
distant  nations.  Athens  and  Thebes  were  but  a  short  day^is 
journey  from  each  other ;  though  the  Athenians  were  as 
remarkable  for  ingenuity,  politeness,  and  gaiety,  as  the 
Thebans  for  dulness,  rusticity,  and  a  phlegmatic  temper. 
Plutarch,  discoursing  of  the  etkcts  of  air  on  the  minds  of 
men,  observes,  that  the  inhabitants  of  die  PirsBum  possessed 
very  diflSsrent  tempers  from  those  of  the  higher  town  in 
Athens,  which  was  distant  about  four  miles  from  the  for* 
mer:  But  I  bdieve  no  one  attributes  the  difference  of 
manners,  in  Wiqpping  and  St  James's,  to  a  difference  of 
air  or  climate. 

Tkbt^f  The  same  national  character  commonly  follows 
the  authority  of  government  to  a  precise  boundary;  and 
upon  crossing  a  river  or  passing  a  mountain,  one  finds  a 
new  set  of  manners,  with  a  new  government.  The  Lan- 
guedocians  and  Gascons  are  the  gayest  people  in  France ; 
but  whenever  you  pass  the  Pyrenees,  you  are  among 
Spaniards.  Is  it  conceivable,  that  the  qualities  of  the  air 
should  change  exactly  with  the  limits  o(  an  empire,  which 
depend  so  much  on  the  accidents  of  battfes,  negociatioiis, 
and  marriages  ? 

Jbttrttfy,  Where  any  setofmai,  scattered  over  distant 
nations,  maintain  a  close  society  or  communication  U>- 
geiher,  they  acquire  a  similitude  of  manners,  and  have  but 
little  in  common  with  the  nations  amongst  whom  they  live. 
Thus  the  Jews  in  Europe,  and  the  Armenians  in  the  East, 
have  a  peculiar  character;  and  die  former  are  as  much 


MO  M#AY  XJCI. 

nMedAH*frMd»a8lh#lMerforprobttgr*.  Th%  JmiMfkk 
all  Botmm  CaUuMe  eomUries  are  also  dbserved  to  hav«  a 
dtaradter  p«6«liftr  to  tbemselresv 

FifiUiH  WhfiK  M  iu9cident|  m  a  difiefwoe  ia  language 
or  reygioDi  kecpa  two  nMiop%  inluibiting  the  same  coan- 
tiyi  from  muiidg  wkh  e*cb  t>ther#  tb^7  wiU  persenrei  ds^ 
ring  aevenl  cebturieb,  b  diatin^l  and  eten  cq^peflite  «et  of 
nianoersi  The  Uiilegri^igttivitjri  and  bravery  c^th«Tiurk% 
ibrm  an  exaol  obfttrasfc  to  the  deceit,  kvk^i  and  cowavdiee 
of  the  modisni  Gredcs. 

SuMigj  Hm  same  eel  of  manners  will  follow  a  nation* 
and  adhere  to  tlMri  over  the  whdle  globei  as  wdl  as  the 
same  kwB  add  lingnagi.  Ilie  Spatlisbi  Ei^^iah,  Fretwh 
tad  D«t«h  ookliiesi  are  all  diaiinguishable  eVen  between 
Ae  tropics^ 

SeoenMy^  The  manners  of  a  people  change  v^  cet^ 
sideivbljr  from  me  age  to  another  \  eilker  bj^  great  altera- 
iioBs:in  their  gbTehment,  by  the  mixtiirelof  new  people 
or  by  Ihat inpeastnncyt  to  whieh  aU  httttaa  affiura  are  sob- 
jtot  Th^  ingBDttilyi  indttstryt  Md  actin^of  the  vacmt 
Oreebii  haT6  nothmg  in  oommon  with  the  stupidity  and 
indoLanoe  of  .the. present  inhid>itant8  of  those  regions^ 
Candbiftf^  brtitwiry^  art  Ion  <rfliber^»  fon^ed  the  character 
dftteaBCMabBseibans}  As  snbtb<|r#  cowardice,  and  n  ski* 
vidtdisposiUomdotlliltofth^tooderti.  Tbeold%>aBiardi 
were  restless,  turbulent,  and  so  addicted  to  war,  that  many 
ef  ditin  kiUed  themselves  when  derived  oftfieir  mmB  by 
the  Rotnads^  One  would  find  an  equal  difficidiyAt'Pf^ 
icMt  (at  l^ast  one  would  huve  finmd  it  61^,  yea«s  ago)  to 
roujie  «|^  the  inod^m  Spaniards  to  artna«    The  Battvjad$ 

, -SttNimilUJ 

^  Tit.  Lim,  lib.  xxzir.  cap.  17. 


OF  NATIOVAL  eHMUCT£RS.  Wl 

r  aU  aoldiirs  of  fbUune,  and  hired  tftemedves  Bito  the 
Benah  anniaa.  Their  posterity  umke  dae  of  ftiragners 
fiMr  the  same  pwrposa  that  die  Romans  didUKiraacestors. 
Thoa|^  some  few  strokes  of  the  Fmiich  diaracter  be  the 
same  with  that  whidi  Csesar  has  ascribed  to  the  Oank ; 
j^  what  oompariaon  between  the  oiTility,  humain^,  atld 
'kiidwledge  of  the  medtrn  inhabitants  of  that  comtry,  and 
the  i|(naraiice>  barbarity,  and  grossiiess  of  the  ancient  ? 
Not  to  insist  iit>on  tlie  great  di£ferende  between  the  present 
poosessors  of  Britain^  and  those  before  the  Roman  con* 
^afest;  wemayobaerrethatotirano^torsyafeweentmries 
ago^  were  mmfc  into  the  most  abject  superstition ;  last  cen^ 
tacjrth^  were  inflamed  with  thtimost  furious  emburiasm^ 
and  are  bo#  settlod  lAto  die  droit  cool  indiftrence  wMi 
•regiurd  to  taligions  matters^  that  is  io  be  found  In  lunyna^ 
4i6n(lftkewt»kL 

BifhtUifi  Wh^e  sevehd  imghboumg  nations  hav«  ii 
^rsry  4dose  eomnmnicadon  together,  eidier  by  pdUty,  t^sm- 
merce»  or  traveUii^,  they  acquire  a  sipnlittid^  of  manned, 
propoatioiied  io  the  oonuBunication^  Thiis  all  the  Franks 
appodr  tb  hare  a  unifeM  obaraoier  to  the  eastern  ^atlimd. 
The  di£fefawes  aiiMHig  dwui  are  like  the  peotiliar  Moent^ 
of  diffisrent  protinces^  which  are  not  disthigulshable  4!afr- 
ccpt  by  an  efcur  aeeustomed  to  tbem^  and  whidi  eomnu^y 
a«tape  a  ftre%nerk 

JRaA^  We  may  eAen  remark  l^wrad^rfldmiidi^e^ 
mmB^t^  bM  diaraotert  kl  the  saase  nalite,  spettkbig  th^ 
mb^  language,  and«lii)eett6  the  sailiegoverfiiiMii:  A&d 
ah  diia  paxlieular  the  Engli^  are  thd  most  remarkable Hf 
afiypetiifleaiatpcriM^4terllrerei»  the  wm'ld.  Nori^ 
this  to  beaaeribM  to  dM  mutritiilityand  uneertBkity  df  tti^ 
ehmate,  or  to  alqr  oAerptfgkiAl  eAUses;  s&iee  iH  th6S^ 
bauses  take  place  m  die  m^ighbouring  conhtly  of  Seotlftik!, 


SOS  ES6AY  XXI. 

without  having  the  same  effect  Where  the  govemm^it 
of  a  nation  is  altogether  republican,  it  is  apt  to  b^[et  a 
peculiar  set  of  manners.  Wfaare  it  is  altogether  monardi- 
ical,  it  is  more  apt  to  have  the  same  effect ;  the  imitation 
of  superiors  spreading  the  national  manners  filter  among 
the  people.  If  the  governing  part  of  a  state  consist  altoge- 
ther of  merchants,  as  in  Holland,  their  uniform  way  of  life 
will  fix  their  character.  If  it  consists  chiefly  of  nobles  and 
landed  gentry,  like  Germany,  France,  and  Spain,  the  same 
effect  follows.  The  genius  of  a  particular  sect  or  reli- 
gion is  also  apt  to  mould  the  manners  of  a  people.  But 
the  English  government  is  a  mixture  of  monarchy,  aristo- 
cracy, and  democracy.  The  people  in  authority  are  com- 
posed of  gentry  and  merchants.  All  sects  of  rdigion  are 
to  be  found  amcmg  them.  And  the  great  liberty  and  in- 
dependency, which  every  man  enjoys,  allows  him  to  display 
the  manners  peculiar  to  him.  Hence  the  English,  of  any 
people  in  the  universe,  have  the  least  of  a  national  charac- 
ter ;  unless  this  very  singularity  may  pass  for  sudi. 

If  the  characters  of  men  depended  on  the  air  and  cli- 
mate, the  d^rees  of  heat  and  cold  should  naturally^be  ex- 
pected to  have  a  m%hty  influence ;  smce  nothing  has  a 
greater  effect  on  all  plants  and  irrational  animals.  And 
indeed  there  is  some  reason  to  think,  that  all  the  nations, 
which  live  beyond  the  polar  circles  or  between  the  tropics, 
are  inferior  to  the  rest  of  the  species,  and  are  incapable  of 
all  the  higher  attainments  of  the  human  mind.  The  po- 
verty and  misery  of  the  northern  inhabitants  of  the  globe, 
and  the  indolence  of  the  southern,  from  their  few  necessi- 
ties, may,  perhaps  account  for  this  remarkable  difference, 
without  our  ha^g  recourse  to  pkgrical  causes.  This, 
however,  is  certain,  that  the  characters  of  nations  are  very 
promiscuous  in  the  temperate  climates,  and  that  almost  all 


OF  NATIONAL  CHARACTERS.  208 

the  general  observatioDs,  which  have  been  formed  of  the 
more  southern  or  more  northern  people  in  these  climates^ 
are  found  to  be  uncertain  and  fallacious  ^. 

Shall  we  say,  that  the  neighbourhood  of  the  sun  inflames 
the  imagination  of  men,  and  gi^es  it  a  peculiar  spirit  and 
yivacity  ?  The  French,  Ghreeks,  Egyptians  and  Persians, 
are  remarkable  for  gaiety.  The  Spaniards,  Turks,  and 
Chinese,  are  noted  for  gravity  and  a  serious  deportment, 
without  any  such  difierence  of  climate  as  to  produce  this 
diflference  of  temper. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans,  who  called  all  other  nations 
barbarians,  confined  genius  and  a  fine  understanding  to 
the  more  southern  climates,  and  pronounced  the  northern 
nati<ms  incapable  of  all  knowledge  and  ciyility.  But  our 
island  has  produced  as  great  men,  either  for  action  or 
learning,  as  Greece  or  Italy  has  to  boast  of. 

It  is  pretended,  that  the  sentiments  of  men  become  more 
delicate  as  the  country  approaches  nearer  to  the  sun ;  and 
that  the  taste  of  beauty  and  elegance  receives  proportional 
improvements  in  every  latitude ;  as  we  particularly  observe 
of  the  languages,  of  which  the  more  southern  are  smooth 
and  melodious,  the  northern  harsh  and  untunable.  But 
this  observation  holds  not  universally.  The  Arabic  is 
uncouth  and  disagreeable :  The  Muscovite  soft  and  musi- 
cal. Eneigy,  strength,  and  harshness,  form  the  character 
of  the  Latin  tongue:  The  Italian  is  the  most  liquid, 
smooth  and  effeminate  language  that  can  possibly  be  ima- 
gined.  Every  language  will  d^end  somewhat  on  the  man- 
ners of  the  people;  but  much  more  on  that  original  stock 
of  words  and  sounds,  wtdxh  they  received  from  their  an- 
cestors, and  which  remain  unchangeable,  even  vAale  their 

•  8m  Nor  [M.] 


•04  BMAY  SKI. 

manliera  Admit  of  the  ginatestaitoratioiis.  Whoeandoabt, 
but  the  BogUsh  are  ftt  present  ft  tifore  poUte  and  knowk^ 
people  than  the  Greeks  were  for  serend  agei  aft^rthe  sifdfg^ 
of  IVoy  ?  Vet  is  there  no  compatifion  between  the  lan- 
guage of  Milton  and  that  of  Homer.  Nay,  the  greater 
the  alteratiims  and  improyemento,  whldh  happed  ia  the 
tttaniiMid  of  a  people^  the  le6s  catl  be  expected  in  their  fain- 
gnage*  A  few  eminent  and  refined  geniuses  will  commil- 
ntcate  their,  taste  and  knowledge  to  a  whole  people^  and 
produce  the  greatest  improvements ;  but  they  fix  the  tongue 
by  iheir  writings,  and  prevent,  in  some  degree,  its  fiirdier 
changes. 

Lord  Bacon  has  obsetved,  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 
south  are,  In  geneml,  more  ingenious  than  those  of  the 
norths  but  that  where  the  native  of  acold  climate  has  ge- 
nius, he  rises  Id  ti  higher  pitch  than  can  be  reached  by  the 
southern  wits.  This  obsemttion  a  late  ^  writer  confirms, 
by  comparulg  the  southern  wits  to  cucumbers,  which  are 
oommooly  all  good  in  their  kind;  but  at  best  9ite  ah  insi- 
pid fruit :  While  the  northern  geniuses  are  like  melons,  of 
Whidi  not  one  in  fifty  is  good;  but  when  it  is  so,  it  has  an 
ekquisite  ivUsb.  I  believe  this  remark  may  be  allowed 
just,  when  confined  to  the  European  nations,  and  to  the 
preseM  age,  or  rather  to  tfce  preceding/one :  But  I  think 
km^beaetevniedforfirommotmlcauses*  All  the  sciences 
hod  Ubaral  aits  have  bew  impdrted  to  ns  fiiMn  the  south ; 
«iid  k  is  eaqr  to  imagine,  that)  im  the  Arst  ord^  of  appli- 
cation^ wtea  ndted  byemtiation  and  by  glory,  the  ftw, 
whb  are  addicted  to  dMB^  would  carry  diem  to  ih«  gteai- 
eat  height^  aid  stretoh  evefy  neirve,  and  every  fiMOley,  to 
reach  the  pifloada  of  perfi»)tion.    8udi  illustrious  eAam- 

•  Dr  Berk#l^.     Bfibttli  FhUotopher. 


OF  NATIONAL  OUAHACTERS.  905 

pkft  spread  knowledge  eyery  wfcere,  fud  beget  ah  imivfir- 
sal  eateem  fiur  the  sciencas :  After  which,  il  k  no  wonder 
that  industry  relaxes;  whik  men  me^  noi  widi  soitable 
encouragemait,  nor  arrive  i^  sui^  distiiiQtioa  bytbdr  at- 
tainments»  The  unirersal  difiiision  of  Wrning  aiaoiig  a 
people,  and  the  oitire  banishmeirt  of  grpss  igacvalipe 
and  rusticity,  is,  therefore,  seldon  attended  mth  pay  re- 
markable perfection  in  particular  persons.  It  seema  lo  be 
taken  for  granted  in  the  dialogue  ds  Oraiorilmsj  that  know- 
ledge was  much  more  common  in  Vespasian's  age  thMi  in 
that  of  Cicero  and  Augustus.  Quintilian  abo  conplidns 
of  the  profanation  o{  learnings  by  its  beeoiqing  tdo  com- 
moD.  <<  Formerly,"  says  Juvena),  ^  science  was  Mofined 
to  Greece  and  Italy.  Now  the  whole  ifpvld  ^wnthites 
Athens  and  Rome.  Eloquent  Gaul  has  ttagfit  Britaj% 
knowing  in  the  laws.  Even  Thule  entertains  tbongh(g  of 
hiring  rhet<Mricians  for  its  instructi<m  '.''  This  stale  of 
learning  is  remarkable;  because  Juvenal  is  hhnself  die  last 
of  the  Roman  writers  that  possessed  any  d^pee  of  gtniue. 
Those  who  succeeded  are  valued  for  nothing  but  the  mat» 
ters  of  fiiel  of  which  they  give  us  informatioB.  I  hope 
the  late  conversion  of  Muscovy  to  die  study  of  llie  sdenoea 
will  not  prove  a  like  prognostic  to  t^  present  period  of 
l^rnlngi 

Cat^nal  BmtivogUo  gives  the  pfeferaice  to  theMvtln 
eam  nations  above  the  southern  wk|i  regard  to  oMdow 
and  smcerity;  andmenlions,  on  tlieonehaa^  the  Spt^^mda 
and  Italians,  aad»  on  the  ether,  the  Hemings  awl  0er- 

Nunc  totus  Qnda^  nostnaq^e  habet  orbi^  Athenaf. 

Gallia  caosidicot  docult  facunda  BiitaanoB : 

De  con^ucen^p  loquitur  jam  rhetore  Thule."    Sat.  15. 


806  ESSAY  xxr. 

mans.  But  I  am  apt  to  think,  that  this  has  happened  by 
accident  The  ancient  Romans  seem  to  have  been  a  can- 
did, sincere  people,  as  are  the  modem  Torks*  But  if  we 
must  needs  suppose,  that  this  event  has  arisen  firom  fixed 
causes,  we  may  only  conclude  from  it,  that  all  extremes  are 
apt  to  concur,  and  are  commonly  attended  with  the  same 
consequences.  Treachery  is  the  usual  concomitant  of  ig- 
norance and  barbarism ;  and  if  civilized  nations  ever  em- 
brace subtle  and  crooked  politics,  it  is  from  an  excess  of 
refinement,  which  makes  them  disdain  the  plain  direct  path 
to  power  and  glory. 

Most  conquests  have  gone  from  north  to  south ;  and  it 
has  hence  been  inferred,  that  the  northern  nations  possess 
a  superior  degree. of  courage  and  ferocity :  But  it  would 
have  been  juster  to  have  said,  that  most  conquests  are  made 
by  poverQr  and  want,  upon  plenty  and  riches.  The  Sara^ 
cens,  leaving  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  carried  their  conquests 
northwards  upon  all  the  fertile  provinces  of  the  Roman 
empire;  and  met  the  Turks  half  way,  who  were  coming 
southwards  from  the  deserts  of  Tartary. 

An  eminent  writer  ^  has  remarked,  that  all  courageous 
animals  are  also  carnivorous,  and  that  greater  courage  is 
to  be  expected  in  a  people,  such  as  the  English^  whose  food 
Is  strong  and  hearty,  than  in  the  half-starved  conmionalty 
c^  othier  countries.  But  the  Swedes,  notwithstanding  their 
disadvantages  in  this  particular,  are  not  inferior,  in  martial 
courage,  to  any  nation  that  ever  was  in  the  world. 

In  general,  we  may  observe,  that  courage,,  of  all  national 
qualities,  is  the  most  precarious;  because  it  is  exerted  only 
at  intervals,  and  by  a  few  in  every  nation;  whereas  indus- 
try, knowledge,  civility,  may  be  of  constant  and  universal 
use,  and  for  several  ages  may  become  habitual  to  the  whole 

^  Sir  WniiMa  Temple's  Account  of  ^e  Netherlands. 


OF  NATIONAL  CHARACTERS.  20T 

people.  If  courage  be  preserved,  it  must  be  by  discipline, 
example,  and  opinion.  The  tenth  legion  of  Caesar,  and 
die  regiment  of  Picardy  in  France,  were  formed  promis- 
cuously from  among  the  citizens ;  but  having  once  enter- 
tained a  notion,  that  they  were  the  best  troops  in  the  ser- 
vice, this  very  opmion  really  made  them  such. 
'  As  a  proof  how  much  courage  depends  on  opinion,  we 
may  observe,  that,  of  the  two  chief  tribes  of  the  Greeks, 
the  Dorians  and  lonians,  the  former  were  always  esteem- 
ed, and  always  appeared  more  brave  and  manly  than  the 
latter ;  though  the  colonies  of  both  the  tribes  were  inter- 
spersed and  intermingled  throughout  all  the  extent  of 
Oteeoe,  the  Lesser  Asia,  Sicily,  Italy,  and  the  islands  of 
the  JEgeBXk  sea*  The  Athenians  were  the  only  lonians 
tbat  ever  had  any  reputation  for  valour  or  military  achieve- 
ments; though  even  these  were  deemed  inferior  to  the  La- 
cedemonians, the  bravest  of  the  Dorians. 

The  only  observation,  with  regard  to  the  diffisrence  of 
men  in  different  climates,  on  which  we  can  rest  any  weight, 
is  the  vulgar  one,  that  people  in  the  northern  felons  have 
a  greater  inclination  to  strong  liquors,  and  those  in  the 
southern  to  love  and  women*  One  can  assign  a  very  pro- 
bable phy$kal  cause  for  this  difference.  Wine  and  distill- 
ed waters  warm  the  frozen  blood  in  the  colder  dimates, 
and  fortify  men  against  the  injuries  of  the  weather :  As  the 
genial  heat  of  die  sun,  in  the  countries  exposed  to  his 
beams,  inflames  the  blood  and  exalts  the  passion  betweeii 
the  sexes. 

Perhaps,  too,  the  matter  may  be  accounted  for  hy  moral 
causes.  All  strong  liquors  are  rarer  in  the  north,  and  con- 
sequently are  more  coveted.    Diodorus  Siculus  ^  tells  us, 

•  Lib.  T.  The  tame  author  ascribMtadturnitj  to  that  people;  a  new  proof 
that  national  character!  may  alter  very  much.     Tadturnity,  as  a  national 


see  ¥fi9^Y  wi. 

that  ^  QwIb  m  bM  lime  were  gr^at  druol^Ms^  and  muob 
addict^  to  win^;  eUe%>  I  suf^pose^  turn  it9  rari^  and 
Dovtf^  On  the  Qtber  )ia»d»  the  h^t  in  ith«  qwthem  <di^ 
mflte8»  oUigiiig  neH  wd  women  to  gp  half  naked»  thaivrtijr 
ronded  their  freqtifot  commeroe  more  diwigerou%  and  iiH 
flames  their  mutual  fM9sion#  Thic  mdUa  pan^tfi  and  hua-r 
bands  iMra  jealous  wd  reservad;  wMch  atill  ftrther  in- 
flamss  thn  passion. .  Ifiot  to  mention^  tb«t  ^»  woman  ri<* 
pon  sooMT  in  the  soutfiera  ragk>ns>  it  is  necessary  to  A- 
serve  greater  jealousy  and  care  in  their  education!  kbo-» 
ing  ofidenl  that  a  gsd  of  twelve  cannot  possess  oqusl  dis-^ 
ctetkm  to  govern  this  passion^  with  qm  that  f&Bia  not  im 
vioknce  till  she  be  seventeen  or  eighteen.  Nothing  so 
mimh  encourages  the  passion  of  love  as  ease  and  leimire^ 
Of  is  mmre  destracttve  to  it  dmn  indnabry  and  hard  bhonr ; 
and  as  the  naeessities  of  men  are  evidently  fewer  in  the 
warm  climates  than  in  Ae  eold  ones^  this  oircumstanoa  a-« 
lone  may  make  a  consklend)le  di£farence  between  them. 

But  peihaps  the  fact  k  doubtfiil,  that  nature  has,  eidier 
inmi  mmral  or  physMMl  causes  4i*^pbuted  their  respective 
mdination  to  die  difler^t  <j|]mates«  Tkt  ancient  afeck% 
tkoqgli  bom  in  a  warm  elimatir^  seem  to  have  been  mueh 
adtfcted  to  the  botde;  nor  were  their  parties  of  pleasure 
ai^  diing  but  matdies  of  drinking  among  men,  who  pass* 
ed  the'*  time  altogettier  apfurt  from  the  fair.  Yet  when 
Alexanoer  M  the  Greeks  hrto  Persia,  a  still  mofie  soath-> 
«rn  ctknate,  th^  multiptted  dieir  debanches  of  this  kind, 
in  imitation  of  the  Persian  manners  K  So  honourable  was 
the.  diMVU'ter  of  a  drunkard  among  tlie  Persians,  that  Cy- 

chancteTy iq^li^ nnforithlwiBia.     Arable,  inhit  PoliticBy  boc^iL cap.  S. 
mji,  that  the  Oault  are  the  only  warlike  nadon  who  are  negligeiit  of  women. 

*  BabjftonH  nuttkiu  in  vimim,  et  ^um  iMetatem  $equufUnr,  wffuti  tuni* 
QuniT.  Cinu  lit.  r.  ci^.  1. 


OK  NATlOMAI^eXAIlACTfiRS.  Sdfr 

yte.dier]no«iQ|^  Mticiitfig  Ui6  sober  LocedefMiitatii  Ibr 
iti^l^iigdUstliis  hMibktAmMtTt^^tiit^W&iSety 
ibcdnni  jof"  fail  faiperlor  ^odowjiamttMi  atf  mibr6  ^iA6totii^ 

vm^B  it  b^  nMeribed  oq  hitf  umJIih^m^  iMoti^  Ud  (Mh^ 
Yicttm  and  pHncoly  qpudkto^  Aat  -te^M  omM  iMai^  # 
grasterqdaatb^ofU^piot.    Yott'ioiy  dMJAft  ttq^tlliil^di 

pMfaE  mdi  ^Kin  ito  ^ell^  Mt  cmly  ^leil^  cA^ti^  imt  ihdi' 
iriites.aBdiiUBMipCB)  Ibt  a^dMk  ^brtttidy.^&f  PrttM^MlA 
Itaif  feur  dtiidc  pi»« MiB^  edi^tiiVt  th^ gt'^McHtlMtt^dr 
saifalDart.Mid^  iiid«ledyltto4li^l^tf6l5t<i»«€i^e^^ 
^ertbtnciiiittbevs^ti^  «^a]^<MM)%y^  ^'it^fe'citt 
Sircdb^^^dl]«iDgsA«  9rikt«r^2ii  61^  1^^ 
congealed  by  the  rigour  oTAe-^^^MM.  ^  lt}^ttmfy%^¥» 
garded  as  a  proof  o{  an  amorous  disposition,  no  people 
were  more  jealous  than  the  Muscovites,  before  their  com* 
munication  with  Eun^  had  somewhat  altered  their  man- 
ners in  this  particular. 

But  supposing  the  fitct  true,  that  nature,  by  physical 
principles,  has  regularly  distributed  these  two  passions,  the 
one  to  the  northern,  the  other  to  the  southern  regicms;  we 
can  only  infer,  that  the  climate  may  affect  the  grosser  and 
more  bodily  organs  of  our  frame,  not  that  it  can  work  on 
those  finer  organs,  on  which  the  operations  of  the  mind 
and  understanding  depend.  And  this  is  agreeable  to  the 
analogy  of  nature.  The  races  of  animals  never  d^;enerate 
when  carefully  attended  to;  and  horses,  in  particular,  al* 
ways  show  their  blood  in  their  shape,  spirit,  and  swiftness: 
But  a  coxcomb  mayb^etaphilosqfdier;  asamanof  vir<* 
tue  may  leave  a  worthless  progeny. 

*  Plut  Sjrmp.  lib.  L  ^umuL  4. 
VOL*  I.  p 


810,  .     i,        EfifiAY  XXI..    .        , 

^  {  ^hall  coodudetlus  subject  with  obaorvii^duitth^ 
ti^  passion  for  liquor  be  more  hrutidi  and  debaaiiigdiiait 
Ipy/B,  which,  ^beu  properly  nianaged,  i^the  soixrce^M 
politeness  andrelb^uent;  yet  tbi^  glres  not  so  great a» 
adv^tage  to  tb^  s<Qutbem  dimates^  as  we  may  be  apt,  at 
ftrstr^^bt,  rta,imflgin<^  Wheiildve  goes  beyond  a  certain 
^t^j  it  re^d^prs  mea  J€#lou%  and  euts  bff  the  free  inter- 
c^WBp  l^e^  .t|i(?  sexes,  on  wbith  the  politeness  of  a  na^- 
tjw^iji  commonly  mjgohdepeod-.  And  if  we  (wcwld  sob^ 
^ifejB^ and, refiflie. upon  Ais  pofet^  we  .fl^bt  observe,  tkat 
*b^ RWple,  in, yery  tc^aperate ,cU«ja|ea,^afe  tHemost  like4 
Ij  to  attain  aU  sorts  of  improvpmegt;  their  blood  not  bo^ 
^Igfojnflamedaai  to  render  them  jealipus,  andyet  bein^ 
Wffmien^jigh  tot  iQ^^them :$et>,9  due  vidue  bntfaetfianhs 
an4  €iidpiH9pe^  of  the  iair  a^x;^,   : 


! 


-:f" 


-ri/  \')  i'.'ur  ':  •  .  :'t 


;    j;s3AY  xxn. 


It  seems  an  unaccountable  pleasure,  which  the  spectator^ 
oF'a<^^i9I-*wfftten  tmgedy  receive  from  sorrow,  terror,  im- 
^d^tjr^'ittid  other  passions  that  are  in  themselves  disagree^ 
aMef  ^ahd.uneflsy.    ^The  more  they  are  touched  and  affbct- 
ei'^  the  moi'e  are  they  d^^ghted  with  the  spectacle ;  and  as 
80091  as  Qi^  uiitMy^pttssiuns  cease  to  x^erate,  the  piece  is 
at  ^  end;     One  scene  o(  fbU  joy  and  contentment  and  sc'^ 
dtu^tjis  the  utmost  that  any  composition  of  this  kind  can 
b^lMr't  <^  K  ii^'stii^  dwayn  to  be  the  concluding  one.     If 
ifl'the  texture  of  the  pie<ie,  there  be  interwoven  any  scenes 
of  Mtlsfiiictton,  they  afford  only  faint  gleams  of  pleasure,' 
whl^  «re  thrown  in  by  way  of  variety,  and  in  order  to 
plunge  the  actors  into  deeper  distress  by  means  of  that 
contlrast  and  disajipointsnent     The  whole  art  of  the  poet  is 
employ^,  in  rousing  and  ^pporting  the  compassion  and 
ittdtj^adon,  die  anxiety  and  resentment,  of  his  audience.' 
Tbey  are  pleased  m  proportion  as  they  are  afllicted,  and  ' 
nimt  are  so  happy  as  when  they  employ  tears,  sobs,  and 
ortiss,'  to  give  vent  to  their  sorrow,  and  relieve  dieir  heart 
swoln  with  the  tenderest  sympathy  and  compassi(m. 
'  The  fbw  critica  who  have  had  s6me  tincture  of  philoso* 
pby,"bave  remarked  this  singular  phenomenon,  and  havo' 
and^voured  to  account  fi>t  it 

?9 


812  ESSAY  XXII. 

L'Abbe  Diibos,  in  his  reflections  on  poetry  and  paitit'* 
ing,  asserts,  that  nothing  is  in  general  so  disagreeable  to 
the  mind  as  the  languid,  listless  state  of  indolence,  into 
irfiich  it  falb  upon  the  removal  c^  all  passion  and  occiqia- 
tion*  To  get  rid  of  this  palnfiil  sttnadon,  it  seeks  every 
amusement  and  pursuit;  business,  gaming,  shows,  execu- 
tions ;  whatever  will  rouse  the  passions  and  take  its  atten- 
tion firom  itself.  No  matter  what  the  passion  is ;  let  it  be 
disagreeable,  afficting,  mdanclioly,  disordered;  it  is  still 
better  than  that  insipid  languor,  iPidiich  arises  firom  perfiect 
t^an^uiUi^  and  repose. 

.  J^  '^  impossible  nc((  to  a^ipit  thbaccofu^  i^  \mHh  ^ 
le^^  in  pfirt,  jf^tisf^c^c^.  You  n^fyr  observe  whea  tl^^ 
^rcj^if^  tftbles  o(g^ng^  th^t^all  i^e  cofsag/f^y^  r«n  to. 
i}^  y^eif?  the  deqpesjb  pby  isy  ^»  tjiou^^  tlwqr  %*. 
H^  tf^cse  tlj^e  best  pliers.  Tk^  y^^f^^^t^  i^e§f|^  WHgir 
iiation  of  hJig^  pwsion^  arisigg  %pu^  fpee^  }oss  ^ygm^, 

#¥*  ^p  »!?ct*tor  by  i5Pflw%,  mnimwmi  ^wib^ 

Cjf  the  Sj^  ps^QB^  im^  spr;^ 

tgrtflHip)^    I^4XH»I^€pilie^me,PMfUi$e«^m^^ 

w(^is  soQif  relief  to  ^  qw^S^iSlpP'  Wdw  iv^^  nen 

<?9puno^  li»bp»fe  ^ben  1^ ^»lwly4Q^^  0Wn4ibP¥{giit«. 

ajgdm^tatioi^s. 

T^e  firal  t^at^^pf^pau  Jifrs  4iiray9  iiii^|^»  ijoi,  tAi«ix!  mnw 
reti9^  all  kindi^  of  ^ang^j  ^a^  d^ftresf;,  siok^ess,  deftduw 
murd?rs,  apd  q^eWes-j  !%s^iieUa$^y,  l?efiifjr,  iiurtb^  ^Dd 
i^iagnifiqenp^  |jt  is.^  ^smi  m&^  #(ic*,tl|e7fcj|v^  for 
]jl^iiig  tiifiur  epmp^y,  &;^  iji^  att^nlioii,  an4i«t(adb* 
^ig  tfrepi  ^  8u<^  m4i:v«ll<mft  rdiatioitp,  by  tb^  pa^siou  anA 
emotions  iF^b.  t^^  «3fifa|^ 

TjlfRf^  ig,:  l^pfviT!^^^  a  dlffi^idQ^  in  n^flng  tm  tibe  pre- 
iBeat  nti^  w\t^  Mt  f^t^Dt,  this  oolutioo^  lu^wever  in* 
genious  and  satisfactory  it  may  a^pear^    It  is  certain,  thai 


OF  TRAGEDY.  2fl^ 

the  satti6  d^t  of  distress,  wliich  pleases  m  i  ^B^^, 
witiivfmtiy det  befo^ itt^  wo^ gm the'iiio^Q^i^^ 
ime^ttlMsi ;  "Aodgh  it  be  th^  thd  letioit  tStStitka}  dkre  to 
hmgtior  and  kidit^Boe.  Monsieur  t^nten^M^  ikettA  ib 
bare  b^en  ^nsibleof  thk  cMoiilly^  itnd  liccordfai^  at- 
tempts an6diers6hition  of  Ale  {^ndbieikxni  atletf^inok^ 
Mtee^  addkioA  td  die' thebty  abtove  eaiftntfoiii^^. 

^  tkiirtne  kHA  pS&xii*"  ^ys  U^-  «<  Which  arb  two  seiiti- 
<<  jnent^  sd  <M^erei^  irt  di^tBSfel¥^^  )£ifef' t<MJ  sbimuch  M 
»  Ati^  eaiise^  FMft  tft(^  nUtailt^  ^^ticfeKfig^  it  appe^si 
^  that  the  i^^¥iiAmi^  6t  ]^k69i^<^  pttiib^.A  ISgAk  too  ^ 
<<  h^iMneif  pAiii  x  ^xA  tbttt  Uie  ^ovenfi^  ef  paAn,  a  lig)^ 
<*  moderate,  beeolnes  pleas^el  Henc^  it  prbceeds^  ^lit 
^*  there  is  such  d  thin^  a^  ft^  soirb^^,  inc^  m&  a^eea^t 
<<  It  is  a  pain  w^bKtoed  atad^£m^bh6d.  "VM^^^  lik^i 
<<  natmraUy  to  be  tooired  and  ^fibcted.  MdWthbly  4^ 
^  jeets  suit  %  aitid  eren  disastrous  dbdiso^^l^ftd^  prbvidiNl 
^  Ihey  «re  sdft^ed  by  some  eircumstaho^  ti  is  ikrfiliAi 
^  thal^  en  tfte  tlieatr^  the  re]M^e^eiltaftoii  has  atWay^-dm 
«  effect  dffesSif^;  yet  it  has  not  alto^h^r  that  e^^iilt; 
^  Howe^  We  aky  be  hurried  aWs^  by  the  6p<0etab}e} 
^-wlntte^r  dofl^fetbii  tbe^  sensei^  and  iajagbi€(ti<bn  i^y 
<*  nsiifp  OYe#  tii^  i^eadc^  there  stil(  Jufk^  af'tM^b<^«e^  li 
«  ^erttfii  idea  of  fidseUedd .  ^^  the  Wbole^  c^  #4iM  we  seei 
«^  lliis  £te^  tlio«^i^eak-ad(tdisguis^9>sJlffle<^  to^li]^ 
^  rii^h  tbe^  ptin^idileb  we^  istiifet  f^ioin'  tbi  ilitefdlttbali  ^ 
^  tbo^^htiili^lc^iabd  td.^edboe  lhfltaffli)$tk>ii>to»ud)f 
^apitc^  fisoolxverti^itimoaplefiisure.  We^Mc^for^Hiitf 
^  misfortune  of  a  hero,  to  whom  we  are  ^HAttChedl  In  tM 
^  siaiifle  'inlstaill  we^  con^Mrt  o^lvsdttes,'  by  reflecting^  thdt  it 
^  H^  ndthiftjl;  bui  titkOims  Ai^d;  it  is  precisely  tbflinifaB^ 

•  BdiictiaM  tut  U  PoiWqua^  $  30. 


814  KSiAY  XXII* 

^tate  of  neiMtimeiita,  which  composes  an  iigiieed)le  wrrow^ 
^  ^nd  te^rs  that^felight  us.  But  as  diat  affliction,  mbkii 
^  is  caused  by  ei^terior  an4  sensible  pbjfK^a^  is  stronger 
>^  than  the  jcopsolatioii  which  aris^  from  an  infernal  re- 
<<  flecticMi,  they  are  the  effects  and  symptoms  of  sorrow, 
•^  tliat  ought  to  predomina^  in  the  c<»9ipo8itiop.'' 

This  solution  seems  just  and  convincing;  ^ut  perhaps 
it  wants  still  some  new  addition,  in  ord^  to  noiake  |t  an- 
swer fully  the  phetic^enon  which  ye  he^e  examioet .  All 
(he  passionS)  excited  by  eloquence^  are  agreeable  in  die 
liighest  de^g^reC)  as  well  as  those  which  are  moved  by  paint- 
ing and  the  theatre.  The  Epilogues  pf  Cicero  are,  on 
this  account  chi^y,  the  dejight  of  eyery  read^  of  taste  j 
and  it  is  di^iciilt  to  read  some  pf  them  without  tb^  deepest 
sympathy  and  sorrow.  His  mmt  as  an  OTBtpr^  no  dpjibtj 
depends  much  on  his  success  in  this  partaculan  When 
he  had  raised  tears  in  his  judges  and  all  hi^  audience^  they 
irere  then  the  most  highly  deji^ted^  and  exprjSi^^jthe 
greatest  satisfactiw  with  tjbe  pleg^ej*.  The  p^^^tiq  de- 
scription pf  the  butchery,  made  by  Verres  of  the  SidUan 
capjtains,  is  a  masterpiece  of  this  kind :  B^t  I  believe  nc^e 
vill  a$rm,  that  the  being  present  at.  a  melanohdy  sc^e 
pf  that  nature  would  afford  any  ente^r^inni^i^  ^^ither 
is  llie  si^rrow  here  softened  by  fiptioq ; ;  f^r  the  andipn^ 
were  convinced  of  th^  reality  pf  ejrery  circ^m;3t9<^3ef .  Wfcfa* 
Ib  it,  thw,  which  in  this  pas^  raises  a  ple^cpre^^mitho 
boscnn  cf  uneasineiss,  so  tp  speajc;  ^od  a  pj^^urc,  wbtph 
atiU  retains;  all  the  feature  an4  Ptitw^^^yja^pton^.^dis^ 
twss  and  sorrow? 

I  answer:  This  ^traordioary .effect proceeds  iiiom.that 
wrir.eloquence,  wit^  which  jfebe  miel^X^bply  ^c^ie;^xi^pi^ 
sented.  The  genius  required  to  paint  objects  in  a  lively 
panner,  the  art  employed  in  collecting  all  the  pathetii^ 


ciwiittutmoes,  the  judgment  displayed  in  disposing  them  x 
tbe  lOBircise,  I  say,  of.  these  noble  talents,  together  ndtb 
itm  Ibvc^  of  ei^esdion  and  beasty  of  oratorial  nmakbers,' 
diffiisethe  highesi  satis&ction  on  l^e  audieiace,  and  excite 
Ae  n^fiit  d^Ugbtful  movements.  By  this  means,  the  mi- 
easiness  of  the  melaoM^oly  passions  is  notimly  overpower-* 
ed  apd  e£bc^  by  something  stronger  of  an  opposite  kind; 
but.tfab:irhole  impulse  of: those  passions  V  converted  intd 
pleasure,  «iid 'swells  Ithe  delight  whi<^:tlieeloqtlenoe  raises 
inoJs.  .  [ISie:  same  force  of  oratory,  en^iloytedM^ 
temstmg  subject,  would  not  please  half  s^  mu^h,  of  ra^er 
wonldiai^earcaltogether  ridiculous;  and  tbe  mmd^  beii^' 
left  in.  absolute' calnbiess  and  indiflbr^iee,  wottld  i^dish* 
none  of  those  beauties  of  imagination  Or  exjuression,  i^d^i^^ 
i£  joined  to  pttssionj  givie  it  such  exquisite  ente^toiinneait 
The.impulse  or  vehemence,  arising  fiom  sorrbwy  aompi^' 
sion,  indignation,  iteceives  a  newdbr6C!|ti<^'frdm  ihe  sei^-* 
meats  x)f  ti[eaitly«  The  latter,  being  the  pt'edosbiiuuiii^mo^'. 
tiouy  seize  die  i  whole  vbUb^  and  conwrt^^dieiibnia^  into 
theihselves,  atieast  ttneture'theinso  stiN)]%^as:ilota%  to^ 
alter  their  nature.  .  ^Jidthe^pulbieia^  at  ^same'^ine,' 
roused  by  passion,  and  charmed  Jbgyoelbcjueqce^'-feely  oil  tfce- 
wjbk^iOristang'WQtv^ent)  wfaidKis'altdgetber  dd(gJlrtfifl. 
Theisam'ejiirinbqile  takes  .'place,  inv  tragedy;  "withtbir' 
addition,  thjB^  tragedy  ik  an  inutation;  aiid  unitlitibii  U 
always  of  itself  agreeable.  This  eiraamstiafCift  sitfr^^  sfciM 
faidther  to  an^ooth  the  xdotions  of  padsion^  and  covv^tt  the 
who|e  feeling: into  one  uhilbrm  and  strong' en^yiam^ 
Objects  of  the  igpetttest  terror  and  distifesa  pleasein  paint-f 
ing,  and  please  itaoce  than  thq  most  beanti^lidfaj^otii  that^ 
appear  cidai  and'indifierent*.   tfTbe  frffeotibn,  900snfigihk^ 


9H  ffi^AY  sum. 

in  i41  tTftii^iffi^  iPio  ptofU5«i^  by  Ae  ferte  of  U»  pw^ 
vitU^WfnofYim^^  IU«4^Wt|#fictii>aaftr»^ya0ft«iia 

gfi^^  vef^evtax^  ^rr^w,  tiUU  Mtldly.^JMlppeara;  yet 
^mi^  oC  i^  gimdlftfem*  wilt  it^var  giyd  ^eiisiire;  es^ 
fW^f^I^W^il^yftCffUeitty  to  ionlaa  stink  udecfeduargio 

.  T^  Mirfbrib  fthiiktbMiTV  k  willlM<dffiai«itto  j[>rQdhoe 
fiidl^  MWta«W»i  wbcte  (hft  slibKHrdiiiaito^^nuiTe^^  is  coih 
^i^KTtod  UMk  Ihft  piiedpii>marit»  aad  gives  foree  ta  it^  thongli 
qC  li  4ifiU)eill>  umI  »rGa  sbmetiiMs  tli^agh  of  «  contniiy 

.  Ni9MU|!rQatouftUyrao$eatlieintiid^  ^at^^ 
teKttm I  ^  tfe  moremiasU  idiick  it.  caiues  are  abrays 
G«fiKvert^iatQaiiypeasi0»J>e]DB^^  to  the  olgect»  and 
jcdii  iimxfaU»  to  it.  Whefher  mi  event  exdte. joy  or  lor-* 
Km>  irideopdbuaty  angeror^aodkwill^  it  is  sure  to  pro^ 
dncei  &  «broo|)eff  afieotioo^  wfaai  aur  or  nnns^al*  And 
t^MNigk  novdl^r  ^  Uself  be  agteeaUe*  it  fbrtifiu  the  pain* 
fiiJl  eawdyt  sAagveeal^  passions. 

Ha4  ]toti  asi7  intention  to  uHxtfe  apersoD;  eictcenidif  by 
tke  Diirratipii;  of  any  event,  the  best  method  of  increasing 
ill  eflkit  would  be  artfiiUy  to.  delay  infi^nuing  him  df  ft, 
4M1  ficst.tQ  excite  hia  curiosity  and  impatience  before  you 
let  hm  into  tlie.seciwk  TUsis.  the  artifice  practised  by 
lagoi  ill  the  faoHxia  scene  of  Shakeq»eare;  and  every  spec^ 
tatol!  is  sensiUe^  diat  Othello's  jealousy  acquires  additional 
fevde  bom  his>preceiUng  impatirace,  and  that  die  subw^ 
diiiate  passion  is  hete  readily  tmnsfbnned  into  the  preclo^ 
minant  one. 

PiflBculties  increase  passions  of  every  kind;  and  by 


or  TBAGHunr^  f  17 

ymmmgjom  litteption,  koA  ematiog  our  Btidmt  powers,  tbey 
produce  an  emotioiiy  whicb^noiirUies  the  prerailiDg  -bAc^ 


P^kreo|gocmimoiily  love  thfttdiild  most  whose  tkdel^  iof- 
fins  Gnune.of  body,  has  oecpfionedthett  die  greatest  painsy 
iHttble^aadanxjel^  mMariBghim^  TlieagtwaMe  sen*- 
tiaaeqt'of afibctkmhere acqaires force  frtm sentiments 06 
ttneasiiiees. 

Ne4idiig'eiidear$  so  moA  a  firiettd  as  sonmir  Ur  hia 
death;    'n^plelurtre  of  bk  company  has  not  so  powerful 

fetHomy  h  a  painftil  passion ;  yet  wkhoot  some  diare 
ef  it)  tike  agreeable  affibetMMi  cf  tot^^ha^  difficulty  to  snb^ 
stat  m  Hs  ftiR  for^ceaM  viotenc^'  Abaetteeiaalso  a  grettt 
^ouree  dt  complaint  among  Idhrers,  litid  gives  iixem  the 
greatest  uneasinesB :  Yet  nothingis  more  feVonrable  todielr 
mntoa!  pas^on  than  short  intervak  of  that  kind.  And  if 
Icmg  intervds  dRen  prove  &tat^  itraonlybeciinse,  &rol^ 
tSmie^  men  are  accustomed  to  them^  ilad  tb^  cease  to'  give 
uneasiness.  Jealou^  and  absence  in  love  compose  the^ 
dhfee  pkttmieaFAe  Italians,  which  they  snp^one  so  essen- 
tial to  all  pleasure. 

^Thttt  is  afine  obiMrvation  df  the  elder  Pliny,  which  il^ 
Instrates  the  principle  here  insisted  on.  <<  It  is  very  re^ 
nM^foble,'^  says  he^  ^  llM  the  last  wbi4^i(^  ^'WAMUed  ar- 
tistic iHiioktb^leftimp^iM,  &i^at#i(]itttbeifld^ 
steb  as  ih«  Ittlfi  o#  AristidiM,  AM»Tn9Mfttb«»  of  Ntco- 
machos,  the  Meoea  of  Timomachos,  and  the  Venus  of 
Apeltes.  Thes^  are  vaked  eveit  ^b6V«?  ft^  fldiAed  pr6- 
ductions.  The  broken  lineaments  of  tKe  piece,'  and  the 
hal&fofined  idea  of  the  painter,  ftre, carefully  studied ;  and 
our  very  grief  for  that  curious  hand^  whichr  bad  been  stop<- 


1^18  CSfiAY  XZII/ 


ped:by  dotdv  is  an  addUkmal  marease  to.our  pl6»K 


sure 


K'^ 


These  instances  (and  many  more  migbt  be  collected)  are 
s«^GcieAt  ta  afihrd  us  soBie  ia»ight  tilto  the  analogy  of  na- 
ture»  asd  to  ^ew  m^  that  the  pkaaune  which  poets,  oonn 
tor%  abd  nroskiaiii?  gixe  us»  by  exdting  gtkf,  9on^;.hb^ 
digmttosiy  coDBfuts^ioDt  is  not  so.  ^xtibondinAry  <or  pam-r 
doxical  as  it  may  at  first  sight  iq^pear.  The  force  of  ima-i 
giiiatkxi,  tfaeeaei^of  ^jtpcesbioo,  the  power  of  aiubbers, 
tbeobarfns of  inuMtion ;; aUjtb^eare iiat4<rallj»:bf them^ 
selves,  delight&l  to  the  mind :  And  when  the  ofayoct  pre-. 
a»»itM'lAya^alao  h^  of  some  afiecitiQii^  il^  pleesure^ji^ 
rises  upon  ue^  .by:t]^  cc»tiFer9Son  of  tbi^  suboif^inltt^ 
Q)OYeiiiient:iptr>  U>Atwl|ich  }s  pf^4p|iman^,n  f^  fSL^^s^^ 
thiiugb  p^r)iai)an^turi^r.^9d  whf^n:  elicited  by^th^  sample 
app^r^^/pf  a  real  object,  it  may^e  painful  |  yet  ^  so, 
simootl^edyjaild  foftp^i^d,  and  mollified,  wb^^^ised  by  thoi 
fifier  aj9Sythf^it:aff^TM  the^^hj^l^,en^r^lMBl»en>  ;       ^j 

To  iK>nfirm  tl^is  r^A^Qaii^  wemay  obs^vi^  tbatJf^^; 
moyeo^ents  of  the  imagiQ^tion  l^e  not  pred<q[ninant:fd}oye. 
tljpse  pf  tbe  pfts^oDj '  a  cppfrary  effcpt  fiiUqw^ ;  apd  ,thf^> 
former,  being  now  subordinate,  is  convoirted  intq;1^  Jfj^; 
tj6r,Md  $tjiUforthjar  iucri^fi«ip4bep^  and j^ictjpp^p^the 
s^ffe^er,r  .:  •:.!::;■:';       .;■:*  -jl 

Who.iMHdd  ^(^  thiek  of  it  ^  ^  g^od  jexf^j^t  for  cOfari 
farting  an  ftfllkted  parent*  tQ)t«ftggei*t^  ^«i^^)aft t^^forpe, 
of  ^Ig^ittion,  ^bcvi^rppnt^hlie  los&xi^bk*  kl?  Jwfnii?!  vj^bfbyi 

'•./.'.>       .  ' \    "i  :  I'      '  ^1   •:..  .       ■:'":'   J 

artMiciim^  imperfectas^ue  tfibuli|8,  sicut»  Ibim  Ari^^  TrwAiuoAs  Kicby 
ipachi,  IVfKDKAX  T^QiQacbi,  etquam  ^iximus  Vknbrbic  Apellis,  in  majori 
admiration^  esse  quam  perfettiu  Qutpp4'  in  lis  llnkmnenta  rcfiqus^  fp^aeque 
cogitatioiies  ai^6cuni^s^tanttnr,'  mtqu^  fn  Ithbcfaiio  dittBiBe«4*ionii  dolor 
est  manus,  cum  id  ageret,  extincUe.     Lib.  xxxv,  cap.  1 1. 


OF  TRAOltBY.  219 

the  daalh  cf  a  favourite  child  ?  The  more  power  of:  jola-^ 
gination  aBdiexpi^essioQ  you  Here  employ » the  more  yoa 
iDorease  his  da^air.and  affliotioii.  > 

The  flhame,  conftisioii,  and  terror. of  Yeinres,  no  doubt,* 
rose  in  proportion  to  the  noble  eloquence  and'vehieroenoe 
of  Cicero:  So  alsd  did  his  fKun  and  uneasiness.  These* 
former  passions  were  too  strong  for  t^e  pleasure  artaingt 
from  the  beauties  of  elocution^  and  operated,  though  from 
Ae  same  princ^ile^  yet  m  n  ocbtrary  manner,'  to  the  syfai- 
patfa^,  compassion,  i;nd  indignattdn  j^fihe  audience. 

Lord  Clarendon,  when  he  approaches  towards  the  c&-. 
tastrophe  of  the  vojH  paity^  supposes  that  his  narration' 
must  then  become  infinitely  disagreeable;  and  he  hurries, 
over  the  kiag^s  death  Mothbut  giving  iis  one  ciKcnmstaKKOf 
of  it  He  .cotigiders  it  as  too  horrid  a  scene  to  be  con-; 
templated  with  any  satis&ctKm,  or  even  without  the  utmost 
pasn  and'^aversioh*  He  himseli^  as  well  as  the'readera of : 
that  age,  were  too  deeply  concerned  in  the  events,  j^mkfAt-^ 
a  pain  Horn  sufajects^  which  ta  historian  and  a  readeir  bf 
another  age  would  regard  as  die  most  pathetic. and  inost^ 
intefeslang,  and,  by  consequence,  the  most  agj^feeabteu  i  > 
A  An  aotidn,  r^vesenited  in'  ti:togsdy,  inay  be'  too  Uoody  i 
and  atMcious.  It  ihay  ^soitejsueh  mbvementsief  bosrrdr  iaev; 
wiU  not  softeliintb  pleasure;  aUd  ^''^no^testreaiengy^of  "^ 
eaqy^essjon^  i^sto^d  onrdeacrifHiena  of  thai  h^ture^/Servbs- , 
only  to  augment  our  uneasiness.  Soekis  tfaatiaotibn.Te^ilitir' 
semted  in  Jtb^  AmbUkmB  'AqMMetfMv'i.fdb^i^rvene^alAe 
old  man,  Raised' to  tlidc|ie9glrf  ofiiny  Add3dk8piirf'i;nshie9 
against •apniliBr,  aakd,  sinking  his  head  upcm-it^  b^siMearft: 
ittallover  w|th'  mingled  l7aiiiB'iindiigdri&'  \Tfae,EDglitfhj. 
tfaekiie  abdnncb  too.miBeh  with  such  shocking  inuges.     ^  / 

Even  the  common  seiktiments  of 'CoakpasfiaanimqjlUre.to 
be  softened  by  some  agreeable  affection,  in  order  lo  give 


ItO  ESSAY  xxn. 

a  thorough  sstisfBckioii  to  the  audience..  The  tneife  sii£bi% 
ing  of  plaintive  virtns,  uaderthe  triaB^anttycanDyanol 
oppression  of  vice,  forms  m  diMgtieeaUe  spestacle^  anchis 
dureftiliy  avoided  by  all  masters  of  the  tbrama.  In  dtder 
to  dismiss  the  audiance  widi  entire  satifl&ction  and .  coih 
tantaaent,.  the  vktae  most  either  convert  itself  intaa  iid>le 
conrageoos  de^aif,^  or  the  vice  receive  its  proper  pimisfa-' 
menC 

Most  painters  appear  in  Mb  li^t  to  have  been  very  im^ 
happy  in  tfa^subjecta.  As  diey  wrought nniekiarchiM^cbaa 
and  ccmventsy  they  have  chiefljt  repiresentdd  sadi  bknrr^e 
sobjects  as  crucifixioBe  and  mar^rrdoms,  ^ere  liotfaiagi 
af^ears  but  tortures^  wctrnds^  ekecnliQiiSi  and  ]|iassilKrsiift{ 
fecii^  without  any  action  or  afiection.  When  the/  tiini*-^ 
ed  dieir  pencil  from  dds  ^astfy  mythdk^y^tkty  h^  cDkil-^ 
nkmly  recourse  to  Ovid»  whose  fictions^  diough  psssftboate 
and  agreeable^  are  scarcely  natural  01^  probable  enbugb  fsr 
painting.  f  -  ♦    •*  .       ^  .,.,1^ 

The  same  inversion  of  that  ^riiiciple^  which  is  here  in-: 
slstadon,  displays  itself  in  common  lifis,  sisintheeflfedfarofi 
oratory  and  poetry •  Rake  so  tkealdx>rdihlitepassiaalhM■ 
it  beocMnes  the  predominant^  it  swallows  np  that  affection 
which  k  before  nonridied  and  increased.  Too  nmohjte*. 
lousy  extinguishes  love.  Too  mndi  diffioiiky  re&decs'iis^ 
indifibrent:  Too  much  sickness  and  infimutj^disgaslS'A, 
selfisli  and  unkind  parent.  .0 

What  so  disagroeabie  astfae  dismal»  gloosDfi  disafl(trMa> 
stories,  wida  idiioh  mdancholy  peot>le  anteitain  Uieir.  coin 
panions?  Hie  uneiEisy  passion  bemg.  there  raised  akine^^ 
unaccompanied  with  any  qpirit^  genius,  or  eloquence,^  (i6a^: 
veys  a  pure  uneasiness,  and  is  atteoMkd  with  nothing  that 
can  soften  it  into  pleasure  or  satisfiKrtkm. 


IISSAY  XXIIL 


OF  THE  STANDARD  OF  TASTK. 


1  HE  great  variety  of  Taste^  as  well  as  of  opinion,  which 
prevails  in  the  world,  15  too  obvious  not  to  have  fallen  un* 
der  every  one's  observation.  Men  of  the  moet  confined 
knowledge  are  able  to  remark  a  difference  of  taste  ia  the 
narrow  circle  of  tlieir  acquaintance,  even  where  the  per- 
sons have  been  educated  under  the  same  government,  and 
have  early  imbibed  tlie  same  prejudices;.  But  tho^e,  who 
can  enlarge  their  view  to  contemplate  distant  nations  and 
remote  ages,  are  still  more  surprised  at  the  great  inconsis- 
tence and  contrariety.  We  are  apt  to  call  barbarous  what- 
ever departs  widely  from  our  own  taste  and  apprehension  j 
but  sooji  find  the  epithet  of  reproach  retorted  on  us.  And 
the  highest  arrogance  and  self-conceit  is  at  last  startled^ 
on  observing  an  equal  assurance  on  all  sides,  and  scruples, 
amidst  si^ch  a  contest  of  sentiment,  to  pronounce  positively 
in  its  own  favour. 

As  this  variety  of  taste  is  obvious  to  the  most  careless 
inquirer  \  so  will  it  be  found,  on  examination,  to  be  still 
greater  in  reality  than  in  appearauce«  llie  sentiments  of 
men  often  differ  with  regard  to  beauty  and  deformity  of 
e]l  kinds,  ^ven  while  their  general  discourse  is  the  same. 
There  ar<}  certabi  terms  in  every  language,  which  import 
blame,  and  others  praise;  and  all  men,  who  use  the  same 


222  ESSAY  XXII r. 

tongue^  must  agree  in  their  application  of  them.  Every 
voice  is  united  in  applauding  elegance,  propriety,  simpli- 
city, spirit  in  writing;  and  in  blaming  fustian,  affectaticm, 
coldness,  and  a  fidse  brilliancy :  But  when  critics  cosne  to 
particulars,  this  seaming  unanimity  v^mishes;  and  it  is 
found,  that  they  had  affixed  a  very  difierent  meaning  to 
their  expressions*  In  all  matters  of  opinion  and  science^ 
the  case  is  opposite :  The  difference  among  men  is  diere 
oftener  found  tq  lie  in  generals  than  in  pa^culars ;  and  to 
be  less  in  reality  than  in  appearance.  An  explanation  of 
the  terms  commonly  ends  the  controversy;  and  the  dispi^ 
Cants  Hfe  surprised  to  find^  that  they  had  been  guarrdlin^ 
wWle  at  bottom  (hey  agreed  in  their  judgment. 

Those  who  found  morality  on  sentiment,  i^ore  tlian  oti 
resisStiy  ^t6  inclined  to  comprehe<id  ethics  under  the  for- 
mer observation,  and  to  maintain,  that,  in  all  questitbnisi 
which  regard  conduct  and  manners,  the  dilference  among 
intn  is  really  greater  than  at  first  sight  it  appears.  It  is 
indeed  obvious,  that  writers  of  all  nations  and  all  ages  cbn- 
ctnr  in  applauding  justice,  humanity,  magnanimity,  pru- 
dence, veracity ;  and  in  blaming  the  opposite  qualities. 
Even  poets  and  other  authors,  whose  compositions  are 
chiefly  difculated  to  please  the  imagination,  are  yet  found, 
from  Homer  down  toFenelon,  to  inculcate  the  same  moral 
precepts,  and  to  bestow  their  applause  and  blame  on  the 
same  virtues  and  vices.  This  great  unanimity  is  usually 
ascribed  to  the  influence  of  plain  reason ;  whidi,  in  all 
these  cases,  maintains  similar  sentiments  in  all  men,  and 
prevents  those  controversies,  to  which  the  abstract  sciences 
are  so  much  exposed.  So  far  as  the  unanimity  is  real,  tha 
account  may  be  admitted  as  satisfactory:  But  we  must  also 
allow,  fliat  some  part  of  the  seeming  harmony  in  morals 
may  be  accounted  for  from  the  very  nature  of  language, 
s^  '  ' 


OF  THE  STANDARD  Of  TASTE.  283 

TbeiVovd  vistm^  widi  its  equifaknt  kievdtj  tobgue,  im^ 
plies  praise;  as  that  of  rice  does  blame :  Andnamab,  with-^ 
OHt  tlie  most  obiqoiis  ondgm^QBtimpMpifoty,  could  affix 
leproacfa  to  m  t^cm^irfaicfaio'gettiraLaoeqptwtiofnismider* 
stood  ia' a 'good' sense;  of.  bestomr.  applause,  where  the 
idkinjre^iisesdisaiqicobatioaii  .Honepr^general ptseoepts^ J 
Iwhere.he'delxfeis'aiiy  suoh^  will  neVer  be  cbntrfmnerlied ; 
iMit  it  is  obTioaSy  tha^  wkfii:  He  dmwa  partieular  piatiires 
jof  inaoiEiersi'aiidlfepreMiits  hesoism,  in  A^hiUes,  ^nd  prs* 
denbe  ^.ISyasfii^heiini^mix^ia  muchgiieatieBc^g^ 
jeif^oikyiiiltbeifpraieiv  andcCciv^^  ^Ut^ 

Icir^.thah.Eeiiridntiirioidd  adndi:  oL  The  sage  tlfyfeses  in  the 
Greek  poet  seems  to  delight  in  lie&and£dtkm%  nAtCftbe^ 
^iaploysi  Aeod  litho^taHy  nedsant^pwei  atttanlage:  'But 
^is  move  acrdpidaiis  aoil^  iHithe  French  epio  wifkdr^  ^spo^ 
aeahimself  tothejs^ostimtnineiitperBiSy  rather  IfaandqiaM 

from  the  most  exact  line  of  troth  and  veracstjrV'  ^ 

?  1%d  admirers  did&Ho^mftbrdi^^ 
^xceUrat  moral  .precepts  intetq9eraMi:ilifeoi^  ^that  wild 
and  absprd  perfotmanceL  But  it  kip  be  snppooedy  >dbat 
the  Arabic  'words^^wfaibh^cmrrespoiid  latheBngBsH,'  eqoitjr^ 
jvBliGe^  tempeibtice^  meekness^  chiu^tf,  were^auchias^iijo^ 
the  cotisbmt!ustt  of  itb&t  tongue^  ijo^islriahr^rs  be  taken^  a 
l^ood  sense:  and  it  woiild'baTe  argtied  the  greatest' igno*> 
ranee,  not  of  nibials^  but  of  laDgdjigey  to  luLve  mentioned 
tbeni  with 40^. epithets,  besides.  Adsd^ctfap^ausia  and  api- 
proboUon^.n^Bntitfodld  w«['know,''i.whet)|^  preterided 
prophet  had  reaDy  altaided  a  jii^)SJ3nttme6t'of  moiU% 
let  ua  attend  to  :fais  micraticn  ^  ixbd  we  ahaU  soonfind^ 
Hfaat  hb  Aiestbws  praifas^osi  suchciostatero  ^tceadiery,  jm- 
.hwwMiity,  evudty,'  rbvei)ge,'bigotry^'as  are  nttetly  irionm' 
-pnAMt  with  dviUaed  society.  Nb  steady  rtde  of  right 
^(eems  there  to  be  Attended  to ;  andiHery  actioiiisUamed 


22i  iissAT  XXII  r. 

or  pirabed^  so  fiu*  only  ob  it  is  benefibuil  or  hiuifiil  lo  th« 
trbe  bcUereiB.         : 

The  merit  of  deliYering  trac^  geiieid^;pKte€|)te.iii  Athios 
is  indeed  veiy  fiaaU.  Wiiocve^  rtoamraendt  any  morvl 
▼ictues,  really  docs  naaiOEie  than;  is  ioaplied  ip  the  tenUt 
diefBjHlves*  ^  That  people,  wbd  invmitpdiflie  mu;d  ehatUgi^ 
pibd  used  it  is  a  good  sensio^  idonkated  laoBSt  dessiy  and 
mvch  more  efficaciowdy^  the  ptece^  ifcAoniEiUer  tkMi 
oay  pretended  ^gialatnr  jot  pnqAet^who  shoidd  inseft 
8«di  a  maasdm  in  hbr-wrilii^  .  Of  alLie^cpvemon^  tfaoat 
^iriachy  together  wkhtbcar  •tt^fc  ^meiaung^'  imply  ia  degtet 
eittier  of  blame  or  approliat&m^  are  the  kaat  liable  to  bt 
perverted  ^r  ibiatahsn.     '    *     '    '  ' 

It.is  natoral  finr  as  tQ  mekM^SItandardt^iaiAi  a  iwle^ 

by -which  titer  taipaDda  semtimdElitB  of  men  laay  ;be  ceoomriled; 

at  }^t^  m  deeiaioii  afowled,  vbnfirin&ig  one  selitiknent,'  and 

condemning  anodier. 

..Theteisaspede^^ofpHilosophy,  which  ents^offall  hopes 

oEsQoeesB  ii^smJiaiijilteinplyand  iHfireBentatheinyottribi^ 

lily  ofefgr TMttainiiig  any  stiyadard  of  taste*  The  dMfepenca» 

it  is  8ai(l^  i;  very' wide  bettweeti  judjgment  and  aebdAient 

AUiB^Dtimentis  i%)it;  beciuise  sentinffinthaa  ajseferaaofs 

to  hotbing  beyond  itself  and  is  ahrays  veal^  iriicareFeria 

man  is  conscious,  of  it    'Bat  all  determinations  of  tfabv^- 

derstanding  are  not  r^t ;  becanse  they  have  a  refisnoKe 

t9 something  b^ond themselves,  to  wit,  real matfer  offiMt; 

'and  ate.  not  always  conformable  to  that  standardw  Aaakntg 

A. thousand  di£krent  opinions  which  diBirent  mejugakjtaoh 

tertam  of  the  same  subject,  there  is  one,  and  boloney  tfadt 

isjust  andtixia;<andtheonlydifficnliyis  torftxandaseekH 

tain  it    'On  die  contrary,  a  thousmd  difiEerent  senHmriMj 

^kcitcki  by  the  seme  object,. are  all  light;  beckose  abseil- 

timent  represent  what  is  really  in  the  object*    It  onfy 

2 


OF  THE  STANIURD  OF  TASTE.  t25 

naiks  »  certem  eoafcHiBitj  or  relation  between  the  <4]^ct 
and  tbe  oi*gaiis  or  fiwiikies  of  the  mind ;  and  if  that  con* 
fennky  dUliKitirmUy  einst,  the  sentiment  could  nei^r  pot^ 
sibly  have  l^eiag^  B^astj  is  no  quality  in  tilings  thmn-* 
selves :  It  exists  merely  in  the  mind  whidi  cpntemplatef 
tiiom  I  and  «aoh  mind  pereaivea  a  different  beauty.  One 
pas>sda  may  even  perceive  deformity,  where  another  is  sen* 
siUe  of  beatity;  and  every  individual  ought  to  aequiesoa 
in  his  own  sentfanent,  williout  pretendkig  to  regulate  Amim 
6£  others.  To  seek  the  real  beauty,  or  real  defi>rmityi; 
i^  as  (HiMess  an  kiquiry,  as  to  pretend  to  ascertain  the 
real  srMet  or  real  bitt^.  Acoordmg  to  the  dkpimtion  of 
thei^gans^  the  Dame  object  may  be  bdfch  sweet  and  bitter; 
Mi  thd  proverb  has  justly  determined  it  to  be  fruitless  to 
dkqpute  concerning  tastes.  It  is  very  natural,  atid  even 
qttite  neeessary,  to  exteild  this  axiom  to  mental,  as  weU  mn 
bodily  tast^  i  and  thus  ecMnmon  sense,  which  is  so  often  at 
vatianoe  with{^los<^by,  especial^  with  Ae  sceptical  kmd^ 
0  found,  in  one  instance  at  least,  to  agree  in  pronouncing 
'the  same  dectsion. 

But  though  this  axiom,  by  passing  mto  a  proverb, 
seems  to  have  atlllkied  the  sancticm  of  common  sense ; 
there  is  eertainly  a  species  of  common  sense,  which  <^po^ 
ses  i^  at  least  serves  to  modify  and  restrain  it.  Whoeter 
would  assert  an  equality  of  genius  and  el^^ance  betweeii 
Ogilby  and  Milton,  or  Bunyan  and  Addison,  woidd  bei 
thoi^ht  to  defend  no  less  an  extravagance,  than  if  he  had 
mabtained  a  mole^Ql  to  be  as  high  as  Teneriffe,  or  a 
pond  as  extensive  as  the  ocean.  Though  there  may  bo 
found  persons,  who  gfive  the  preference  to  the  foftnet  au-^ 
thors ;  no  one  pays  attention  to  such  a  taste;  and  we  pro* 
nounce,  without  scruple,  the  sentiment  of  these  pretended 
critics  to  be  absurd  and  ridiculous.    The  principle  of  the 

VOL.  I.  8 


220  ESSAY  .xxiir. 

natural  equality  of  tastes  is  then  totally  foi^t^  and  whEe 
we  admit  it  on  some  occasions,  where  the  objects  seen» 
near  an  equality,  it  appears  an  extraragant  paradox,  or  ra- 
dier  a  palpable  absurdity,  where  objects  so  di^roportiMi- 
ed  are  compaced  together. 

It  is  evident  that  none  ot  the  rules  of  composition  are 
fixed  by  reasonings  aprioriy  or  can  be  esteemed  abstract 
concliuions  of  the  understanding,  firom  comparing  those 
hah&udes  and  relations  of  ideas,  which  are  eternal  and  im* 
nmtable.  Their  foundation  is  the  same  with  that  of  all 
the  pi^ctical  sciences,  experience;  nor  aire  there  any  thing 
but  general  observations,  concern!^  what  has  been  uni- 
Tersally  fi^und  to  please  in  all  countries  and  in  all  ages^ 
Muiy  of  the  beauties  of  poetry,  and  even  of  eloquence,  are 
founded  on  falsehood  and  ficticMi,  on  hyperbcdes,  meta- 
phors, and  an  abuse  or  perversion  of  tenns  fr<»n  th^  na* 
turn!  meaning.  To  check  the  sallies  of  the  imagiiiatioo^ 
a&d  X^  reduce  every  expression  to  geometrical  truth  And 
exactness,  would  be  the  most  contrary  to  the  jaws  of  prHi- 
cism ;  because  it  would  produce  a  work,  which,  by  uni- 
versal,  experiesftCe,  has  be^i  found  the  most  insqpid  and 
dtsi^e^ble.  But  though  poetry  can  never  submit  to  ex- 
act truth,  it  must  be  confined  by  rules  of  art,  discovered 
to  the  author  either  by  genius  or  observation.  If  s<Hne  ne- 
gligent or  irregular  writers  have  pleased,  they  have  not 
pl^Elsed  by  their  transgressions  of  ruie  or  ord^r,  but  in  spite 
of  these  trtu^gressions :  They  have  possessed  other  beau- 
tie%  which  were  conformable  to  just  criticism;  and  the 
fof  c^  of  these  beauties  has.been  able  to  overpower  censure, 
and  give  the  nnnd  a  satisfaction  superior  to  the  disgust 
arming  fi^pm  the  blemishes.  Ariosto  pleases;  but  not  by 
l^is  monstrous  and  improbable  fictions,  by  his  bizarre  mix- 
ture of  the  serious  and  comic  styles,  by  the  want  of  cohe- 


OF  THE  STANDARD  OF  TAST£.  8tT 

yence  in  his  stories,  or  by  the  continual  interruptions  of 
his  narration.  He  charms  by  the  force  and  deamiass  of 
his  expression,  by  the  readiness  and  variety  of  his  inven*- 
tions,  and  by  his  natural  pictures  of  the  passions,  espe* 
cially  those  of  the  gay  and  amorous  kind :  And  however 
his  faults  may  diminish  our  satisfaction,  they  are  not  able 
entirely  to  destroy  it.  Did  our  pleasure  really  arise  from 
those  parts  of  his  poem,  which  we  denominate  faults,  this 
would  be  no  objection  to  criticism  in  general :  It  would  on- 
ly be  an  objection  to  those  particular  rules  of  criticism, 
which  would  establish  such  circumstances  to  be  faults,  and 
would  represent  them  as  universally  blameable.  If  they 
are  found  to  please,  they  cannot  be  faults ;  let  the  pleasure 
which  they  produce  be  ever  so  unexpected  and  unaccount- 
able. 

But  though  all  the  general  rules^  of  art  are  founded  only 
on  experience,  and  on  the  observation  of  the  ccnnmon  sen* 
timents  of  human  nature,  we  must  not  imagine,  that,  on 
every  occasion,  the  feelings  of  men  will  be  conformable  to 
these  rules.  Those  finer  emotions  of  the  mind  are  of  a 
very  tender  and  delicate  nature,  and  require  the  amcur^ 
renoe  of  many  favourable  circumstances  to  make  them 
play  with  facility  and  exactness,  according  to  their  gene«* 
ral  and  established  principles.  The  least  exterior  hin- 
drance Co  such  small  qprings,  or  the  least  internal  disor^- 
der,  disturbs  their  motion,  and  confounds  the  operati<m 
of  the  whole  machine.  When  we  would  make  an  expe^ 
riment  of  this  nature,  and  i^ould  try  the  force  of  any  beaur 
ty  or  defbnnity,  we  must  choose  with  care  a  proper  time 
and  place,  and  bring  the  fancy  to  a  suitable  situation  and 
disposition,  A  perfect  serenity  of  mind,  a  recdSection  of 
thought,  a  due  attention  to  the  object ;  if  any  of  Aese  cir- 
cumstances be  wanting,  our  experiment  will  be  fidlacious, 

82 


Stt  ES6AY  XXIII. 

MFid  we  $Iiali  bt  nnaUe  to  judgs  of  tho  catholic  and  um^ 
veptal  beauty.  The  t elation,  which  natulre  haa  placed  bo^ 
tween  Ae  fiirm  and  the  sentiiiMnt,  will  at  least  be  ^siore 
cAifcure ;  and  it  will  require  greater  accuracy  to  trace  and 
itiscera  it  We  shall  be  able  to  ascertain  its  infliMnce^ 
Bot  so  muck  from  the  c^ration  of  each  particular  beau* 
tfy  as  from  the  durable  adndration,  which  attends  those 
works,  ^t  have  swnrived  all  the  capriqes  of  mode  and  fiu 
tduon,  all  the  mistakes  of  ignoranoe  and  envy. 

The  same  Homer,  who  {leased  at  Athens  and  Rome 
two  thousand  years  ago^  is  still  admired  at  Paris  and  at 
Ixmdoa.  All  the  changes  of  climate^  government,  rdi** 
gion^  aqd  language^  havo  not  been  able  to  obscure  his  glo* 
ry.  Authority  or  pr^udice  may  give  a  temporary  vogue 
to  a  bad  poet  or  orator;  but  his  reputation  will  never  be 
durable  or  general.  When  his  compositiohs  are  exami- 
ned by  posteri^  or  by  loreigners,  the  enchautmeiit  is  disai* 
pated,  and  his  faults  appear  in  their  true  colours.  On  the 
contrary,  a  real  genius,  the  longer  his  works  imdure^  and 
A^  more  wide  they  are  spread,  the  knore  aincere  is  the  ad^ 
fluration  whidi  he  meets  with.  Blnvy  and  jealousy  have  < 
too  mucli  place  in  a  narrow  circle ;  and  even  fiuniliar  ar^ 
quomtaned  with  his  person  may  diminish  the  applause  d^ 
to  his  perffarmanoes :  But  when  these  obatrutstions  are  re* 
nioved,  the  beauties,  which  are  naturally  fitted  to  excite 
agreeable  sttitiments^  immediately  dis{day  their  energy  2 
while  the  #orid  endures,  they  mmitain  their  authority 
ov«r  the  minds  of  men^ 

It  Bpp9Mrs^  diwn^  tha%  amidst  dl  the  variety  and  caprice 
bf  taste,  there  at«  certain  general  principles  of  approba* 
tion  or  blame^  whose  influence  a  careful  eye  may  trace  in 
all  operatms  c^  the  mind.  Some  particular  forms  or  qua« 
lities,  frosi  the  original  stnpcturs  of  the  internal  fabric,  are 


OF  TH£  $TAK9AIIB  OF  TASTE.  S£9 

Qfdculated  to  plfease^  and  others  td  dkpleMe;  land  if  they 
fiul  of  Ibeir  ^Ifect  in  any  particular  instancts,  ilis  fitmi  some 
apparent  defect  or  imperfecttoil  iti  the  orgaiu    A  man  in  j 
a  fever  would  not  insist  on  his  palate  as  able  to  dedde  c^li- 
oeming  flavours;  n0r  would  one^  affected  wiA  the  jaun- 
dice^ pretend  to  give  a  verdiet  with  regiird  to  ccdotura.  In  ' 
^ach  creature  there  is  a  soDnd  aiid  %  defective  state  {  atd 
the  forluer  aiokie  eaa  he  supposed  %o  a&rd  us  a  true  atuk- 
dard  of  taHe  a«d  B»timeAt    I&  in  the  sound  state  of  the 
organ»  there  be  an  entire  6r  ^  considerable  vaiiScMopaky  of 
aentinnsnt  amdng  nien>  we  may  thence  derive  on  idea  of 
Ihe  p^ilaet  beauty;  in  Uke  manner  as  ^  sppearaikse  of 
ol^ta  in  day4ighl^  to  the  «yB  of  a  mem  in  hjsakfa>  is  de- 
of^mmited  their  tru«  and  real  colour,  bven  while  colour  is . 
aUowed  to  hi$  merely  a  idiantfosm  q(  the  senses. 

T^Smj^tA  frefuentaie  th^defeett  mihe  internal  orgaiis, 
#hich  preveaut  at  ^wetiom  tbe  infl^enoe  of  tbose  gmiwal 
princ^to^  im  which  depeuds  tnu^  sentimeht  of  beat^y  or 
deformity.  Though  a4«tte  ob^tt%  by  the  structure  of  <ihe 
miod^  be  naturally  cakmlated  io  givb  pleasure^  it  is  hot  to 
be  e3(pected»  that  in  every  individual  die  fdeasute  will  be 
eqtually  felt*  Particular  inbidietits  and  situatioiis  occur, 
which  either  throlf  ^  fietlse  h^  on  the  ol^ects^  or  hinder 
the  true  fr^anoonveying  to  the  imagination  the  prqier  sen- 
thUent  and  peirceptioo. 

One  obvil>us  cause»  why  many  feel  not  the  proper  sen- 
timent of  beauly,  is  the  want  of  that  Mixf^usff  of  imagina- 
tion whidi  is  requidte  ia  convey  a  seninbili^  of  those  ftoar 
emodons.  This  delicacy  qvbtj  one  ^iretedds  to }  E^et^ 
obe  talks  of  it ;  and  waold  rifdae^  every  id|ul  of  tabta  «^ 
sentiment  (o  its  standard.  Qut  as  ear  infasntion  la  this 
estay  is  to  ming^  some  hgfat  of  the  underetanding  with 
the  fetiiiii|[B  of  sentimeDt,  it  wiU  he  proper  to  givoa  motfe 


280  ESSAY  XXIII. 

accurate  definition  of  delicacy  than  has  hitherto  been  at- 
tempted. And  not  to  draw  our  philosophy  from  too  pro- 
found a  source,  we  shall  have  recourse  to  a  noted  story  in 
Don  Quixotte. 

It  is  with  good  reason,  says  Sancho  to  the  squire  with 
the  great  nose,  that  I  pretend  to  have  a  judgment  in  wine: 
This  is  a  quality  hereditary  in  our  family.  Two  of  my 
kinsmen  were  once  called  to  give  their  (pinion  of  a  hogs- 
head, which  was  supposed  to  be  excell^it,  being  old  and 
of  a  good  vintage.  One  of  them  tastes  it;  considers  it ; 
and,  after  mature  reflection,  pronounces  the  wine  to  be 
.  good,  were  it  not  for  a  small  taste  of  leather,  which  he  per- 
•  ceived  in  it  The  other,  after  using  the  same  precautions, 
gives  also  his  verdict  in  favour  of  the  wine ;  but  with  die 
reserve  of  a  taste  of  iron,  which  he  could  easily  distinguish. 
You  cannot  imagine  how  much  they  were  both  ridiculed 
for  their  judgment  But  who  laughed  in  the  end?  On 
emptying  the  hogshead,  there  was  found  at  the  bottom  an 
old  key  with  a  leathern  thong  tied  to  it 

The^  great  resemblance  betwe^fi  mental  and  bodily  taste 
will  easily  teach  us  to  apply  this  story.  Though  it  be  cer- 
tain, that  beauty  and  deformity,  more  than  sweet  and  bit- 
ter, are  not  qualities  in  objects,  but  belong  entirely  to  the 
sentiment,  internal  or  external ;  it  must  be  allowed,  that 
there  are  certain  qualities  in  objects,  whidi  are  fitted  by 
nature  to  produce  those  particular  feelings.  Now,  as  these 
qualities  may  be  found  itf  a  small  degree,  or  may  be  mixed 
and  confounded  with  each  other,  it  often  happenithat  the 
taate  is  not  affected  with  such  minute  qualities,  or  is  not 
able  to  distinguish  all  the  particular  flavours,  amidst  the 
disorder  in  which  they  are  presented.  Where  the  organs 
are  so  fine,  as  to  allow  nothing  to  escape  them ;  and  at 
tbe  3iinie  time  so  exact,  as  to  perceive  every  ingredient  in 


OF  THE  8TANDAED  OF  TASTE.  231 

llie  coniposition :  This  we  call  delicacy  of  taste,  whether 
we  employ  these  terms  in  the  literal  or  metaphorical  sense. 
Here  then  the  general  rules  of  beauty  are  of  use,  being 
drawn  firom  established  models,  and  from  the  observation 
of  what  pleases  or  di^leases,  when  presented  singly  and  in 
a  high'defpree:  And  if  the  same  qualities,  in  a  continued 
compositko,  and  in  a  smaller  d^ree^  affect  not  the  organs 
with  a  sensible  delight  or  uneasiness,  we  exclude  the  pet- 
aon  from  all  pretensions  to  this  delicacy.  To  produce  these 
general  rules  or  avowed  patterns  of  cotiiposition,  is  like 
finding  the  key  with  die  leadiem  thong;  which  justified 
the  verdict '  of  Sancho's  kinsmen,  and  confounded  those 
pretended  judges  who  had  condemned  them«  Though  the 
hogshead  bad  never  been  emptied,  the  taste  of  tb6  one  was 
stilL  equally  delicate,  and  that  <yf  the  other  equally  dull  and 
kngvdd:  But  it  would  have  been  more  difficult  to  have 
prov^  this  stipertdrity  of  the  former,  to  the  conviction  of 
every  bystander.  In  like  manner,  though  the  beauties 
of  writing  had  never  been  methodized,  or  redilced  to  ge- 
neral principles;  though  no  excellent  models  had  ever 
been  acknolvledged ;  the  different  degrees  of  taste  would 
still  have  subsisted,  and  the  judgment  of  one  man  been 
preferable  to  that  of  another :  but  it  woidd  not  have  been 
so  easy  to  silence  the  bad  critic,  who  might  ^ways  insist 
upon  his  particular  sentiment,  and  refuse  to  submit  to  bis 
antagonist  But  when  we  show  him  an  avowed  prupojiple 
f)f  art;  when  we  illustrate  this  principle  by  examples^ 
whose  operation,  from  his  own  particjular  taste,  he  acknow- 
ledges to  be  confbrmi^le  to  the  princifde;  when  we  prove 
that  the  same  principle  may  be  f^jdied  to  the  present  case, 
where  he  did  not  perceive  or  feel  its  influence :  He  n^i^ 
xonclude,  upon  the  whole,  that  the  fault  lies  in  himself 
3nd  that  he  wants  the  delicacy,  which  is  requisite. to  m^ko 


iS2  xMAtr  xxtii. 

him  i^fibltt  of  every  b«aii^  and  every  hi^nMh^  in  luly 
eompontioB  <Mr  diioaurse* 

it  is  aokiiowledged  to  be  the  perfection  of  erefy  tcbse 
or  &culty)  to  pei^ve  with  exactness  its  ttiost  nmiote  ok- 
jectS)  and  alloir  noHbing  to  ^oape  it0  notice  and  obserma^ 
tion*  The  smallet  the  objeets  are,  whieh  beeoue  sena&ie 
to  t^  eye,  the  finer  »  that  organ,  and  the  BMve  elaboivle 
its  make  and  compocntion.  A  good  pakte  is  not  tried  by 
strongflai^ottrs,  butbyamfactareof  snaUingrodients,  wbeR 
ire  are  still  sengtt^le  of  each  part^  notwithstanding  its  aq- 
nutenees  and  its  conAision  with  the  rest  In  Uk^  manner, 
a  quick  and  acute  perception  of  bean^  and  deformiigr 
must  be  the  perfiection  of  our  menial  taste ;  nor  can  amap 
be  satisfied  with  himself  while  he  snspeota  thai  any  exoel- 
lence  or  blemish  in  a  discourse  haspass^htia  onobsej^red. 
In  diis  case,  the  perfection  of  the  man,  and  the  peifeetioh 
of  die  sense  of  feeling,  are  found  to  be  npted.  A  wy 
ddioate  palate,  on  many  occasions,  may  be  a  gteBt  iooooi- 
fenienoe  both  to  a  man  himself  and  to  his  friends :  But 
a  delloate  taste  of  wit  or  beanty  must  always  be  a  dem- 
able  quality,  because  it »  the  source  of  all  the  finest  and 
moM  innocent  enjoyments  of  whidi  human  Batifl*e  is  sns- 
cQ>tible.  In  this  decision  the  semtim^nts  df  all  manldnd 
Hare  agre^.  Wherever  you  can  ascertain  a  delicAcy  of 
taste,  it  is  sure  to  meet  with  ^probation;  und  the  bi«t 
way  of  isieertahdi^  it  is  to  appeal  to  those  modds  uai 
principles  which  have  been  established  by  th^  ontform  con^ 
sMt  and  experience  of  nations  and  ages. 

But  though  there  be  naturally  a  wide  dilfermce  in  point 
Indelicacy  between  one  perscm  and  another,  nothing  tendik 
further  to  increase  and  improve  this  talent,  than^^^kjMtJ^ 
in  a  particular  art,  and  the  frequent  survey  or  ccmtempliN 
tion  of  a  particular  species  of  beauty.     When  objects  of 


OF  THE  STANBARD  OF  TASTE.  !U0 

Any  kind  ate  first  presented  to  the  eye  or  imagi]iatio%  the 
sentiment  K^ioh  attends  them  is  dbscure  and  confiised ; 
•od  the  mind  iS)  iti  a  great  measure,  incapable  of  pro*- 
noiancing  concerning  their  merits  or  defects.  The  taste 
cannot  perceive  the  several  excellaices  dT  the  perfcn&ance^ 
mtch  less  distmgnish  the  particular  character  of  each  ex.*' 
oelleii^,  $Xkd  ascertain  its  quality  and  degree.  If  it  pro^ 
ndimce  the  la^hole  in  genenX  to  be  beautiful  or  deformed, 
it  is  the  utmost  that  can  be  expected;  and  even  ^sjudgv 
ment,  a  person  so  unpractised  will  be  apt  to  deliver  mA 
greUt  hesitatiojt^  and  reserve*  But  sdlow  him  to  acquire 
expetpnoe  in  those  objects,  his  feeling  becomes  more  ex^ 
act  a^d  nice :  He  not  only  percdves  the  beauties  and  de«> 
fcels  of  e^cii  pert,  but  ma^ks  the  distinguishing  s|>eoies 
of  ^aoh  quidity,  and  assigns  it  suitable  praae  or  fahunek 
A  olear  einA  distinct  sentiment  attmds  him  through  the 
whole  survey  ^  the  otgeotst  and  he  diocems  that  veiy 
degree  and  kind  6f  ^pirobatioti  or  displeasui%  which  ef^ch 
part  is  naturally  fitted  to  produce.  The  mist  di8si{totes 
which  seemed  formerly  to  hang  over  the  object:  The  or* 
gan  acquires  greater  perfection  in  its  operations ;  and  con 
ptimmmoty  without  danger  or  mistake,  concerning  the 
merhs  of  every  performance.  In  a  ward,  the  same  ad- 
dress and  dexterity,  which  pmotice  gives  to  the  execution 
of  any  work^  is  also  acquired  by  the  same  means,  in  the 
judging  of  it 

So  adtantageous  is  practice  to  the  discemtfient  of  beau- 
ty, that,  before  we  can  give  judgment  on  any  work  of  im-^ 
portance,  it  will  even  be  reqmsite  that  that  very  individual 
petformanoe  lie  more  than  once  perused  by  us,  andbesurr 
veyed  in  diffinnent  lights  with  attention  and  deliberatiofi* 
Tliere  is  a  flutter  or  hurry  of  thou^t  which  attends  the 
first  perusal  of  toy  piece^  and  which  confounds  the  genuine 


334  ESSAY  XXUI. 

sentiment  of  beauty.  The  rtelation  of  the  parts  is  not  dis* 
cemed :  The  true  characters  of  sfyle  are  little  dbtinguish- 
ed.  The  several  perfecti<ms  and  defectis  seem  wrapped  up 
in  a  species  of  confusion,  and  present  themselyes  indistinct^ 
ly  to  the  imagination.  Not  to  mention^  that  there  is  a  spe* 
cies  of  beauty,  which,  as  it  is  florid  and  superficial,  pleases 
at  first;  but  being  found  incompatible  with  a  just  expres* 
sion  either  of  reason  or  passion,  soon  palls  upon  the  taste, 
and  is  then  rejected  with  disdain,  at  least  ratedat  amiich 
lower  value. 

It  is  impossible  to: continue  in  the  practice  of  contem- 
plating any  order  of  beauty,  without  being  fi*equently 
obliged  to  £»rm  comparisons  between  the  several  species 
and  degrees  of  excellence^  and  estimating  thdo*  proportion 
^to  each  other.  A  man,  who  has  had  no  opportibiily  c^ 
con^aring  the  different  kinds  of  beauty,  is:  indeed  tdtally 
unqualified  to  pronounce  an  opinion  with  regard  to  any 
object'  presented  to  him.  By  comparison  alOne  we  fix  the 
epitb^Bof  praise  or  blames  and  learn. hoW  jbo  assign  th^ 
due  d^refe  of  eadi.  The  coarsest  daubing  contains  a  cer^ 
tain  lustre  of  colours  and  exactness  of  imitation,  which  .ai^ 
so  far  beauties,  and  would  affect  the  vmi  of  a  peasant  or 
Indian  with  the  highest  admiration.  The  most  vulgar 
ballads  are  not  entirely  destituJ;e  of  hanncmy  or  nature ; 
and  none  but  a  person  fiUniliarised  to  superior  beauties 
would  pronounce  their  numbers  harsh,  or  narration  unin^ 
teresting.  A  great  inferiority  of  beauty  gives  pain  to  a 
person  conversant  in  the  highest  excellence  of  the  kind, 
and  is  for  that  reason  pronounced  a  deformity :  As  the 
most  finished  ol^ct  with  which  we  are  acquainted  is  na« 
turally  supposed  to  have  reached  the  pinnacle  of  perfec*^ 
tion,  and  to  be  entitled  to  the  bluest  applause.  One  ax> 
customed  to  see^  and  examine^  and  wei^  the  several  per-< 


OF  THE  STANDARD  OF  TASTE.  235 

formances,  admired  in  different  ages  and  nations,  can  alone 
rate  the  merits  of  a  work  exhibited  to  his  view,  and  assign 
its  proper  rank  among  the  productions  of  genius. 

But  to  enable  a  critic  the  more  fully  to  execute  this  un- 
dertaking, he  must  preserve  his  mind  free  irom  all  prefih 
dicey  and  allow  nothing  to  enter  into  his  consideration,  but 
the  yery  object  which  is  submitted  to  his  examination.  We  ^ 
may  obserye,  that  every  work  of  art,  in  order  to  produce 
its  due  effect  on  the  mind,  must  be  surveyed  in  a  certain 
point  of  view,  and  cannot  be  fully  relished  by  persons, 
whose  situation,  real  or  imaginary,  is  not  conformable  to 
that  which  is  required  by  the  performance.  An  orator  ad-J 
dresses  himself  to  a  particular  audience,  and  must  have  a 
regard  to  their  particular  genius,  interests,  opinions,  pai^ 
aions,  and' prejudices ;  otherwise  he  hopes  in  vain  to  go- 
,vern  their  resolutions,  and  inflame  their  affections.  Should 
they  even  have  entertained  -some  prepossessions-  against 
him,  however  unreasonable,  he  must  not  overlodc  this  dis- 
advantage ;  but,  before  he  enters  upon  the  subject,  must 
endeavour  to  conciliate  their  affection,  and  acquire  thehr 
good  graces.  A  critic  of  a  different  age  or  nation,  who 
should  peruse  this  discourse,  must  havd  all  these  circum^ 
stances  in  his  eye,  and  must  place  himself  in  the  same  si- 
tuation as  the  audience,  in  order  to  form  a  true  judgment 
of  the  oration.  In  like  manner,  when  any  work  is  address-^ 
ed  to  the  public,  though  I  should  have  a  friendship  or  en- 
mi^  with  the  author,  I  must  depart  from  this  situation ; 
and  considering  mysdf  as  a  man  in  general,  forget,  if  pos- 
sible, my  individual  being,  and  my  peculiar  circumstances. 
A  person  influenced  by  prejudice,  complies  not  with  this 
condition,  but  obstinately  maintains  his  natural  position 
Without  placing  himself  in  that  point  of  view  which  the 
performance  suf^poses.    If  the  work  be  addressed  to  per- 


23$  xasAY  XXAU. 

foas  of  a  different  «g«  or  naikiiit  he  inakes  no  aUowmnoe 
for  tb^ir  peculiar  views  and  pr^udices;  but,  fuU  of  the 
manners  of  hi^  own  age  and  country,  raahly  condemns 
what  seemed  admirable  in  the  eyes  of  those  for  whom  a- 
lone  the  discourse  was  caficulated.  If  the  work  be  exe- 
cuted for  the  public,  he  ne^er  sufficiently  enlarges  his  oom- 
{M^henaion,  or  forgets  his  interest  as  a  firiend  or  enemy,  as 
s  rival  or  coumientitor.  By  this  means,  his  sentiments 
are  perverted ;  nor  hate  the  same  beauties  and  blemishes 
the  same  influebce  upon  him,  as  if  he  had  imposed  a  pro- 
per vidente  on  his  imagination,  and  had  forgotten  himself 
far  a  moment  So  fiur  his  tasle  evidently  dqmrts  £rom  the 
true  standard,  and  of  consequence  loses  all  credit  and  au- 
thority. 

It  is  well  known,  thitt  in  all  questions  submitted  to  the 
understandings  prejudice  is  destructive  of  sound  judgment, 
and  perverts  all  operations  of  the  intellectual  faculties :  It 
is  no  less  contrary  to  good  taste ;  nor  has  it  less  influence 
to  corrupt  our  sentiment  of  beauly.  It  belongs  to  ffood 
MM  to  check  its  influence  in  both  cases;  and  in  this  r^ 
spect,  as  well  as  in  many  others,  reason^  if  not  an  essential 
part  of  taste,  is  at  least  requisite  to  the  operations  of  this 
latter  faculty.  In  all  die  nobler  prodncticms  of  genius, 
there  is  a  mutual  relation  and  correspond^ice  of  parts; 
nor  can  either  the  beauties  or  blemishes  be  perceived  by 
him  whose  thought  is  not  capacious  oioUgh  to  comprehend 
aU  those  parts,  and  compare  them  witii  each  other,  in  or- 
der to  perceive  the  consistence  and  unybrmity  of  the  whole. 
Every  work  of  art  has  also  a  certun  end  or  purpose  fcnr 
which  it  is  calculated;  and  is  to  be  deemed  more  or  leto 
perfect,  as  it  is  more  or  less  fitted  to  attain  this  end.  The 
okyeet  of  eloquence  is  to  persuade,  of  history  to  instruct, 
of  poetry  to  please,  by  means  of  the  pa8S|<His  and  the  im%- 


OF  THE  SmilOAHD  OF  TASTE.  88T 

ginatktfi.  These  ends  we  must  carry  ooDftanlly  in  our 
view  when  we  peruse  any  performance ;  and  We  mutt  be 
able  to  judge  how  fiir  the  means  employed  ai^  adagted  to 
their  respective  puipoaes*  Besides,  every  kind  of  ootiqpKi- 
sition,  even  the  most  poetical,  is  nothing  but  a  chain  of 
propositions  and  reasomngs;  not  always,  indeed^  the  justr 
est  and  most  eacact,  but  still  plausible  and  specious,  howr 
ever  disguised  by  the  oolouring  of  the  imagmatioii.  The 
persons  introduced  in  tragedy  and  epic  poetry  mtuft  be 
repreaented  as  reasoning,  and  thinking,  and  ccmdudiilg^ 
and  acting,  suitably  to  their  duuracter  aqd  cireumstancea; 
and  without  judgmoit,  as  well  as  taste  and  invention,  « 
poet  can  never  hi^  to  succeed  in  so  delicate  an  undet^ 
taking.  Not  to  mention,  that  the  same  exceUence  of  fth 
euhies  which  contributes  to  the  improvement  of  reason,  the 
same  clearness  of  conc^tion,  die  same  exactness  of  dis* 
tinction,  the  same  vivaci^  of  apprehension,  are  esaeAtial 
to  the  operationsx>f  true  taste,  and  are  its  inlBmible  oonco*- 
mitairts.  It  seldom  or  never  happens,  that  a  mail  of  aeose, 
who  has  experience  in  any  art,  cannot  judge  of  its  betoty; 
«nd  it  is  no  less  rare  to  meet  with  a  man  who  has  a  just 
taste  widiout  a  sound  understanding. 

Thus,  though  the  principles  <^  taste  be  imiversal,  and 
nearly,  if  not  entirely,  the  same  inall  men;  yet  few  are 
qualified  to  give  judgment  on  any  work  of  art»  or  establish 
their  own  sentiment  as  the  standard  of  beauty.  Tlie  or^ 
gans  of  internal  sensation  are  seldom  so  perfect  as  to  allow 
the  general  principles  their  fiill  play,  ipad  prpduce  afeeling 
correspondent  to  those  prindplee.  They  either  labour  wh 
dor  some  defect,  ov  are  vitiated  by  some  dis(»der ;  and  by 
chat  means,  excite  a  sentiment,  vHiicfa  may  be  pronounced 
ernMieons.  When  the  critic  has  no  delicacy,  he  judges 
without  any  distinction,  and  is  only  afiected  by  the  grosser 


SS8  1SS6AY  XXttt. 

and  more  palpable  qualities  of  the  object :  The  finer  touchy 
pass  unnotioed  and  disregarded.  Where  he  is  not  aided 
by  practice,  his  yerdict  is  attended  with  confusion  and  he* 
sftation.  Where  no  comparison  has  been  employed,  the 
most  frivolous  beauties,  such  as  rather  merit  the  name  of 
defects,  are  the  object  of  his  admiration*  Where  he  lies 
under  the  influence  of  prejudice,  all  his  natural  sentiments 
are  perverted.  Where  good  sense  is  wanting,  he  is  not 
qualified  to  discern  the  beauties  of  design  isuid  reasoningv 
which  are  the  highest  and  most  excellent.  Under  some  or 
other  of  these  imperfections,  the  generality  of  men  labdur ; 
^md  hence  a  true  judge  in  the  finer  arts  is  observed,  even 
during  the  most  polished  ages,  to  be  so  rare  a  character: 
Strong  sense,  united  to  delicate  sentiment,  inq}roved  by 
practice,  perfected  by  comparison,  and  cleared  of  all  plre^ 
judice,  can  alone  entitle  critics  to  this  valuable  character ; 
and  die  joint  verdict  of  such,  wherever  they  are  to  be  found, 
is  the  true  standard  of  taste  and  beauty.  r 

But  where  are  such  critics  to  be  found  ?  By  what  marks 
are  they  to  be  known?  How  distinguish  them  from  pre- 
tenders ?  These  questions  are  embarrassing :  and  seem  to 
throw  us  back  into  the  same  uncertainly,  from  which,  dui> 
ring  the  course  of  this  essay,  we  have  endeavoured  to  ex- 
tricate ourselves. 

But  if  we  consider  the  matter  aright,  these  are  questions 
of  fact,  not  of  sentiment  Whether  any  particular  person 
be  endowed  with  good  sense  and  a  delicate  imagination, 
free  from  prejudice,  may  often  be  the  subject  of  dispute^' 
and  be  liable  to  great  discussion  and  inquiry :  But  that  such 
a  character  is  valuable  and  estimable,,  will  be  agreed  on  by 
'^all  mankind.  Where  these  doubts  occur,  men  can  do  no 
more  than  in  other  disputable  questions  which  are  sulnnit- 
ted  to  the  understanding :  They  must  produce  the  best  ar- 


OF  THE  STANDAKD  OF  TASTK.  289 

guments  that  their  invention  suggests  to  them ;  they  must 
acknowledge  a  true  and  decisive  standard  to  exist  some- 
where, to  wit,  real  esdstence  and  matter  of  fact ;  and  they 
must  have  indulgence  to  such  as  differ  firom  them  in  their 
appeals  to  this  standard.  It  is  8u£Bcient  for  our  present 
purpose,  if  we  have  proved,  that  the  taste  of  all  individuids 
is  not  upon  an  equal  footing,  and  that  some  men  in  gene- 
ral, however  difficult  to  be  particularly  pitched  upon,  will 
be  acknowledged  by  universal  sentiment  to  have  a  prefe- 
rence above  odiers. 

But,  in  reality,  the  difficulty  of  findmg,  even  in  particu- 
lars, the  standard  of  taste,  is  not  so  great  as  it  is  represent- 
ed. Though  in  speculation,  we  may  readily  avow  a  cer- 
tain criterioii  in  science,  and  d^ny  it  in  sent^nent,  the  mat- 
ter is  found  in  practice  to  be  much  more  hard  to  ascertain 
in  the  former  case  than  in  the  latter.  Theories  of  abstract 
philosophy,  systems  of  profound  theology,  have  prevailed 
during  one  age :  in  a  successive  period  these  have  been 
universally  exploded :  Their  absurdity  has  been  detected : 
Other  theories  and  systems  have  supplied  their  place,  which 
again  gave  place  to  their  successors :  And  nothing  has  been 
experienced  more  liable  to  the  revolutions  of  chance  and 
fashion  than  these  pretended  decisions  of  science.  The 
case  is  not  the  same  with  the  beauties  <^  eloquence  and 
poetry.  Just  expressions  of  passion  and  nature  are  sure, 
after  a  little  time,  to  gain  public  applause,  which  they  main- 
tain for  ever. '.  Aristotle,  and  Plato,  and  Epicurus,  and 
Pescartes,  may  successivdy  yield  to  each  other :  But  Te- 
rence and  Virgil  maintain  an  universal,  undiq)uted  empire 
over  the  minds  of  men.  The  abstract  philosophy  of  Cicero 
has  lost  its  credit:  The  vehemence  of  his  oratory  is  still  the 
object  of  our  admiration. 
.    Though  men  o(  delicate  taste  be  rare,  they  are  easily  to 


840  £8MT  XXIII. 

be  dtstinguialied  in  society  by  the  soundness  of  thetr  uih- 
derstanding,  and  the  superiority  of  their  fiiculties  above  the 
real  of  mankind.  The  aacendaot^  which  they  acquire^  girea 
a  prevalence  to  that  lively  approbatiaii^  trith  whk^  they 
reoeive  any  producttoins  of  genius,  and  renders  it  gent^ally 
predominant  Many  misn,  when  left  to  th.iemselves»  haw 
but  a  faint  and  dubbus  perception  of  beauty,  vho  yet  are 
<»ipable  of  relishing  any  fine  stroke  which  is  pointed  oli(  to 
tb0i9.  Every  convert  to  the  admiratiob  of  th6  real  poet 
or  orator  is  the  cause  of  some  new  conversiotu  And  thou^ 
pr^udiees  may  prcviulfor  a  tim^  they  never  unite  in  ce- 
lebraling  ai^  rival  to  the  true  genius,  but  yield  at  last  to 
the  force  of  nature  and  just  sentiment  Thus,  though  a 
civilized  nation  may  eaaily  be  mi^taketi  in  the  choice  of 
their  admireld  pbilosopherv  they  never  have  been  foiind 
long  to  err^  in  their  aflRM^ion  for  a  favourite  epic  or  trigid 
Mithor. 

But  notwithstanding  all  our  endeavours  to  fix  a  standard 
of  taste,  and  reconcile  the  discordant  apprehensions  of  men, 
there  still  remain  two  sources  of  variatbn,  which  are  hot 
suffici^ait  indeed  to  confound  all  the  boondarws  of  beauty 
laid  defarmifcy^  but  will  often  serve  to  produce  a  difiereace 
in  the  degrees  ol  oiyc*  apptobation  or  Uame.  The  on^  is 
the  different  hmnours  of  particular  men;  the  othw,  the 
particidar  manners  and  opinions  of  our  age  and  country^ 
The  genaral  pHndples  of  taste  are  uniform  in  human  nin 
ture  I  Where  men  vary  ia  their  judgmentB,  some  defect  at 
pi^rveffftion  in  the  fiurohies  may  ccHnmonly  be  reittarked ; 
proceedmg  estfaer  from  prcjvdiee,  firom  want  of  practice,  or 
want  of  ddicaey :  and  there  is  just  reason  for  approviag 
ime  tarte^  asid  condemning  anotberw  But  where  there  is 
such  a  diversity  in  the  internal  frame  or  ^Ltemal  skilatidn 

as  is  entirely  bUmeleaB  on  bodi  sides,  and  leaves  no  room 

s 


QT  THB  STANDARD  QF  TASTE.  341 

Ipgiyi^ one  the  prefereilP^  above  tf^e  Other;  inthatcasea 
MTtaip  d^ee  of  diyenu^  in  judgment  is  mumudaUey  and 
we  seek  in  yun  for  a.stoidardy  by  which  we  can  reconoilej 
the  cQn^rajQr  seqtim^pts. 

A  yofrngmaot  who^  ]|fmiona  are  waraii  will  be  more 
fdHsibly  tfwpbed  wUh  amoKons  and  taider  m^gi^  than^i 
$a9ti  moreadvaneed  in  years,  who  tali^  ptensore  in  itriat^ 
pbiloao|^k46al;  refleclKms^  oonpenupg  j&e  emduet  of Mfe  and 
inoden^caicf  tt€(p<istf<>og»  Ai  t«renty»  Orid  may  be  thf^ 
^yonilte  w$kbt$  Hor^de  at  for^ ;  and  perhaps  Tadtiis 
Irt.fift^  YaudywotildW^  in  sneheasesy  endeavour  to  el^ 
jtec:]nt0  dK  Sentiment  of  others,  and  divest  onrsdves  of 
th0se  prcf^ensiliica  wbieh  a«e  natural  to  ns.  We  choose 
Mx  frvourite  author  as  we  do  our  friend,  from  »  cc^ifo- 
sa%oCbumotfranddisp08iti<nL  Mirth  or  paisiony  senti- 
4g^iMat  teBt&ctifyni  whichever  of  thtoe  most  j^redominates 
jn  <mr  temper,  it  gives  ns  k  pecnliar  sympathy  with  the 
vriter  who  resemUes  qiu 

.One  pierlon  is  more  jdeesed  ^th  tike  sublime ;  another 
with  die  tehder;  a  third  with  raillerjr.  Que  has  a  strong 
aftisSMlity  to  Uemaflhes,.and  is  exfremdy  studious  of  cor« 
ij^tnesa:  Auothear  has  a  more  lively  fedii^  of  beaoties, 
and  piasdoiis  twenty  absofardities  and  defects  lor  aqe  elev»- 
tnddrpatfaeticstroke.  The  ear  of  this  mni^iaeH^lf  turn- 
ed towards  concisepieiB  and  energy^  tbitmanisddlghted 
widi  a  copious^  riband  harmonious  exiMTjessioti.  SnnpU- 
lAfy  is  afieeted  by  one;  omame^  by  anodier.  Comedy, 
tragedy,  satire,  odes,  have  each  its  partisans,  who  prefer 
ihatpariiculipr  spei^ies of  writiiig  to  aU  others.  Itispkiib 
tff  mk  enoT  hn  a  critic,  to  c<mflne  his  approbatkm  to  one 
^>ecies  or  style  of  writing,  and  condemn  all  the  rest  But 
H  is  almost  imposrible  not  to  feel  a  predSection  for  that 
^hidi  suits  our  particular  tprn  and  disposition,  Sio^h  prpr 

yoL.  I.  K 


jM2  ESSAY  XXlth 

f^t^^nces  are  innocent  and  unavoidable,  and  can  mveriea^ 

«sonabIy  be  the  object  of  di^ute^  because  there  ib  no  stm^ 

dard  by  which  they  can  be  decided. 

For  a  like  reason,  we  are  more  pleased,  in  the  course  of 

'our  reading,  with  pictures  and  characters  that  resemble 
^objects  which  are  found  in  our  own  age  or  country,  thaa 

with  those  which  describe  a  ^ftrent  set  of  cmtoms.  It  is 
'not  without  some  eflbrt,  that  we  reooaeile  oursdves  to  thp 

simplici^  of  anei^t  manners,  and  behold  princesses  oan^ 
'ing  water  from  the  spring,  and  kings  and  heroes  dressing 

their  own  victuals.  We  mi^  allow  in  general,  that  the 
'  representation  of  such  manners  is  no  &ult  in  the  autboiv 

nor  deformity  in  the  piece;  but  we  are  not  «o  sensibly 

touched  with  them.  For  this  reason,  comedy  is  not  easily 
-transferred  from  one  age  or  nation  to  another.  A  French 
;nian  or  EkigUshman  is  not  pleased  withthe  JndriadtT^ 
trence,  or  CBAia  of  Machiayei ;  where  th6  fine  lady,  upon 

whom  all  the  play  turns,  never  once  ai^)ears  ta  the  spect«- 
-  tors,  but  is  always  kept  behind  the  scenes,  suitably  to  the 
-reservedhumout  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  modemltaKans. 
•A  man  of  learning  and  reieetion  can  make  afiowancefer 
,these  peculiarities  of  manners;  but  b  common  audimce  am 
^ever  divest  the&nselves  so  far  of  their  u^ual  ideas  and  sent»- 
4nents,  as  to  relish  pictures  which'nowise  resemble  them. 
'  But  here  there  occurs  a  reflection,  which  may,  perhaps, 
.be  useful. in  examining  die  celebrated  controversy  con- 

eemingancieolt  wad miodem learning;  where  we oftehfind 
•  the  one  side,  excusing  any  seeming  absurditf  in  the  ataicients 
.from  the  miu^ners  of  the  age,  and  the  other  refusing  to  ad- 
.mit  this  excuse,  or  at  least  admitting  it  only  as  an  iqpology 

for  the  author,  not  for  the  performance*    In  my  opinion, 

the  proper  boundari^  in  this  subject  have  seldom  been 
.fixed  between  the  contending  parties.^  Where  any  innoc^git 


OF  THE  STiiKDAE9  OF  TA8TC.  .  MS 

peooliariti^  of  niwners  are  represenUd,  such  as  those 
^above  mentioiiedf  they  ought  certakiiy  to  be  admitted; :  aqd 
.«  man,  l?ho  is  shocked  with  them,  gives  aa  evident  proof 
of  fidse  delicacy  and  refinement.    The  poet's  nycfiwrnaiit 
more  ditrabU  than  brasSf  must  fall  to  the  ground  like  com- 
mon brick  €Mr  day,  were  men  to  make  no  allowance  for  the 
continual  revolutioiia  of  manners  andcustinns,  and  would 
admit  of  nothing  but  what  was  suitable  to  the  previuling 
,&shion.    Mast  we  throw  aside  the  pictures  of  our  ances- 
tors, because  of  their  ruffi  and  fardingales?  But  where  the 
ideas  of  morality  and  decency  ^ter  &om  one  age  to  aft- 
tOther,  and  wheve  vicious  manners  are  described,  without 
.being  marked  with  the  iproper  diaracters  of  blame  aqd 
idisapprobatton,  thismust  be  allowed  to  dis%uire  the  poen^ 
and  to  be  a  real  deformity.     I  cannot,  nor  is  it  prx^r  X 
jhould»  enter  into  such  sentiments;  and  however  I  may 
iBCKCiise  the  poet,  on  ibccount  of  the  manners  of  his  age^  I 
^eyer  can  relish  die  composition.    The  want  of  humanity 
jmdof  decency,  so  c^mspicuous  in  the  characters  drawn  by 
several  of  the  ancient.poets,  even  sometimes  by  Homer  and 
the  Gredk  tragedians,  diminishes  considerably  the  merit  of 
itheir  noble  performances,  and  gives  modem  authors  an 
jKlvantage  over  them.      We  are  not  interested  in  the 
fortunes  and  sentiments  of  such  rough  heroes ;  We  are 
di^leased  to  find  the  limits  of  vice  and  virtue  so  much  con- 
founded; and  whatever  indulg^ice  we  may  give  to  the 
.writer  on  acco.unt  of  his  prejudices,  we  cannot  prevail  on 
ourselves  to  enter  into  his  sentiments,  or  bear  an  affection 
to  characters,  which  we  plainly  discover  to  be  blameable. 

The  case  is  not  the  same  with  moral  principles  as  with 
apectdative  opinions  of  any  kind.  These  are  in  continual 
flux  and  revolution.  The  scm  embraces  a  di&rent  system 
from  the  father.     Nay,  there  scarcely  is  any  map,  who  can 

b2 


t44  EMAY  XKIIT. 

bMstefgreM  duislaticy  and  unifimaitf  ia  tbii  particiilar. 
Whatever  speouUtive  errors  mmy  be  found  un  the  pdbe 
writbigsof  any  ege  or  country,  diey  detract  but  Utile  fiom 
tke  value  of  l^seeompositiona*  There  needs  bot  a  bertmn 
tUM  o#  thought  en  iflaagkiatkin  to  make  na  enter  fanto  all 
tbeb^kdont  i»lilcfa  tben  prevailed,  and  relish  the  aenti- 
ifaenls  or  coneliisionsderived  from  them.  Bat  a  very  violent 
40Qtt  iareqniirite  to  change  our  judgment  of  manners,  and 
ekeke  sentiments  ^  tppycdMition  or  blame,  love  or  hatred, 
iWnpent  tt6m  those  to  which  the  mind,  from  long  custom, 
1ms  been  familiarized.  And  where  a  man  is  confident  of 
the  rectitude  of  that  moral  standard  by  wiiich  he  judges, 
heisJQsdy  jealous  of  it,  and  will  not  pervert  the  sentiments 
^his  heart  for  a  moment,  in  compkisanoe  to  any  writer 
whatsoever. 

Of  all  specuiaiive  errors,  those  whidi  r^[ard  reUgkm  are 
4be  most  excusable  in  compositions  of  geniUsi  uov  is  it  ever 
permitted  to  judge  of  the  civility  or  wisdom  of  any  people^ 
or  evoi  of  single  persons,  by  the  grossness  or  vefinemot 
of  their  theological  principles.  The  same  good  sense,  dutt 
directs  men  in  the  ordinary  occurrences  of  life,  is  not 
hearkened  to  m  religious  matters,  which  arci  supposed  to 
be  placed  altogether  above  the  cognisance  of  hmnan  reason. 
Oh  this  account,  all  the  absurdities  of  the  pagan  system  of 
theology  must  be  overlodced  by  every  critic,  who  would 
pretend  to  form  a  just  noticm  of  ancient  poetry ;  and  our 
pQsierity,.in  their  turn,  must  have  the  same  mdulgence  to 
their  forefathers.  No  religious  principles  can  ever  be 
imputed  as  a  fault  to  any  poet,  while  they  remain  merely 
principles,  and  take  not  such  strong  possession  of  his  heart 
As  to  lay  him  under  the  imputation  ofNgoiry  or  mgaerttiH&ti. 
Where  that  happens,  they  confound  the  sentiments  of  mo* 
rality,  and  alter  the  natural^  boundaries  of  vice  and  vir- 


OF  THE  8TANPABB  ^V  TA8T£.  S^ 

tM.  Thejr  are  tberefiMre  eternal  UeiBiab«%  fHscordiog  IQ ; 
tk  prinoiple  abote  mentiomd;  nor  aafe  the  ^rejwjices  fml  > 
fake  opinions  oftbe  age  Buffieietit  td  Justify  them*: 

It  k  cHsratial  to  the  Boiwm  CaAoUc  religiw  t#  atfpfot 
a  Tioknt  hatred  of  ^very  other  wcN^hifs  and  4a  r^presppt 
aU  {>agaii|^  mahomc^ass,  and  bemtic%  as  tbe  obf  eot^  of 
divine  wrath  and  vengeance.    Such  sentiments,  Jbongll 
they  are  in  reality  very  blameable,  are  considered  as  virtues 
by  the  zealots  of  that  communion,  and  «re  represented  in 
their  tragedies  and  epic  poems  as  a  kind  of  divine  heroism. 
This  bigotry  has  disfigured  two  very  fine  tragedies  of  the 
French  theatre,  Polieucte  and  Athalia  ;  where  an  in* 
temperate  zeal  for  particular  modes  of  worship  is  set  off 
with  all  the  pomp  imaginable,  and  forms  the  predominant 
character  of  the  heroes.  <^  What  is  this,"  says  the  sublime 
JoAO  to  JosABET,  finding  her  in  discourse  with  Mathan 
the  priest  of  Baal,  <<  Does  the  daughter  of  David  speak 
to  this  traitor  ?  Are  you  not  afraid,  lest  the  earth  should 
open  and  pour  forth  flames  to  devour  you  both  ?  Or  lert 
these  holy  walls  should  fall  and  crush  you  together  ?  What 
k  hk  purpose  ?  Why  comes  that  enemy  of  God  hither  to 
pokon  the  air,  which  we  breathe,  with  hk  horrid  pre- 
sence T*  Such  sentiments  are  received  with  great  applause 
on  the  theatre  of  Park ;  but  at  London  the  spectators- 
would  be  full  as  much  pleased  to  hear  Achilles  tell  Aga- 
memnon, that  he  was  a  dog  in  hk  forehead,  and  a  deer  in 
his  heart ;  or  Jupiter  threaten  Jimo  with  a  sound  drub- 
bing, if  she  will  not  be  quiet. 

Religious  principles  are  also  a  blemkh  in  any  polite  com- 
position, when  they  rise  up  to  superstition,  and  intrude 
themselves  into  every  sentiment,  however  remote  from  any 
connection  with  religion.  It  is  no  excuse  for  the  poet,  that 
the  customs  of  his  country  had  burdened  life  with  so  many 


5tj^  kSBAt  XXIII. 

rdigious  ceremonies  and  obflervances,  that  no  part  oFit ) 
exempt  irom  that  yoke.  It  most  for  ever  be  ridiculous  in. . 
Petrarch  to  compare  his  mistress,  Ljivra,  to  Jesus  Cheist* 
Nor  is  it  less  ridiculous  in  that  agreeable  libertine,  Boccaoe, 
very  seriously  to  give  thanks  to  God  Almighty  and  the 
ladies^  for  their  assistance  in  defending  him  against  his. 
enemies. 


ESSAYS, 

MORAL»  POLITICAL,  AND  LITERARY. 


PART  II  ♦. 


•  PuUiibediiinM. 


ESSAY  I. 


OF  COMMERCE. 


1  HE  greater  part  of  mankind  mpy  be  divided  into  two 
classes ;  that  oiskaUow  thinl^ers,  who  fall  sh<Nrt  of  the  truth; 
and  that  of  a&tCriMie  thinkers^  wbogo  beycHid  it.  Th^  iM- 
ter  class  are  by  far  thfs  mpst:  rare;  «nd»  I  may  add,  by  Smt 
the  most  nsefiil  and  yalifaible.  Thf^angg&^l^tSyi^tlfAs^ 
and  start  difficnlties,  which  they  watit,  p^baps^  fkill  tp 
pursue ;  b^t  which  may  produce  fime  disctyvenes^  ifhA 
handled  by  n^^  wbp  haye  a'  viore  just  w4^  of  thinkitigv 
At  woisty  wlpt  thgey  say  is  uncomimDn;  dnd  if  it  should 
coat  some  paias  to  compreh^d  it,  one  has,  boweven  Ae 
pleasure  of  fte^nig  si^mething  thatis  new#  Anaiithoria 
litde  to  be  babied  who  tells  m  nioduiig  but  irhat  we  cA 
learn,  froo^  e¥try  cQffetJ¥Mise  ecffiterwti^ 

All  pe^a  of  4tatfp^  iboai^  aitf  apt  to  decry  drelt 
thoaa  of  #t^  understfindiog,  IM^  oftsA^ 
tpp^sic^i^Mmd  tefiiiers^:and  Beifisr  will  alloli  any  thi% 
^  ^J^t-wbyi  i<k:h^9fMfi  idimr  own  imk  tiWgplwns 
Tberf  fre  mat  case^  ItoymfYrh^t  an  flatraoidiiar/ns** 
^owyss^^SS^HcihA  MroBg  'presiilnptiaii  orftkebood^awl 
wfiere  no  jfMoaiiig  is  to  be  tmaled  but  whist  Unadteai 

duotiq  aiy jmpHiufihrsafiMr,  and  fitiur  ibhr ■tst  inrpdlit»s8|> 
tr^4^  epoMinyi  4Mr  w$  bttsin^ss  in  li£^  1w  m&^Aimxf^  t» 


250  ESSAY  I. 

draw  his  arguments  too  fine,  or  connect  too  long  a  chain 
of  consequences  together.     Something  is  sure  to  happen, 
that  will  disconcert  his  reasoning,  and  produce  an  event 
different  from  what  he  expected.     But  when  we  reason 
upon  general  subjects,  one  may  justly  aflirm,  that  our  spe- 
culations can  scarcely  ever  be  too  fine,  provided  they  be 
just ;  and  that  the  difference  between  a  common  man  and 
a  man  of  genius  is  chiefly  seen  in  the  shallowness  or  depth 
of  the  principles  upon  which  they  proceed.     General  rea- 
sonings seem  intricate,  merely  because  they  are  general ; 
nor  is  it  easy  for  the  bulk  of  mankind  to  distinguish,  in  a 
great  number  of  particulars,  that  common  circumstance  in  ^ 
which  they  all  agree^  or  to  extract  it,  pure  and  unmixed,  * 
from  the  other  superfluoc^  circumstances.     Every  jndg* 
ment  or  condusion,  with  them,  is  particular.    Hiey  can-* 
not  ^darge  their  view  to  those  universal:  propositions,' 
which  comprehend  under  them  an.  infinite  number  of  in- '. 
dividuals,  and  include  a  uriiole  science  in  a  single  theorem.  - 
Tbefar  eye  is  confounded  with  such, an  extensive  prospect;- 
and  the  condusions  derived  firom  it,  even  though  dearly 
expressed,  seem  intricate  and  obscure.  ,  But  howev»  in- ' 
tricatethey  may  seem,  it  is  certain,  that  general  princi^des, 
if  just  and  sounds  must  always  {»)evail  in  the  genand  course* 
of  things,  though  they  may  fail  in  partlcukr  case^;  aiiid 
it  is  the  diief  business  of  philosophers  to  regard  die  gene-' 
cal  course  of  things.    I  may  add,  ^SMl  it  ia  also  ^  chief 
bosiiiepir  of  politicians;  espedatty  in  the  domestic  govem-^' 
ment  of  the  state,^  where  the  public  good,  whidi  i^  or 
ought  ta  be  their  object,  depends  on  thec^mcurrenceof  a^ 
nwilrttndfl  of  causes ;  not  as  in  fordgq  poKlic8,-on  acd-' 
dents  and  chances,  and  the  caprices  of  a  few  persons.  This^ 
thacefoie  makes  the  di£brence  betwe^  pwtHc^kKt  ddibe-' 
nitiohs  and^anerxrf  reasonings,  and.  enders  subtil^  and* 


OF  COJUfSBCS.  261 ' 

rtfiwwDt  mwh  more  mitUble  to-  tbe  latter  tlwi  td  the 

•  I  thought  this  introduction  necessary  before tbt  follow^: 
ing  disconrses  on  commmxy  nKomeg^  indUfetty  bakmceoftrade^: 
^  where,  perhaps,  there  will  occur' some  principles  which 
are  uncommon,  and  which  may  seem  too  refined  and  su]>- 
de  fiir  such  Tulgar  subjects.  If  fidse,  let' them  be  rejected:^ 
But  no  one  ought  to  entertain  a  prejudice  against  them,: 
merely  because  they  kre  out  of  the  common  road* 

.  The  greatness  of  a  state,  aild  the  happiness  6f  its^sub* 
jects,  how  independent  soever  they  may  be  supposed  in. 
some  respects,  are  conmionly  allowed  to  be  ioseparabler 
with  regard  to  commerce ;  and  as  private  men  receive 
greater  security,  in  the  possession  of  their  trade  and  riches^ 
firom  the  power  of  the  public,  so  the  public  becomes  power-) 
ful  in  pn^pcHrtion  to  the  opulence  and  extensive  tommetce 
of  private  men.  This  maxim  is  true  in  general;  though 
I  cannot  forbear  thinking  that  it  may  possibly  admit  df 
exceptions,  and  that  we  <^ten  establish  it  with  too' little  re* 
serve  and  limitation.  There  may  be  some  circumstances^ 
where  the  commerce,  and  riches,  and  luxury  of  individ|ui)s, 
instead  of  adding  str^igth  to  the  puUic,  will  serve  only  to 
thin  its  armies,  and  diuiinish  its  authority  among  the 
neighbottring  nations.  Man  is  a  very  variable  being,  an4 
suscqptiblecrf'many  different  opinions,  principles,  and  rules 
ct  conduct.  What  may  be  true,  while  he  adheres  to  one 
way  of  thinking,  will  be  found  false,  when  he  has  embraced 
an  opposite  set  of  manners  and  opinions* 
*  The  bulk  of  every  state  may  be  divided  into  huAtmd^ 
men  and  numu^turers.  The  former  iEire  emfdoyed  in  the 
culture  of  the  land ;  the  latter  works  up  the  materials  fur- 
nished by  the  former,  into  all  the  commodities  which  are 
necessary  or  ornamental  to  human  life*    As  soon  as  men 


252  .  ESSAY  I. 

quit  tlieir  sarage  states  wheve  Ihegr  Uto  chidly  by  ImMtllg 
and  fishing,  they  must  &11  into  these  two  classes  j  dxNigh 
the  arts  of  agriculture  emidGy  aiJbrM  the  most  nuflMroiis 
part  of  the  society  ^  Tkna  and  eSperieBoe  improne  so 
nmdi  these  art%  that  the  land  nuiy  easily  maiatainaani^ 
greater  aumbcr  of  ibea  dian  those  who  are  i 
employed  ib  its  caltsre)  orwfaoiiinnshthemore] 
laanufeetiuts  to  such  as  aire  so  calpkiyed* 

If  these  superftiiotis  hands  apply  themsdves  to  the  fiamr 
art%  which  acre  cpimboiily  dsnoikiitiated  the  arts  of  hunuif^ 
they  add  to  the  happiness  of  the  state;  si|ice  thcfyafiiwd 
to  naaqf  the  oppbrtuaity  of  receiviiig  tajoymeiits,  widi 
whidi  they  would  atiierwise  hare  been  uaaequainted^  But 
Hiay  n«t  another  scheme  be  proponed  for  the  empldyisdiit 
of  lhe«e  superfluous  hands?  May  not  the  sovcragU'lar^ 
daim  to  cheaiy  aad  employ  dbm  i»  ifleilts  and  iimfioi^  id 
increaise  the  doQ^nions  of  the  tftate  abroad,,  and  ^MrMd}  \t» 
fcinieov«rdistaift  nations?  it  is  certam^  that  Bie fewer  de^ 
sires  and  wants  are  fbimd  ii>  thepraprietors  smd  labofomrs 
of  land,  the  fewer  bands  do  thep  employ;  andcoAiaqneaa^ 
ly,  the  sup^itiiJdlieB  of  iJM  land^  insteod  of:  maimahiiay 
mufesmen  and  mana^iiver^  may  soppi^t  fleets  aadaa* 
mies  to  a  much  gitAf^r  ^xten%^  «tMmi  K4ie^  a  peMism^ 
tttii  are  recpnredto  Mmfefer'  loathe  kftu^y  ^rf" pttt^kiibr 
persons.  Herig  <berte<bre  sterns  §(^  be  a  kibd  bf  opi!><|9ttlm 
be^)l^cien  tbe  gt^ne&tidi  &^  sMe  and  (he  %eppu)^^tlte 


•  Mods.  Melon*  in  hk  ^bR^ttl-akMly  <«»  ^MbiieM,  Mitfltt-  ffcU  ^veS  ai 
#<aMJt>  \fjmt  dWI«  VJmpi  iat»  ^mm^r  PWlfb  e^tewi  a|«l||Aj»Aft^rfl»e»- 

andLon^merohantSy  financUn,  and  bourgeois.  This  calculation  is  certainly 
Tery  erroneous,  fn  France,  Englandi  and  indeed  most  parts  of  Europe, 
half  of  the  inhabitants  live  in  cities;  atid  even*  of  those  who  lite  iif  tk 
coMhtr^;  a  grcit  nmnber  are  aHiiMl^  pwhaps  idtovtt  aidiird. 


OF  COKMERCE.  388 

nibject  ▲  itatt  isn^yer  greaier  than  wben  all  its  super- 
Aiwit  b$tiAk  wte  emplojred  in  the  service  of  the  public. 
Hie  ^as^  and  coiiveiiieiioe  of  privilte  pehioiiS;req(Uil*e^  that 
theae  bands  dwoh}  be  enqfdoyediiltheitaeiMoe.  The  one 
ean  navsr  be  aatisfitd  but  at  tfa^  expense  of  the  other.  As 
di^ambilioA  of  the  aorertign  nniit  entimich  on  the  loxorjr 
of  iodiTidnak,  so  the  Inipwrj  of  iildiTidUals  OEiust  diminish 
the  force,  and  check  die  ambition  of  the  sovereign. 

Nor  is  this  reasoning  merely  chimerii^ ;  but  is  fouildr 
^'  oD  histoty  end  experience.  The  repliblto  of  Sparta 
IMS  cei>tainly  more  powerfal  tUan  anjr  stated  now  in  the 
work^  coositting  of  an  equal  number  of  people;  and  this 
was  owing  entirely  to  the  want  of  commerce  and  luxuty^ 
The  Hdotes  were  the  labourers ;  the  Spartan^  were  die 
8Bldi»rs  or  grattemen.  It  is  evident,  that  the  labour  of 
die  Heloles  oduld  not  have  maintained  so  great  a  number 
of  (^artans,  had  these  latter  lived  in  ease  and  ddicac^ 
«qd  gi^en  emj^ynient  to  a  great  variety  of  trades  and  vob^ 
nufaetures.  The  Uke  pciicj  may  be  remarked  in  Borne. 
Andy  indeed,  throughout  all  ancient  history,  it  is  observa^ 
Ue,  that  the  smallest  repuUics  raised  and  maintained  greats 
er  armies,  than  states,  ocmsisting  of  tripk  the  number  of 
tahabituits,  are  aUe  to  support  at  piresent^  It  is  com- 
)»Dted,  that  in  all  European  nations,  die  proportion  be^ 
tween  soldiers  and  peq)le  does  not  exceed  one  to  a  hua^* 
dred.  But  we  read,  that  the  city  of  Rome  alcme,  widi  its 
small  territory,  raised  and  maintained,  in  early  times,  ten 
l^poiM  agafaist  the  Latms.  Athens^  the  whole  of  whose 
dominions  was  not  larger  than  Yorkshire,  sent  to  the  ex- 
pedidon  against  Sicily  near  fbr^  thousand  men  *.  Dio- 
nysins  the  elder,  it  is  said)  maintained  a  standing  army  of 

•  TuocTDiDEt,  lib.  ?ii. 


]U4  fiSSATI. 

-«  hsndred  ttossand  foot,  and  tenthoosaiidfadkrse,.  betidfltf 
a  lai^  fl«et  of  four  faundred  sail  * ;  diovgh  his  territories 
extended  no  fiuther  than  the  cky  of  Syracuse^  about  a 
third  of  the  iilaad  4^  SicQy,  and  some  seaport  towns  and 
garridonson  the  coast  of  Italy  and  lUyricom.    Itutnie^ 
the  ancient  armies,  in  time  <^  war,  sidMistedmuch  upon 
plunder:  But  did  not  the  enemy  plunder  iu  their  turn  ? 
which  was  a  more  ruinous  way  of  levying  a  tax,  than  any 
other  that  could  be  devised.    In  short,  no  probable  rea- 
Mtt  can  be  assigned  for  the  great  power  of  the  more  ans- 
tient  states  above  the  modem,  but  their  want  of  commeroift 
and  luxury.    Few  artisans  were  maintained  by  the  labour 
-ofthe  farmers,  and  therefore  more  soldiers  mi^t  live  up^ 
t>n  it.    Livy  says,  that  Rome,  in  his  time,  would  find  it 
difficult  ta  raise  as  large  an  army  .as  that  which,  in  her 
early  days,  she  sent  out  against  the  Chmk  and  Latins '^ 
Instead  of  those  soldiers  who  fought  for  liberty  and  em- 
pire in  Camillus's  time,  there  were,  in  Augustus's  days^ 
musidaais,  painters,  cooks,  players,  and  tailors;  and  if 
^he  land  was  equally  cultivated  at  both  periods,  itcould  cer- 
tainly maintain  equal  numbers  in  the  one  professbn  as 
in  the  other.    They  added  nothing  to  the  mere  necessar 
•ries  of  life,  in  the  latter  period  more  than  in  the  former. 
'    It  is  natural  on  this  occasion  to  ask,  whether  sovereigns 
-may  not  return  to  the  maxims  of  ancient  policy,  and  conr 
«ult  their  own  intereid;  in  this  respect,  m<H'e  than  the  bapr 
piness  of  their  subjects  ?  I  answer,  that  it  appears  to  me 
almost  impossU)le;  and  that  because  ancient  policy  was 

.  .*  Dioo.  Sic.  lib.  liL     T14i  acoounty  I  owiiy  if  Bomewhtft  suti»cioii8»  not 
"^io  say  worse;  chiefly  because  this  anny  was  not  composed  of  cidzeiis»  but 
of  raercenaty  forces* 

**  Tin  LiTii,  lib.  TiL  cap.  24.    '*  Adeo  in  quie  laboramus,**  says  he^  **  sola 
^<  creTimuSy  divitias  luxuriftnique,*' 

2 


OF  COM mmcE.  206 

•^tokiit,  imd  omtrary  io  die  more  naturaiind  uaiiid  course 
lofdiiiigs.  .It  is  ivdU  known  whh  what  peculiar  laws  SparU 
was.goTemedy  and  what  a  prodigy  that  repnUic  is  jusdy 
esteemed  by  eTeryon%  iriK>^Jia8  considered  human  nature^ 
as  it  has  dispkqredjtself  in  other  nations,  and  tether  ages. 
Were  the  testimony  of  history  less  positire  and  drcimF- 
stantial,  such  a  goYenunent  would  appear  a  mere  phttoso* 
l^iical  whim  or  fiction,  and  impossible  erer  to  be  reduced 
to  practice.  And  though  the  Roman  and  other  ancient 
jfepublics  were  sujqported  on  princii^s  somewhat  more  na>- 
turaly  yet  was  there  an  extraordinary,  ocmeunrenceof  cir* 
•cumstances,  to  make  them  submit  to  sujch  grkvous  bur- 
dens. They  were  free  states ;  they  were  small  onds ;  and 
the  age  being  martial,  all  their  neigjibours  were  contii^t- 
ally  in  arms.  Freedom  naturally  begets  public  spirit,  espe» 
daily  in  small  states ;  and  this  public  spirit,  this  amorp^ 
-iruSf  must  increase,  when  the  public  is  almost  in  continiud 
iilarm,  and  men  are  obliged,  every  moment,  to  expose 
.themselves  to  the  greatest  dangers  for  its  defence.  A  con- 
tinual succession  of  wars  maizes  every  citizen  a  soldier: 
.He  takes  the  field  In  his  turn :  And  during  his  service  he 
is  chiefly  maintained  by  himsejf.  This  service  b  indeed 
.equivalent  to  a  heavy  tax;  yet  is  it  less  felt  by  a  peqple 
^ad^icted  to  arms,  who  fight  for  honour  and  revenge  more 
.than  pay,  and  are  unacquainted  with  gain  and  industry, 
as  well  as  pleasure  *.  Not  to  mention  the  great  equally 
.of  fortunes  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  ancient  republics, 
.where  every  field,  belonging  to  a  different  proprietor,  vras 
.able  to  maintain  a  family,  and  rendered  the  numbers  of  cv- 
tizens  very  considerable,  even  witl^itf^  trade  and  manubo 
tures.  :v  t 

•  Sm  Nm  [O.] 


306  £SSAT  h 

Sot  tfaoii^tli6w«i|tof  trdkandniaiinfiwtiireBy  among 
a  Tree  and.  my  martial  pecqiie^  may  sometimes  bvre  no 
ckfaer  eflbct  tbaa  to  render  the  pabUcmore  powerfid»  it  is 
^ortain^  tb$tf  in  tlie  ccnnmon  coiusse  of  bimuui  afthrs,  it 
.will  ha^e  a  quite  cc^itmry  tendency.  Sovereigns  most  take 
mankind  as  they  find  then^,  and  cannot  pretend  to  intro- 
duce any  violent  change  in  thdr  jninciples  and  wq«  of 
thiqfcing*  A  long  course  of  time,  with  a  varie^  of  accir 
dents  and  circumstances,  are  requisite  to  prodnce  those 
grent  revdlutions,  which  so  mnch  diverdfy  the  face  of  hn- 
man  affirifs.  And  tibe  less  natural  any  set  of  principles 
are,  whieh  support  a  partic^lar  society,  ih^  more  diffieulfy 
wiU  a  legislator  meet  with  in  raising  and  caltivathig  them. 
It »  his  best  policy  to  comply  with  the  common  bent  of 
iMnkind,  and  give  it  idl  the  improvements  of  which  it  is 
^Qscqptible.  Now,  according  to  the  most  natnral  coarse 
0f  things,  industry,  and  arts,  and  trad^  increase  the  power 
-of  the  sovereign,  as  well  as  the  happiness  of  the  subjects; 
-and  that  policy  is  violent  which  aggrandizes  Ae  public  by 
the  poverty  of  individuals,  This  will  easily  i^pear  from  i^ 
few  ccmmderations,  which  will  present  to  us  the  consequen- 
ces of  slodi  and  barbarity. 

Where  manuffactures  and  mechanic  ^rts  are  not  cnltti^ 
vated*  the  bulk  <^  the  people  must  apply  themselves  to 
^^prictiltHre ;  imd  if  their  skill  and  industry  increase,  tfiere 
mast  in'ise  a  great  superfluity  from  their  labour,  beyond 
what  suffices  to  maintain  them.  They  have  no  tempta- 
tjon^  therefere,  to  increase  their  skill  and  industry;  since 
they  cannot  exchange  that  superfluity  for  any  commodi* 
ties  which  may  serve  either  to  their  pleasure,  or  vanity. 
A  habit  of  indolence  natfirally  prevails.  The  greater  part 
of  the  land  lies  uncultivated.  What  is  cultivated,  yields 
not  its  utmost,  for  want  of  skill  and  assiduity  in  the  farm? 

3 


OF  COMMERCE.  957 

eng.  If  at  any  time  the  public  exigencies  require  that 
great  numbers  should  be  employed  in  the  pubUe  service^ 
the  labour  of  the  people  furnishes  now  no  supei€uities  by 
which  these  numbers  can  be  maintained.  The  labourers 
cannot  increase  dieir  skill  and  industry  on  a  sudden. 
Lands  uncultivated  cannot  be  brought  into  tillage  for  some 
years.  The  armies,  meanwhile,  must  either  make  sudden 
%nd  violent  conquests^  or  disband  for  want  of  subsistence. 
Ar^pdarattackor  defence,  therefore,  isnotto  be  expect- 
ed from  such  a  people,  and  dieir  soldiers  must  be  as  igno-' 
XMOt  and  unskilful  as  their  farmers  and  manu&cturer& 

Every  thing  in  the  world  is  purchased  by  labour;  and 
our  passions  are  the  only  causes  of  labour.  When  a  na- 
t^  abounds  in  manufactures  andmechanic  arts,  the  pro* 
prietors  of  land,  as  well  as  the  farmer%  study  agriculture 
as  a  science,  and  redouble  their  industry  and  attention. 
The  superfluity  which  arises  from  their  labour,  is  not  lost ; 
but  is  exchai^ped  with  roannfacturejB  for  those  commodities 
which  men's  luxury  now  makes-  them  covet.  By  this 
means,  land  furnishes  a  great  deal  more  of  the  necessaries 
of  life  than  what  suffices  for  those  who  cultivate  it.  In 
ttmesxxf  peace  and  tranquillity,  this  sup^^uity  goes  to  the 
maintenance  of  manufacturers  and  the  improvers  of  liberal 
arts.  But  it  is  easy  for  the  public  to  convert  many  of  these 
manufacturers  into^oldiers,  and  maintain  them  by  tba$  $u* 
perflttity  which  arises  from  the  labour  of  the  farmers.  Ac- 
cordingly we  find  that  this  is  the  case  in  all  civilized  go- 
vernments. When  the  sovereign  raises  an  army,  what  is 
the  consequence  ?  He  imposes  a  tax.  This  tax  obliges  all 
the  pec^Ie  to  retrench  what  is  least  necessary  to  their  sub-^ 
sistence.  Those  who  labour  in  such  commodities  must 
either  enlist  in  the  troops,  or  turn  themselves  to  agricul- 
ture, and  thereby  oblige  some  labourers  to  enlist  for  want 

VOL.  I.  s 


25^  fc«sAY  t 

of  bu^nes^.  And  to  consider  the  inftttef  Bbslrttttiff  nrtt** 
na&etiired  inef  edse  tfce  porret  df  the  state  t)tily  as  they  stote . 
up  so  much  libour^  ftnd  that  of  a  kind  fo  #hi^  ttie  pub* 
lie  xiiiLj  lay  claim,  Wlthbut  depriving  any  <mt  6£  the  ixtdti^ 
saries  of  life.  The  more  labour,  thet'efore,  that  is  eragioyed 
beyond  mere  necessaries,  the  more  powerful  is  any  stkte  ; 
since  the  persons  engaged  in  thiH;  labcnir  may  eiteily  be  ton- . 
▼erted  to  the  public  service.  Jbi  a  state  #ithoUt  mannfiic^ 
tures,  there  may  be  llie  same  ntMbet  of  hand^ ;  but  ther6 
is  not  the  same  quantity  of  labour,-  nor  of  the  satne  kind. 
All  4be  labour  is  there  bestowed  upon  necessaries  which 
can  adMtf  of  little  or  no  abatement 

Thud  the  greatness  of  the  soTeteign,  tod  flie  bappine^ 
of  die  state,  are  in  a  gi*eat  measure  tmited  WiA  regftttF  ia 
trdde  and  mantdhctnres.  It  is  H  violem  mdbod,  and  itt 
most  eases  ml{)racticafale,  to  obUg^Bie  labbtirer  t6  t<fU,  ill 
drder  to  raise  from  the  land  more  than  what  subsists  him«» 
self  and  family,  l^mish  him  with  manufactures  atfd  com-^ 
modities,  and  he  will  do  it  ef  himself ;  afte^ards  yon  will 
find  it  easy  to  sei2e  some  part  of  his  silpeiflucmi  labour^ 
aVid  employ  it  in  the  public  service,  without  giviiig  him  hi« 
W^ented  return.  Being  ^eciistomed  to  rndustry,  (te  will 
think  this  less  grievous^  than  if  at  ohce  yon  obliged  him  tc^ 
an  augmentation  of  labour  Without  any  reward.  The  case 
is  the  same  with  regard  ib  the  other  members  df  the  sUxe^ 
The  greater  is  the  stock  of  labour  of  all  kinds,  the 'greater 
quantity  may  be  taken  from  the  heap,  without  making  any 
sensible  alteration  in  it 

A  public  granary  of  corfa,  a  sfbtehotise  of  cfoth,  a  ihtf- 
gazuie  of  arms ;  all  these  must  be  allowed  real  riches  and 
strength  in  any  state.  Trade  and  industry  are  really  no- 
thing but  a  stock  of  labour.  Which,  in  times  of  peace  and 
tj^quillity,  is  employed  for  the  ease  and  satisfaction  of 


ll}()ivy oak)  but  in  the  exigencies  of  slate,  nuiy  in  part  be 
ttiriled  to  puMic  adrdtitage.  Cottld  we  convert  a  ckj  iih- 
Id  a  kihd  cnf  fenified  canip^  and  kifuae  into  each  brea^  ao 
ttiartkl  a  genios,  and  such  a  passion  for  public  good,  as 
to  make  every  one  willing  to  undergo  the  greatest  hard* 
ships  for  the  sake  of  tfi0  public,  these  affisetioBs  ini|^ 
how,  as  ill  ancient  titaes^  proy€  akme  a  suAeient  spur  to 
iiiditstry,  ahd  support  the  community.  It  would  then  be 
advantageous,  as  in  camps,  to  bauMi  all  arts  and  luxury; 
aiid>  by  restrictions  on  equipage  and  tables^  make  die  pro« 
visions  and  forage  last  longer  dian  If  the  army  were  loed^ 
ed  with  a  number  of  superftuous  retainers*  B«t  as  these 
principtes  ai*e  too  disttiterested,  and  too  difltult  to  sdp^ 
port,  H  is  requisite  to  govefm  men  l^  othei^  passions^'  imd 
anim^kte  them  with  a  spirit  of  avarice  and  indtistry,  art 
and  luxury.  The  camp  is,  iti  Ibis  case^  loaded  with  a  su^ 
petfindas  retinue,  but  the  j^ovi^Jcms  flow  in  proportion* 
aUy  latget.  The  hatmony  of  the  whole  is  still  so^xMfted ; 
ind  die  natural  bent  of  the  raind,  being  mere  complied 
whh,  individuals,  as  well  as  the  public,  find  their  account 
in  the  observance  of  those  ma^ms* 

The  same  method  of  reasoning  will  let  us  see  the  ad<* 
vanti^  ofjbretffti  oommerce  in  augmenting  the  power  of 
tfaci  stikte,  ds  well  as  (he  riches  and  happiness  of  the  sub^ 
ject  It  hicreases  the  stock  of  labour  in  the  nation;  and 
the  sovereign  may  convert  what  share  of  it  he  finds  ne* 
cessary  to  the  service  of  the  public*  Foreign  trade,  by  its 
imports,  furnishes  materials  for  new  manufkctures ;  and^ 
by  its  exports,  it  produces  labour  in  particular  commodi* 
ties,  which  could  not  be  consumed  lit  home.  In  short,  tf 
kingdom  that  has  a  large  imik>rt  and  export,  must  abound 
more  with  industry,  and  that  employed  upon  delicaeiel 
and  luxuries,  than  a  kingdom  which  rests  contented  with 

s2 


260  E88AT  U 

its  native  ccmimodities.  It  is  therefore  more  powerful,  as 
well  as  richer  and  happien  The  individuals  reap  the  be- 
nefit of  these  commodities,  so  far  as  they  gratify  the  senses 
and  appetites ;  and  the  public  is  also  a  gainer,  while  a 
greater  stock  of  labour  is,  by  this  means,  stored  up  against 
any  public  exigency ;  that  is,  a  greater  number  of  labo- 
rious men  are  maintained,  who  may  be  diverted  to  the 
public  service,  without  robbing  any  one  of  the  necessaries, 
or  even  the  chief  conveniences  of  life. 
-  If  we  consult  history,  we  shall  find,  that  in  most  nations 
foreign  trade  has  preceded  any  refin^tnent  in  home  manu- 
fiM^tures,  -and  given  birth  to  domestic  luxury.  The  temp- 
tation is  stronger  to  make  use  of  foreign  commodities 
which  are  ready  for  us^  and  which  are  entirely  new  to 
OS,  than  to  make  improvements  on  any  domestic  commo- 
dity, whidi  always  advance  by  slow  degrees,  and  never 
a£fect  us  by  their  novelty.  The  profit  is  also  very  great 
in  exporting  what  is  superfluous  at  home,  and  what  bears 
no  price,  to  foreign  nations^  whose  soil  or  climate  is  not 
favourable  to  that  commodi^.  Thus  men  become  ac- 
quainted with  the  pkasures  of  luxury,  and  the  prqfiU  of 
commerce ;  and  their  delicacy  and  indwtryj  being  once 
awakened,  carry  them  on  to  farther  improvements  in  every 
branch  of  domestic  as  well  as  foreign  trade;  and  this  per- 
haps is  the  chief  advantage  which  arises  from  a  commerce 
with  strangero^  It  rouses  men  from  their  indolence  ^  and 
presenting  the  gayer  and  more  opulent  part  of  the  nation 
with  objects  df  luxury  which  they  never  before  dreamed 
of,  raises  in  them  a  desire  of  a  more  splendid  way  of  life 
than  what  their  ancestors  enjoyed.  And,  at  the  -same 
time,  the  few  merchants  who  possess  the  secret  of  this  im- 
portation and  expcMtation,  make  great  profits,  and  be- 
coming rivals  in  wealth  to  the  ancient  nobility,  tempt 


OF  COMMERCE.  261 

Other  adventurers  to  become  their  rivals  in  commerce. 
Imitation  soon  diffiises  all  those  arts,  while  domestic  ma-< 
nu&ctorers  emulate  the  foreign  in  their  improvements,  and 
work  up  every  home  commodity  to  the  utmost  perfection 
of  which  it  is  susceptible.  Their  pwn  steel  and  iron,  in 
such  laborious  hands,  become  equal  to  the  gold  and  mUes 
of  the  Indies. 

When  the  affiurs  of  the  society  are  once  brought  to  this 
situation,  a  nation  may  lose  most  of  its  foreign  trade,  and 
yet  continue  a  great  and  powerful  people.  If  strangers 
will  not  take  any  particular  commodity  of  ours,  we  must 
cease  to  labour  in  it  The  same  hands  will  turn  them- 
selves towards  some  refinement  in  other  commodities  which 
may  be  wanted  at  home ;  and  there  must  always  be  ma- 
terials for  them  to  work  upon,  till  every  person  in  th^ 
state,  who  possesses  riches,  enjoys  as  great  plenty  of  home 
commodities,  and  those  in  as  great  perfection  as  he  de- 
sires ;  which  can  never  possibly  happen.  -  China  is  repre- 
sented as  one  of  the  most  flourishing  empires  in  the  world, 
though  it  has  very  little  commerce  beyond  its  own  terri- 
tories. 

It  will  not,  I  hope,  be  considered  as  a  superfluous  di- 
gression, if  I  here  observe,  that  as  the  multitude  of  me- 
chanical arts  is  advantageous,  so  is  the  great  number  of 
persons  to  whose  share  the  productions  of  these  arts  falL 
A  too  great  disproportion  among  the  citizens  weakens 
any  state.  Every  person,  if  possible,  ought  to  enjoy  the 
fruits  of  his  labour,  in  a  full  possession  of  all  the  neces- 
saries, and  many  of  the  conveniences  of  life.  No  one  can 
doubt  but  such  an  equality  is  most  suitable  to  human  na- 
ture, and  diminishes  much  less  from  the  happiness  of  the 
rich,  than  it  adds  to  that  of  the  poor.  It  also  augments 
the  power  of  the  state,  and  niakes  any  extraordinary  taxes 


# 

or  impositions  be  paid  with  more  cheeifalness*  Whfar^ 
the  riches  are  wgfossed  by  a  few,  4i^$e  fomt  cwtrihut^ 
very  largely  to  the  supplyiqg  of  the  public  peeessities;  fa^ 
when  the  ridbes  fure  diiqpersed  amoqg  B^dtoitudes  th^e  Ihutt 
den  fi^ls  light  on  erery  shoulder,  end  tb^iaxes  Hieke  n^ 
a  very  sensible  diSerence  on  apy  one>  vi^  qfUv^^. 

Add  to  this,  that  where  the  riches  are  iii  lew  haode^ 
these  mist  e^joy  aU  tb^  power,  and  will  readily  ^^onfpire 
to  lay  the  whole  burden  on  the  poiMr,  ipd  oppress  tbem 
still  &xiiieT9  to  the  diacoiuagement  of  aU  ii^duffUy. 

In  this  circumstance  consists  die  ^eat  advanti^e  of 
England  above  any  nati(m  at  present  in  the  world,  or  that 
appears  in  the  records  of  any  story.  It  is  true,  the  £qg- 
lish  feel  some  disadvantages  in  fimreign  trade  Ipy  the  h^ 
price  of  labour,  which  is  in  part  the^ffect  of  the  riches  of 
thtix  artisans,  as  well  as  of  the  plenty  of  money*  But  aa 
foreign  trade  is  not  the  most  material  drcumstance,  it  i^ 
not  to  be  put  in  competition  with  the  happiness  of  so 
many  millions ;  and  if  there  were  no  more  to  endear  to 
them  that  free  government  under  which  they  Hve,  this 
alone  were  sufficient  The  poverty  of  the  common  peo- 
ple is  a  natural,  if  not  an  in&Uible  effect  of  abscdute  mo* 
narchy ;  though  I  doubt,  whether  it  be  always  true  on  the 
other  hand,  that  their  riches  are  an  in&Uible  result  of  11^ 
berty.  Liberty  must  be  attended  with  particular  acci* 
dents,  and  a  certain  turn  of  thinkkig,  in  order  to  produce 
that  effect  Lord  Bacon,  accounting  for  the  great  advan-^ 
tages  obtained  by  the  English  in  their  wars  with  France, 
ascribes  them  chiefly  to  the  superior  ease  and  plenty  of  the 
common  people  amongst  the  former ;  yet  the  government 
of  the  two  kingdoms  was,  at  that  time,  pretty  much  alike. 
Where  the  labourers  and  artisans  are  accustomed  to  work 
ibr  low  wages,  and  to  retain  but  a  small  part  of  the  fruits 


OF  cQiyiMliRCE.  9fi8 

<of Hihf  iff  iW>fiWj  At  is  di«owlt  for  .tbero,  ftv^»  in  »  firpe  «»- 

xhipp^ii^sg  t^  h$j^tj|ft(^  nbm  WA^9;  but  .ev^  i^^h^oQ  tiwjr 
#r#  .4§«lrt»nWll  te  a  TOW  pi^tifttl  )v*y  of  life,  ili  i«  ^*«jr 

^gWWt  thm%  ¥"4  Aw>F  tlV2  vfeol^  burdeft  pf  tfee  twfi$  on 

It  may  $ee»  ^n  odd  po^dyLUu),  that  the  poverty  of  the 
iSQiW9oa  peopljs  ip  France,  Italy,  and  Spain,  iv,  in  aome 
ineaaore,  oiiaog  to  the  superior  ridies  of  the  bpU  and  hap- 
piness of  the  climate ;  yet  there  want  not  reaacins  to  justify 
ihis  punwlo^c:.  In  such  a  fine  mould  or  soil  as  that  of  those 
4EK>re  aoudb^rn  regions,  agriculture  is  an  easy  art ;  *  and  one 
joan,  with  a  /couple  of  ^rry  horses,  will  be  able,  in  a  sear 
<on,  to  cultivate  as  much  land  as  .will  pay  a  pretty  consl- 
4ftmhle  rent  to  the  proprietor.  All  the  art,  wfai^  the  &r- 
aoier  teows,  is  to  leave  his  ground  fallow  for  a  year,  as  soon 
4$  it  is  ,0idiau8ted ;  and  the  warmth  of  the  sun  alone  and 
f/^mperfttiu^  joftbe  climate  enrich  it,  and  restore  its  ferti- 
lity. Sach  poor  peasants,  therefore,  require  only  a  simple 
jvtaintenaiHse  for  their  labour.  They  have  no  stock  or 
jricbes  which  claim  more ;  and  at  the  same  time  they  are 
for  ever  4q[>endent  on  the  landlord,  idio  gives  no  leases, 
nor  fears  that  his  land  will  be  spoiled  by  the  ill  methods  of 
cultivation*  In  England,  the  land  is  rich,  but  coarse; 
must  be  cidtivated  at  a  great  expense ;  and  produces  slen- 
der crqps,  when  not  carcsfully  managed,  and  by  a  method 
which  gives  not  the  full  profit  but  in  a  course  of  several 
years.  A  farmer,  therefore,  in  England  must  have  a  con- 
siderable stock,  and  a  long  lease ;  which  beget  proportion- 
al profits.  The  vineyards  of  Champagne  and  Burgundy, 
that  often  yield  to  the  landlord  above  five  pounds  per,  acre, 
are  cultivated  by  peasants  who  have-scarcely  bread :  The 


264  "ESSAY  I. 

reascHi  is,  that  peasants  need  no  stock  but  their  own  limbs, 
with  instnunents  of  husbandry,  which  they  can  buy  for 
twenty  shillings.  The  fiurmers  are  oraimonly  in  some  bet- 
ter circumstances  in  those  countries.  But  the  graziers  are 
most  at  their  ease  of  all  those  who  cultivate  the  land.  Hie 
reason  is  still  the  same.  Men  must  have  profits  propor- 
tionable to  their  expense  and  hazard.  Where  so  consider- 
able a  number  of  the  labouring  poor,  as  the  peasants  and 
formers,  are  in  very  low  circumstances,  all  the  rest  must 
partake  of  their  poverty,  whether  the  government  of  that 
nation  be  monarchical  or  republican. 

We  may  form  a  similar  remark  with  regard  to  the  ge- 
neral hfstory  of  mankind.  What  is  the  reason,  why  no 
people,  living  between  the  tropics,  could  ever  yet  attain  to 
any  art  or  dvilily,  or  reach  even  any  police  in  their  go- 
vernment, and  any  military  disdidine ;  while  few  nations 
in  the  temperate  climates  have  been  altogetherd^mved  of 
these  advantages  ?  It  is  probable  that  one  cause  of  this 
phenomenon  is  the  warmth  and  equality  of  weather  in  the 
torrid  zone,  which  render  clothes  and  houses  less  requisite 
for  the  inhabitants,  and  thereby  remove,  in  part,  that  n»- 
cessit^,  which  is  the  great  spur  to  industry  and  invention. 
Curis  acuens  mortaUa  corda.  Not  to  mention,  that  the 
fewer  goods  or  possessions  of  this  kind  any  people  en- 
joy, the  fewer  quarrels  are  likely  to  arise  amongst  them, 
and  the  less  necessity  will  there  be  for  a  settled  police  or 
r^ular  authority,  to  protect  and  defend  them  from  foreign 
enemies,  or  from  each  other. 


ESSAY  II. 


OF  EEFINSMENT  IN  THE  AATS. 

Xjuxurt  is  a  word  of  an  uncertam  significatictti,  and  may 
be  taken  in  a  good  as  well  as  in  a  bad  sense*  In  general, 
it  means  great  refinement  in  the  gratification  of  the  senses; 
and  any  degree  of  it  may  be  innocent  or  blameable,  ac- 
cording to  the  age,  or  country,  or  condition  of  the  person. 
The  bounds  between  the  virtue  and  the  vice  camiot  here 
be  exactly  fixed,  more  than  in  other  moral  subjects.  To 
imagine,  that  the  gratifying  of  any  sense,  or  the  indulging 
of  any  delicacy  in  meat,  drink,  or  apparel,  is  of  itself  a 
vice,  can  never  enter  into  a  head,  that  is  not  disord^^  by 
the  frenzies  of  enthusiasm.  I  have,  indeed,  beard  of  a 
monk  abroad,  who,  because  the  windows  of  his  cell  open- 
ed upon  a  noble  prospect,  made  a  covenant  with  Ms  epe$ 
never  to  turn  that  way,  or  receive  so  sensnid  a  gratifica- 
tion. And  such  is  the  crime  of  drinking  Champagne  or 
Burgundy,  preferable  to  small  beer  or  porter.  These  in- 
dulgences are  only  vices,  when  they  are  pursued  at  the  ex- 
pense of  some  virtue,  as  liberality  or  charity ;  in  like  man- 
ner as  they  are  follies,  when  for  them  a  man  ruins  his  for- 
tune, and  reduces  himself  to  want  and  beggary.  Where 
they  entrench  upon  no  virtue,  but  leave  ample  subject 
whence  to  provide  for  friends,  family,  and  every  proper 
object  of  generosity  or  compassion,  they  are  entirely  iimo- 


206  ESSAY  II. 

cent,  and  have  in  every  age  been  acknowledged  such  by 
almost  all  moralists.  To  be  entirely  occupied  with  the  luxu- 
ry of  the  table,  for  instance,  without  any  relish  for  the  plea- 
sures of  ambition,  study,  or  conversation,  is  a  mark  of  stu- 
pidity, and  is  incompatible  with  any  vigour  of  temper  or 
genius.  To  confine  one's  expense  entirely  to  such  a  gi-a- 
tification,  without  regard  to  friends  or  family,  is  an  indi- 
cation of  a  heart  destitute  of  humanity  or  benevolence. 
But  if  a  man  reserve  time  sufficient  for  all  laudable  pur- 
suits, and  money  sufficient  for  all  generous  purposes,  he  is 
^ee  from  every  ahadow  of  blame  qf  reproach. 

Since  luxury  may  be  considered  either  as  innocenj;  or 
blameaUe,  one  may  be  surpric^d  at  those  preposterous  opi- 
nions which  have  been  entertained  concerning  it;  while 
men  of  libertine  principle  bestow  praises  even  pn  vioipua 
luxury,  and  represent  it  as  highly  advaotageous  to  spciety  i 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  men  of  severe  morals  bliune  even 
the  most  innocent  luxury,  and  represent  it  as  -the  source 
of  all  the  corruptions,  disorders,  and  factions  incident  to 
civU  government  We  shall  here  :endeavour  to  cprrect 
both  these  extremes,  by  proving,  ^«^  that  the  agjss  of  re-* 
finement  are  both  the  happiest  and  most  virtuous ;  aeeond- 
fyf  that  wherever  luxury  ceases  to  beinnoceBt,  it  ajsio  ceases 
to  be  beneficial ;  and  when  carried  a  degree  too  far,  is  a 
quality  pernicious,  though  perhaps  not  the  most  pernicious^ 
to  political  society. 

To  prove  the  first  point,  we  need  but  consider  the  e& 
fects  of  refinement  both  on  private  and  on  publie  life.  Hu- 
man happiness,  according  to  the  most  recetived  notions^ 
seems  to  consist  in  tliree  ingredients ;  action,  pleasure,  and 
indolence  :  and  though  these  ingredients  ought  to  be 
mixed  in  different  proportions,  according  to  the  particu- 
lar disposition  of  the  person ;  yet  no  one  ingredient  can  be 


J 


OF  REFINEMENT  IN  THE  ARTS.  26? 

esiliraly  wmtM§9  wkhoot  de^tr^^ing,  in  sofise  meAfmre^  Uie 
r^h  o(  tbe  whole  caiopo»itio«i-  Indolenee  ^  repose,  in-* 
deed,  seems  not  of  itidtf'to  cooitribiiCe  nuuih  to  owr  enjoy- 
ment; biit^  like  sleep,  is  requisite  i^  ^  rndtdgeoee,  to  the 
weakness  of  human  nature,  which  cannot  support  en  un- 
interrupted course  of  business  or  pleesure.  That  quick 
mareh  of  the  qpirits,  which  takes  a  man  from  himself,  and 
chiefly  gives  satisfaction,  does  in  the  end  exhaust  the  mind, 
and  requires  some  intervals  of  repose,  which,  ibongh  a- 
greeable  for  a  moment,  yel^  if  prolcmged,  beget  a  languor 
andiediargy  &at  destroy «U rajc^meot.  Ediication, cuch 
torn,  and  example,  have  a  mighty  infltteace  in  turning 
Aetmnd  to  any  of  these  jMursuits;  and  it  must  be  owned 
tho^  wherejkhey{iroBMAe  ardish  for  action  and  i^easure, 
they  are  so  fitr  favourable  to  human  hi^pmeas.  In  tunes 
when  industry  and  the  arts  flonrish,  men  are  kept  in  per- 
petmd  occupation,  takdeagoyf  as  thdor  reward,  the  oocnp»« 
tion  itself  as  well  as  tfaoae  pleasures  whioh  are  the  fimitof 
their  labour.  The  mind  acquires  new  vigour ;  enlarges  its 
powexB  and  facubies ;  and,  by  an  assiduity  in  honest  in-^ 
dustry,  both  satisfies,  its  natural  appetites,  and  prevents  the 
growth  of  unnatural  ones,  which  commonly  ^spring  up, 
when  nourished  by  ease  and  idleness.  Banish  those  arts 
from  society,  you  deprive  men  both  of  action  and  of  ple^n 
sure ;  and  leaving  nodiing  but  indol^ce  in  their  place, 
you  even  destroy  the  relish  of  indolence^  whidi  never  is 
agreeable,  but  when  it  succeeds  to  labour,  and  recruits  the 
spirits,  exhausted  by  too  much  applicaticm  and  fatigue. 

Anotiier  advantage  of  industry  and  of  refinements  in  the 
mechanical  arts,  is,  that  they  commonly  produce  some  re- 
finements in  the  liberal ;  nor  can  one  be  carried  to  per- 
fection, widiout  being  accompanied,  in  some  degree,  with 
the  other.     The  same  age  which  produces  great  philoso- 


SOS  Egg  AY  ir.  ^ 

pben  and  politicians,  renowned  generals  and  poets,  nsuaf-* 
ly  abounds  witb  skilful  weavers  and  ship-carpenters.  We 
cannot  reasonably  expect,  that  a  piece  of  woollen  cloth  will 
be  brought  to  perfection  in  a  nation  which  is  ignorant  of 
astronomy,  or  where  ethics  are  n^lected.  The  spirh  of 
the  age  affects  all  the  arts,  and  the  minds  of  men  being 
once  roused  from  their  lethargy,  and  put  into  a  ferments*- 
Uon,  turn  themselves  on  all  sides,  and  carry  improvements 
into  every  art  and  science.  Profound  ignorance  is  totally 
banished^  and  men  enjoy  the  privilege  of  rational  creatures, 
to  think  as  well  as  to  act,  to  cultivate  the  pleasures  of  the 
mind  as  well  as  those  of  the  body. 

The  more  these  refined  arts  advance,  the  more  sociable 
men  become :  Nor  is  it  possible,  that  when  enriched  with 
science,  and  possessed  of  a  fund  of  conversation,  they 
should  be  contented  to  r^niun  in  solitude,  or  live  with 
their  fellow-citizens  in  that  distapt  manner,  which  is  pecu- 
liar to  ignorant  and  barbarous  nations.  They  floek  into 
cities ;  love  to  receive  and  communicate  knowledge ;  to 
shew  their  wit  or  their  breeding ;  their  taste  in  conversa- 
tion or  living,  in  clothes  or  furniture.  Curiosity  allures 
the  wise ;  vanity  the  foolish ;  and  pleasure  both.  Parti- 
cular clubs  and  societies  are  every  wh^e  formed :  Both 
sexes  meet  in. an  easy  and  sociable  manner ;  and  the  tem- 
pers of  men,  as  well  as  their  behaviour,  refine  apace.  Se 
that,  bedde  the  inprovem^its  which  they  receive  from 
knowledge  and  the  liberal  arts,  it  is  impossible  but  they 
must  feel  an  increase  of  humanity,  from  the  very  habit  of 
conversing  together,  and  contributing  to  each  other's  plea- 
sure and  entertainment  Thus  indugtry,  knowffidgej  and 
hutrnmUyy  are  linked  tc^ther  by  an  indissoluble  chain, 
and  are  found,  from  experience  as  well  as  reason,  to  be 


OF  REFINEMfiNT  IN  THE  ARTS.  .  S69 

peculijur  to  the  more  polished,  and,  what  are  commonly 
denominated,  the  more  luxurioos  ages. 

Nor  are  these  advantages  attended  with  disadvantages 
that  bear  any  proporticm  to  them.  The  more  men  refine 
upon  pleasure,  the  less  will  they  indulge  in  excesses  of  any 
kind;  because  nothing  is  more  destructive  to  true  pleasure 
than  such  excesses.  One  may  safely  affirm,  that  the  Tar* 
tars  are  oftener  guilty  of  beastly  gluttony,  when  they  feast 
on  their  dead  horses,  than  European  courtiers  with  all  their 
refinements  of  cookery.  And  if  libertine  love,  or  even  in** 
fidelity  to  the  marriage-bed,  be  more  firequent  in  polite 
ages,  when  it  is  ofi»n  regarded  only  as  a  piece  of  gallantry; 
drunkenness,  on  the  other  hand,  is  much  less  common : 
a  vice  more  odious,  and  more  pernicious,  both  to  mind 
and  body.  And  in  this  matter  I  would  appeal,  not  only 
toan  OvidoraPetronius,  but  to  a  Seneca  or  a  Cato.  We. 
know,  that  Caesar,  during  Cataline's  conspiracy,  being  ne- 
cessitated to  put  into  Cato's  hands  a  bUkt-douxj  which  dis- 
covered an  intrigue  with  Servilia,  Cato's  own  sister,  that 
stem  philosopher  threw  it  back  to  him  with  indignation ; 
and,  in  the  bitterness  of  his  wrath,  gave  him  the  appella- 
tion of  drunkard,  as  a  term  more  <^probrious  than  that 
with  which  he  could  more  justly  have  rq)roached  him. 

But  industry,  knowledge,  and  hiunanily,  are  not  advan- 
tageous in  private  life  alone;  they  difiuse  their  beneficial  in- 
fluence on  the  public^  and  render  the  government  as  great 
and  flourishing  as  they  make  individuals  happy  and  pro- 
sperous. The  increase  and  consumption  of  all  the  com- 
modities, which  serve  to  the  ornament  and  pleasure  of  life^ 
are  advantages  to  society ;  because,  at  the  same  time  that 
they  multiply  those  innocent  gratifications  to  individuals, 
they  are  a  kind  o(  storehawe  of  labour,  which,  in  the  exi- 
gencies of  state,  may  be  turned  to  the  public  service.    In 


S7d  fessAt  !h 

a  nation  where  there  is  no  demand  for  such  superfluttied) 
men  sink  into  indolence,  lose  M  enjoymeflt  of  life,  and  are 
useless  to  the  pubHc,  whieh  cannot  mnitttirin  or  support  its 
fleets  and  armies  from  the  Industry  of  such  slothful  members. 

The  bounds  of  all  the  European  kingdomd  are,  at  pre* 
sent,  nearly  the  same  they  ^re  two  hundred  years  ago  t 
But  whtct  ft  diffh*ence  is  there  in  the  power  and  grandetnf 
of  those  kingdoms  ?  whieh  can  be  ascribed  to  nothing  but 
the  increase  of  art  and  industry.  MTieli  Charles  Till,  of 
France  inraded  Italy,  he  carried  with  him  about  S0^,000 
men ;  yet  this  armament  so  exhausted  the  nation,  as  we 
learn  from  Guicciaf  din,  that  for  some  years  k  was  not  able 
to  make  so  great  an  effbrt  The  late  king  of  France^  in 
time  of  war,  kept  In  pay  abore  400,000  men*j  though: 
from  Mazarine's  death  to  his  <mn,  he  was  engaged  in  a 
course  of  wars  that  lasted  near  thirty  years. 

This  industry  is  much  promoted  by  the  knowledge  in« 
separable  from  ages  of  art  and  refinement ;  as^  on  the  othef 
hatld,  this  knowledge  enables  the  public  to  make  the  best 
advantage  of  the  industry  of  its  subjectii.  Laws,  order, 
police^  discipline ;  these  can  rterer  be  carried  to  any  de-^ 
gree  of  perfS^on,  before  human  reason  has  refined  itsdf 
by  exercise,  and  by  an  application  to  the  nK>re  vulgar  arts^ 
at  least,  of  commerce  and  man^cture.  Can  we  expect 
that  a  government  will  be  well-modelled  by  a  people,  who^ 
know  not  how  to  make  a  spinning-wheel,  or  to  employ  a 
loom  to  advantage  ?  Not  to  mention,  that  all  ignorant 
ages  ate  infested  with  superstition,  which  Arows  the  go- 
vernment off  its  bias,  and  disturbs  men  in  the  pursuit  of 
their  interest  and  happiness. 

Knowledge  iii  the  arts  of  government  naturally  begets 

*  Th«  hiseription  dn  the  PlaceMk^V^n^o^jM  says  440,000. 


OF  REFINEMENT  ll?  THE  ARTS.  S71 

Hifktiiess  and  modettkikm^  by  instructing  men  in  the  ad- 
tMtages  of  bimmiie  ihsidiM  nbote  rigour  and  sererHy, 
wbieh  dHte  dttbjeetd  ifito  itibellidtty  nhi  make  dve  retunt 
to  siibti&i^skm  iiif^racticablei  by  cutting  off  aH  bopes  of 
pfiirdon«  WlieA  the  tenipets  of  men  are  softened  as  wefl 
OS  tbdr  knowledge  improredj  thi^  hnmanity  appears  still 
moi^  ctotispic^iiouis^  and  Is  the  ehief  ehAracteristie  which 
ditrt^goishea  a  eitiHzed  age  firom  thncJs  of  barbarity  and 
igkleiWi^.  FaetioAs  are  then  lesis  inreteratie,  rerohttioii^ 
less  tragical^  authority  less  sevef  e^  and  seditions  lesff  fre* 
quent.  Eteh  feteign  wars  abate  of  their  cruelty;  and  a& 
tet  the  field  of  battle,  whete  hotiouf  ahd  inteteM  steel  men 
against  eotnpasston,  as  wdl  as  fear,  the  combataiits  direst 
tfaeinseltes  of  the  brute,  and  resume  die  mtm. 

Nor  need  we  fear,  that  men,  by  loshlg  their  ferocity^ 
will  loisre  their  martial  spirit  dr  become  le^s  undaunted  and 
vigorous  in  defence  of  their  countrf  or  their  liberfy.  The 
arts  hare  no  such  efi^  Ih  enervating  either  the  mind  or 
body;  On  ihe  contrary^  industiry^  their  inseparable  at* 
tendant,  adds  new  force  to  both.  And  if  anger,  which  is- 
sttd  to  be  the  whetstone  of  coun^e,  loses  somewhat  of  its 
asperity,  by  pofiteness  and  refineinent ;  a  sense  of  honour, 
whiefa  is  a  atrcmgerj  more  constant,  fmd  more  governable 
prindipte,  acquires  ftesh  vi^ur  by  that  elevation  of  genius 
Which  arises  from  knowledge  and  a  good  education.  Add 
to  this^  that  course  can  neither  have  any  duration,  nor 
be  idf  any  use,  when  not  accmnpanied  with  discipline  and 
martial  i^kilH  which  arte  seldom  fomid  amcMbg  a  barbarous 
peopte.  l^e  ancients  remarked,  that  Datames  was  the 
<Hily  barbarian  tiiat  ever  kn^w  fh6  art  of  war.  And  Pyr* 
rhns,  seeing  the  tlomiins  marshal  ihew  army  with  some 
art  artd  skill,  said  with  suif^ise,  'Mese  barbarians  luwe  no- 
thing barbarous  in  their  discipline  !  It  is  observable,  that, 


972  E88AT  H. 

as  the  old  Romans,  by  applying  themselves  solely  to  waiy 
were  almost  the  only  uncivilized  people  that  ever  possessed 
military  discipline;  so  the  modem  Italians  are  the  only  ci- 
vilized people,  among  European^  that  ever  wanted  courage 
and  a  martial  spirit*  Those  who  would  ascribe  this  e£Ee- 
minacy  of  the  Italians  to  their  luxury,  or  politeness,  or  ap- 
plication to  the  arts,  need  but  consider  the  French  and 
English,  whose  bravery  is  as  incontestable,^  as  their  love 
for  the  arts,  and  their  assiduity  in  coBuneroe.  The  Ita- 
lian historians  give  us  a  more  saUs&ctory  reascm  for  this 
degoieracy  of  their  countrymen*  *  They  show  us  how  the 
sword  was  dropped  at  once  by  all  the  Italian  sovereigns;^ 
while  the  Venetian  aristocracy  was  jealous  of  its  subjects, 
the  Florentine  democracy  applied  itself  entirely  to  com- 
merce ;  Rome  was  governed  by  priests,  and  Naples  by  wo- 
men* War  then  became  the  business  of  soldiers  of  for- 
tune, who  spared  one  another,  and,  to  the  astonishment 
of  the  world,  could  engage  a  whole  day  in  what  they  call- 
ed a  battle,  and  return  at  night  to  their  camp  without  the 
least  bloodshed. 

What  has  chiefly  induced  severe  moralists  to  declaim 
against  refinement  in  the  arts,  is  the  example  of  ancient 
Rome,  which,  joining  to  its  poverty  and  rusticity  virtue 
and  public  spirit,  rose  to  such  a  surprising  height  of  gran- 
deur and  liberty ;  but,  having  learned  from  its  conquered 
provinces  the  Asiatic  luxury,  fell  into  every  kind  of  cor- 
ruption ;  whence  arose  sedition  and  civil  wars,  attended  at, 
last  with  the  total  loss  of  liberty.  All  the  L^in  classics,  ~ 
whom  we  peruse  in  our  infancy,  are  full  of  these  senti^ 
ments,  and  universally  ascribe  the  ruin  of  their  state  to  the 
arts  and  riches  Hftorted  from  the  East ;  insomuch  that 
Sallust  represents  a  taffe  for  fiunting  as  a  vic^  no  less 
than  lewdness  and  drinking.     And  so  popular  were  thesis 


OF  BSFIKEHENTn  THE  ARTS.  27S 

^  dkrii^  tbo  Isltar  ages  of  the  repdbUe,  tha^ 
antlier  ahoonida  in  piabpaof  tiia  old  rigid  Roman  Tirtue, 
liiD^gli  bimadf  the  mwt  egragioiia  instance  of  modem 
huauyandcunrupCioD;  speaks  eontemptuously  of  the  Ore* 
dan  ekxpienee^  though  the  moat  elqant  writer  m  ^ 
wcHdd;  nay,  cnptpya  prepoateroua  digressions  and  decta^ 
i  tethip  purpose,  though  a  model  of  taste  and  OOF* 


Bat  it  w«ald  be  easy  to  prove,  that  these  writers 
toidc  iht  eanse  of  the  disorders  in  the  Roman  stat^  and 
^acriiMd  to  hanmry  and  the  arts,  what  reaUy  proceeded 
from  an  itt-vo^^^d  govenunent,  and  the  unlimited  extent 
of  oeoquesta*  Refinement  on  the  pleasures  and  conre* 
Biueea  4£  Mb  has  no  natural  tendency  to  beget  vemiliQr 
and  corruption.  The  Tahie  which  all  men  put  iqK>n  any 
pavtkular  pleasure,  depends  on  comparison  and  expe- 
rience ;  nor  is  a  porter  less  greedy  of  money,  which  he 
spoids  on  bacon  and  brandy,  than  a  courtier,  who  pur- 
chaaes  champaign  and  ortolans.  Riches  are  valuable  at 
all  times,  and  to  aU  worn ;  because  they  always  purchase 
pleasures,  such  as  men  are  accustomed  to  and  desire :  Nor 
ean  any  thing  restrain  or  r^^ulate  the  love  of  money,  but 
a  sense  of  honour  and  virtue ;  which,  if  it  be  not  neariy 
equd  at  all  times,  wffi  naturally  abound  most  in  ages  of 
knowledge  and  refinement. 

Of  all  European  kingdoms,  Poland  seems  the  most  de- 
fective in  the  arts  of  war  as  well  as  peace,  mechanical  as 
well  as  liberal;  yet  it  is  there  that  venality  and  corruption 
do  most  prevail.  Tlie  nobles  seem  to  have  preserved  their 
crown  elective  Ibr  no  other  purpose,  than  regularly  to  sell 
it  to  Ae  highest  bidder.  This  is  ^most  the  only  speciea 
ef  commerce  v^h  which  thit  people  are  acquainted. 

The  liberties  of  England,  so  far  from  decaying  since  the 

VOL.  I.  T 


2T4  SMAT  II. 

improvements  in  the  arts,  have  never  flooriiiled  aaauich. 
as  during  that  period.  And  thon^  cqrmptioa  may  seem, 
to  increase  of  late  years,  this  is  chiefly  to  be  ascribe«l  to 
onr  established  liberty,  when  oor  princes. have  fbmid  the. 
impossibility  of  governing  withoot  parliaments,  or  of  ter- 
rifying parliaments  by  the  phantCMn  of  prerogative.  Not 
to  mention,  that  this  corruption  or  venali^  prevails  much, 
more  among  the  electors  than  the  elected ;  and  therefore, 
cannot  justly  be  ascribed  to  any  refinements  in  luxury.^ 

If  we  consider  the  matter  in  a  proper  li^t,  we  shall  find, 
that  a  progress  in  the  arts  is  rather  fiivouraUe  to  liberty,, 
and  has  a  natural  tendency  to  preserve,  if  not  produce  a. 
free  government  In  rude  unpolished  nations,  where  the 
arts  are  neglected,  all  labour  is  bestowed  on  the  cultivation 
of  the  ground ;  and  the  whole  society  k  divided  into  two. 
classes,  proprietors  of  land,  and  their  vassals  or  tenants. 
The  latter  are  necessarily  dependent,  and  fitted  for  slavery 
and  subjection  ;  especially  where  they  possess^  no  riehe^. 
and  are  not  valued  for  their. knowledge  in  agriculture;  as 
must  always  be  the  case  where  the  arts  are  n^kcted.  The. 
former  naturally  erect  themselves  into  petty  tyrants ;  and 
must  either  submit  to  an  absolute  master,  for  the  sake  of 
peace  and  order ;  or  if  they  will  preserve  their  indepen- 
dency, like  the  ancient  barons,  they  must  fell  into  feuds  and 
contests  among  themselves,  and  throw  the  whole  society 
into  such  confusion,  as  is  perhaps  worse  than  the  most 
despotic  government  But  where  luxury  nourishes  com- 
merce and  industry,  the  peasants,  by  a  proper  cultivatiou 
ofthe  land, become  rich  and  independent:  while  the  trades- 
men and  merchants  acquire  a  share  of  the  property,  and 
draw  authority  and  consideration  to  that  middling  rank  <^, 
men,  who  are  the  best  and  firmest  basis  of  public  liberty. 
These  submit  not  to  slavery,  like  the  peasants,  from  po- 


OV  RXFIKXMSNr  IH  ^HS  ARTS.  275 

Yertj  dud  meanness  of  sfArit;'  utid  Innring  no  hopes  of  ty^^t 
numuang  over  others^  1^  tke  bairoDs^  they  are  not  tempt"*  ^ 
ed,  for  die  sake  of  tkot  gralifieataon,  to  submit  to  the  ty^ 
nnnj  of  their  sovereign.    They  covet  equal  kws,  which 
may  secnre"  their  property^  and  preserve  them  from  mcM*' 
narchical,  as  well  as  aristocratieal  tyraimy. 

The  lower  house  is  the  support  of  onr  popttlar  govehW 
ment;  and  all  the  wotld  acknowledges,  that  it  oweditschief 
inflnence  and  consideration  to  die  increase  of  commerce, 
which  threw  snch  a  balance  of  property  into  the  hands  of 
the  Commons.  How  inconsistent,  then^  is  it  toUame  so 
violently  a  refinement  in  the  arts,  and  to  represent  k  as 
die  bane  of  liberty  and  public  spirit ! 

To  declaim  against  preisent  dmes,  and  magnify  the  vir-« 
tne  of  remote  ancestors,  is  a  propensity  almost  inherent  in 
human  nature :  And  as  the  sentiments  and  opinions  of  ci- 
vilized ages  alone  aire  transmitted  to  posterior,  hence  it  is 
that  we  meet  with  so  many  severe  judgments  pronounced 
against  luxury,  and  ev^i  science;  and  hence  it  is  that  at 
present  we  give  so  ready  an  assent  to  them.  But  the  falla^ 
cy  is  easily  perceived,  by  comparing  different  nations  that 
are  contemporaries ;  where  we  both  judge  more  impartkil- 
ly,  and  can  better  set  in  opposition  those  inanners,  with 
which  we  are  sufficiendy  acquainted.  Treachery  and  cru- 
elty, the  most  pernicious  and  most  odious  of  all  vices,  seem 
peculiar  to  uncivilized  ages;  and,  by  the  refined  Greeks 
and  Romans,  were  ascribed  to  all  the  barbarous  nations 
which  surrounded  them.  They  might  jusdy,  therefore, 
have  presumed,  that  tb^ir  own  ancestors,  so  highly  cele- 
brated, possessed  no  greater  virtue,  and  were  as  much  in- 
ferior to  their  posterity  in  honour  and  humani^,  asln  taste 
and  science.  An  ancient  Frank  or  fiazon  mi^  be  h^hly 
extriled :  But  I  believe  every  mim  would  dunk  bis  life  or 


2W_  JeatAVM|^^  ; 

fortune  a^mkiooa  amu^  ia  tli0  kmiM  loS  f^Umr,  of.  Tjat* 

of  «iiiL  die  jiMflft  cwUiMd  ia  ti#  mo^ 
•  W#coiDiilicmlatiM»iwMfpo9Uiwwl^ 
to  iUiiitrite^  10  ix^t»  tJMili  $9  inpuceat  Iwcary^  or  »  x%Sfi^ 
ment  in  the  art»  Mftd  eonyetueoce^  oiUkt  iftadyiiptPBiMiift 
to  tlie  public;  to  whereT<«r  honury  C0aie9  to  |)a  iipiocfnt, 
kalaoceMes  tobefaMefidal;  fiad  wben  carried  a  dagre* 
fJKihntf  bc^gins  to  be  a  <jpmiii^  pemeio«%  iboi^  perhaps 
tet  the  most  pernkioiia  to  poUtkal  sooi^y* 

Let  tt^  consider  what  we  call  yy&om  lipcury.  Nograti* 
fiaatioiH  howerer  sensual^  eao  of  itself  bft  esteemed  yicioiis* 
A  gratification  is  only  vicioas  when  it  epgrosses  all  a  man^i 
exi?eMe»  and  leaves  BO  ability  for  siich  acts  of  duty  and  ge-^ 
neroaity  aa  aare  required  by  his  sitiiation  and  fortune.  Sup* 
pose  that  he  correct  the  vice^  and  emploj  part  of  his  ei^** 
penseia  the  edacatioa  of  his  cbildreiv  in  the  support  of  U^ 
firiendsy  and  in  relieving  the  poor;  would  any  prejudice  re- 
sult to  society  ?  On  the  eomtrary,  the  same  consumption 
would  ariae ;  and  that  labour,  which  at  presentis  employ* 
ed  only  in  producing  a  slender  gratificaticm  to  one  man» 
woidd  relieve  the  nece^ilties,  and  bestow  satisfaction  on 
hundreds*  The  same  care  and  toil  that  raise  a  dish  of 
pease  at  Christmas,  would  give  bread  to  a  whole  fiunily, 
.during  six  months.  To  say  that,  without  a  vicious  luxury, 
the  labour  would  not  have  been  employed  at  all^  i^ooly  to 
say,  diatdiereissomeotherdefect  in  human  nature^  such 
aa  inddtence^  selfishness^  inattention  to  others,  for  which 
texttry>  in  some  measure,  provides  a  remedy;  as  one  poison 
m^  be  an  antidote  to  anothv «  jQut  virtue,  like  whole- 
some food»  is  better  than  poiaoos»  however  corrected. 

Suppose  the  same  mimber  of  men,  that  are  at  present  in 
Gbneat  Britain,  with  the  same  soil  and  dimate ;  I  adc^isit 


OF  REFIN^I^T  ^  THE  ARTS*  Wi% 

por  aod  4iU|po8i(k|i  ?  To  a69ert,  (hat  th^y  cuxatoh  fiffM^^ 

a  UU[4aBst4l£bfe«t  wyotli^^llstbw^^ 
from  bodily  aickne^s}  AQdU^esearenotd^lialf  of  htimai;^ 
miaones^    AU  otfier:Ula  apriog  fr^m  so^ie  Yioe,  ^ifteor  i^ 
owpelves  or  oCbarai  .a«4  evM  Qiany  of  ouj^  di^p^aMi.pro- 
Q^frwith^saiiiei^rigiii,    Beaiiovethevi^e^iuiddvsitti) 
faUow.    You  must  ooily  tak^  cfgre  to  ramoYQ  all  tbe  ykm*. 
If  you  ^irwDQYepAn,  yo«  may  rmidar  tbe  matt^  worsen  J3y 
bfttiishing  wWiiiit  hixwyt  ifkhoiil  curing  doth  iuid  aii  mdif- 
iarence  to  othen^  yon  only  diminJA  induatiy  in  Ifae  atlita^ 
and  add  nothing  to  men's  ctuinty  or  tfc«ir  geiieifQsity.  Lai 
usy  therefore,  rest  contented  with  asserting,  that  two  op- 
posite vices  in  a  state  may  be  more  advantageous  than  ei- 
ther of  them  alone ;  but  let  us  never  pronounce  vice  in  it- 
self advantageous.     Is  it  not  very  inconsistent  for  an  au- 
thor to  assert  in  one  page,  that  moral  distinctions  are  in- 
ventions of  politicians  for  public  interest ;  and  in  the  neict 
page  maintain,  that  vice  is  advantageous  to  the  public  ^  ? 
And  indeed  it  seems,  upon  any  system  of  morality,  Uttle 
less  than  a  contradiction  in  terms,  to  talk  of  a  vice,  which 
is  in  general  beneficial  to  society. 

I  thought  this  reasoning  necessary,  in  order  to  give  some 
light  to  a  philosophical  question,  which  has  been  much  dis- 
puted in  England.  I  call  it  b,  philoMphical  question,  not 
a  poUtkal  one.  For  whatever  may  be  the  consequence  of 
such  a  miraculous  transformation  of  mankind,  as  would  en- 
Table  of  the  Bees. 


tIS  fiSSAT  II. 

dow  diem'  "widx  'every  spedos  of  Tiitii^  and  fiee  tiMmilroBi 
every  species  of  vice ;  this  amcems  not  the  magistrate^ 
vrho  dims  only  at  possibilities.  He  cannot  cure  every  yice 
by  siibstitating  a  virtue  in  its  place.  Very  often  he  caa 
only  cure  one  vice  by  another;  and  in  that  case  he  ought 
to  prefer  what  is  least  pernicious  to  society.  Luxury,  when 
excessive  is  the  source  of  many  ills;  but  is  in  general  pre- 
ferable to  sloth  and  idleness,  which  would  commonly  suc- 
ceed in  its  plac^  and  toe  moreliurtful  both  to  private  per- 
sons and  to  the  public  When  sloth  reigns,  a  mean  tm- 
cdtivated  way  of  life  prevails  am<mg8t  individuals,  without 
society,  vfithout  enjoyment.  And  if  the  soverdgn,  in  sudi 
a  situation,  demands  the  service  of  his  sabjectMf  the  labour 
of  the  state  suffices  only  to  furnish  the  necessaries  of  life 
to  the  labourers,  and  can  afford  notimg  to  ihose  who  ate 
employed  in  the  public  service. 


ESSAY  IIL 


«ff  MONET* 

J^lowsY  is  not,  properly  q^eaking,  one  of  the  sobjects  of 
commerce;  but  only  the  instrument  which  men  have  a- 
greed  upon  to  fiicilitate  the  exchange  of  one  commodity 
for  anodier.  It  is  none  of  the  wheels  of  trade :  It  is  the 
oil  ii^oh  lenders  die  motion  of  the  wheels  more  smooth 
and  easy.  If  we  consider  any  one  kingdom  by  itself,  it  is 
evident,  that  the  greater  or  less  plenty  of  money  is  of  no 
consequence  since  the  prices  of  commodities  are  iklways 
proportioned  to  ihe  plenty  of  money,  and  a  crown  in 
Harry  VII/s  time  served  the  same  purpose  as  a  pound  does 
at  pment  It  is  only  the/mUic  which  draws  any  advantage 
from  the  greater  ploity  of  mcmey;  and  that  only  in  its  war^ 
and  negotiations  with  foreign  States.  And  this  is  the  rea^ 
son  why  all  rich  and  trading  countries,  from  Carthage  to 
Great  Britain  and  Holland,  have  emjployed  mercenary 
troops,  which  they  hired  from  their  poorer  neighbours* 
Were  they  tonudse  use  of  dieir  inatfare  subjects,  they  wopld 
find  less  advantage  fr«>ih  their  superior  riches,  and  from 
their  great  plenty  of  grid  and  silirier;  sfaice  the  pay  of  all 
their  sorants  must  rise  in  proportion  to  the  public  opii* 
lence.  Our  small  army  of  S0,000  men  is  tnaintiuned  at  as 
great  expense  as  a  French  army  twice  as  numerous:  The 
English  fleet,  during  the  late  war,  required  as  much  mo- 


280  EMBAY  XMU 

ney  to  support  it  as  all  the  Roman  l^onSf  which  kept  the 
whcde  world  in  suljgectiony  during  the  time  of  the  empe- 
rors •• 

The  great  number  of  peofde^  and  their  greater  industry, 
are  serviceable  in  all  cases ;  athone  andabroad,  in  private 
and  in  public  But  the  greater  {dentj  of  numey  is  yeiy 
limited  in  its  use,  and  may  even  som^imes  be  a  loss  to  a 
nation  in  its  commerce  vnth  fioareigners. 

There  seems  to  be  ahappy  ccmcurrenoe  of  causes  inhu- 
man affiars,  which  checks  the  growth  of  Irade  and  fMies, 
and  hinders  them  from  beii^  confiaad  entirely  U>  <Mi^poo» 
pie;  as  might  natural^  at  first  be  dreaded  from  the  aA- 
vantagesofanasteblishedcMioifiioew  Where  coenatioii 
baa  galten  the  ilart  of  another  in  trader  k  is  v«7  difintlt 
fior  the  latter  to^n^pun  the  gnoond  it Iwakett  becaoseof 
the  suparior  indaatfy  and  skill  of  the  former,  and  the 
gneaA^  stocks  of  which  its  aierehants  are  poasesaed,  and 
w^ch  enable  them  to  drade  on  so  much  amiller  profits. 
Bttt  thsae  advantages  are  compensated,  im  some  measure^ 
by  the  low  price  of  labour  in  every  nstion  which  has  not 
an  evtenaire  oonmirbe^  and  does  not  jBtmch  abound  in  gdd 
and  siker.  MannfiictuKs,  therefore,  gradually  shift  ditir 
jl^aces^  leaving  those  ooimtxies  and  provinnes  which  thqr 
hafve  ahready  enriched,  and  flying  to  others,  whither  fth^ 
are  allured  by  the  cheapness  of  pfovisioosandhdNmr;  till 
ihsf  have  enriched  theaa  alao^  and  am  again  banished  by 
the  same  canses.  And  in  general  we  may  observe  that 
the  deaznesa  of  every  things  finom  plenty  of  money,  is  a 
disadvantage,  wfaieh  attudsaneirtaUished  enwarrrf,  and 
aets  bounds  to  it  in  emy  countiy,  by  enaUing  the  poorer 
states  to  wndcrsdl  the  ridier  in  aU  foreign  markets. 

•  Ste  Nora  [P.] 


orMOist.  Ml 


This  Ims  tmdm  me  entatrin  «  doabt  oancnmmg  Ae 
btt&cAl  dibmktfmd  papt^  ormKt,  wUch  are  eo  genanXty 
eitoeinadadvaiitBgeowtoefeiyttftioiL  That  provUens 
flOdlebovreliDaldbecoMe^er  by^e  ittcrenBe  of  tmde 
and  money,  ii,  in  Hiimj  vegpeete,  an  i&eoii^oiienoei  but 

ffMic  ivMkfa  and  proeperky  wUdiaie  the  end  of  all  attt 
wMiee.  It  it  compeneated  by  the  advantages  whidi  wt 
reap  fiom  the  possessiea  ofthese  precious  metals,  sad  the 
weight  which  d^y  give  the  naticm  in  all  foreign  wars  and 
negotiations.  Bnt  diere  appears  no  reason  for  inoreasini^ 
that  inconveni^MM  by  a  counterfeit  money,  which  fiirsagn* 
eie  ^dll  not  aooc(pt  of  in  any  payment,  and  which  any  greet 
disorder  in  the  state  wiK  rsdttce  to  nothing.  There  are, 
it  is  tine,  many  people  in  efvery  rich  stat^  who^  ba«9ng 
large  snms  ef  money,  would  prefer  paper  widi  good  seetfr* 
riiy?  im  being  of  more  easy  tran^KNrt  and  moi«  safe  <»Vh 
t»ij.  if  the  pnbttc  provide  not  a  bank,  private  baaken 
will  take  advantage  of  this  circumstance,  as  the  golRlsaiitks 
foiaanlj!  did  in  London,  or  as  the  bankers  do  at  present 
in  DdUin :  And  there&re  it  is  better,  it  may  be*  thought^' 
that  ar  pobtto  company  dioidd  'cngoy  the  ben^t  of  that- 
paper  oedit,  whidi  always  will  have  pbioe  in  every  opth 
lent  kingdom.  But  to  endeavonr  aitiAcially  to  ineraase 
Mch  a  cvedit,  can  never  be  the  interest  ef  any  trading  mU 
tim;  bat  mast  lay  them  under  disadvantages,  by  increa- 
sing money  beyond  its  natural  proportion  to  labour  and 
commodities,  and  thereby  heightening  their  prioe  to  the 
merchant  and  manuftusturer.  And  in  this  view,  it  must 
be  allowed,  diatno  bank  oouM  be  more  advantageouathan 
mtdk  a  cos  as  locked  up  all  the  money  it  received'*,  and 

•  lUi  it  the  eiM  with  tiM  httnk  of 


tut  JCfliBAT  in; 

Berer  aiiigiBiiited.the'ciiscidaiiiig'Ooiiiy  at  is  uami  by  re- 
tunuiig  pait  of  its  treasme  into  conmeBCe.  A  pnblije 
bank,  by  this  expedient,  m^t  cut  off  modi  of  tlie  deal« 
ii^  of  private  bankers  and  mcmey-jobberst  and  tbon^ 
tile  state  bore  the  charge  of  salaries  to  the  diredoni  and 
tellers  of  thb  bank,  (for,  according  to  the  preceding  sup- 
position, it  would  have  no  profit  from  its  deaUngs),  the 
national  advantage^  resnlting  from  the  low  price  of  labour 
and  the  destracticm  of  paper*credit,  would  be  a  suffident 
cofl^>ensation«  Notto  mentioB,  thatsokurgeasumlyii^ 
ready  at  command  woidd  be  a  convenience  in  times  of 
great  public  danger  and  distress ;  and  what  part  of  it  was 
used  might  be  replaced  at  leisure^  when  peace  and  tcan- 
qmlli^  wa^  restored  to  the  nation. 

But  of  this  subject  io(  paper-credit  we  shall  treat  more 
hvgdiy  hereafter. .  And  I  shall  finish  this  essay  onrmon^ 
by  proposing  and  explaining  two  observation^  which  may 
perhaps  serve  to  employ  the  thoughts  of  oqr  speculative 
poUtieians* 

.  It  was  a  shrewd  observatioa  of  A  nacharris*  the  Scythian^ 
who  had  never  seen  nuHiey  in  his  own  country,,  that  gold 
and  silver  seemed  to  him  of  no  use  to  the  Greeks,  but  t^ 
assist  them  in  numeration  and  arithmetic  It  is  inde^ 
evident,  that  money  is  nothing  but  the  repiesentaticoL  <^ 
labour  and  commodities,  and  serves  only  as  a  method- of 
rating  pr  e^tioiating  them*  Where  coin  is  in  gr^^ler 
plenty;  as  a  greater  quantity  of  it  is  required  to  represent 
the  same  qiwitity  of  goods ;  it  can  have  no  eflfect,  either 
good  or  bad,  taking  a  nation  within  itself;  any  more^than* 
it  would  make  an  alteration  on  a  mercbantfs  bocdcs,  if,  in^' 
ilead  of  the  Arabian  method  of  notation,  which  requires^ 

*  Flut.  QuQmdfi^  qnii  tu9s  irrffhclut  in  virttUe  $€i^^  pomt. 


fcw  cbairaeters,  he  shobld  m^k&um  lof  the  Homaii^  vdudi 
reqttireff  a  great  lOMiy.  Ni^^  tfaegmter  quaotity  of  mo* 
ney,  like  the  Roman  diaracters»  k  radier  moonTeDieaili 
and  requires  greater  trooble  both  to  keep  and  transport 
it  Bat,  notmthiitmdii^  this  condnsion,  whidi  must  hi 
alloivred  just,  it  is  ceitaiii,  that  sipee  4ha  discovery  of  the 
minefl  in  America,  industry  has  increased  in  all  the  na- 
tions of  Eurqpe,  except  in  the  possessors  of  those  mines ; 
and  tins  may  justly  be  ascribed,  amongstotker  neaaons,  to 
Ae  increase  of  gold  and  silvers  Accordingly  we  find,  that, 
in  every  kingd«;nn,  into  which  money  begins  to  flow  in 
greater  abondaiiee  than  formerly,  everything  takes  anei^ 
filce':  idM>ur  and  industry  gain  )ife ;  the  merchant  becomes 
more  enterprising,  the  manofactnrer  more  diligent  and 
sldUnl,  and  even  the  farmer  follows  his  plough  with  greater 
akcrityand  attention.  This  is  not  easily  to  be  accounted 
for,  if  we  consider  only  the  influence  whidi  a  gie^r 
idbimdanee  of  coin- has  in  the  kingckBi  itself  by  hefghteSf* 
ing  the  price  of  commodities^  and  obligUBg  every  one  to 
pivfia  gseiter  opmber  of  these  lj(tle  yellow  or  white  pieces 
^r  every  thin^  he  purdiases«  And  as  to  foreign  trader  ii 
appears,  that  great  plenty  of  money  is  xather  disadvan^ 
tageous^  by  raising  the  price  of  every  kind  of  Idbouif* 
'  To  %ccomit,  then,  for  ^bis  [dienom^ion,  we  must  comsii 
deivtliat  though  the  |iigfa  price  of  commodities  be  a  nitos-> 
sary  conaequenee  c^  the  incr^ise  of  gold  and  silver,  yet  it 
SeiUows  no!!t  immediately  upon  that  increase;  but  some  time 
is  reiiuired  before  the  money  drcubtes  through  the  wfaola 
state,  and  makes  its  effect  be  felt  on  all  ranks  of  j^Mople. 
At  first,  do  alttntion  is  perceived ;  by  degrees  tke.priod 
rises,  first  of  one  commodity,  then  of  another*;  tili  the 
whole  at  last  reaches  a  just  proportion  with  the  new  quan- 
tity of  specie  which  16  in  the  kingdom.    In  my  opinioui 


Itf«^ 


it  k  oidy  in  tlifa  ioMfral  or  itttanMdiate  sHui^^ 
Am  noqnMtkm  of  money  and  rite  of  priceg,  that  tht  ii>ora»* 
rfttg  qmati^  of  g^  and  ailTer  is  fayovrable  to  indostry* 
When  anyqaandty  of  money  is  impmted  into  a  nation^  it 
is  not  at  first  dispersed  into  maiiy  hands;  bat  is  confined 
10  the  ooflfers  of  a  few  persons,  who  iounedlately  seek.to 
tiiq>loy  it  to  advantage.  Hereareasetofxnanufectnram 
ornerdiantSy  we  diall  suppose,  who  have  received  retains 
of  gold  and  silver  finr  goods  whidi  they  sent  to  Gadia* 
They  are  diereby  enabled  to  en^loy  more  workmen  than 
fisrmeriy,  who  never  dreom  of  demanding  higher  wi^;es, 
bat  are  glad  ot  employment  fixnn  sndi  good  pqmasiefi. 
if  worionen  become  scarce^  the  manofiu^tarer  gives  14g^Mr 
wages,  but  at  first  requires  an  increase  of  labour;  and  this 
is  wUlingly  suboutted  to  by  die  aitisan,  who  can  now  eat 
and  ^frink  better,  to  compensate  his  additional  toil  imdfe^ 
tigue.  He  carries  his  money  to  nurket,  where  he  finds 
every  thing  at  the  saaw  price  as  fisrmerly,  bat  retems  widb 
greater  quantity,  and  of  better  Idnds,  for  the  nse  crf^hb  ISn 
nrily.  The  fiurmer  and  gardener,  finding  that  aH  theif 
commodities  are  taken  ot^  apply  themselves  with  alacrk]^ 
to  the  raising  more;  and  at  the  same  time  can  ajSovdia 
take  better  and  more  dotfaes  firom  their  tradesmen^  whose 
prieeisthe  same  as  formerly,  and  dieir  industry  only  whet- 
ted by  so  mnch  new  gain.  It  is  easy  to  trace  iSkt  mon^ 
in  its  progress  through  the  wlude  ccanmonwealth;  wheaa 
we  dodl  find,  that  it  must  first  quicken  the  ditigence  of 
aveiy  individnal,  b^are  it  increase  the  price  of  lahonr. 

And  that  die  i^>ede  may  increase  to  a  considerable  pitdi^ 
befeire  it  have  dus  latter  effect,  appears,  amongst  odnt  in* 
stances,  firom  the  frequent  operations  of  the  Fiandi  hang 
OR  the  money;  where  it  was  always  found,  that  the  aug^ 
menting  of  the  numerary  value  did  not  produce  a  premier-* 


ovMomnr.  886 


riie  of  die  prioes,  at  least  for  some  time.  Ib  tbe 
last  year  of  Lonia  XIV.  mon^ims  raised  durec  sofmidMy 
but  prices  aagmentecl  onlj  one.  Com  Id  Fiance  is  now 
sold  at  the  same  priee,  or  for  the  same  mnaber  of  li?vesi 
it  was  ip  1«SS;  though  silver  was  then  at  SO  livns  the 
jUMtky  and 4s  now  at  50\  Not  to  mention  die  great  ad^ 
dilion  of  gold  and  silver,  which  may  have  come  into  that 
kingdom  since  the  former  period. 

From  the  whdeof  this  rsason'mg  we  may  condude^  thai 
it  is  of  no  manner  of  consequence  with  regard  to  the  do- 
mestic happiness  of  a  state,  whether  money  be  in  a  greater 
or  less  qoandty.  The  good  p<^cy  of  the  magistrate  cmi^ 
sists  only  in  keeping  ity  if  possiUe,  still  increasmg;  becaoaa 
by  that  means  he  keeps  aKve  a.  sfint  oi  industry  in  the 
nation,  and  increases  the  stock  of  labour  in  which  consists 
all  real  pow;er  and  riches.  A  nation,  whose  money  de» 
Ofeases,  is  actually  at  that  time  weaker  and  more  misev* 
able  than  another  nation  which  possesses  no  more  moaey^ 
bat  is  on  the  increasing  hand.  This  will  be  easily  accoomb* 
ed  for,  if  we  consider  that  tbe  alteratimis  in  the  quantity 
of  money,  either  on  one  side  or  die  other,  are  not  iauso^ 
diately  attended  with  propordooable  aheraticoa  m  the  prioe 
of  commodities.  There  is  aWays  an  interval  before  mat* 
ters  be  adjusted  to  Adr  new  sitnadon ;  and  this  interval  is 
as  pemidoos  to  industry,  whea  gold  and  silver  are  dinu* 
nishing^  as  it  is  advantageous  when  these  metals  are  in^ 
creasing.  The  woricmen  has  not  the  same  emjdoyment 
from  the  manufacturer  and  merchant ;  though  he  pays  the 
same  price  for  every  thing  in  the  market*  The  former 
cannot  dispose  of  his  com  and  catde,  though  he  must  pay 

•  Set  Non  [a] 


3M  C88AT  III. 

the  aune  neat  to  hk  landlord.    The  porertjr  and  beggny,. 
and  dbthy  mkkh  moat  coau^ane  easily  fixreseetti 

II.  The  aecoad  ebservatioo  which  I  propoaed  to  make* 
with  regard  to  monej,  may  be  explained  after  the  fcilow^ 
ingmanner?  There  are  some  kingdoms,  and  many  prowi* 
eesinEuropey  (and  all  of  them  were  once  in  the  same  eon-^ 
ditionX  where  money  is  so  scarce,  tfaaC  the  landlkMrd  oatr 
get  none  at  all  from  his  tenants,  but  is  oMiged  to  take  hiat 
rent  in  kind,  and  either  to  consume  it  himself,  or  transp<Hrt 
it  to  plaees  where  he  may  find  a  market.  In  those  coun*> 
tries,  tba  prince  can  lery  few  or  no  taxes  but  in  the  same 
manner;  and  as  he  will  reoeite  small  benefit  fix>m  impo- 
litioiia  so  paid,  it  is  evidenft  that  such  a  kingdom  has  litatlo. 
fi>rce  eten  at  home,  and  cannot  maintain  fleets-and  armies 
to  the  same  extent  as  if  every  part  of  it  abounded.in  gold 
and  sihrer.  There  is  surely  a  greater  dusproporticm  be* 
tween.  the  fi>rce  <^  Germany  at  present,  and  what  it  was 
three  centuries  ago  S  than  there  is  in  its  industry,  people, 
and  maraifeftures.  The  Austrian  dominions  in  the  em* 
pire  axe  in  general  well  peeked  and  well  cultiyated,  and 
are  of  great  extent,  hvit  have  not  a  proporticmable  weight 
in.  die  balance  of  Europe ;  proceeding,  as  is  commonly 
supposed,  from  the  scarcity  of  money.  How  do  all  these 
iacts  agree  with  that  principle  of  reason,  that  the  quanti^ 
of  gold  and  silver  is  in  itself  altogether  indi&rent?  Ac- 
aording  to  that  principle,  wherever  a  sovere%n  has  nnm«- 
bers  of  subjects,  and  these  have  plenty  of  commodities,  he 
shoald  of  course  be  great  and  powerful,  and  they  rich  and 
happy,  independent  of  the  greater  or  lesser  abundance  of 

*  The  ItaliiuM  gare  to  the  ODperor  Maiimilian  Um  nlckiiaiiie  of  Pbcci- 
Danaei.  None  of  the  enterprises  of  that  pt^nce  ever  succeeded,  for  want 
of  money. 


OF  ]K>1IBY.  987' 

tlMiprecioittmelals*  Tbeseadmkof divittondandsubdi* 
▼iiioii8toa§reatezteiit;  andwlieretbepieoes  might  be^ 
eomesosmaUastobeindaiiger  of  bdiigloit^  kiseasjto. 
Bux  the  gold  or  silyer  with  a  baeer  metid^  m  is  practised 
in  some  countries  of  Europe,  and  by  diat  means  raise  the 
pieces  to  a  bulk  more  sensible  and  convenient.  Thej  sfiilr 
serve  the  same  purposes  of  exdiange,.  whatever  their  nuin- 
ber  may  be,  or  whatever  colour  they  may  be  supposed  to 
have. 

To  these  dfficukies.I  answer,  ^bkt  the  eflect  here  sbip^ 
posed  toflowfrom  scarcity  of  money;  really  arises  from  tfie 
manners  and  customs  of  the  people;  andithatwemtstake^ 
as  is  too  usual,  a  collateral  e£Rsctf<»  axause.  The  contra«- 
diction  isonlyapparent;  but  it  requires  some  thought md 
reflection  to  discover  the  principles  by  which  we  can  re«, 
condle  ttamm  to  experknce. 

It  seeais  a  maxim  almost  setf-evident,.  that  the  prices  of 
every  thing  depend  on  the  propditioh  between  oommodi* 
ties  and  money,  and  that  any  considerable  alteiation  out 
either  has  the  same  effect,  either  of  heightening  or  lower- 
ing the  price.  Increase  the  commodities,  they  become 
cheaper;  increase  the  money,  they  rise  in.their  taloe.  As, 
on  the  other  hand,  a  diminution  of.  the  former,  and  that 
of  the  latter,  have  contrary  tendencies. 

It  is  alsoevident,  that  the  (prices  do  not  so  much  depend 
OB  the  absolute  quantity  of  commodities  and' that  of  aioQcgf^ 
which  are  in  a  nadon,  as  on  that  of  the  commbdities  w|ii<d^ 
come  or  may  come  into  market,  and  of  the  money  which 
circulates.  If  the  coin  be  locked  up  in  chests,  it  is  the 
same  thing  with  regard  to'prices,  as  if  it  wereannibil^t^; 
if  the  commodities  be  hoarded  in  magawnes  and  granaries 
a  like  effect  fellows.  As  the  money  and  commodities,  in 
these  oases,  never  meet,  they  cannot  affect  each  other. 


it  m. 


Wcl»  «cv  at  Mqr  timc^  to  Ana  aaqyectiiftti  I 

pfioe of  prarifliani^  iim€&m^  wfakkAei 

lenrc  fcr  le^  iid  fiy  Ae  wMwfmiMicqogkanidf  M>afc> 

mity,  ougtoagvfr  to  enter  into egrimrtiw     Ilisoniylfas 

merfittBf  compu^d  to  the  denuMd^  tint  ftemmini  tb» 


To  apply  dm>  twriiicipkiij  iiemoiteoaMJgiv  that  in  dig 

confoimded  her  wants  with  those  of  nature,  men,  contail 
wUi  die  prodaae  of  duir  ewAfidda,  or  widi  tiuMe  mde 
jaiy  f  Oft  HWiita  whiAthey  dwnnehrei  can  wodc  mpam  Amm^ 
ham  IMeoccaabn  te  exchaage^  at  feast  fee  monejs  vhid^ 
byagraeBMQt,  k  the  common  measve  of  eo^dnoge^  Tb« 
wopl  cf  the  fiurmei's  own  flod^  spmi  in  his  own  femitfv 
and  wrooght  by  a  neighbouring  weai«v  ^^  veoscves  hio 
payment  in  com  or  wool,  suffices  fer  fiimkups  and  dodh* 
ing!.  Hie  caqpenter,  thesmith,  themason,  die  tailor,  are 
FtCaoMd  by  wages  of  a.  like  nature;  and  the  landlord  (um^ 
idf,  dwelling  in  die  nei|^bo«rhood,  ia  coateat  to  raoeive 
his  rent  i|i  tb^  commoditiea  raised  by  die  finrmer.  The 
greater  part  of  these  he  eonsvnes  at  home,  in  rustic  ho-* 
spitality:  The  Mst,  perfaqiSy  he  disposes  of  fer  monfy  to 
die  ndghbooring  tqwn,  whence  he  draws  die  few  mats** 
rials  of  his  expense  and  loxory. 

But  after  men  begin  to  refine  on  all  these  enjoyments, 
and  live  not  always  at  home^  nor  are  cmtent  with  what 
can  be  raised  iD  their  ndghboarhoody  diere  is  nMnre  ex- 
ehange  and  ccHnmerce  of  all  kinds,  and  Bsore  money  enters 
hito  diat  mcehange.  Hie  tradesmen  will  not  be  paid  fai 
eom^  becanse  diey  want  somediing  more  thaa  barely  to 
eat  The  frrmer  goes  beycmd  his  own  parish  for  the  ecmh* 
modittes  he  purchases^  and  cannot  always  carry  his  com- 
modides  t»  the  merchant  who  supplies  him.    The  famd' 


or  MONBY.  SM 

kard  liTet  in  the  capital,  or  in  a  foreign  country;  and  de- 
mands bis  rent  in  gc^  and  silver,  which  can  easily  be 
transported  to  him*  Great  midertakers,  and  manufactu^ 
rers,  and  merchants,  arise  in  eyery  cmnmodtty ;  and  these 
can  conveniently  deal  in  nothing  but  in  specie.  And  conr 
sequ^itly,  in  this  situation  o£  society,  the  coin  enters  into 
many  more  contracts,  and  by  that  means  is  much  more 
employed  than  in  the  former. 

The  necessary  effect  is,  that  provided  the  money  in* 
crease  not  in  the  nation,  every  thing  must  beccMae  much 
cheaper  in  times  of  industry  and  refinem^t,  than  in  r^e 
uncultivated  ages.  It  is  the  prc^rtion  betweep  the  cir- 
culating money,  and  the  commodities  in  the  market,  whidi 
d^ermines  the  prices*  Goods  that  are  consumed  at  home^ 
or  exchanged  with  other  goods  in  the  ne^hbottfhood# 
never  come  to  market ;  th^  aStct  not  in  the  least  the 
current  specie;  with  regard  to  it  they  are  aa  if  totally  anr 
nihilated ;  and  consequently  this  method  of  using  thm 
sinks  the  proportion  on  the  side  of  the  commodities,  and 
increases  the  prices.  But  after  mcmey  enters  into  all  con- 
tracts and  sales,  and  is  everywhere  the  measure  of  exchange 
the  same  national  cash  has  a  much  greater  task  to  perform; 
all  commodities  are  then  in  the  market;  the  sjhxxe  of 
circulation  is  Enlarged ;  it  is  the  same  case  as  if  thatindir 
vidual  sum  were  to  serve  a  larger  kingdom;  and  therefor^ 
the  proportion  being  here  lessened  <m  the  side  of  the  mo- 
n6y>  every  thing  must  become  cheiqfier,  and  the  prices  gr»- 
duaUyfalL 

By  the  most  exact  computations  that  have  been  fonned 
all  oyer  Europe,  after  making  allowancefor  the  alteration 
in  the  nnmerary  value  or  the  denomination,  it  is  found, 
that  the  prices  €i  all  things  have  only  arisen  three,  or,  at 
mosty  four  times  since  tiie  discovery  of  the  West  Indies. 

VOL.  I.  u 


380  E88AY  in. 

But  will  any  one  assert,  that  there  ig  not  much  more  thMi 
four  times  the  coin  in  Europei  that  was  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  the  c^ituries  preceding  it?  The  Spaniards 
and  Portuguese  from  their  mines,  the  EInglisb,  French, 
and  Dutch,  by  their  African  trade,  and  by  their  inteilo* 
pers  in  the  West  Indies,  bring  home  about  six  miUiQifs 
a-year,  of  which  not  above  a  third  goes  to  the  East  la- 
dies. This  sum  alone,  in  ten  years,  would  probably  doubfe 
the  ancient  stock  of  money  in  Europe.  And  no  other  sa^ 
tisfiictory  reascm  can  b^  given,  why  all  prices  have  not  ri- 
sen to  a  much  more  exorbitant  height,  except  that  whidi 
is  derived  from  a  chai^  of  customs  and  manners.  Be- 
sides that  more  commodities  are  produced  by  additional 
industry,  the  same  commodities  come  more  to  market^  a£* 
ter  men  depart  from  their  ancient  simplicity  of  manners* 
And  though  this  increase  has  not  been  equal  la  that  <^ 
monejr,  it  has,  however,  been  considerid^le,  and  has  pre- 
served the  proportion  between  coin  ^md  commoditiesneaiv  . 
er  the  ancient  standard. 

Were  the  question  proposed.  Which  of  these  methods  of 
living  in  the  people^  the  simple  or  refined,  is  the  most  ad- 
vantageous to  the  state  or  public?  I  should,  without  much 
scruple,  prefer  the  latter,  in  a  view  to  politics  at  least;  and 
should  produce  this  as  an  additional  reason  f<Nr  the  encou- 
ragemoit  of  trade  and  manufactures. 

While  men  live  in  the  ancient  single  manner,  and  sup- 
ply all  th^ir  necessaries  fix>m  domestic  industty,  or  from 
the  neighbourhood,  the  sovereign  can  levy  no  taxes  in 
money  from  a  considerable  part  of  his  subjects ;  and  if  he 
will  impose  on  them  any  burdens,  he  must  take  payment 
in  commodities,  with  whidi  alone  they  abound;  a  method 
attended  with  such  great  and  obvious  inconveniences,  tha^; 
they  need  not  here  be  insisted  on.    AU  the  money  he  can 


OF  MONEY.  291 

pretend  to  raise  must  be  from  bis  principal  cities,  where 
alone  it  circulates ;  and  these,  it  is  evident,  cannot  afford 
him  so  much  as  the  whole  state  could,  did  gold  and  silver 
circulate  throughout  the  whole.  But  besides  this  obvious 
duninution  of  the  revenue,  there  is  another  cause  of  the 
poverty  of  the  public  in  such  a  situation.  Not  only  the 
sovereign  receives  les^  mcmey,  but  the  same  money  goes 
not  so  far  as  in  times  of  industry  and  general  commerce. 
Every  thing  is  dearer  where  the  gold  and  silver  are  sup- 
posed equal ;  and  that  because  fewer  commodities  come  to 
market,  and  the  whole  coin  bears  a  higher  proportion  to 
what  is  to  be  purchased  by  it ;  whence  alone  the  prices  of 
every  diing  are  feed  and  determined. 

Here  then  we  may  learn  the  fallacy  of  the  remarl^  often 
to  be  met  with  in  historians,  and  even  in  common  con- 
versation, that  any  particular  state  is  weak,  though  fertile, 
populous,  and  well  cultivated,  merely  because  it  wants 
money*  It  appears,  that  the  want  of  money  can  never  in- 
jure any  state  within  itself;  for  men  and  commodities  are 
the  real  strength  of  any  community.  It  is  the  simple  man- 
ner of  living  which  here  hurts  the  public,  by  confining  the 
gold  and  silver  to  few  hands,  and  prevonting  its  universal 
diffusion  and  circulation.  On  the  contrary,  industry  and 
refinements  of  all  kinds  incorporate  it  with  the  whole  state, 
however  small  its  quantity  may  be :  They  digest  it  into 
every  vein,  so  to  speak ;  and  make  it  enter  ii^to  every  trans- 
action and  contract.  No  hand  is  entirely  empty  of  it 
And  as  the  prices  of  every  thing  &U  by  that  means,  the 
sovereign  has  a  double  advantage ;  He  may  draw  money 
by  his  taxes  from  every  part  of  the  state;  and  what  he  re- 
ceives, goes  &rth.er  in  every  purchase  and  payment, 

We  may  infer,  from  a  comparison  of  prices,  that  money 
is  not  more  plentiful  m  China,  than  it  was  in  Europe  three 

u2 


198  SSiAT  III. 

cmtories  ago:  But  what  immense  power  is  that  empire 
possessed  o^  if  we  may  judge  by  the  civil  and  military  es* 
tablishment  maintained  by  it?  P<dyhius*  tells  us,  that 
provisions  were  so  cheap  in  Italy  during  his  time,  that  in 
some  places  the  stated  price  for  a  meal  at  the  inns  was  a 
mmi$  a-head,  little  more  than  afarthing  I  Yet  the  Roman 
power  had  evra  then  subdued  the  whole  known  world. 
About  a  century  before  that  period,  the  Carthaginian  am- 
bassador said,  by  way  of  raillery,  that  no  people  lived  more 
sociably  amongst  themselves  than  the  Romans ;  for  that, 
in  ev^  entertainment,  which,  as  foreign  ministers,  they 
received,  they  still  observed  the  same  plate  at  every  tabled 
The  absolute  quantity  of  the  precious  metals  is  a  matter  of 
great  indiflference.  There  are  only  two  drcumstanoes  of 
aiqr  importance,  namely,  their  gradual  increase,  and  their 
thoroii^  concoction  and  circulation  through  the  state; 
and  the  ic^uenoe  of  both  those  circumstances  has  here 
bera  eiqplajned. 

'  In  the  following  essay  we  shall  see  an  instance  of  alike 
fallacy  as  that  above  mentioned ;  where  a  collateral  e£bct 
is  taken  for  a  cause,  and  where  a  consequence  is  ascribed 
to  the  plenty  of  money;  thou^  it  be  really  owk^  to  a 
change  in  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people. 

•  Lib.  iL  d^  15.  ^  Flin.  lib.  znlii  cap.  II. 


ESSAY  IV. 


OF  INTEBE8T. 

JM  OTHINO  is  esteemed  a  more  certain  sign  of  the  flourish* 
ing  condition  of  any  nation  than  the  lowness  of  interest : 
And  with  reascm ;  though  I  believe  the  cause  is  somewhat 
difierent  from  what  is  commonly  apprehended.  Lowness 
of  interest  is  generally  ascribed  to  plenty^of  money.  But 
money,  however  plentiful,  has  no  other  effect,  if  fixed,  than 
to  raise  the  price  of  labour.  Silver  is  more  common  than 
gold ;  and  therefore  you  receive  a  greater  quantity  of  it 
for  the  same  commodities.  But  do  you  pay  less  interest 
for  it  ?  Interest  in  Batavia  and  Jamaica  is  at  10  per  cent, 
in  Portugal  at  6 ;  though  these  places,  as  we  may  learn 
from  the  prices  of  every  thing,  abound  more  in  gold  and 
silver  than  either  London  or  Amsterdam. 

Were  all  the  gold  in  England  annihilated  at  once,  and 
(me  and  twenty  shillings  substituted  in  the  place  of  every 
guinea,  would  money  be  more  plentiful,  or  interest  lower? 
No,  surely :  We  should  only  use  silver  instead  of  gold. 
Were  gold  rendered  as  common  as  silver,  and  silver  as 
common  as  copper ;  would  money  be  more  plentiful  or 
interest  lower  ?  We  may  assuredly  give  the  same  answer. 
Our  shillings  would  then  be  yellow,  and  our  halfpence 
white ;  and  we  should  have  no  guineas.  No  other  di£fer- 
ence  would  ever  be  observed ;  no  alteration  on  commerce^ 


294  ESSAY  IV. 

manufactures,  navigtttioD,  or  interest ;  unless  we  imagine 
that  the  colour  of  the  metal  is  of  any  consequence. 

Now,  what  is  so  visible  in  these  greater  variations  of 
scarcity  or  abundance  in  the  precious  metals  must  hdd  in 
all  inferior  changes.  If  the  tnultiplying  of  gold  and  silver 
fifteen  times  makes  no  difference,  much  less  can  the  doU«« 
bling  or  tripling  them.  All  augmentation  has  no  other 
effect  thim  to  heighten  the  price  of  labour  and  commodi» 
ties ;  and  even  this  variation  is  little  more  thim  that  of  a 
name.  In  the  progress  towards  these  changes,  the  aug- 
mentation may  have  some  influence,  by  exciting  industry ; 
but  after  the  prices  are  settled,  suitably  to  the  dew  abun-* 
dance  of  gold  and  silver,  it  has  no  manner  of  influence. 

An  effect  always  holds  proportion  with  its  cause.  Prices 
have  risen  near  four  times  since  the  discovery  of  the  In^es; 
and  it  is  probable  gold  and  silver  have  multiplied  much 
more  :  But  interest  has  not  fifillen  much  above  half.  The 
rate  of  interest,  therefore,  is  not  derived  from  the  quantity 
of  the  precious  metals* 

Mone^  having  chiefly  afictitious  value,  the  greater  or  less 
plen^  of  it  is  of  no  consequence^  if  we  omsider  a  nation 
within  itself;  and  the  quantity  of  specie,  when  once  fixed^ 
though  ever  so  large,  has  no  other  effect  than  to  oblige 
every  one  to  tell  out  a  greater  number  of  those  shining 
bits  of  metal,  for  clothes,  furniture,  or  equ^)age,  without  in- 
creasing aay  one  convenience  of  life.  If  a  man  borrow 
money  to  build  a  house,  he  then  carries  home  a  greater 
load ;  because  the  stone,  timber,  lead,  glass,  &c.  with  the 
labour  of  the  masons  and  carpenters,  are  represented  by  a 
greater  quantity  of  gold  and  silver.  But  as  these  metals 
re  considered  chiefly  as  representations,  there  can  no  alte- 
lation  arise,  from  their  bulk  or  quantity,  their  weight  or 
colour,  either  upon  their  real  value  or  their  interest.    The 


OF  nTTERBSI!*  S^5 

tame  interest,  in  all  cases,  bears  the  Mme  proportkm  to  the 
sum.  And  if  you  lent  me  so  much  labour  and  so  many 
commodities;  by  recdving  five  per^cenL  you  always  re- 
ceive proportional  labour  and  commodities,  however  re- 
presented, whether  by  yellow  or  white  coin,  whether  by  a 
pound  or  an  ounce.  It  is  in  vain,  therefore,  to  look  for 
the  cause  of  the  fall  or  rise  of  interest  in  the  greater  or  less ' 
quantity  of  gold  and  silver,  which  is  fixed  in  any  nation. 

H%h  interest  arises  from  three  drcurastatices :  A  great 
d^nand  for  borrowings  little  riches  to  supply  that  de- 
mand; and  great  profits  arising  firom  commerce:  And 
the  circumstances  are  a  dear  proof  of  the  small  advance 
<^  commerce  and  industry,  not  of  the  scarciQr  of  gold  and 
silver.  Low  interest,  on  the  other  himd,  proceeds  from 
the  three  opposite  circumstances :  A  small  demand  tor  bor- 
rowing ;  great  riches  to  supply  that  demand ;  and  small 
profits  arising  from  commerce :  And  these  circumstances 
are  all  connected  together,  and  proceed  from  the  increase 
of  industry  and  commerce,  not  of  gold  and  silver.  We 
shall  endeavour  to  prove  these  points ;  and  shall  begin 
with  the  t^uses  and  the  e£Eects  c^a  great  or  small  demand 
for  borrowing. 

When  a  people  have  emerged  ^rer  so  little  from  a  sal- 
vage state^  and  their  numbers  have  increased  beyond  the 
original  multitude,  ther^  must  immediately  arise  an  ine- 
quality of  property ;  and  while  scnne  possess  large  tracts 
of  land,  others  are  confined  within  narrow  limits,  and  some 
are  entirely  without  any  landed  property.  .  Those  irfia 
possess  more  land  than  they  can  labour,  employ  those 
who  possess  none,  and  agree  to  receive  a  determinate  part 
of  the  product.  Thus  the  hmded  interest  is  immediately 
established ;  nor  is  there  any  settled  government,  however 
rude,  in  which  affairs  are  not  on  this  footing*    Of  these 


206  SSflAY  IV. 

proprietors  of  land,  some  siaat  presaitly  discover  tfaem- 
selves  to  be  of  different  tempers  from  others ;  and  while 
one  wonld  willin^y  store  op  the  produce  of  hb  land  for 
faturitjr,  another  desires  to  consume  at  present  what  should 
suffice  for  many  jrears.  But  as  the  spending  of  a  settled 
revenue  is  a  way  of  life  entirely  widiout  occupation ;  men 
have  so  much  need  of  somewhat  to  fix  and  adgage  them, 
that  pleasures,  such  as  they  are,  will  be  the  pursuit  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  landholders,  and  the  prodigals  among 
them  will  always  be  more  numerous  than  the  misers.  In 
a  state,  therefore,  where  thare  is  nothing  but  a  landed  in- 
terest, as  there  b  little  frugaliQr,  the  borrowers  must  be 
v^ry  numerous,  and  the  rate  of  interest  must  hold  pn^r- 
tion  to  it  The  diffsrence  depends  not  on  the  quantity  of 
money,  but  on  the  habits  and  manners  which  prevail.  By 
this  alone  the  demand  for  borrowing  is  increased  or  dimi- 
nished. Were  money  so  plentiful  as  to  make  an  egg  be 
sold  for  sixpence ;  so  long  as  there  are  only  landed  gen- 
try and  peasants  in  the  state,  the  borrowers  must  be  nu- 
merous, and  interest  high.  The  rent  for  the  same  fiurm 
would  be  heavier  and  more  bulky :  But  the  same  idleness 
of  the  landlord,  with  the  high  price  of  commodities,  would 
dissipate  it  in  the  same  time,  and  produce  the  same  ne- 
cessity and  demand  for  borrowing. 

Nor  is  the  case  difierent  with  i^sgard  to  the  secoml  cir- 
cumstance which  we  prc^>osed  to  consider,  namely,  die 
great  or  little  riches  to  supply  the  demand.  This  effect 
also  dcpendsonthehabitsandwqr  of  living  of  the  people^ 
not  on  the  quantity  of  gold  and  silver.  In  order  to  have^ 
in  any  state,  a  greater  number  <^  lenders,  it  is  not  suffix 
dent  nor  requisite^  that  Aere  be  great  abundance  of  the 
precious  aMtals.  It  is  only  requisite,  that  the  property 
or  command  of  Aat  quantity,  which  is  in  the  state,  wbe- 


OF  INTSRStr.  MT 

ther  great  or  small^  should  be  collected  in  partkmlar 
hands,  so  as  to  form  considerable  sums^  or  ocHupose  a 
great  moneyed  interest  This  begets  a  number  of  lakbrs, 
and  sinks  the  rate  of  usury ;  and  this,  I  shaU  yentnre  to 
affimv  depends  not  on  the  quantity  of  specie,  but  on  par- 
ticular manners  and  customs,  ^diich  make  the  specie  ga^ 
ther  into  separate  sums  or  msoMen  of  considerable  yalue. 

For  suppose  that,  by  miracle,  every  man  in  Great  Bri* 
tain  should  have  five  pounds  slipt  into  his  pocket  in  one 
night ;  this  would  much  more  than  double  the  whole  mo* 
ney  that  is  at  present  in  the  kingdom ;  yet  there  would 
not  next  day,  nor  for  some  time,  be  any  more  lenders,  nor 
any  variation  in  the  ioterest  And  were  there  nothing 
but  landlords  and  peasants  in  the  state,  this  money,  how- 
ever abundant,  could  never  gather  into  sums;  and  would 
only  serve  to  increase  the  prices  <^  every  thing,  without 
any  farther  consequence.  Hie  prod^^al  landlord  dissi^i' 
pates  it,  as  ftst  as  he  receives  it;  and  the  beggarly  peasant 
has  no  means,  nor  view,  nor  ambition  of  obtaining  $howe 
a  bare  livelihood.  The  overplus  of  borrowers  above  that 
crf'lenders  continuing  still  the  same,  there  will  fidlow  no 
reduction  of  interest.  That  depends  i^>on  another  prin^ 
ciple;  and  must  proceed  firom  an  increase  of  industry  and 
fiiigality,  charts  and  commerce. 

Every  thing  useful  to  the  life  of  man  arises  firom  die 
ground ;  but  few  thmgs  arise  in  that  conditi<m  which  la 
requisite  to  render  them  usefuL  There  must,  therefin^ 
beside  the  peasants  and  the  proprietors  of  land,  be  another 
rank  of  men,  who,  receiving  firom  the  former  the  rude 
materials,  work  them  into  their  proper  form,  and  retain 
part  for  their  own  use  and  subsistence.  In  the  infancy  of 
society,  these  contracts  between  the  artisans  and  the  pea^ 
sants,  and  between  (me  species  ci  artisans  and  another, 


298  ESSAY  IT. 

are  iMomotly  entered  into  immediately  by  the  personi 
themselves,  who  being  neij^ibours,  are  easily  acquainted 
with  each  other's  necessities,  and  can  lend  their  mutoai 
assistance  to  supply  them.  But  when  men's  industry  in- 
creases, and  their  views  enlai^  it  is  found,  that  the  most 
remote  parts  of  the  state  can  assist  each  other  as  well  as 
the  more  contiguous,  and  that  this  intercourse  of  good 
oflices  may  be  carried  on  to  the  greatest  extent  and  intri- 
cacy. Hence  the  origin  of  merckantSj  one  of  the  most 
useful  races  of  men,  who  serve  as  agents  between  those 
parts  of  the  state  that  are  wholly  unacquainted,  and  are 
ignorant  of  each  other's  necessities.  Here  are  in  a  city 
fifty  workmen  in  silk  and  linen,  and  a  thousand  custom- 
ers; and  these  two  ranks  of  men,  so  necessary  to  ead^ 
other,  can  never  rightly  meet,  till  one  man  erects  a  shopy 
to  which  all  the  woricmen  and  all  the  customers  repair. 
In  this  province,  grass  rises  in  abundance:  The  inhabi- 
tants abound  in  cheese,  and  butter,  and  cattle ;  but  want 
bread  and  com,  which,  in  a  neighbouring  province,  are  in 
too  great  abimdance  for  the  use  of  the  inhabitants.  One 
man  discolors  this.  He  brings  com  from  the  one  pro^ 
vince,  and  returns  with  catde ;  and,  supplying  the  wants 
of  both,  he  is,  so  fiur,  a  common  bene&ctor.  As  the  peo- 
ple increase  in  numbers  imd  industry,  the  difficulty  of  their 
intercourse  increases :  The  business  of  the  agency  or  mer- 
chandise becomes  more  intricate ;  and  divides,  subdivides, 
compounds,  and  mixes  to  a  greater  variety.  .  In  all  these 
transactions  it  is  necessary,  and  reasonable,  that  a  consi- 
derable part  of  the  commodities  and  labour  should  belong 
to  the  merchant,  to  whom,  in  a  great  measure,  they  are 
owing.  And  these  commodities  he  will  sometimes  preserve 
in  kind,  or  more  commonly  convert  into  money,  which  is 
their  common  representation.     If  gold  and  silver  have  in- 


OF  INTEREST.  £09 

creased  in  the  state  together  with  the  industry,  it  will  re- 
quire a  great  quantiQr  of  these  metals  to  represent  a  great 
quantity  of  ccnnmodities  and  labour.  If  industry  alooe 
has  increased,  the  prices  of  every  thing  must  sink,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  specie  will  serve  as  a  representation. 

Tliere  is  no  craving  or  demand  of  the  human  mi&d 
more  constant  and  insatiable  than  that  for  exercise  and 
employment;  and  this  desire  seems  the  foundation  of  most 
of  our  passions  and  pursuits.  Deprive  a  man  of  all  busi* 
ness  and  serious  occupation,  he  runs  restless  from  one 
iunmsement  to  another;  and  the  weight  and  oj^ression 
which  he  feels  from  idleness  is  so  great,  that  he  forgets 
the  ruin  which  must  follow  him  from  his  immoderate  ex- 
penses. Give  him  a  more  harmless  way  of  employing  his 
mind  or  body,  he  is  satisfied,  and  feels  no  longer  that  in- 
satiable thirst  after  pleasure.  But  if  the  employment  you 
give  him  be  lucrative,  especially  if  the  profit  be  attached 
to  every  particular  exertion  of  industry,  he  has  gain  so  of- 
ten in  his  eye,  that  he  acquires,  by  degrees,  a  passion  for 
it,  and  knows  no  such  pleasure  as  that  of  seeing  the  daily 
increase  of  his  fortune.  And  this  is  the  reason  why  trade 
increases  frugality,  and  why,  among  merchants,  there  is 
the  same  overplus  of  misers  above  prodigals,  as  among  the 
possessors  of  land  there  is  the  contrary. 

Commerce  increases  industry,  by  conveying  it  readily 
from  one  member  of  the  state  to  another,  and  allowing 
none  of  it  to  perish  or  become  useless.  It  increased  fru- 
gality, by  giving  occupation  to  men,  and  employing  them 
in  the  arts  of  gain,  which  soon  engage  their  affection,  and 
remove  all  relish  for  pleasure  and  expense.  It  is  an  in« 
fallible  consequence  of  all  industrious  professions  to  beget 
frugality,  and  make  the  love  of  gain  prevail  over  the  love 
of  pleasure.    Among  lawyers  and  physicians  who  have 


•90  ES8AT  IV. 

any  practice,  there  are  many  more  who  live  within  their 
ineome,  ^an  who  exceed  it,  or  even  live  up  to  it  But 
lawyers  and  physicians  b^et  no  industry ;  and  it  is  even 
at  the  expense  of  others  they  acquire  their  riches ;  so  that 
they  are  sure  to  diminish  the  possessions  of  some  of  their 
fellow-eitiiens,  as  fast  as  they  increase  their  own.  Mer- 
clulnts,  on  the  contraiy,  beget  industry,  by  serving  as  ca- 
nals to  convey  it  dirough  every  comer  of  the  state :  And 
at  ike  same  time,  by  their  frugality,  they  acquire  great 
power  over  that  industry,  and  collect  a  large  property  in 
the  labour  and  commodities,  which  they  are  the  chief  in* 
•truments  in  producing.  Tliere  is  no  other  profession, 
therefore,  exc^t  merchandise^  which canmake the  moneyed 
interest  considerable,  or,  in  other  words,  can  increase  in* 
dustry,  and,  by  also  increasing  frugality,  give  a  great  com- 
mand of  that  industiy  to  particular  members  of  tlie  sode- 
ty.  Without  commerce,  the  state  must  consist  chiefly  of 
landed  gaitry,  whose  prodigality  and  expense  make  a  con- 
tinual demaad  for  borrowing;  and  of  peasants,  who  have 
no  sums  to  supply  that  donand.  The  money  never  ga- 
thers into  large  stocks  or  sums,  which  can  be  lent  at  inte- 
rest It  is  dispersed  into  numberless  hands,  who  either 
squander  it  in  Jdle  ^w  and  magnificence,  or  employ  it  in 
the  purchase  of  the  common  necessaries  of  life.  Com- 
merce alone  assembles  it  into  omsiderable  sums ;  and  this 
^bct  it  has  merely  fit>m  the  industry  which  it  begets,  and 
the  frugality  which  it  inspires,  independent  of  that  par- 
ticular quantity  of  predous  metal  which  may  circulate  in 
the  state* 

Thus  an  increase  of  commerce,  by  a  necessary  conse* 
quence,  raises  a  great  number  of  lenders,  and  by  that  means 
produces  lowness  of  interest  We  must  now  consider  how 
fiur  this  increase  of  commerce  diminishes  the  profits  arising 


OF  INTEREST.  80) 

from  tbat  profi^sion,  and  gives  rise  to  the  third  circum- 
stance requisite  to  produce  lowness  of  interest. 

It  may  be  proper  to  observe  on  this  head,  that  low  i^ 
terest  and  low  profits  of  merchandise  are  two  events  that 
mutuaUy  forward  each  other,  and  are  both  originally  de- 
rived from  that  extensive  commerce^  which  produces  opur 
lent  merchants,  and  renders  the  moneyed  interest  consi- 
derable. Where  merchants  possess  great  stocks,  whether 
rq>resented  by  few  or  many  pieces  of  metal,  it  must  fi^ 
quently  happen,  that,  when  they  either  become  tired  of 
business,  or  leave  heirs  unwilling  or  unfit  to  engage  in 
commerce,  a  great  proportion  of  these  riches  naturally 
sedcs  an  annual  and  secure  revenue.  The  plenQr  dimi- 
nishes the  price,  and  makes  the  lenders  accept  of  S  low  in- 
terest This  consideration  obliges  many  to  keq>  their 
stock  employed  in  trade,  and  rather  be  content  widi  low 
profits,  than  dispose  of  their  money  at  an  unde^rvalue.  On 
the  other  hand,  when  commerce  has  become  extensive,  and 
employs  large  stocks,  there  must  arise  rivalships  among  the 
merchants,  which  diminish  the  profits  of  trade,  at  the  same 
time  that  they  increase  the  trade  itself.  The  low  profits 
of  merchandise  induce  the  merchants  to  accept  more  will- 
ingly of  a  low  interest,  when  they  leave  off  business,  and 
begin  to  indulge  themselves  in  ease  and  indolence.  It  is 
needless,  therefore^  to  inquire  which  of  these  circumstai^- 
ces,  to  wit,  law  iniereMiy  or  low  prpfiU^  is  the  causey  and 
which  the  effect  ?  They  both  arise  firom  an  extensive  com- 
merce, and  mutually  forward  each  other.  No  man  will 
accept  of  low  profits  where  he  can  have  high  interest ;  and 
no  man  will  accept  of  low  interest  where  he  can  have  high 
profits.  An  extensive  commerce,  by  produ<;ing  laige 
stocks,  duninishes  both  interest  and  profits ;  and  is  always 
assisted,  in  its  diminutim  of  the  one,  by  the  prqportio&a^ 


802  ESSAY  IT. 

tinking  of  the  other.  I  may  add»  that,  as  low  profits  arise 
from  the  increase  of  commerce  and  mdustry,  they  serve  in 
their  turn  to  its  farther  increase,  by  rendering  the  com^ 
modities  cheaper,  encouraging  the  consumption,  and 
heightening  the  industry.  And  thus,  if  we  consider  the 
whole  connection  of  causes  and  effects,  interest  is  the  ba* 
rometer  of  the  state,  and  its  lowness  is  a  sign  almost  in- 
fallible of  the  flourishing  condition  of  a  pec^le.  It  proves 
the  increase  of  industry,  audits  prompt  circulation,  through 
the  whole  state^  Uttle  inferior  to  a  dem<mstrati<m*  And 
though,  perhaps,  it  may  not  be  impossible  but  a  sudden 
and  a  great  check  to  commerce  may  have  a  momentary  ef* 
feet  of  the  same  kind,  by  throwing  so  many  stocks  out  ol* 
trade ;  it  must  be  attended  with  such  misery  and  want  of 
employment  to  the  poor,  that,  besides  its  short  duration, 
it  will  not  be  possible  to  mistake  the  one  case  for  the  other. 
Those  who  have  asserted,  that  the  plenty  of  money, 
was  the  cause  of  low  interest,  seem  to  have  taken  a  colla- 
teral efiect  for  a  cause ;  since  the  same  industry,  which 
sinks  the  interest,  commonly  acquires  great  abundance  of 
the  precious  metals.  A  variety  of  fine  manufactures,  with 
vigilant  enterprising  merchants,  will  soon  draw  money  to 
a  state,  if  it  be  any  where  to  be  found  in  the  world.  The 
same  caui;e,  by  multiplying  the  conveniences  of  life,  and  in- 
creasing iildustry,  collects  great  riches  into  the  hands  of 
persons,  who  are  not  prc^rietors  of  land,  and  produces, 
by  that  means,  a  lowness  of  interest.  But  though  both 
these  effects,  plenty  of  money  and  low  interest,  naturally 
arise  from  commerce  and  industry,  they  are  altogether  in- 
dependent of  each  other.  For  suppose  a  nation  removed 
into  the  Pac^c  ocean,  without  any  foreign  commerce,  or 
any  knowledge  of  navigation :  Suppose  that  this  nation 
possesses  ahvays  the  same  stock  of  com,  but  b  continually 


OF  INTEREST.  \  SOS 

increasing  in  its  numbers  and  industry :  It  is  evident,  that 
the  price  of  every  commodity  must  gradiially  diminish  in 
that  kingdom ;  since  it  is  the  proportioni  between  money 
and  any  species  of  goods  which  fixes  their  mutual  value : 
and,  upon  the  present  supposition,  the  coikveniences  of  life 
become  every  day  more  abundant,  withoi^t  any  alteration 
in  the  current  specie.  A  less  quantity  of  mpney,  therefore, 
among  diis  people,  will  make  a  rich  man,  ^uring  the  times 
of  industry,  than  would  suffice  to  that  pm^pose,  in  igno- 
rant and  slothful  ages.  Less  money  will  build  a  house, 
portion  a  daughter,  buy  an  estate,  support  a  manufactory, 
or  maintain  a  family  and  equipage.  These  are  the  uses 
for  which  men  borrow  money ;  and  therefore,  the  greater 
or  less  quantity  of  it  in  a  state  has  no  influence  on  the 
interest.  But  it  is  evident,  that  the  greater  or  less  stock 
of  labour  and  conmiodities  must  have  a  grebtt  influence ; 
since  we  really  and  in  effect  Ikirrow  thes^  when  we 
take  money  upon  interest.  It  is  true,  whet  commerce 
is  extended  all  over  the  glob^  the  most  indastrious  na- 
tions always  abound  most  with  the  precious  metals ;  so 
that  low  interest  and  plenty  of  money  are  in  fact  almost 
inseparable.  But  still  it  is  of  consequence  to  know  the 
principle  whence  any  phenomenon  arises,  and  to  distin- 
guish between  a  cause  and  a  concomitant  effect  Besides 
that  the  speculation  is  curious,  it  may  frequently  be  of  use 
in  the  conduct  of  puUic  affiurs.  At  least,  it  must  be  owned, 
that  nothing  can  be  of  more  use  than  to  improve,  by  prac- 
tice, the  method  of  reasoning  on  these  subjects,  which  of 
all  others  are  the  most  important ;  though  they  are  com- 
monly treated  in  the  loosest  and  most  cmrdess  knanner.  ' 
Another  reason  of  this  popular  inbtake  with  re^wrd  to 
the  cause  of  low  interest,  seems  to  be  the  instance  of  some 
nations,  where,  after  a  suddra  acquisition  of  money,  or  of 


90* 
the'praoioiis  met 

bowrin^  stales, 
luidinsiniiftled 
S^pamfiall  near 
ibe  West  JaOii 
Vfga;  and  it 
^yery  kingdom^ 
conquest  of 
from  Dion  \ 

The  oai 
eraat^aeem 


X88AT  IT. 


^  by  means  of  foragn  conquests,  the  m^ 

^  only  amcHi^  them,  but  in  all  the  neigh- 
\  aoon  as  that  money  was  dispersed,  and 

'into  every  corner.  Thus,  interest  in 
half  immediatdy  after  the  discoYexy  of 
as  we  are  informed  by  Gardlasso  de  la 

beoa  ever  since  gradually  sinking  in 
*  Europe.  Interest  in  Rome,  after  the 
pt^  fell  from  6  to  A  per  cent  as  we  learn 


of  the  sinking  <^  interest^  upon  such  an 
it  in  the  ccmquering  country  and  in  the 
neighbouring  latates ;  but  in  ndther  of  th^n  can  we  justly 
asi^ibe  that  efteot  meidy  to  the  increase  of  gold  and  silver. 
In  the  connuaring  country,  it  is  natural  to  imagine,  that 
this  new  ac^uisitimi  of  money  will  fisdl  into  a  few  hands, 
and  be  gathpred  into  huge  vmns,  whidi  seek  a  secure  re- 
venue, eithdr  by  the  purchase  of  land,  or  by  interest;  and 
consequently  the  same  effect  follows,  for  a  little  time^  as  if 
there  had  been  a  great  accessi<m  of  industry  and  com- 
merce.  The  increase  i^lenders  above  the  borrowers  sinks 
the  interest,  and  so  much  the  faster,  if  those  who  have  ac- 
quired those  large  sums  find  no  industry  or  commerce  in 
the  state,  and  no  method  o(  en^loyiag  their  money  but 
by  lendii^  it  at  inib^rest    But  after  this  new  mass  of  gold 
and  silver  him  been  digested,  and  has  circulated  through 
the  whole  states  affiurs  will  so(m  return  to  their  fonner  si- 
tniKti(m»  while  the  landlords  and  new  money-lioUers^  living 
idly,  sqpiander  abov^Q  their  income;  and  the  former  daily 
contract  debt^  and  the  latter  encroach  on  thar  stock  till 
its  final  exttnctiOD.    The  whole  money  may  still  be  in  the 


•  Lih.U. 


OF  INmUBiT.  Mi 

MU),  and  Bwke  iUwlf  Mt  by  tkd  lAf  r«a«e  of  prices ;  bat 
iiel  bebv  now  ooUeoted  into  mxf  la^  masaHa  or  sto<duv 
the  diaftrefuttiaa  between  due  honrowere  and  l«idire  ik 
t)ie  same  at  Sbrnedjv  apd  conaeqnendy  die  h%^  interest 

Asceatdmgly  we  ind  in  Barney  lliat^  so  earljr  as  TAe* 
tjm^s  time^  interest  had  again  mounted  to  6  psr  efs&  *, 
thengh  no  aiaddmit  bad  happened  to  drain  tbe  erapii^  of 
Dnoney.  In  Trajan's  t\m^  money  lent  on  nartgagM  in 
Italy  bore  6  par  cent  ^  on  ocHnmon  seenritat^  in  BUiynia 
1&^{  and  if  interest  in  Spain  has  not  risen  to  ita(ddptteh» 
this  can  be  ascribed  to  nothing-bat  die  ckmtiniutnoe  of  the 
aaiae  cause  that  sunk  it,  to  wit,  the  large  fbrtuhea  ccm^ 
tinnally  made  in  the  Indies,  which  come  Ofer  to  Spam 
from  time  to  time,  and  supply  the  demand  of  the  borrow- 
ers. By  this  accidental  and  extraneous  cause,  more  mo- 
ney is  to  be  lent  in  Spain,  that  is,  more  money  is  collected 
into  large  sums,  than  would  otherwise  be  found  in  a  state, 
where  there  are  so  little  ccnnmerce  and  industry. 

As  to  the  reduction  of  interest  which  has  followed  in 
England,  France,  and  other  kingdoms  of  Europe  that 
have  no  mines,  it  has  been  gradual,  and  has  not  proceed- 
ed from  the  increase  of  money,  considered  merely  in  it- 
self, but  from  that  of  industry,  which  is  the  natural  effect 
of  the  former  increase  in  that  interval,  before  it  raises  the 
prices  of  labour  and  provisions;  for  to  return  to  the  fore- 
going supposition,  if  the  industry  of  England  had  risen  as 
much  from  other  causes,  (and  that  rise  might  easily  have 
happened,  though  the  stock  of  money  had  remained  the 
same,)  must  not  all  the  same  consequences  have  followed, 

*  Columella,  lib.  liL  cap.  S. 

^  Plinii  Epist  lib.  Tii.  cp.  18. 

•  Id.  lib.  X.  ep.  62. 
VOL.  I.  X 


806  XMAT  IV. 

which  we  obserre  at  present?  The  same  pe(^k  would  in 
that  case  be  found  in  the  kingdom,  the  same  commodities, 
the  same  industry^  manufactures^  and  conuoerce;  and 
consequently  the  same  merchants,  with  the  same  stocks^ 
that  is,  with  the  same  command  over  labour  and  commo-^ 
dities^  only  represented  l^  a  similar  number  of  white  or 
yellow  pieces,  which  being  a  circumstance  of  no  moment 
would  only  affect  the  waggoner,  porter,  and  trunk-maker. 
Luxury,  therefore,  manufiictures,  arts,  industry,  frugality, 
flourishing  equally  as  at  present,  it  is  evident,  that  interest 
must  also  have  been  as  low,  since  that  is  the  necessary  re« 
suit  of  all  these  circumstances,  so  far  as  they  determine 
the  profits  of  commerce,  and  the  proportion  between  tbm 
borrowers  and  lenders  in  any  state. 


ESSAY  V, 


OF  THE  BALANCE  OF  TRADE. 

Ir  is  very  usual,  in  nations  ignorant  of  the  nature  of  com- 
merce, to  prohibit  the  exportation  of  commodities,  and  to 
preserve  among  themselves  whatever  they  think  valuable 
and  useful.  They  do  not  consider,  that  in  this  prohibi- 
tion they  act  directly  contrary  to  their  intention ;  and  thai 
the  more  there  is  exported  of  any  commodity,  the  more 
wfll  l>e  raised  at  home,  of  which  ihey  iheniselves  will  ai- 
rways have  the  first  offer. 

It  is  well  known  to  the  learned,  that  the  ancient  laws 
of  Athens  rendered  the  exportation  of  figs  criminal ;  that 
"being  supposed  a  species  of*  fruit  so  excellent  in  Attica, 
diat  the  Athenians  deemed  it  too  delicious  for  the  palate 
of  any  foreigner ;  and  in  this  ridiculous  prohibition  they 
were  so  much  in  earnest,  that  informers  were  thence  called 
sycophants  among  them,  from  two  Greek  words,  which 
signify  Jigs  and  discoverer  *•  There  are  .proofs  in  many 
old  acts  of  parliament  of  the  same  ignorance  in  the  nature 
of  commerce,  particularly  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III. ; 
and  to  this  day,  in  France,  the  exportation  of  com  is  al- 
most always  prohibited,  in  order,  as  they  say,  to  pre  vert 
famines;  though  it  is  evident,   that  nothing  contributes 

•  Plut  D«  Cwriositftte. 


808  XS8AY  T. 

more  to  the  frequent  famines^  which  80  much  distress  that 
fertile  country. 

The  same  jealous  fear,  with  r^ard  to  money,  has  alsd 
prevailed  among  several  nati<vi0  i  and  it  required  both  rea- 
son and  experience  to  convince  any  people,  that  these 
prohibitions  serve  to  no  other  purpose  than  to  raise  the 
exchange  against  them,  and  produce  a  still  greater  expor- 
tation. 

These  errors,  OB^mayaa^T,  aire  gross  and  palpable;  but 
there  still  prevails,  even  in  nations  well  acquainted  with 
jcommerce*  astrong  j<ealousy  with  regat*d  to  the  balance  ^ 
trade,  and  a  fear  that  all  their  gold  and  silver  may  be  lea- 
ving them*  This  seems  to  me,  almost  in  every  case,  a 
groundless  apprehension ;  and  I  should  as  soon  dread,  that 
all  our  springs  and  rivers  should  be  exhausted,  as  that 
money  should  abandon  a  kingdom  where  there  are  people 
and  industry.  Let  us  carefully  preserve  these  latter  ad- 
vantages, and  we  need  never  be  apprehensive  of  losiiig  the 
fonpet* 

It  is  easy  to  observe,  that  all  calculatibps  concerning  the 
balance  of  trade  are  found^^  on  very  uncertain  facts  and 
suppositions.  The  custom-bouse  books  are  allowed  to  be 
an  insufficient  ground  of  reasoning ;  nor  is  the  rat^  of  ex- 
change much  better,  unless  we  consider  it  with  all  nation^ 
and  know  also  the  proportion  of  the  jseveral  sums  remit- 
ted, which  one  may  safely  pronounce  impossible*  Every 
man,  who  has  ever  r^asoii^  on  this  subyect,  has  always 
proved  his  tb^ry,.  whatever  it  was,  by  kcts  and  calcida* 
tions,  and  by  an  enumeration  of  all  th^  commodities  sent 
to  all  foreign  kingdoms. 

The  writings  of  Mr  Gee  struck  the  nation  with  an  uni^ 
versal  panic,  when  they  saw  it  plainly  demonstrated,  by  k 
detail  of  particulars,  that  the  balance  was  against  them  for 


OF  THE  BALJINCS  OF  TRADE.  304 

SO  goni^CTtibl^  &  sttto»  «9  fnttflttesve  tiiem  ^dioui  it  siifi^ 

liave  since  ^(^se^^  witk  ah  «)cpeittsiv6  foreign  war ;  yet  it 
ii  patmtMily  svippoMd,  that  mtmey  Is  still  mort  plentHbl 
among  ns  tbah  m  any  former  period. 

NotUng  can  be  more  entertainitig  on  this  head  tfaatl  Br 
Swift;  an  atttibor  to  <jti!tk  in  discerning  uie  mistakes  and 
idysnrdilies  of  others.  He  say^  In  his  Short  Vtew  ofths 
Stale  eflrdandf  fliat  the  whole  <ash  of  that  kingdom  for- 
merly amounted  but  to  L.  500,000;  that  out  of  thistlie 
Irish  remitted  every  year  a  neat  mfllbti  to  England,  and 
had  scarcely  any  other  source  from  wbieh  they  c6tdd  cdm- 
pensate  themselves,  and  little  other  foreign  trade  than  ttie 
importation  of  French  vrines,  for  which  they  paid  iready 
money.  Hie  consequence  of  this  sftuatloli,  which  mu^t 
be  owned  to  be  disadvantageous,  wim,  that,  in  a  course  of 
ilbtee  years,  the  current  money  oflretand^  from  L.  5O0,ty00, 
Was  reduced  to  less  than  two.  And  at  pre^nt,  I  fiupi^ose, 
in  a  (»arso  of  thirty  y^rs,  It  is  absolutely  nothing.  Yet  I 
know  not  how  that  opinion  of  the  advance  of  riches  in  Ire- 
land, which  gave  the  Doctor  so  mti(^  indignation,  seems 
still  to  conthnie,  and  gain  ground  with  everybody. 

Ih  short,  this  appreSiensioh  of  the  wrong  balatice  of 
trade  appears  of  sndi  a  nature,  that  it  discovert  ifsetf 
wherever  one  is  out  of  htnnour  whh  the  ministry,  or  h  iti 
low  spirits ;  ahd  as  it  can  never  be  refuted  by  a  particular 
detail  of  all  the  es:potts  which  ^tmtetbatance  the  imports, 
it  may  here  be  pit)per  to  Ibrm  a  general  argument,  that 
may  prove  the  impossibility  of  this  event,  so  long  as  we 
preserve  our  people  and  otur  Indastry. 

Si^pose  four-fifths  of  all-  the  money  in  Great  j&ritain  to 
be  amtihilftted  in  one  night,  and  the  nation  reduced  to  the 
same  condition,  whh  regard  to  ^ede,  ai$  In  the  reigns  of 


310  l^SAY  T. 

tbe  Harrjrs  an4Edwards>  what  would  be  tbeeonsetgiieiice?, 
Most  not  tbe  price  of  all  labour  and  commodities  sink  in 
proportion^  and  every  thing  be  sold  as  dieap  as  they  were; 
in  those  ages  ?  What  nation  could  then  diq>ute  with  us  ia 
any  foreign  market,  or  pretend  to  navigate  or  to  sellma^, 
n9fiu:tiMres  at  the  same  price,  which  to  us  would  afford  suf- 
ficient profit?  In  how  little  time,  therefore,  must  this  bring:, 
back  the  money  which  we  had  loat,  and  raise  us  to  the  le^, 
veL  of  aM  the  neighbouring  nations?  wher^  after  we have^ 
arrived,  we  immediately  lose  the  advantage  of  the  cheap^ 
ness  of  labour  and  commodities ;  and  the  farther  flowing^ 
in  of  money  is  stopped  by  our  fuhiess  and  repletion* 

Again,  suppose  that  all  the  money  of  Great  Britaia 
were  multiplied  fivdbld  in  a  night,  must  not  the  contrary 
effect  follow  ?  Must  not  all  labour  and  commodides  rise  to. 
such  an  e^corbitant  l\^ht,  that  no  neighbouring  nations 
could  afford  to  buy  firom  us ;  while  their  commociitie^^  on. 
tlie  other  hand,  became  comparatively  so  cheap,  that,  in 
spite  of  all  the  laws  which  could  be  formed^  diey  would.be 
run  in  upon  us,  and  our  money  flow  out ;  till  we  fall  to  a 
level  with  foreigners^  and  lose  that  great  superipori^  of 
riches,  which  had  laid  us  under  such  disadvantages  ? 

Now,  it  is  evident,^  that  the  same  causes  which  would 
correct  these  exorbitant  ineijualities,  were  they  to  happen 
miraculously,  must  prevent  their  happening  in  the  com- 
mon course  of  nature,  and  must  for  ever,  in  all  nei^bour- 
ing  nations^  preserve  money  nearly  proportionable  to  the 
art  and  industry  of  each  nation.  All  water,  wherever  it 
communicates,  remains  always  at  a  level.  Ask  naturalista 
the  reason ;  they  tellyou^  tbat^  were  it  to  be  raised  in  any 
one  place,  the  superior  gravity  of  that  part  not  being  ba- 
lanced, must  depress  it,  till  it  meets  a  counterpoise ;  and 
that  the^same  cause,  which  redresses  the  inequality  when 


or  THE  BALANCE  OF  TBADE.  811 

it  hlHppcliis,  must  for  ever  prevent  it,  without  som^  violent 
iQKten^  operation  K 

Can  one  imagine,  that  it  bad  ever  been  possible,  by  any 
laws,  (NT  even  by  any  art  or  industry,  to  have  kept  all  the 
money  in  l^pain,  whidi  the  galleons  have  brought  from 
the  Indies?  Or  that  all  commodities  could  be  sold  in 
iVance  for  a  tenth  of  the  price  which  they  would  yield  on 
the  other  side  ci  the  Pyrenees,  without  findmg  their  way 
thid&er,  and  draining  from  that  immense  treasure?  What 
Other  reason,  indeed,  is  there,  why  all  nations,  at  presient, 
gainin  thdr  trade  with  Spain  and  Portugal;  but  because 
it  is  impossible  to  heap  up  money,  more  than  any  fluid, 
beyoiiditpprc^r  level?  The*sovere^;ns  of  these  countries 
have  shewn,  that  they  wanted  not  inclination  to  keep  their 
gold  and  silver  to  themselves,  had  it  been  in  any  degree 
practicable. 

Bbt  as  aAjr  body  of  water  may  be  raised  above  the  level 
of  the  surroundiilg  element,  if  the  former  has  no  commu- 
nication with  the  latter ;  so  in  money  if  the  communication 
be  ci)t  off,  by  any  material  or  physical  impediment  (&r  all 
laws  alone  are  ineffectual),  there  may,  in  such  a  case,  be  a 
very  great  inequality  of  money.  Thus  the  immense  disfv 
tance  of  China,  together  with  the  monopolies  of  our  India 
companies,  obstructing  the  communication,  preserve  in 
Europe  the  gcid  apd  silver,  especially  the  Utter,  in  much 
greater  plenty  than  they  are  found  in  that  kingdom.  But, 
notwithstanding  this  great  obstruction,  the  force  of  the 

*  There  it  another  cmuse,  Uiough  mora  limited  in  its  operttiaiii  idiid^ 
checks  the  wrong  balance  of  trade,  to  erery  particular  nation  to  which  tba 
kingdom  tradea.  When  we  import  more  goods  than  we  export,  the  exchange 
turni  againitiit>andthiibecomesattewenooiiragemeiitto  export;  asmuch 
at  the  charge  of  carriage  and  inauraace  of  the  money  wlaidk  beeomat  duo 
^ould  amount  ta  For  the«xchange  can  nevar  riaa  but  a  little  h^bcr  tl|at| 
thei 


S13  SSflAY  V. 

CMaweB  abo^  mentkmed  is  ttffl  evUeiit  Tbesldtlii^  b^ 
genuity  of  Europe  in  general  surpasses  p«i^9^  tkttl  ^ 
Chkia,  ifith  rig&td  to  matiaal  arts  and  mantt^etureS)  yet 
are  we  h^nfi^  aUe  to  trade  thither  widumt^reat  diiNidirail^ 
tage.  And  were-te  not  for  the  eofttkmed  recruits  whkdh 
we  iectiy%  from  Amerioa,  money  would  soon  iinfc  in  fifr* 
wpe,  and  riee  in  Caiim^  till  it  came  nearly  to  a  let^  iA 
both  places.  Nor  ean  any  reasonable  man  deiabt,  bvtthM 
thatkidustrioBsnatkMi,  were  th^  as  near  ns  as  Pbbind^Mf 
Baorbary,  wotdd  drain  ns  of  the  overplus  dT  otir  specie,  tanA 
draw  to  tbemselveB  *  larger  share  of  the  West&dia  trea^ 
sores.  We  need  not  hai^MMimte  1611  physical  attrm^ion, 
in  otdtr  to  explahi  the  necessity  of  this  opemtf  on.  Theh$ 
is  a  moral  attraction,  arising  fhnn  the  interests  and  pas* 
sions  of  men,  whieh  is  full  as  patent  and  iii^llible. 

How  is  the  balance  kept  in  the  provinces  of  ev«ry  Idngw 
dom  attoiq^  themselves,  but  by  the  Jbroe  of  tMiSpfteli^le, 
y/Aash  makes  it  impoesible  for  money  to  lose  ¥»  levels  and 
either  to  rise  or  sink  beyond  tiie  prc^Kiftion  dfthe  labour 
and  commodities  whidi  lot  in  each  provm^e  ?  Did  not 
k>ng  experience  mak^  peo]ple  easy  on  this  head,  what  a 
fond  of  gloomy  reflections  mAf^  calculations  afford  to  a 
melandioly  Yorksbireman,  while  he  amtpMeA  aiid  mag^ 
nified  the  sums  drawn  to  London  by  taxes,  absentees, 
commodities,  and  Ibond  on  comparison  the  tq^posite  arti- 
cles so  much  inferior  ?  And  no  doubt,  had  the  Ekpiim^^ 
subsisted  in  England,  the  kgislature  of  each  state  had  been 
continually  alarmed  by  the  fear  of  a  wrong  balance ;  and 
tks  it  Is  probable  that  the  mutual  hatred  of  these  states 
would  have  been  extremely  violent  on  account  of  their  dose 
neighbourhood,  they  would  have  loaded  and  opprctssed  all 
•otnmarces  by  a  jeidons  and  sf^yerftnoos  cantioh*  Shice 
Ihe  union  has  removed  the  barriers  between  Scotland  and 


OF  THE  BAI.AKCS  OF  TRADE.  A  IS 

Eflghmd,  wliioh  of  Aese  nitiett  gaiM  frtmi  the  other  by 
thiiB &ed  eommetce?  Or  if  the  ibrmer  Uagidem  has  re- 
ceived «iiy  monweof  riidies)  ceait  reefimiaUy  be  account* 
ed  for  by  any  tfaiog  but  the  inerease  of  its  art  aad  indus- 
try ?  It  was  a  oomnKNH  apprehe&skm  in  England,  before 
the  Union,  as  we  learn  from  L'Abb^  dn  Bols  %  thatScot- 
kiid  wonld  soon  drain  tiMtta  of  their  treasure,  were  an  open 
tcade  allowed;  and  on  the  other  side  of  the  Tweed  a  con- 
trary appMhenBion  prevailed :  With  what  justice  in  both 
time  has  eheim. 

What  happens  in  ifilaall  portions  at  mankind  must  take 
place  in  greater^  The  provinces  of  the  Eoman  empire,  no 
donbt,  kept  thcdr  balafice  with  each  odier^  and  with  Italy, 
indepeBdent  of  the  i^isdatune;  m  mttch  as  the  several  coun^ 
ties  of  Great  Britain,  or  the  several  parishes  of  each  coun- 
ty. And  any  man  wiio  travels  over  Europe  at  this  day, 
may  see,  by  the  prices  of  commodities,  that  money,  in  spite 
of  the  absurd  Jealousy  of  princes  and  states,  has  brought  it- 
self neariy  to  a  kvel;  and  diat  the  difference  betwe^i  one 
kingdom  and  another  is  not  greater  in  &is  respect,  than  it 
is  often  b^ween  diffeseat  provinces  of  the  same  kingdom. 
Men  naturally  flock  to  capital  cities,  sea-ports,  and  navi- 
gaUerivers.  There  we  find  more  ttiea,  more  industry, 
more  commodities,  and  consequently  more  money ;  but  still 
the  latter  dafierenoe  boUs  proportion  with  the  former,  and 
the  fevd  is  preserved  K     . 

Our  jeJEdonsy  and  our  hatred  of  Fhmoe  ere  without 
bouhds.;  anil  the  £mner  sentiment,  at  least,  must  be  ao* 
kaoidbedged  reasonaMe  and  well-grounded,  l^ese  pas- 
aitfms  haJie  oecadooed  iinuuDerable  barriers  and  obstruc- 


Lcs  Interits  d'Angleterrc  nud-entendus* 


314  xasAYT. 

tioDs  upon  commerce^  where  we  are  itccnsed  of  bebg  covh 
monly  the  i^ggre^sors.  But  what  have  we  gained  by  tbs 
bargain?  We  lost  the  French  market  for  our  woollen  ma- 
nufactures, and  transferred  the  commerce  of  wine  to  Spain- 
and  Portugal,  where  we  buy  worse  liquor  at  a  higher  price* 
There  are  few  Englishmen  who  would  not  think  their  coun-* 
try  absolutely  ruined,  were  French  wines  sold  in  England 
so  cheap  and  in  such  abundance  as  to  supplant,  in  sdme 
measure,  all  ale  and  hom«*bi^wed  liquors :  But  would  we 
lay  aside  prejudice,  it  would  not  be  difficult  to  prove,  that 
nothing  conld  be  more  innocent^  perhi^s  adYanttgeous, 
Eadi  new  acre  of  vineyard  planted  in  France,  in  order  to 
supply  England  with  wine,  would  make  it  requisite  fat  the 
French  to  take  the  produce  of  an  English  acre,  sown  in 
wheat  or  barley,  in  order  to  subsist  themselves ;  and  it  is 
evident;  that  we  should  thereby  get  command  of  the  better 
commodity. 

There  are  many  edicts  of  the  French  king,  prohibiting 
the  planting  of  new  vineyards,  and  orderuig  all  those  irtiich 
are  lately  planted  to  be  grubbed  up :  So  sensible  are  they,; 
in  that  country,  of  ^e  superior  value  of  com  whme  every 
other  product* 

Mareschal  Vauban  complains  often,  and  with  reascm,  of 
the  absurd  duties  which  load  the  entry  of  tliose  wines  of 
Languedoc,  Ouienne,  and  other  southern  provinces,  that 
are  imported  into  Britanny  and  Ncnrmandy.  He  enter* 
tained  no  doubt  but  these  latter  provinces  could  preserve 
their  balance,  Qotwithstanding  the  open  commerce  whidi 
he  recommends.  And  it  ia  evideni;.  diat  a  few  leagues 
more  navigation  to  England  would  make  no  di£Eerence;  or 
if  it  did,  that  it  must  operate  alike  on  the  commodities  of 
both  kingdoms. 

There  is  indeed  one  expedient  by  which  it  is  possible  tq 


OF  THE  BAI.ANCE  OF  TRADE.  S15 

9iiik»  and  another  by  which  we  may  raise  mon&f  beyond 
itf  oatnral  level  in  any  kiqgdom;  but  these  cases,  when 
examined,  will  be  found  to  resolve  into  our  general  theory, 
and  to  bring  additional  author!^  to  it 

I  scarcely  know  any  method  of  sinking  money  below  its 
levelt  but  those  institutions  of  banks,  fiind^  and  paper  ere* 
dit,  which  are  so  much  practised  in  this  kingdom.  These 
render  paper  equivalent  to  money,  circulate  it  throughout 
the  whole  state,  nwke  it  supply  the  place  of  gold  and  silr 
ver,  raise  proportionably  the  price  of  labour  and  commor 
dities,  and  by  that  means  either  banish  a  great  part  of  those 
precious  metals,  or  prevent  their  farther  increase.  What 
can  be  more  short-sighted  than  our  reasonings  on  this 
head?  We  fancy,  because  an  individual  would  be  nmch 
richer,  were  his  stock  of  money  doubled,  that  the  same 
good  effect  would  follow  were  the  money  of  every  one  in* 
creased ;  not  considering  that  this  would  raise  as  much  the 
price  of  every  commodity,  and  reduce  every  man  in  tim^ 
to  the  same  condition  as  before.  It  is  oidy  in  our  publie 
negotiations  and  transactions  with  foreigners,  that  a  greater 
stock  of  money  is  advantageous;  and  as  our  paper  is  there 
absolutely  insignificant,  we  fed,  by  its  means,  all  the  eiv 
fiscts  arising  from  a  great  abundance  of  money,  without 
reaping  any  of  the  advantages  \ 

Suppose  that  there  are  13  millions  of  paper,  which  cir- 
culate in  the  kingdom  as  money  (for  we  are  not  to  imagine 
that  all  our  enormous  funds  are  employed  in  that  shape,} 
and  suppose  &e  real  cash  of  the  kingdom  to  be  18  millions; 

■  We  obsenred  in  Essay  HI.  that  money,  wiien  increasing,  gives  encmil 
fAgeiMiit  to  industry,  during  the  intervals  betwe^a  die  increase  of  money 
«ad  rise  of  the  prices.  A  good  effect  d  this  nature  may 'foU6sr  too  froqi 
paper  credit;  but  it  is  daogenms  to  paecipitale  nutters  at  tlie  risk  of  lp%^ 
ing  all  by  the  failing  of  that  credit  as  must  happen  upon  any  violent  shock 
.  in  public  affairs. 


Slti  ESSAY  T. 

Here  is  a  state  frhith  is  fotind  by  e&perieMe  to  be  able  td 
hold  a  stock  oTSO  fliSIions.  Isay,  if  it  be  able  to  hoMh^ 
it  mnst  of  necessity  hate  acqmredit  in  gold  and  silrer,  hud 
we  not  obstructed  die  entrance  of  these  metals  by  this  new 
invention  of  paper.  Whence  would  it  have  acquired  0ua 
9nm  f  From  ali  the  kingdoms  of  the  world.  But  why  f 
Because,  if  you  remove  these  IS  miliions,  money  in  this 
state  is  below  its  level,  compared  widi  our  neighbours ;  and 
we  must  immediately  draw  ftom  all  of  them,  I3U  we  be  foil 
and  saturate,  so  to  speak,  and  can  hold  no  more.  By  our 
present  politics,  we  are  as  carefol  to  stuff  the  nation  with 
this  fine  commodi^^  of  bank-bills  and  diequer  notes,  as  If 
we  were  afraid  of  being  overbimdened  widi  the  precious 
metals. 

It  is  not  to  be  doubted,  but  the  great  plenty  of  bttUion 
tn  France  is,  in  a  great  measure,  owing  to  the  want  df  pa» 
per-credit  The  French  have  no  banks:  Merchanti^  bills 
do  not  there  circulate  as  with  us :  Usury,  w  lending  on 
interest,  is  not  directly  permitted ;  so  that  many  have  large 
sums  in  their  coffers :  Great  quantiiies  of  plate  are  ttsed  in 
private  houses;  and  all  the  chnrdies  arefuB  of  it  By 
this  means,  provisions  and  labour  stffl  remain  dheaper  a- 
mong  them,  than  in  nations  that  are  not  half  so  rich  in 
gold  and  silver.  The  advantages  of  this  situation,  in  point 
of  trade,  as  well  as  in  great  public  emergencies,  are  too  evi- 
dent to  be  disputed. 

The  same  fashion  a  few  years  ago  prevafled  in  Genoa, 
which  still  has  place  in  England  and  Holland,  of  using  ser- 
vices of  China-ware  instead  of  plate ;  but  the  senate,  fore- 
seeing the  conseqoeiice^  prohibited  the  ufle  of  thfttbrittk 
commodity  bey<md  a  certain  extent;  while  the  use  cf  sil- 
ver-plate was  l^ft  ntilimited.    And  I  suppose,  in  thdr  late 


OF  THE  BAJl^AVCE  OF  TRADE.  Sit 

tm  on  f30t9  ifi%  perhaps,  ifk  this  yiev,  sosn^whaft  ioqpditic. 

Before  the  iutroductioa  pf  peper-mcmey  into  our  colo* 
iiies,  they  bod  gcM  add  s&ver  tuficftent  tor  tbeSr  circiila^ 
tiop.  SiBce  the  introdnctioii  of  th«^  coiWQodtJ^»  the  least 
iDcooveiiiency  ^at  has  iG^Uowed  is  die  total  banWtmpat  of 
the  precuHis  metals.  And  after  the  aholiliQii  of  papear» 
can  it  be  doubted  but  money  will  return^  vfaile  these  cdo* 
nies  possess  mamifaetures  and  corani)diA)es»  the  ottly  thing 
valuable  ia  commerce^  ^ind  for  whose  sake  alooe  aU  men 
desire  mon^  ? 

What  pity  liycntgus  did  not  thiidiL  of  papcar-oredit,  when 
he  wanted  to  banish  gold  and  silver  from  Sparta  I  It  would 
have  served  his  purpose  better  than  the  lumps  of  iron  he 
made  use  of  as  money ;  and  would  also  have  prevented 
more  efi^tuaUy  all  commerce  with  strangers,  as  beii^  of 
ao  much  less  real  imd  intrinsic  value* 

It  must,  however,  be  confessed^  tba^  as.  all  these  quesr 
ilons  of  trade  and  money  are  extreme^  complicaled,  tJ»Be 
we  certain  lights^  in  wbiich  this  aulsjeci  way  be  (daced^  so 
#s  to  r^reoent  Ae  advantages  of  papev^re^t  and  bmhs 
to  be  superior  to  their  disadvantages.  Thatth^banidi 
iqpecie  and  bidUoit  firom  a  state,  is  «nd/mbtedly  tme;  and 
vhoeirer  looks  no  further  than  this  circumatance^  doea  weH 
<o  condemn  t^em;  l»it  specie  wd  huUwA  «re  not  of  so 
great  c<m8equence  as  not  to  admit  of  a  compenaationy  a»d 
oven  m  overbalance  firom  the  increase  of  indu^JEj  and  of 
«9redil^  which  may  be  promoted  by  the  tight  use  of  paper- 
money..  It  is.  well  known  of  trhad  advantage  it  ia  to  a  mar- 
^anl  to  he  able  to  disoounjt  hia  bills  upon  occasion:  and 
ev^  thmg  that  facifitates  Ak  spedea  of  traffic  is  fisvouiw 
^IdetothogcnmLcofBroerceofastaln.  Butpvivate  banb- 
lors  are  cMUed  to^^ve  such  credit  by  the  credit  iimy  i»- 


sift  SSftAt  V, 

oetve  from  the  depositing  of  money  in  their  shops ;  tanH 
the  bapk  of  Elnglftod  in  the  same'  manner,  fr(Hn  the  Mmrty 
it  has  to  issue  its  notes  io  all  payments.  There  was  an  in- 
yention  of  this  kind,  which  was  fallen  upon  some  years  ago 
by  the  banks  of  Edinburgh ;  and  which,  as  it  is  one  of  the 
most  ingenious  ideas  that  has  been  executed  in  commerce, 
has  also  been  thoeght  advantageous  to  Scotland.  It  is  ' 
there  called  a  Bank-Credit ;  and  is  of  this  nature.  A 
man  goes  to  the  bank  and  finds  surety  to  the  amount,  we 
shall  suiq>ose,  of  a  thousand  pounds.  This  money,  or  any 
part  of  it,  he  has  the  liberty  of  drawing  out  whenever  he 
pleases,  and  he  pays  only  the  ordinary  interest  for  it  while 
it  is  HI  his  hands.  He  may,  when  be  pleases,  repay  any 
sum  so  small  as  twenty  pounds,  and  di^  interest  is  discount- 
ed from  the  very  day  of  the  repayment.  The  advantages 
resulting  from  this  contrivance  are  manifold.  As  a  man 
may  find  surety  nearly  to  the  amount  of  his  substance,  and 
hisbanb-credit  is  equivalent  to  ready  money,  a  merchant 
floes  hereby  in  a  manner  coin  his  house,  his  household- 
liirniture,  the  goods  in  his  warehouse^  the  foreign  debts 
due  to  him,  bis  ships  at  sea;  and  can,  upon  occasion,  em- 
ploy them  in  all  payments,  as  if  th^  were  the  current  mo- 
aey  of  the  country.  If  a  man  borrow  a  thousand  pounds 
from  a  private  hand,  besides  that  it  is  not  always  to  b^ 
found  when  required,  he  pays  interest  for  it,  whether  he 
be  using  it  or  not ;  His  bank-credit  costs  him  nothing  ex- 
cept during  the  very  moment  in  which  it  is  of  service  to 
him :  .And  this  circamstance  is  of  equal  advantage  as  if  he 
had  borrowed  money  at  much  kwer  interest.  Merchantis 
likewise,  from  this  invention,  acquire  a  great  facility  in 
supporting  each  other's  credit,  whidi  is  a  considerable  se^ 
curity  against  bankruptcies.  A  man,  when  his  own  bank- 
ctedit  is  exhausted,,  goes  to  any  of  his  neighbours  who  ia 


OF  THE  BAJjAiaCE  OF  TRADE.  3l(> 

not  in  the  same  condition ;  and  he  gets  the  money,  which 
he  replaces  at  his  ccmvenience* 

After  this  practice  had  taken  place  dl^ing  some  years 
at  Edtnbargh,  several  companiesof  merchants  at  Glasgow 
carried  the  matter  farther.  They  associated  themselves 
iQto  different  banks,  and  issued  notes  as  low  as  ten  shil* 
lings,  which  they  used  in  all  payments  for  goods,  manu^* 
factores,  tradesmen's  labour  c£  all  kinds ;  and  these  notes, 
from  the  established  credit  of  the  companies,  passed  as 
money  in  all  payments  throughout  the  country.  By  this 
means, «  stock  of  five  thousand  pounds  was  able  to  perform 
the  same  operations  as  if  it  were  six  or  seven ;  and  mer-* 
chants  were  thereby  enabled  to  trade  to  a  greater  extent, 
and  to  require  less  profit  in  all  their  transactions*  But 
whatever  other  advantages  result  from  these  inventions,  it 
must  still  be  allowed  that  besides  giving  too  great  &cility 
to  credit,  which  isdangerous^  they  banish  the  precious  me* 
tals ;  and  nothing  can  be  a  m<Nre  evident  proof  of  it,  than 
a  comparison  of  the  past  and  present  condition  of  Scot^ 
land  in  that  particular.  It  was  found,  upon  the  recoinage^ 
made  after  the  Union,  that  there  was  near  a  million  of  q>e- 
eie  in  that  country :  But  notwithstanding  the  great  increase 
of  riches,  commerce,  «nd  manufiictures  of  all  kinds,  it  is 
thought  that,  even  where  Aere  is  no  extraordinary  drain 
made  by  England,  the  current  specie  will  not  now  amount 
to  a  third  of  that  sum. 

But  as  our  projects  of  paper-credit  are  almost  the  only, 
expedient  by  which  we  can  sink  money  below  its  level ; 
so,  in  my  c^inion^  the  only  expedient,  by  which  we  can 
raise  money  above  it,  is  a  practice  which  we  should  all  ex^ 
claim  against  as  destructive,  namely,  thegatheriug  (^hurgft 
sum^into  a  public  treasure,  locking  them  up,  and  d[)so«i 
hitely  preventing  their  circulation.    The  fluid,  not  com** 


dSO  E84AY  V. 

TOankntii^  witU  tb^  ntigkbouring  ^lemeot^  may%  by  mtb 
an  artifice,  be  raised  to  what  beigbl  we  pl^a^o*  To  py^ve 
tbui  we  need  <m\y  teium  t^  ow^  iral  wq)|Mwitioii>  of  anoi* 
hilatiog  thelialf  or  «iqrpartof  <Hirc4ahi  where  we  founds 
thai  the  immediate  coBs^iieiice  of  much  an  event  would  be 
the  attraction  of  an  equal  mm  firan  all  the  neighbouring 
kingdoms.  Nor  doea  tfiere  teen  ta  be  any  necessary 
bounds  se^  by  tfa^  nature  of  thing%  to  dm  practice  of 
hoarding.  A  OBfU  dty^  like  Geneva^  continning  this  po^ 
licy  for  age8>  mig^  engross  nin&*tendu  of  the  money  in 
EuFffie.  There  seems,  indeed,  in  the  nature  of  man,  an 
invinc3)te  obstade  to  that  tnunecse  growth  of  riches.  A 
weak  state,  with  an  enormous  treasure^  will  soon  become 
a  prey  to  some  of  its  poorer,  but  more  powetful  nei^hours* 
A  great  state  would  dissipate  its  weahh  m  dangerous  and 
ill-concerted  projects ;  wul  probably  destroy,  with  it,  what 
is  much  more  valuable,  the  industry,  morals,  and  numbsis 
of  its  people.  The  fluid,  in  this  case,  raised  to  too  great 
a  height,  bursts  and  destroys  the  vessel  that  contains  it; 
and  mixing  itself  wit^Lthe  surroonding  dements,  soon  &Iia 
to  its  {NToper  leveL 

So  little  are  we  ^ommonljr  acquainted  widi  tliia  prinein 
pie,  thst,  though  all  historians  agree  in  rdsiting  unifimn^ 
so  recent  an  event,  as  the  immensi^  treasure  amass^  by 
Harry  VII.  (which  thqr  make  amount  to  2,70(M)M 
pounds)  we  rather  reject  their  concurring  testimony,  than 
admit  of  a  fact,  which  i^^rees  so  ill  with  our  inveterate  pre- 
judices. It  is  indeed  probable,  that  diia  sum  might  bo 
three-fourths  of  all  the  money  in  KngkiucL  But  whore  ia 
the  difficulty  in  conceiving,  that  such  a  sum  mi(^  be  a« 
massed  ii^  twen^  years^  by  a  cunning,  rapacious,  frugal,' 
and  almost  at^olute  monarch  ?  Hor  is  it  probable,  that  tlie 
diminution,  of  circulating  money  was  ever  sensibly  (e^  by 

3 


OF  THE  BAIiiUiCS  OF  TRADE.  821 

the  pec^e^  or  eyer  did  them  any  prejudice.  The  sinking 
of  the  prices  of  all  eommoditieft  would  immediately  replace 
it,  by  giving  England  the  advantage  in  its  commerce  with 
ihe  neighbouridg  kiiq;dom8« 

Have  we  not  an  instance  in  the  small  republic  of  Athena 
with  its  allies,  who,  in  about  fifty  years,  between  the  Me* 
dian  and  Peloponnesian  wars,  amassed  a  sum  not  much 
iderioi'  to  that  of  Harry  VII.  ?  For  all  the  Greek  his- 
torians *■  and  orators  ^  agree,  that  the  Athenians  collected 
in  the  citadel  more  than  10,000  talents,  whidi  they  after-* 
wards  dissipiEited  to  tiieir  own  ruin,  in  rash  and  inq>rudent 
enterprises.  But  when  this  money  was  set  ^-running, 
and*  began  to  communicate  with  the  surrounding  fluid, 
what  was  flie  consequence  ?  Did  it  remafai  in  the  state  ? 
No.  Fbr  we  find,  by  the  memorable  ceMua  mentioned  by 
Demosthenes  ^  and  Polybius^,  that,  in  about  fifty  years 
afterwards,  the  wfade  vcdue  of  the  republic,  comprehend* 
ing  lands,  houses,  commodities,  slaves,  and  money,  was 
less  than  6000  talents. 

What  an  ambitious  high-spirited  people  was  this,  to 
collect  and  keep  in  their  treasury,  with  a  view  to  conquests, 
«  sutn,  which  it  witis  ev^  day  in  the  power  of  the  citizens, 
fay  a  single  vote,  to  distribute  among  themselves,  and  which 
wouU  have  gone  near  to  triple  the  riches  of  every  indivi«- 
dual  I  For  we  must  observe,  that  the  numbers  and  pri^ 
vate  riches  of  the  Athenians  are  said,  by  ancient  writers, 
to  have  been  no  greater  at  the  beginning  of  the  Pelopon^ 
nesian  war,  than  at  the  beginning  of  the  Macedonian. 

Money  was  little  more  plentifiil  in  Greece  during  the 
age  of  Philip  and  Perseus,  than  in  England  during  that  of 

*  ThucydidMy  lib.  ii  aqd  I>iod.  Sic  Ub.  xii, 
^  VitL  iEschinis  ei  Demostbenis  Epitt, 

*  Ilf^i  J,v(AfM^i*i.  '  Lib.  ii.  cap.  62. 
VOL.  1.                                           Y 


882  £8SAT  V. 

Harry  VII. :  Yet  these  two  mcmarchs  in  thirty  years  *  col* 
lected  from  the  small  kingdom  of  Macedon,  a  larger  trea* 
sure  than  that  of  the  English  monarch*  Paulus  .Slmilios 
brought  to  Rome  about  1,700,000  poimds  Sterling^.  Pliny 
juiys,  2,400,000  <".  And  that  was  but  a  part  of  the  Ma- 
cedonian treasure.  The  rest  was  dissipated  by  the  resis- 
tance and  flight  of  Perseus  ^* 

We  may  learn  from  Stanian,  that  the  canton  of  Berne 
had  800,000  pounds  lent  at  interest,  and  bad  about  six 
times  as  much  in  their  treasury.  Here  then  is  a  sum 
hoarded  of  1,800,000  pounds  Sterling,  which  is  at  least 
quadnq)le  what  ^ould  naturally  circulate  in  sudi  a  petly 
state ;  and  yet  no  one,  who  travels  in  the  Pais  de  Vaux^ 
or  any  part  of  that  canton,  observes  any  want  of  money 
more  than  could  be  su(qM>sed  in  a  country  of  that  extent, 
schI,  and  situation.  On  the  contrary,  there  are  scarce  any 
inlmd  provinces  in  the  continent  of  France  or  Germany, 
where  the  inhabitants  are  at  this  time  so  opulent,  though 
that  canton  has  vastly  increased  its  treasure  since  1714, 
the  time  when  Stanian  wrote  hb  judidous  account  of  Swit« 
jKrland  \ 

The  account  given  by  Appian '  of  the  treasure  of  die 
.  Ptolemies,  is  so  prodigious,  that  one  cannot  admit  <^it ; 
and  so  much  the  less,  because  the  historian  says,  that  the 
other  successors  of  Alexander  were  also  frugal,  and  had 
jnany  of  them  treasures  not  much  inferior.  For  this  sa- 
ving humour  of  the  neighbouring  princes  must  necessarily 
have  checked  the  frugality  of  the  Egyptian  monarchs,  ac- 

••  Titi  Liviiy  lib,  xIt.  cap.  4a  **  VeL  Paterc.  lib.  L  cap.  9. 

•  Lib.  xxxiii.  cap.  3.  *  Titi  Livii,  ibfd. 

*  The  porerty  which  Staniaii  tpeaki  of  if  only  to  be  seen  in  the  mott 
mountainous  cantons,  whore  there  is  no  commodity  to  bring  money.  And 
even  there  the  people  are  not  poores  than  in  the  diocese  of  Saltsburg  on  the 
one  hand,  or  Savoy  on  the  other.  '  Proem. 


OF  THE  BAIiANCS  OF  TRADE.  SSQ 

tAtdmgioyh^  foregoing  theory*  Tlie  som  he  meotions  19 
^4O»0(M»  talentit  or  191|16<li|669  pounds^S  shilliiigs  aQ4 
4  peMie^  according  to  Dr  Arbathnof  s  computatioiau  AoA 
y<U  Appian  aayB»  that  he  extracted  hb  aoconnt  from  the 
public  records;  andhewaahimself  a  native  of  Alexandria. 

From  these  principles  we  may  learn  what  judgment  we 
ought  to  form  of  tlK)flc  numberless  bars,  obstructions,  and 
imposts,  which  all  nations  of  Eurc^>e^  and  nonemiure  than 
En^^iand,  ha^e  put  upon  trade ;  from  an  exorbitant  desire 
•f  aniawiing  money,  whi^  never  will  hei^  up  beyond  ita 
level,  while  it  circulates ;  or  from  an  ill-ground^  appre* 
kension  of  losing  their  specie,  which  never  will  sink  below 
it  Could  any  thing  scatter  our  riches^  it  would  be  such 
impolitic  contrivances.  But  this  general  ill  efieel^  how- 
ever, results  from  them,  that  they  dqprive  neighbouring 
iMtions  4iS  that  free  communication  and  exchai^  which 
the  Aathor  lof  the  world  has  intended,  by  giving  them  soils^ 
climates,  and  geniuses,  so  different  from  each  othen 

Our  modem  politics  embrace  the  <mly  method  of  ba-r 
lushing  money,  the  using  of  paper-credit ;  they  reject  the- 
odly  method  of  amassing  it,  the  practice  of  hoarding;  and 
tkey  ad^  a  hundred  contrivances,  which  serve  to  no  pur«- 
pose  but  to  dieck  industry,  and  to  rob  ourselves  and  our 
neighbours  of  the  comnnm  benefits  of  art  and  nature. 

All  taxes,  however,  upon  foreign  commodities,  are  not 
to  be  rqjarded  as  prejudicial  or  useless,  but  those  only 
which  are  founded  on  the  jealousy  «bove  mentioned.  A 
tax  on  German  linen  encourages  home  manufactures,  and 
thereby  multiplies  our  people  and  industry.  A  tax  oa 
brandy  increases  the  sale  <^  rum,  and  siq)ports  our  south- 
em  colonies.  And  as  it  is  necessary  that  imposts  should 
be  levied  for  the  support  of  government,  it  may  be  thought 
mor^  convenient  to  lay  them  on  foreign  copmoditicj^ 

y2 


to  th^  ittipo^  We  «tfglit^  how^v^^  flhrays  to  femtMhet 
tii^lnajiknef  Di-  9mfty  HuLt)  m  ^arkhiiietie^^ecii^ 
toBiss  two  and  two  milk^  i^tft  foti#,  tmt  dtien  taak^  only 
one.  It  can  acareely  be  dotibtad^  btt^  if  «li«  duties  ofi  wta^ 
wore  kmefed  t^  ft  tbtfd^  fhay  woaU  ykkt  modi  more  to 
the  gG^rMient  thiift  at  prtsMt  c  OlMf  ftedple  migbl  diei^ 
by  afibrd  to  drkk  commonly  a  bailer  and  more  whobesDme 
Hqnof ;  Md  m(  prcgodke  wc«U  <sQ$ae  to  the  bditc  of 
ti^d«^ofwhidiweare!k>jeatous.  the  manafdciMNi  of  ate 
be jond  the  agritukai^e  is  bttt  ioeoAddcMbki^  and  giires  t 
ployment  to  few  htods.  Hie  (taii5]K>rt  of  wiae  and  i 
wottld  riot  be  much infetiw«^  >     ... 

But  lUre  dierei  not  freqnent  ksti^Msea^  yoa  will  aay,  4ft 
Miltes  and  kingdoHis^  \^iob  were  fortiieily  Heb  imd  opii^ 
Itn^i  and  are  now  po&c  and  b^garly  ?  Has  hot  tbe  motlaf 
left  diem  witii  wbich  they  formerly  abonnded  ?  I  itniWti^ 
If  they  lese  ^ir  trade,  indnstry,  and  people,  tkeff^amot 
eiapect  to  keep  their  gold  and  silvef :  For  these  prechlus 
metals  will  hold  proportion  to  die  former  admntagea* 
When  Lisbon  and  Amsterdora  got  the  East  India  trade 
irOtn  Vetifde  and  Genoa^  di^  also  got  the  profits  and  ^19^ 
h^y  whitoh  arose  fVom  it  Where  the  seatof  govtonmeM 
is  transferred,  where  expensive  armies  are  maimoiiied  at« 
distimce^  where  great  funds  ere  possessed  by  fbraigtlcrs ; 
dieft  naturally  follows  from  these  causes  a  dimimildoD  of 
the  specie.  Bat  these,  we  may  observ€^  are  violent  and 
foreiUe  methods  of  carrying  away  moneys  and  areintioie 
commohly  attended  ^ith  the  tratlspott  ot  people  and  in- 
dustry. Bet  where  these  remain^  and  the  AnSm  is  not  eon** 
thmed,  the  money  always  finds  its  way  back  again,  by  « 
hundred  canals^  of  which  we  have  no  notion  or  suspteion* 
What  immense  treasures  have  been  spent,  by  so  m«ny  na-^ 


OF  THE  BALANCE  OF  TRADE.  325 

tHHis,  in  Flanders,  since  the  Revolution,  in  the  course  of 
three  long  wars  ?  More  money  perhaps  than  the  half  of 
what  is  at  present  in  Europe.  But  what  has  now  become 
of  it?  Is  it  in  the  narrow  cppipass  of  the  Austrian  pro- 
vinces ?  No,  surely :  It  has  most  of  it  returned  to  the  se- 
veral countries  whence  it  came,  and  has  followed  that  art 
and  industry  by  which  at  first  ft  was  acquired.  For  above 
a  thousand  years,  the  money  of  Europe  has  been  flowing 
to  Rome,  by  a»  epBU  and  ^i^MiUc  cotrcnt  |  but  it  has  been 
mptied  by  many  secret  and  insensible  canals :  And  the 
mfl^rfii0nfitry  ^^d  copuoaearp^  rf^Qfiars at pirefi^^ \hf^ pt- 
j^  lim^flcipm  the  pooi^  teiriitory  in  all  jtaly. 

In  s\k<^  a  gfmevm^nt  h^s  great  reason  to  preiary^ 
m^  oav^  Us  pwpjk  wd  to  m^nufi|cture&  Its  mq^iy,  it 
mif  9fMt  tmat  ^tb^  tmr^  0f  hwnan  f^k^t  V^l^m/t 
fm  f»i«i)owy^  Or,  tf  H  »¥€r  giris  ^tt^ntiioii  t^  f]^i$  htm 
m^tmmtm&f^  it  Q^^Gtiy  to  b^  so  fajr  #sf  it  ^fbcta  t^ 


ESSAY  VI. 


OP  THK  JBALOUSY  OV  TBADB. 


-rlAViNG  endeavoured  to  remove  one  species  of  iU-founded 
jealousy,  which  is  so  prevalent  among  commercial  na!don% 
It  may  not  be  amiss  to  mention  another,  which  seems 
equally  groimdless.  Nothing  is  more  usual,  among  states 
which  have  made  some  advances  in  eonmierce,  than  to  look 
on  the  progress  of  their  neighbours  with  a  suspicious  eye^ 
to  consider  all  trading  states  as  their  rivals,  and  to  suppose 
that  it  is  impossible  for  any  of  them  to  flourish,  but  At  A^St 
expense.  In  opposition  to  this  narrow  and  malignant 
opinion,  I  will  venture  to  assert,  that  the  increase  of  riches 
and  commerce  in  any  one  nation,  instead  of  hurting,  com- 
monly promotes  the  riches  and  commerce  of  all  its  neigh- 
bours ;  and  that  a  state  can  scarcely  carry  its  trade  and 
industry  very  far,  where  all  the  surrounding  states  are  bu- 
ried in  ignorance,  sloth  and  barbarism. 

It  is  obvious,  that  the  domestic  industry  of  a  pe<^le  can- 
not be  hurt  by  the  greatest  prosperity  of  their  neighbours ; 
and  as  this  branch  of  commerce  is  undoubtedly  the  most 
important  >in  an  extensive  kingdom,  we  are  so  fiur  re- 
moved from  all  reason  of  jealousy.  But  I  go  farther,  and 
observe,  that  where  an  open  conmiunication  is  preserved 
among  nations,  it  is  impossible  but  the  domestic  industry 
of  every  one  must  receive  an  increase  from  the  improve- 


Of  THB  JBALOUSir  OF  TRADE.  SST 

Bienls  of  the  others*  Compare  the  sitiiation  of  Great  Bri^ 
tain  at  present,  with  what  it  was  two  centuries  ago.  All 
the  art%  both  of  agriculture  and  manofactures,  were  then 
^Ktremely  rode  and  imperfect*  Every  improvement,  which 
we  have  since  made,  has  arisen  from  our  imitation  of  fo<* 
reigners ;  and  we  ought  so  £ur  to  esteem  it  happy,  that 
they  had  previously  made  advances  in  arts  and  ingenuity. 
But  this  intercourse  is  still  upheld  to  oi|r  advantage :  Not-» 
withstanding  the  advanced  state  of  our  mannfiEictures,  we 
daily  adopt,  in  every  art,  the  inventions  and  improvements 
of  our  neighbours.  The  commodity  is  first  imported  from 
abitMid,  to  our  great  discontent,  while  we  imagine  that  it 
drains  us  of  our  money :  Afterwards,  the  art  itself  is  gra- 
dually imported^  to  our  visible  advantage :  Yet  we  conti<- 
nue  still  to  repine,  that  our  neighbours  should  possess  any 
art,  industry,  and  invention ;  forgetting  that,  had  they  not 
first  instructed  us,  we  should  have  been  at  present  barban^ 
lians ;  and  did  th^  not  still  continue  thekr  instructions, 
the  arts  must  fall  into  a  state  of  languor,  and  lose  that 
emulation  and  novel^  which  contribute  so  much  to  theb 
advanoanent 

The  increase  of  domestic  industry  lays  the  foundation  of 
foreign  oMnmerce.  Where  a  great  number  of  commodi- 
ties are  raised  and  perfected  for  the  home  market,  there 
will  always  be  found  some  which  can  be  exported  with  ad- 
vantage. But  if  our  neighbours  have  no  art  or  cultivation 
they  cannot  take  them  |  because  they  will  have  nothing  to 
give  in  exchange.  In  thb  respect,  states  are  in  the  same 
condition  as  individuals*  A  single  man  can  scarcely  be  in- 
dustrious, where  all  his  fellow-citizens  are  idle.  The  riches 
of  the  several  members  of  a  OHnmunity  contribute  to  in- 
crease my  riches,  whatever  prdession  I  may  fdlow.  They 


$88  EMAT  VU 

coBSiUM  the  produce  of  mj  indiistry>  and  afiordiae  ^m 
prodai:e  of  tbeir$  ia  leturo.  ; 

Nor  seeds  wj  sUte  entertiuii  appreheuttODs,  that  thfilt 
neig^ibours  wiU  ivfirove  to  s«ch  a  d<^ee  iu  every  art  and 
numnfa^ure,  as  to  have  no  demand  from  them.  Natuse^ 
by  giving  a  divenity  of  ^eniusesi  dlnrntesi  and  sotb  tx>  difi 
fiDrent  nations^  baa  secured  tbair  mntval  intecepiivBe  and 
commerce^  aa  long  as  they  all  remain  indnatrious  andelfc 
Tiliz^  Nay,  the  more  the  arts  increase  in  any  state,  die 
■KHre  wiU  be  its  demands  from  its  iBdustrioiis  niefghboiur&r 
The  inhabitants^  having  beeome  opulent  and  skilful^  desife 
to  have  every  oonmiodi^  in  Ae  utmost perfeetian;.aMl; as 
they  have  plen^of  commoditiea  to  give  in  exchange,  they 
make  large  importattoiis  from  evoyfiireigQ  country.  The 
industry  of  the  nations,  from  whom  they  import,  receives 
enoonragement ;  Their  own  is  also  increased^  by  the  s^ile 
of  die  commoditiea  which  they  give  in  exchange. 
.  But  what  if  a  natkm  has  any  sta^e  eommoditji^  suokaa 
the  woollen  mantt&cture  is  in  England?  Must  not  the  in» 
t^rfering  of  our  noi^bours  in  tbit  mannfactttfe  be  a  Iosk 
to  us?  I  answer,  that,  when  any  commodity  is  denominated, 
the  staple  of  a  kingdom^  it  is  si^pqsed  tb^t  this  kingdom 
has  some  pecn^iar  and  natural  advantages  for  raising  the 
conwodity ;  and  if,  notwithstanding  these  advantages,  th^. 
lose  such  a  manu&ctt^re,  they  ought  to  blame  their  own. 
idl^iess  or  bad  government,  not  the  indvrstry  of  their  ne^;h- 
bours.  It  oiight  also  to  be  ^naidered,  ^iE^  by  the  in- 
crease of  industry  amppg  the  neighbouring  naUons,  the 
consumption  pf  every  partieuW  species  of  commodity  is . 
also  increased ;  and  thoi^  foreign  manu&ctures  interfere 
with  them  in  the  market,  the  demand  for  their  product 
may  ^till  continue,  or  even  increase*  And  should  it  dimi- 
nish, ought  the  consequence  to  be  esteemed  so  fatal  ?  If 


OF  THE  J^AX-OUSy  OF  TRADE.  S2B 

tl|^9|)Ht  of  indwtry  be  pr^mrvcd)  itnmy  ^^aily  be^iver^ 
^Nfm  Qiv$  brweh  to  wolbor;  nod  tb«  inwariibotiiFera  of 
woeUt  fi^r  in9tawe>  be  enjoyed  m  line«,  ftilk»  ii^g,  or  any 
oth#r  wmmoHtm  fi>r  wbl<^  tbere  ^ipom  to  be  a  demand* 
We  peed  not  apprehendt  t^At  aU  ih^  objects  of  iodvuBtiry 
will  be  exhausted,  or  that  our  manufacturers,  while  thejr 
fV^wn  OS  an  equal  fo^tie^  with  tho^^  of  our  oc^bonrs, 
wiU  be  in  danger  of  wamting  emp^ym^nU  The  imulatiQn 
ajiiopg  rival  oatiom  serves  rather  to  ketgp  iodustry  alive 
iu  ^  of  them :  And  wy  peq^^le  19  happier  whp.po^^eaa  4 
vari^y.of  manufSM^ures,  thaa  if  th^  ^oyod  oee  mo^Io 
great  mauu&etHre^  m  whif^h  they  are  all  eioplogred.  Theif 
sitfiotioii  is  less  puecarioita ;  and  th#y  wilt  feel  less  sensibly 
ik^^e  revdations  and  uoffertainties,  to  iRhicb  every  partis 
CttliMT  branch  of  commeoce  will  always  be  exposed* 

The  only  eommereial  state  that  ought  to  dread  th^  im^ 
provraients  and  industry  of  their  nei^f^bbours,  is  such  a  one 
48  the  Dtttch^  who^  efyoying  na  extent  of  land,,  nor  pos^ 
sesfiAgany  number  of  native  awmodities,  flourish  only  by 
their  being  the  hrokars,  and  factory  and  caniera  of  others. 
Sm:h  «  people  may  oa|nrally  appreheodl,  ihat  as  soon  m 
the  neighbouring  states  come  to  know  and  punue  their  in<« 
terest,  they  will  take  into  their  own  hands  the  management 
of  their  affidrs,  and  deprive  their  brokers  of  that  profit 
which  they  formerly  reaped  firom  it  But  though  this  con- 
sequence may  naturally  be  dreaded^  it  is  very  long  before 
it  takes  place ;  and  by  art  and  industry  it  may  be  warded 
off  for  many  generatbns,  if  not  wholly  eluded.  The  ad- 
vantage of  superior  stocks  and  correspondence  is  so  great, 
that  it  is  not  easily  overcome ;  and  as  all  the  transactions 
increase  by  the  increase  of  industry  in  the  neighbouring 
states,  even  a  people  whose  commerce  stands  on  this  pre- 
carious basis,  may  at  first  reap  a  considerable  profit  from 


SSO  EfiftAY  VI. 

the  flourishing  coiuliti<m  of  their  neighbours.  Hie  Dnteh^ 
iiaving  mortgaged  all  their  revenues)  make  not  such  a  fignre 
in  polttioal  tnmsactions  as  formerly ;  but  their  commerce 
is  surely  equal  to  what  it  was  in  the  middle  of  the  last  cen** 
tury»  when  they  were  reckoned  among  the  great  powers  of 
Europe. 

Were  our  narrow  and  malignant  p<ditica  to  meet  with 
success,  we  should  reduce  all  our  neighbouring  nations  td 
the  same  state  of  sloth  and  ignorance  that  prevdls  in  Mo- 
rocco and  the  coast  of  Barbary.  But  what  would  be  the 
consequence?  They  coidd  send  us  no  commodities :  They 
could  take  none  from  us :  Our  domestic  commerce  itsdf 
would  languish  for  wwt  of  emulation,  es^ample^  and  in* 
struction ;  And  we  ourselves  should  soon  fall  into  the  same 
abject  condition,  to  which  we  had  reduced  Chem.  I  shall 
therefore  venture  to  acknowledge,  that,  not  only  as  a  man, 
but  as  »  British  subject,  I  pray  for  the  flourishing  com-* 
merce  of  Germany,  Spain,  Italy,  and  even  France  itselE 
I  am  at  least  certain  that  Great  Britain,  and  all  those  na-^ 
tions,  would  flourish  more,  did  their  sovereigns  and  mini«* 
sters  adopt  such  enlarged  fmd  benevoknt  sentiments  tON^ 
wards  each  other* 


• 


J 


ESSAY  VIL 


OV  THE  BALANCB  OV  POWSE. 


It  is  a  question,  whetiher  Ae  Mm  of  the  balance  of  power 
be  owing  entirely  to  modtam  policy,  or  whether  the  phmse 
only  fcas  been  iarented  in  the  later  ages  ?  It  is  certain 
that  Xenophon  \  fai  his  Institation  of  Cyrus,  represents  the 
combination  <^  the  Asiatic  powers  to  have  arisen  from  a 
jeakiasy  4^  thekicreasingforcec^tfae  Medesand  Pernansi 
and  thoBgh  that  el^;ant  composition  dionld  be  supposed 
altogether  a  romance,  this  ^entimen^  ascribed  by  the  au** 
thor  to  the  Eastern  princes,  is  at  least  a  proof  of  the  pte* 
vafling  notion  of  ancient  times* 

In  all  the  politics  of  Greece,  the  anxiety,  with  r^ard  io 
the  bfdance  of  power,  is  i^parent,  and  is  expressly  pointed 
oat  to  us,  even  by  the  ancient  historians.  Thucydides* 
re^^esents  the  league  which  was  formed  against  Athens, 
and  which  produced  the  Peloponnesian  war,  as  entirely 
owing  to  this  princ^k.  And  after  the  decline  of  Athens, 
when  the  Thebans  and  Lacedemonians  diq)uted  forsove^ 
reignly,  we  find  that  the  Athenians  (as  well  as  numy  other 
republics)  always  direw  themselves  into  the  lighter  scale, 
and  endeavoured  to  preserve  the  balance.  Hiey  support* 
ed  Thebes  against  Sparta,  till  the  great  victory  gained  by 
Epaminondas  at  Leuctra ;  after  which  they  immediately 

•  Lib.  i.  *  Lib.  I. 


SS2  ESSAY  Tin 

went  over  to  the  conquered,  from  generosity,  as  they  pre- 
tended, but  in  realily  from  their  jealousy  of  the  oonque-r 
rors*. 

Whoever  will  rea^  DeiQQSthenes's  oration  for  the  Me- 
galopolitans,  may  see  the  utmost  refinements,  on  this  prin- 
ciple that.ev^r  entered  into  the  head  of  a  Venetian  or  Eng- 
lish q>eculati8t  And  upon  the  first  rise  of  the  Macedo- 
nian power,  this  orator  immediately  discovered  the  danger, 
sounded  the  alarm  diroiqghottt  aH  Greece,  and  at  last  as- 
sembled that  confederacy  under  the  banners  of  Athens 
which  foiigbi  tb#  gtfiUufA4fsmw^btM0idamwof^ 

It  ifi  tn9%  the  Onaciaa  wmi  m^  legiN^d^i  bgr  hi>t<»riai» 
M  wim  of  eiiid^tkm  9«lbev  than  of  polities ;  and  €»^ 
Mema  to  havf  hml  qio«e  in  vie^lNl^Mgwof  tendinglhf 

miiw   If»«€ottiid»i^ffidiQftd»  AeMnaUmiak^ 
bilMite  i«  wy  M0  nepnblk^  eonpeiittd  Iq  Ite  i^hok^  tht 
grii»  diftoriy  <f  fcraiiig  mgi^  in  ibmo  iitam^^  ^MAb 
flKiiaaldteiki7  btairaj  And  dtwfUm  oj  mmtf  Smemm  a^ 
mong  that  noble  people ;  W0  ahatt  iwwif iitif » .<hat  tji»  kmr 

anA  p«#d  i|M  0  ^fune  been  ipwrd^  vi^  that  ^w^ien  ^^ 
M^f  \^  Pf^itft  m,  i)Qmr  ^g(^  But  vlloti^  we  i^riba 
th^shi^^  ^»4U9  ff>  pU  tb«  (JMci«p  rq[nibUp&  ta>iflfayf 
PMtfntiw  9r  ffV^vwn  j?qMm«^  «iie  effe^  w^^e  lUiip^  Had 
^#ry  pTQ^xa^]^  pPf^npr  wn^  su«^  tq  P9<^t  wkh  a  a^nfekw 
c^y  ^B#t  it,  aod  tbiH^  oftoR  pcHnpoaed  of  il$  fbrm^ 
^etm49  wd  »ttitMu 

Tine  «MAd  i^iteei^  «$U  i^  epyy  or  prudMicc^  wbi^b 
piK)diiei^  the.O^CnMMi.  of  Athens,  md  Pdaiimm  of  Syra^ 
aas«k  Md  evpdiled  af^i^  $itia^n  who9e  feme  or  power  osrear* 

•  Xenoph.  Hist.  Gr«c.  lib.  yi.  and  Yii. 


OF  THE  BillANX^E  dF  POWER.  SSi 

telpped  Ae  rcfsl;  the  Mgie  ptltuAjpHe^  I  say,  fMMilitfy  dis^ 
Covered  itself  fo  foi^gn  pdMcs,  and  sooa  faued  dnenriea 
t6  iheliMmg  5tale^  h&wt^er  tMdetBUt^  tik  the  e3teit:i»e  ot 

The  Pet^^uifi  moiiftrdh  was  iredly,  ifii  fair  6me,  ft  fCRl^ 
prkioe  compart  to  die  Oredto  fepuUios ;  and  (faereferei 
it  bettored  him^  from  ticws  df  safety  more  Stun  friam  rnia-^ 
lattoa^  t^iiit^estMttiself  In  their  qnafrek,  and  to  snpp^vl 
tfie  weaker  side  in  every  contest  This  was  the  adviee 
given  by  Al^tades  to  Tissaphemes  *,  and  it  prokmgedi 
iieai^  a  eeMurf^  the  date  of  the  Persian  en^yire;  t3l  the 
tie^fcct  of  it  fot  a  Aotnent,  after  the  first  appearance  of 
the  aspiring  gehius  of  Hiilip,  broug^  that  leJIfy  and  ItaSl 
e^Kfice  to  the  gromid)  wiA  a  rapidHy  of  whieh  &ere  ara 
few  instances  ih  the  history  of  mankind. 

The  snccessofs  of  Alexander  showed  great  jeakmsy  of 
(be  balance  6f  power ;  a  jealousy  fonnded  on  true  polities 
and  pmdence,  and  Which  preserved  distinct  for  several  ages 
Ihe  partitk)B  mufie  after  the  death  of  that  famoos  conquc« 
ror.  The  ftnrtune  and  ambitioa  of  Andgcmus  ^  threaten* 
ed  them  anew  with  a  nnitersal  monarchy ;  bat  tlieir  eom^ 
fatoation,  and  their  victory  at  Ipsns,  saved  them.  And  in 
subsequent  times,  we  find,  that,  as  the  Eastern  princes 
considered  ihe  Greeks  and  Macedonifms  as  the  only  real 
military  force  with  whom  they  had  any  intercourse,  tliey 
kept  i^ays  a  watdiiul  c^  over  that  part  of  the  world. 
Hie  Ptoleraies,  in  paitteular,  supported  first  Anstus  and 
the  Aehs^ns,  and  then  Oleomenes  king  of  Sparta,  fit>m  no 
oilier  view  than  as  a  counterbalance  to  the  Macedonian 
ltionurchs«  Far  this  is  the  account  which  I^olybius  gives 
of  the  Egyptian  politics  ^. 

•  Thucyd.  lib.  viil.         *»  Diod.  Sic.  lib.  xz.         *  Lib.  ii.  cap.  51. 


tS4  EfiSAT  VII. 

The  reason  why  it  is  stqiposed  that  the  aacioite  w^rf 
entirely  ignorant  of  the  6akmte  ifjmoer^  seems  to  be  drawn 
from  the  Roman  history  more  than  the  Grecian;  and  aa 
the  transactions  of  the  former  are  generally  more  fiuniliar 
to  m^  we  have  thenoe  formed  all  our  oonofasiona,  Itmnst 
\>e  ownedy  that  the  Romans  never  met  with  any  such  gene- 
ral combinadon  or  confederaqr  against  theni)  as  nnght  na- 
tarally  have  been  expected  for  their  rapid  eooquests  and 
declared  ambition,  but  were  allowed  peaceably  to  sobdui^ 
{h^  neighbours,  one  after  another,  tiU  they  extended  their 
dimiinion  over  the  whole  knpwn  world.  Not  to  mention 
the  fabulous  history  of  the  Italic  wars,  there  was,  upon 
Hifftnibal's  invasion  of  the  Roman  state,  a  remarkable  cri-t 
sis,  which  ought  to  have  called  up  the  attention  of  all  civi* 
lized  nations.  It  afqseared  afterwards  (nor  was  it  diffiicull 
to  be  observed  at  the  time)*  that  this  was  a  cootest  for  uni- 
versal empire;  yet  no  prince  or  state  seems  to  have  been 
ia  the  least  alarmed  about  the  event  or  issue  of  the  <]uar- 
rel.  Philip  of  Macedon  reaaained  neuter,  till  he  saw  tlm 
victories  of  Hannibal;  and  then  most  imprudently  formed 
an  alliance  with  the  conqueror,  upon  terms  still  more  im-» 
prudent.  He  stipulated,  that  he  was  to  assist  the  Cartbar 
g^ian  state  in  their  oonquest  of  Italy;  after  which  tbej^ 
engaged  to  aend  over  forees  into  Greece,  to  assist  him  ii\ 
subduing  the  Greeian  commonwealth  \ 

The  Rhodian  and  Achaean  republics  are  much  celebra- 
ted by  ancient  historians  for  their  wisdom  and  sound  po- 
licy;  yet  both  of  them  assisted  the  Romans  in  their  wara 
against  Philip  and  Antiodius.  And  what  may  be  esteem-, 
ed  still  a  stnmger  proof,  that  this  maxim  wws  not  generally 

*  It  was  observed  by  some^  m  appears  by  the  speech  of  Agesilaxis  of  Nau> 
pactum,  in  the  general  congress  of  Greece.     See  Polyb.  lib.  t.  cap.  101. 
^  Tit.  IdTii,  Kb.  udli  cap.  33^ 


OV  THE  BALANCE  OF  POWER.  33S 

known  in  those  tges^  no  ancient  Author  has  remarked  the 
impmdenee  of  these  measures,  nor  has  even  blamed  that 
absurd  treaQr  above  menticHied,  made  by  Philip  with  the 
Carthaginians.  Princes  and  statesmen,  in  all  ages,  maj^ 
beforehand,  be  blinded  in  their  reasonings  with  regard  to 
events :  But  it  is  somewhat  extraordinary,  that  historians, 
afterwards,  should  not  form  a  sounder  judgment  of  thenu. 
.  Massinissa,  Attalu^  Prusias,  in  gratifying  their  private 
passions,  were  all  of  them  the  instruments  of  the  Roman 
greatness,  and  never  seem  to  have  suspected,  that  they 
were  forging  their  own  chains,  while  they  advanced  th^ 
conquests  of  their  ally.  A  simple  treaty  and  agreement 
between  Massinissa  and  the  Carthaginians,  so  much  requi- 
red by  mutual  interest,  barred  the  Romans  from  all  en-* 
trance  into  Africa,  and  preserved  liberty  to  mankind. 

The  only  {Hrince  we  meet  with  in  the  Roman  history, 
who  seems  to  have  understood  the  balance  of  power,  is 
Hiero^  king  of  Syracuse.  Though  the  ally  of  Rome,  he 
sent  assistance  to  the  Carthaginians  during  the  war  of  the 
auxiliaries  {  <<  Esteeming  it  requisite,'^  says  PolybiusS 
^<  both  in  order  to  retain  his  dominions  in  Sicily,  and  to 
«<  preserve  the  Roman  friendship,  that  Carthage  should 
<*  be  safe ;  lest  by  its  fall  the  remaining  power  should  be 
^<  able,  without  control  or  opposition,  to  execute  every  pur- 
^  pose  and  undertaking.  And  here  he  acted  with  great 
<<  wisdom  and  prudence :  For  that  is  never,  on  any  ao- 
^  count,  to  be  overlooked ;  nor  ought  such  a  force  ever  to 
*<  be  thrown  into  one  hand,  as  to  incapacitate  the  neigh- 
«c  bouring  states  from  defending  their  rights  against  it.'* 
Here  is  the  aim  of  modem  politics  pointed  out  in  express 
terms. 

*  lib.  i*  cap.  93. 


3S6  ESSAY  VII. 

In  short  the  niaxim  of  preserfing  the  baUoic^  tdJTfm^^ 
is  foiUKlffl  so  nnick  oh  conunon  sense  and  bbrious  ien^M^ 
ing,  that  it  is  impossible  it  could  ahogether  ha^ra  escaped 
anCiquit^)  where  we  find^  in  otber  particulars,  so  mMy 
auirks  of  deep  penetration  and  discernment  If  it  was  not 
so  generally  known  and  adinowledged  as  at  present^  it  bad 
at  least  an  influence  on  all  the  wiser  and  more  experienced 
princes  and  politicians.  And  indeed,  ereH  at  present, 
however  generally  known  and  acknowledged  aifioiig  spe-* 
culatlve  reasoner 8,  it  has  ndt,  in  practice,  aoi  authority 
much  more  extensive  among  th<ise  who  govern  the  worldi 

After  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  form  of  govern-' 
ment,  established  by  the  northern  conquerors,  incapacita^ 
ted  them,  in  a  great  measure,  for  fkrther  cottque^ts,  and 
long  maintained  each  Gtate  in  its  proper  boundaries*  But 
when  vassalage  and  the  feudal  militia  were  abolished,  men- 
kind  were  anew  alarmed  by  the  danger  at  universal  mo* 
harchy,  iVom  the  union  of  so  maliy  kingdoms  and  princi«- 
palities  in  the  person  of  the  fknperor  Charles.  But  the 
power  of  the  house  of  Austria,  founded  on  e3(tensive  but 
divided  dominions ;  and  their  riches,  derived  chiefly  from 
mines  of  gold  and  silver,  were  more  likely  to  decay  of 
themselves,  from  internal  defects,  thim  to  overthrow  all 
the  bulwarks  raised  against  them.  In  less  than  a  century, 
the  force  of  that  violent  and  haughty  race  was  shattered", 
their  opulence  dissipated,  their  splendour  eclipsed*  A  net^ 
power  succeeded,  more  formidable  to  the  liberties  of  Eu- 
rope, possessing  all  the  advantages  of  the  former,  and  la^ 
bouring  under  none  of  its  defects,  except  a  share  of  that 
spirit  of  bigotry  and  persecution,  with  which  the  house  of 
Austria  was  so  long,  and  is  still  so  much  infatuated. 

In  the  general  wars  maintained  against  this  ambitious 

power,  Great  Britain  has  stood  foremost,  and  she  still 

3 


OF  THE  BALANCE  OF  POWER.  S37 

maintains  her  station.  Beside  ber  advantages  of  lidies 
and  skuation,  her  people  are  animated  with  such  a  national 
^Mrit,  and  are  so  fully  sensible  of  the  blessings  of  their 
government^  that  we  may  hope  their  vigour  never  will  lan- 
guidi  in  so  necessary  and  sojust  a  cause.  On  thlB  contrary, 
if  we  may  judge  by  the  past,  their  passionate  ardour  seems 
rather  to  require  some  moderation ;  and  they  have  oftener 
erred  from  a  laudable  excess  than  fixmi  a  blameable  defi- 

-  In  the  Jim  place,  vre  seem  to  have  been  Q»ore  possessed 
.with  the  andaoit  Greek  spirit  of  jealous  emulaticm,  than 
w^tnated  by  the  prudent  views  of  modem  politics.  Our 
wars  with  France  have  been  b^^  with  justice,  and  even 
perhaps  from  necessity,  but  have  always  been  too  far  push- 
^,  from  obstinacy  and  passion.  The  same  peace,  which 
was  afierwards  made  at  Ryswick  in  1697,  was  offered  so 
^arly  as  the  year  ninety-two ;  that  concluded  at  Utrechlt  in 
1T19  might  hare  been  finished  <m  as  good  condition^  at 
Gertruytenberg  in  the  year  eight;  and  we  might  have  gi- 
ven at  Frankfort,  in  1T43,  the  same  terms  which  we  were 
glad  to  accept  of  i»t  Aix-la^Chapelle  in  the  year  forty- 
eight.  Here  then  we  see,  that  above  half  of  our  wars  with 
France  ami  all  our  public  debts,  are  owing  more  to  our 
own  imprudent  vehemence,  than  to  the  ambitiim  of  our 
neighbours. 

In  the  second  place,  we  are  so  declared  in  our  exposi- 
tion to  French  power,  and  so  alert  in  defence  of  our  al- 
lies, that  they  always  reck<m  upon  our  force  as  upon  their 
^own ;  and  expecting  to  carry  on  war  at  our  expense,  re- 
fuse all  reasonable  teirms  of  accommodation.  Habeni  suft- 
jedasy  tanquam  moss  vilesj  ui  aUenos*  All  the  world  knows, 
that  the  factious  vote  of  the  House  of  Commons,  in  the 
b^;inning  of  the  last  parliament,  with  the  professed  humour 

VOL.  I.  z' 


SS8  SS8ATV1I. 

cS  die  BatkNiy  made  the  Qucai  of  Hungary  mflezible  in 
her  temUf  and  preveated  that  agreeoieBt  with  Fruamif 
which  wodd  immediataly  hare  restored  the  general  tntt* 
qnillitjr  of  Europe. 

In  the  AM  place,  we  are  inch  trne  oenfaatants,  tha^ 
iHien  once  engaged,  we  lose  all  cancem  far  ovradfes  and 
our  posterity^  and  consider  only  how  we  may  best  annoy 
the  enemy.  To  mortgage  our  revenuas  at  so  deep  a  rate 
in  wars  where  we  were  only  accessaries,  was  surdy  the 
neat  fiual  ddnsion  that  a  nation,  wfaidi  had  any  preten- 
sions to  politics  and  prudence^  has  erer  yet  been  guilty  oC 
That  remedy  of  funding,  if  it  be  a  remedy,  and  not  rsither 
a  poison,  ought,  in  all  rraooti,  to  be  reaenred  to  die  last 
eactremity;  and  no  evil,  bntAe  greatest  and  most  nrgen^ 
should  ever  induce  us  to  embrace  ao  dangerous  an  eKp&- 
dient 

Theae  excesses^  to  which  we  have  been  carried,  are  pre- 
judicial, and  may,  perhi^M,  in  time^  become  still  more  pre- 
judicial another  wi^,  by  b^gettin^  as  is  usual,  the  opposite 
extreme,  and  residering  us  totally  cardess  and  supine  with 
regard  to  the  fieOe  of  Enrc^M.  The  Athenians,  from  the 
most  busding^  intriguing,  warlike,  pecqple  of  Greece,  find- 
ing thdr  error  in  thrusting  themsdiTes  into  erery  i^mrrel, 
abandoned  aM  attention  to  foreign  afiurs;  and  in  no  conr 
test  ever  took  part  on  either  side,  excqpt  by  their  flatteries 
and  complaisanoe  to  the  victor. 

ibormons  BMmavchies  are  probably  destracdTe  to  hu- 
man nature  in  their  progress,  in  their  contiimapce^  and 
even  in  their  downfid,  which  never  can  be  vtry  distant 
from  their  establishment.     The  imlitary  genius,  whidi 

*  If  Um  Roman  empire  was  of  advantagey  it  could  onlyproeeed  from  tiiii; 
HbaA  maokind  were  generally  io  a  ytrj  diiordtrljy  oochfliud  condhioiiy  be> 
IbraitK 


OF  THE  BALAMCfi  OF  POWER.  339 

aggrandized  the  monarchy,  soon  leaves  the  court,  the  ca^ 
pital,  and  the  centre  of  such  a  government,  while  the  wan 
are  carried  on  at  a  great  distance  and  interest  so  small  a 
part  of  the  state.  The  ancient  nobili^,  whose  affections 
attach  them  to  their  sorereign,  Kre  aH  at  court,  and  never 
wiU  accept  of  military  employments,  which  would  carry 
them  to  remote  and  barbarous  fitmiiei's,  ^diere  th^  are 
distant  both  from  their  pleasures  and  their  fortune.  The 
arms  of  the  state  must  therefore  be  entrusted  to  mercenary 
strangers,  without  zeal,  without  attachment,  without  ho- 
Aomv  leady  on  evwy  occaoioft  to  tttm  tbe«i  ugainsti  ihe 
primbt,  and  join  eadi  despwale  Htdbeonteiil  whoefibrs^pi^r 
aad.pbmdar.  Thia  is  Ao  mo^mafy  pro^seia  of  human 
aflbics*  .ll»i  huBMNi  nature chcdiEakaalfiftila My ,^ 
ration;  this aidbitmii  Umdly idbomrs  for  liw  destrnctite 
of  Ibe  eonquerov,  af  hia  finuly,  and  of  every  tUmgnem 
mod  dear  to  hiio.  The  Bourbons,  tmsdngitotlKstqipaBt 
of  dieBr  fanvt,  fcitiiftdy  aad  affixdonaie  noUU^,  iroiM 
push  their  advantage  without  reserve  or  limitation.  Thesc^ 
vhie  fired  widi  (^ry  and  fwilfltinti,  can  bear  A&  fiii- 
tignes  and  dangers  of  war;  but  never  wo«Usttbmit  to  lan^ 
gniih  in  Ac  garriaons  of  Hungary  or  Lithuania,  foigoiat 
ooorty  and  sacrificed  to  the  intrigues  of  crety  nuaioa  or 
MMtnas  who  qiptoachea  die  prince.  The  iroopa  an 
aOei  with  C^^nvatea  aad  Tartua,  Honraand  OasaMi, 

4ttbeMevprfmaoeB$  andthe^anlaociMiyfiilecfidieRbi- 
man  enpetois,  irom  the-saoie  caos^  ia  renewed  owr  and 
oiftr  again,  «iH  the  ftml  dissolution  of  the  ttKmaidqr. 


z£ 


ESSAY  Vlll. 


OF  TAXES. 

X  MBRB  is  a  prevailing  maxim  among  some  reasoners, 
4kai  etferp  new  tarn  enaten  a  new  abUUy  in  the  wtgeci  to 
'bear  kf  €md  Aat  each  increase  4^  pnbKc^imrdene  increases 
■propcfrtimabfy  the  indmebry  (f  the  peopk.  lliis  maxibt  is 
xyf  sudi  a  nature  as  is  most  likely  to  be  abused^  and  is  so 
mnch  the  more  dangerous,  as  its  truth  cannot  be  altoge- 
sjber  denied;  but  it  must  be  owned,  when  kq)t  within  cer- 
Jlam  .bounds,  to  have  8<Miie  foundation  in  Ji^eason  and  ex- 
perience. 

-  When  a  tax  is  l«d  upcm  commodities  whidi.  are  con- 
•svmed  by  the  common  people,  the  necessary  consequence 
may  seem  to  be,  either  that  the  poor  must  retrench  some^ 
-thing  firom  their  way  of  living,  or  raise  their  wiages,  so  as 
to  make  the.  burden  of  the  tax  &11  enttrdy  upon  the  .rich. 
JBui  there  is  a  diird  consequence  which  often  follows  iqKm 
Aaxes^namsly^  that  the  poor  incEeasetheir  industry^^per* 
£»rm.ihore  work^  and'Kve  as  weU  as  before,  without  de- 
toanding  more  for  their  labour.  Where  taxes  aretno*- 
derat^  are  laid  on  gradn^y,  and  afiect  not  the  necessaries 
of  life,  this  consequence  naturally  fdlows ;  and  it  is  certain, 
that  such  difficulties  often  serve  to  excite  the  industry  of  a 
people,  and  render  them  more  qpulent  and  laborious,  than 
others,  who  enjoy  the  greatest  advantages ;  for  we  may 


OF  TA9CES.  341 

observe,  as  a  parallel  instance,  that  the  most  tonHnercial  - 
nations  have  not  always  pfossessed  the  greatest  extent  of  • 
fertile  land,  but,  on  the  contrary,  that  they  have  laboured 
under  many. natural  disadvantages.  •  Tyre,  Ath^is,  Car-; 
thage,  Rhodes,  Genoa,  Venice^  Holland,  are  strong  ex-^ 
amples  to  this  purpose ;  and  in  all  history,  we  find  only : 
three  instances  of  large  and  fertile  countries  which  have 
possessed  much  trade;  the  Netherlands,  England,  and 
France.    The  two  former  seem  to  have  been  allured  by . 
the  advantages  of  their  maritime  situation,  and  the  neoes- . 
sity  thiey  lay  under  ct  frequenting  finreign  ports,  in  order 
to  procure  what  their  own  climate  refused  them ;  and  as 
to  France,  trade  has  come  late  into  that  kingdom,  wd: 
seems  to  have  been  the  effect  of  reflection  and  ob8ervatian^ 
in  an  ing^ous  and  enterprising  people,  who  remarked 
the  riches  acquired  by  such  of  the  neighbouring  nations  as 
cultivated  navigation  and  commerce. 

The  places  menticmed  by  Cicero  ^,  as  possessed  of  the 
greatest  commerce  in  his  time,  are  Alexandria,  Colchos, , 
Tyre,  Sidon,  Andros,  Cyprus,  Pamphylia,  Lycia,  Rhodes, . 
Chios,  Byzantium,  Lesbos,  Smyrna,  Miletum,  Coos.  AH 
thes^  except  Alexandria,  were  either  small  islands,  or  nar- 
row territories ;  and  that  city  owed  its  trade  entirdiy  to 
the  happiness  of  its  situaticm. 

Since,  therefore,  some  natural  necessities  or  disadvanta*- ; 
ges  may  be  thought  favourable  to  industry,  why  may  not 
artificial  burdens  have  the  same  effect  ?  Sir  William  Tem- 
ple ^  we  may  observe,  ascribes  the  industry  of  the  Dutch ; 
entirely  to  necessi^,  proceeding  from  their  natural  disadr 
vantages ;  and  illustrates  his  doctrine  by  a  striking  com- 
parison with  Ireland,  '^^  where,^  says  he,  <^  by  the  large- 

•  Epkt  ftd  AU.  lib.  ix.  ep.  1 1 . 

^  Account  of  the  Netfirrlaiids,  chap.  6, 


31S  EMAT  Vllf . 

nets  «id  plenty  of  the  «oil,  uid  ficarcity  of  people,  all 
tbh^  oeeeMttty  to  1%  are  so  cbeap,  that  m  industrious 
man,  by  two  6$ytf  labour,  nay  gain  enough  to  feed  him 
the  rest  of  the  week ;  which  I  take  to  be  a  very  pUdn 
ground  of  the  kusiness  attributed  to  the  pec^le^  for  men 
natordfy  prefer  ease  before  labour,  and  wHI  not  take  pains 
if  they  can  li^  idle ;  diough  when,  fay  necesrity,  they  hav^ 
been  enured  to  %  tiiey  cannot  leaye  it,  being  grown  a 
custom  necessary  to  their  herith,  and  to  di^  Tery  enter- 
tainment. Nor  perhaps  is  the  change  harder,  irom  con- 
stant ease  to  labour,  than  from  constant  labour  to  iease.^ 
After  wbidi  the  author  proceeds  to  confirm  his  doctrine, 
by  enumerating,  as  above,  the  places  where  trade  has  most 
fburished  in  ancient  and  modem  times ;  and  which  are 
commonly  observed  to  be  such  narrow  confined  territories, 
as  b^t  a  necesst^  for  industry. 

The  best  taxes  are  such  as  are  levied  tqpon  consump- 
tions, especially  those  of  luxury,  because  such  taxes  are 
least  fete  by  ihe  people.  They  seem,  in  some  iheasure, 
voluntary;  since  a  man  may  dioose  howfar  he  wffluseihe 
commodity  which  is  taxed.  They  are  paid  gradually  ai^d 
insensibly ;  they  naturally  produce  sobriety  and  frugidi^, 
if  judiciously  imposed;  and  hemg  confounded  with  the 
natural  price  of  the  commodi^,  they  are  scarcely  perceived 
by  the  consumers.  Their  only  disadvantage  is,  that  diey 
are  expensive  in  Ae  levying. 

Taxes  upon  possessions  are  levied  without  expend  but 
have  every  other  disadvantage.  Bfost  states,  however, 
are  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  them,  in  order  to  supply 
the  deficiencies  of  the  other. 

But  t}ie  most  pernicious  of  all  tates  are  die  arbitraty. 
They  are  commonly  converted,  by  their  management,  in- 
to punishments  on  industry ;  and  also,  by  ihetr  unavoid* 


OF  TAXES.  S4S 

aUe  tnequalitjTt  are  more  grievoni,  than  by  the  real  bur- 
den which  they  impose.  It  is  surprising^  therefore,  to  see 
them  have  phu:e  among  any  civilized  people. 

In  general,  all  polt-taxes,  even  when  not  arbitrary,  which 
they  conmumly  are,  may  be  esteemed  dangerous:  Because 
it  is  so  easy  for  the  sovereign  to  add  a  little  more,  and  a 
little  more,  to  the  sum  demanded,  that  these  taxes  are  apt 
to  become  altogedier  oppressive  and  intolerable.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  duty  upon  commodities  checks  itself;  and  a 
prince  wiU  soon  find,  that  an  increase  of  the  impost  is  no 
increase  of  his  revenue  It  is  not  easy,  therefore,  for  a 
people  to  be  altogedier  ruined  by  such  taxes. 

Historians  inform  us,  that  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the 
destruction  of  the  Roman  state,  was  the  alteradcm  which 
Constandne  introduced  into  the  finances,  by  substituting 
an  universal  poll-tax,  in  lieu  of  almost  all  the  tithes,  cus* 
toms,  and  excises,  which  formerly  composed  the  revenue 
of  die  mi^firi.  The  pe<^e,  in  all  the  provinces,  were  so 
grinded  and  oppressed  by  the  pubHofmsy  that  th^  were 
l^ad  to  take  refuge  under  die<xniqa6ving  arms  of  the  bar- 
barians; whose  dominion,  as  they  had  &wer  necessities 
and  less  art,  was  fomid  preferable  to  the  refined  tyranny  of 
Ae  Romans. 

It  is  an  opinion,  aeakmsly  promoted  by  some  political 
writers,  Aat,  since  all  taxes,  as  they  pretend,  &11  ultimate* 
}j  npon  land,  it  were  better  to  lay  them  origmally  there^ 
aid  abolish  6««ffy  duty  upon  Goniomptions.  But  it  is  de^ 
nied  that  all  taxes  fall  ultimately  upon  land.  If  a  duty 
be  had  upen  any  oomniodity»  consumed  by  an  artisan,  he 
has  two  obvious  expedients  finr  paying  it;  he  may  retrench 
somewhat  of  his  expenae,  or  he  may  increase  his  labour. 
Bodi  these  resources  are  more  ea^  and  nataral  than  that 
of  heightening  his  wages.    We  see,  that,  in  years  of  scar- 


344  ESSAY  VIII. 

city,  the  weaver  either  ooosumes  less  or  labours  inor^  or 
employs  both  these  expedients  of  frugality  and  industry, 
by  which  he  b  enabled  to  readi  the  end  q£  the  year.  It  is 
but  just  that  he  should  subject  himself  to  the  same  hard- 
ships, if  they  deserve  the  name,  for  the  sake  of  the  public 
which  gives  him  protection.  By  what  contrivance  can  he 
raise  the  price  of  his  labour?  The  manufiicturer  who  em- 
ploys him  will  not  give  him  mort:  Neither  can  he,  be- 
cause the  merchant)  who  exports  the  cloth,  cannot  raise  its- 
price,  being  limited  by  the  price  which  it  yields  in  foreign 
maricets.  Every  man,  to  be  sure,  is  desirous  of  pushing 
off  from  himself  the  burden  of  any  tax  which. is  imposed, 
and  of  laying  it*  upon  others :  But  as  every  man  has  the 
same  inclination,  and  is  upon  the  defensive;  no  set  of  men 
can  be  supposed  to  prevail  alt<^;ether  in  this  contest  And 
why  the  landed  gentleman  should  be  the  victim  of  the 
whole,  and  should  not  be  able  to  defend  himself,  as  well 
as  others  are^  I  cannot  readQy  imagine.  All  tradesmen,' 
indeed,  would  willingly  prey  upon  him,  and  divide  him 
among  them,  if  they  could :  But  this  inclination  they  al- 
ways have,  though  no  taxes  were  levied;  and  the  same 
methods  by  which  he  guards  against  the  imposition  of 
tradesmen  before  taxes,  will  serve  him  afterwards,  and 
make  them  share  the  burden  with  him.  They  must  be 
very  heavy  taxes,  indeed,  and  veiy  injudiciously  levied, 
which  the  artisan  will  not,  of  himself  be  enabled  to  pay 
by  superior  industry  and  frugality,  without  raising  the 
price  of  his  labour. 

I  shall  ccmdude  this  subject  with  observing,  that  we 
have,  with  r^;ard  to  taxes,  an  instance  of  what  frequently 
happens  in  political  institutions,  that  the  consequences  of 
things  are  diametrically  opposite  to  what  we  should  expect 
on  the  first  appearance.    It  is  regarded  as  a  fundamental 


OF  TAXE8.  S45 

maxim  of  the  Turkish  govermnent^  that  th,e  Grand  Sig^ 
moTj  though  absolute  master  of  the  lives  and  fortunes  of 
each  individual,  has  no  authority  to  impose  a  new  tax : 
and  every  Ottoman  prince,  who  has  made  such  an  attempt, 
either  has  been  obliged  to  retract,  or  has  found  the  fatal 
effects  of  his  perseverance.  One  would  imagine,  that  this 
prejudice  or  established  opinion  were  the  firmest  barrier  in 
the  world  against  oppression ;  yet  it  is  certain  that  its  ef- 
fect is  quite  contrary.  The  emperor,  having  no  regular 
method  of  increasing  his  revenue,  must  allow  all  the  ba- 
shaws and  governors  to  oppress  and  abuse  the  subjects ; 
and  these  he  squeezes  after  their  return  from  their  govern- 
ment. Whereas,  if  he  could  impose  a  new  tax,  like  our 
European  princes,  his  interest  would  so  far  be  united  with 
that  of  his  people,  that  he  would  immediately  feel  the  bad 
effects  of  these  disorderly  levies  of  money,  and  would  find, 
that  a  pound,  raised  by  a  general  imposition,  would  have 
less  pernicious  effects  than  a  shilling  taken  in  so  unequal 
and  arbitrary  a  manner. 


ESSAY  IX. 


OF  POBUC  CBSDIT. 

It  appears  to  have  been  the  commcMi  practice  of  antigui- 
tf  ,  to  xnake  provision,  during  peace,  for  the  necessities  of 
war,  and  to  hoard  np  treasures  beforehand  as  the  instru- 
ments either  of  conquest  or  defence;  without  trusting  to 
extraordinary  impositions,  much  less  to  borrowing  in  times 
of  disorder  and  confusion.  Besides  the  immense  sums 
above  mentioned*,  which  were  amassed  by  Athens,  and 
by  the  Ptolemies,  and  other  successors  of  Alexander;  we 
learn  from  Plato  ^,  that  the  firugal  Lacedemonians  had  al- 
so collected  a  great  treasure;  and  Anianc  and  Plutarch' 
take  notice  of  the  riches  which  Alexander  got  possession 
of  on  the  conquest  of  Susa  and  Ecbatana,  and  which  were 
reserved,  some  of  them,  from  the  time  of  Cyrus.  If  I  re- 
member right,  the  Scripture  also  mentions  the  treasure  of 
Hezekiah  and  the  Jewish  princes ;  as  profime  history  does 
that  of  PhQip  and  Perseus,  kings  of  Macedon.  The  an- 
dent  republics  of  Gaul  had  commonly  large  sums  in  re- 
serve ^    Everyone  knows  the  treasure  seized  in  Rome  by 

•  'BMKf  v.  ^  Akik  1.  •  lib.  iii. 

'  Flat  in  titA  Alex.     He  bmIcm  theie  trettunt  ammint  to  80,000  ta- 
lanti,  or  aboat  15  mfllions  Sterling.     Qnintns  Curtiat  (lib.  t.  o^,  S.  )  seji, 
thai  Alexander  found  in  Sum  above  50,000  talents. 
•  Strabo,  b*b.  ir. 


OF  PUBLIC  CKEDIT.  M7 

Jdins  Caesar,  during  the  dvil  wars :  and  we  find  after- 
wards, tliat the  wiser. emperors^  Angostns,  Tiborins,  Ves» 
pasian,  Severus,  &c.  always  discovered  the  pmdent  fove- 
s^ht  of  saving  great  sums  agunrt  any  pnblic  exigency. 

On  the  contrary,  our  modem  expedient,  which  has  be^ 
come  very  general,  is  to  mortgage  the  pnblio  revomes, 
and  to  trust  that  posterity  will  pay  off  the  incnmbrances 
contracted  by  their  ancestors:  and  they,  having  befon 
their  eyes  so  good  an  txampLd  of  dieir  wise  fathers,  have 
the  aaliie  prudent  reliaace  on  £t€«r  posterity;  who,  at  last, 
bom  necessity  more  than  choice,  are  obliged  to  place  die 
same  confidence  in  a  new  posteri^.  ButnoC  to  waste  time 
in  declaiming  against  a  practice  which  tcppesn  ruinous  be- 
yond all  controversy;  it  seems  pretty  appasent,  that  the 
ancient  maxims  are,  in  this  reelect,  more  prudent  than 
die  modem ;  even  though  the  latter  had  been  confined 
within  some  reasonable  bounds,  and  had  ever,  in  any  bt* 
stance,  been  attended  with  such  frugali^,  in  time  of  peace, 
as  to  disdbarge  the  debts  incurred  by  an  expensive  war. 
Forwhydiouldthecasebe  so  diffirent  between  the  pnblic 
and  an  individual,  as  to  make  ns  establidi  different  maxims 
of  conduct  for  each  ?  If  die  funds  cf  the  former  be  greater, 
its  necessary  expenses  are  proportionably  larger;  if  its  re- 
sources be  more  numaroos,  tiiey  are  not  infinite ;  and  as 
its  frame  shoiiM  be  caleidated  tor  a  much  longer  damtioft 
dMUddlie  date  of  a  single  life,  orevenofafiunlly,  it  should 
embrace  maxims  hurg^y  durable,  and  graerous,  agreeably 
to  the  6iq)posed  extent  of  its  existeBce.  To  trust  to  chances 
and  tonporary  expedients,  is,  mdeed,  what  the  necessity 
ofhuman  affiihrs  frequendy  renders  onavmdabie ;  but  wtio» 
ever  viohmtaray  depend  on  such  resources,  have  not  ne- 
cessity, but  their  own  foUy,  to  accuse  for  their  misfciiuaes, 
when  any  such  befall  Aem. 


a48  ESSAY  IX. 

If  the  abuses  of  treasures  be  dangeroos,  either  l^  ^)ga<^ 
ging  the  state  in  rash  enterprises,  or  making  it  neglect  mi- 
litary discipline,  in  omfidence  of  its  riches ;  the  abases  of 
mortgaging  are  more  certain  and  inevitable ;  pover^,  im- 
potence^ and'Svbjectioii  to  foreign  ^powers* 

According  to  modem  policy,  war  is  attended  with  every 
destructive  drcumstanoe;  loss  of  men,  increase  of  taxes, 
decay  of  commerce  dissipatian  of  money,  devastation  <by 
sea  and  land.  AcocMpding  to  ancioit  maxims,  the  openings 
of  the  public  treasure,  as  it  produced  an  uncommon  a^ 
fluence  of  gtdd  and  silver,  served  as  a  temporary  encou- 
ragement to  industry,  and  atoned,  in  some  degree^  for  the 
inevitable  calamities  of  war. 

It  is  very  tempting  to  aminister  to  employ  such  an  ex- 
pedient, as  enables  him  to  make  a  great  figure  during  his 
administration,  without  overburdening  die  peojdewith 
taxes,  or  exciting  any  immediate  clamours  against  himself.' 
The  practice,  therefinre,  of  contacting  debt,  will  almost 
infiilUbly  be  abused  in  every.govenunent.  It  would  scarce-^ 
ly  be  more  imprudent  to  give  a.  prodigal  son  a  credit  in 
every  banker's  shop  in  London,  than  to  empower  a  states-: 
man  to  draw  bills,  in  this  manner,  upon  posterity.  > 

What,  then,  shall  we  say  to  the  new  paradox,  that  pu- 
blic incumbrances  are,  of  themselves,  advantageous,  inde-i 
pendant,  of  the  necessi^  of  contracting  them ;  and  <hat^ 
any  state,  even  though  it  were  not  pressed  by  a  fordgn  em^ 
my,  could  not  possibly  have  embraced  a  wiser  expedient 
for  promoting  commerce  and  riches,  than  to  create  funds, 
and  debts,  and  taxes,  without  limitation?  Reasonings, 
such  as  these,  might  naturally  have  passed  for  trials  of  wit 
among  rhetoricians,  like  the  paneg3rrics  on  folly  and  a  fia- 
ver,  on  Busiris  and  Nero,  had  we  not  seen  such  absurd 


OF  PUBLIC  CREDIT.  849 

maxims  patronised  by  great  ministers,  and  by  a  whole 
party  among  tis* 

.  Let  us  examine  the  consequences  of  public  debts,  both 
An  our  domestic  management^  by  their  influ^ice  on  com- 
merce and  indastry;  and  in  otir  foreign  transactions,  by 
their,  effect  on  wars  and  negotiations. 

Public  securities  are  with  us  become  a  kind  of  money, 
.and  pass  as  readily  at  the  current  price  as  gold  or  silver. 
Where^rer  any  profitaUe  undertaking  offers  itself,  how  ^c- 
'  pensive  however,  there  are  never  wanting  hands  enow  to 
embrace  it;  nor  need  a  trader,  who  has  sums  in^tihepnl^c 
•stocks,  fear  to  launch,  out  into  the  most  extensive  trade ; 
:skice  he  is  possessed  of  funds  which  will  answer  the  most 
-sadden  delttand  that  can  be  Baade  upon  him*  l^o  mer- 
tdiant  thinks  it  necessary  to'keep  by  him  any  consi€tetd[>le 
cash.  Bank-stock,  or  India  bdndb^  eqpeeialfy  the  latter, 
serve  ail  the^same  purposes;  beeaiisehe  can  dispose  of 
them,  or  pledge  themtoabatikm',iB&quaiterof  anbour; 
and  at  the  same  time  they  are  not  idle,  even  when  in  his 
scrutoire,  but  bring  him  m  a  constant  revenue.  In  shorty 
our  national  debts  furnish  merdiants  with  a  species  of  nK>- 
ney  that  b  conttnually  multij^yii^  in  their  hands,  and  pro- 
duces sure  gain,  besides  the  profits  of  their  commerce. 
-This  must  enable  them  to  trade  upon  less  profit  The 
small  profit  of  the  meidiant  renders  the  commodity  cheap- 
er, causes  a  greater  consumption,  qaidLens  thie  labour  <rf* 
the commonpeopl^  and  helps <o  q)read arts  and  indus- 
try throughout  the  whale  society. 

There  are  also,  we  may  observe,  in  Engtend  and  in  all 
stales  which  have  both  commerce  and  pubMc  dcArts^  a  set 
of  men,  who  are  half  merchants^  half  stockholders,  and 
may  be  supposed  willing  to  trade  for  small  prdits;  because 
commerce  is  not  their  principal  or  sde  support,  and  their 


850  BSiAT  IX* 


ill  the  fimdi  are  a  sure  retovrce  for  tfaanselfes 
and  thdr  fiuniliefu  Were  there  no  iund%  great  Bfterchants 
would  hare  no  eaqiedient  for  realiaing  or  ieeniHig  vxj  part 
of  their  profit,  but  bj  maUng  porehaaes  of  fauid;  and  knd 
lias  many  difadTantagettaooB^Nuiflon  of  fimds.  Beqnirii^ 
more  care  and  inspection,  it  divides  the  time  and  attention 
of  the  merchant  iqpon  aiqr  tempting  oflSeror  extraonUnaiy 
accident  in  trade;  it  is  not  so  easily  conrerted  intomonqr; 
and  as  it  attracts  too  mudit  both  by  the  Bumy  natural  plea- 
sores  it  affiNrd%  and  the  authority  it  gprves,  it  so<mooBverfeB 
the  ririaen  into  the  eoontry  gentleman.  More  men,  there- 
fbre^  with  large  stocks  and  incomes,  nuiy  nataraUy  be  sop- 
posed  to  ocotmne  in  trader  iHliere  there  are  public  debts; 
and  this,  it  must  be  owned,  is  of  some  adfimtay  to  cobh 
merocb  by  difainishing  its  profits,  promoting  cirtektiois 
and  encouraging  industry^ 

But  in  o|^>08ition  to  these  two  fiiTOurable  GurauBstancei^ 
perhaps  of  no  very  great  importanoe^  weigh  themany  dis- 
advantages which  attendjpur  public  ddit%  in  the  wbdevfr- 
iifiar  eoonomy  of  the  state :  You  wifl  find  no  comparison 
between  the  ill  and  the  good  whidi  residt  &am  them.. 

Finif  It  is  certain  that  national  debts  cause  a  mig^ 
ffonflucnrtt  (^  people  and  riches  to  tibeo^pilal^  by  the  great 
smns  levied  in  the  profdnces  topay  dbeintocest;  and  per- 
hi^s,  too^  by  the  advantages  in  trade  above  recntionad^ 
which  tbey  give  the  merclMmta  in  the  ospiftat  above  the  rest 
of  the  kingdom.  The  questiim  is^  Whedw,  in  our  case^ 
it  be  fi>r  the  public  interest,  that  so  many  privileges  should 
be  confiDrr^d  on  London^  which  has  already  arrived  at  such 
an  en<«aous  sice,  snd  seems  stiU  increasing  ?  Some  nen 
pi%  apprehensive  of  the  consequences.  For  ray  own  pert^ 
I  cannot  iotbear  Ainking,  that,  though  die  head  is  undoubt- 
fdly  tiso  large  for  the  body,  yet  durt  great  city  is  so  hap- 


«    OF  PUBLIC  CEKDIT.  861 

pUj  utxMed,  thftt  its  excessive  bulk  cauaes  laas  incoavcan- 
enoe  than  even  a  smaner  capttal  to  a  greater  kingdom. 
There  is  more  difibrence  betweoi  the  prices  of  all  pro^ 
sioDsin  Pans  and  Langiiedoc»  than  between  those  in  Lon- 
don and  Yorkshire*  The  immense  greatsiea%  indeedn  of 
London^  mider  a  government  whidhi  admita  nol  of  discre- 
tionary power,  renders  the  people  fiuetious,  mntinou3»  se- 
ditious, and  even  perhaps  rebellious.  But  to  this  evil  the 
national  debts  themselves  tend  to  provide  a  cea^edy*  The 
first  visibk  enq>tic»i,  or  even  immediate  dang^  ^poUic 
disorders^  nmst  alam  all  the  stockholders^  tvhose  proper- 
ty b  the  most  precarious  of  any;  and  will  makethem% 
to  the  support  of  government,  whether  wipaac^  bjr  Jaco- 
fattirii  violence  or  democratical  £raaqr. . 

Secmdfy,  Public  stocks^  bcang  a  kind  of  pif>tr-^i3edit, 
have  all  due  disadvantagea  attending  that  species  oSimsmfff. 
They  banish  gold  and  silver  ficom  the  mosl  Considerable 
cbounerce  of  the  stale,  reduce  them  to  ceeunoia  drculation, 
and  by  that  means  reiider  all  provisions  and  Uboiir  dearer 
than  otherwise  they  would  be. 

7%ir«%,  The  taxes^whidi  are  levied  to  pay  tbemtereals 
of  these  debts,  are  apt  either  to  beij^ten  the  price  of  la- 
bour, or  to  be  an  oppreasion  on  the  poorer  scart.  ^ 

FourMpf  As  foreigners  possess  a  great  ushare  oS  our 
mtional  fiinds,  they  render  the  pubUcv  in  a  manner^  tribu-* 
tary  to  them,  and  may  in  tame  Qccasjoa  the  transport  of 
o«r  pei^le  and  our  iadnstiy. 

lyOfyf  The  greyer  part  of  die.  puUtt  stock  behiga^ 
ways  in  the  hands  c£  idle  people  who  liveon^  their  rew- 
4Mi^onr  fimds,  in  that  view»  giy^y»ateMOoarHygneDt  to 
an  useless  and  UMCtive  life. 

But  thou^  the  iiyaryt  thai  arises  to  cmnnevee  and  la- 
daatryfiEKU  our  puUk  funds  will  appear^  iqfKm  bahmiiig 


B6S  B8SAT  IX. 

the  whole,  not  inconsiderAble,  it  is  triml,  in  eonparisoB 
of  the  prqudice  that  resuhs  to  the  state  considered  as  a 
body  politk)  which  must  siq)port  itself  in  the  society  of 
nations,  and  have  Tarious  transacticms  with  other  states  in 
wars  and  negotiations*  The  ill  there,  is  pure  and  unmix- 
ed, without  any  favourable  circumstance  to  atone  for  it; 
and  it  is  an  ill  too  of  a  nature  the  highest  and  most  im- 
portant. 

We  have  indeed  been  told,  that  the  public  is  no  weidrar 
upcm  account  of  its  debts,  since  they  are  mostly  due 
among  ourselves,  and  bring  as  much  property  to  one  as 
they  take  firom  another.  It  is  like  transfbring  mctaey 
from  the  right  hand  to  the  left;  which  leaves  the  person 
neither  richer  nor  poorer  than  before.  Such  loose  reascm- 
ii^  and  specious  ccmiparisons  will  always  pass  where'  we 
judge  not  upon  princi{des.  I  ask,  Is  it  possiUe,  in  the 
nature  of  things,  to  overburden  a  nation  with  taxes,  evai 
where  the  sovereign  resides  among  them?  The  vexy  doubt 
seems  extravagant;  since  it  is  requisite,  in  every  commu- 
nity, that  there  be  a  certain  proportion  obeeirved  between 
the  laborious  and  the  idle  part  of  it.  But  if  all  our  pre- 
sent taxes  be  mortgaged,  must  we  not  invent  new  ones  ? 
And  may  not  this  matter  be  carried  to  a  length  that  is 
ruinous  and  destructive  ? 

In  every  nation,  there  are  always  s<mie  methods  of  levy- 
ing money  more  easy  than  others,  agreeably  to  the  way  of 
living  of  the  people,  and  the  commodities  they  make  use 
of.  In  Great  Britain,  the  excises  upon  malt  and  beer  af- 
ford a  large  revenue;  because  the  operations  of  malting 
and  brewing  are  tedious,  and  are  impossible  to  beconceal- 
^ed;  and,  at  the  same  time,  these  coDunodities  are  not  so 
riiMutely  necessary  to  life^  as  that  the  raising  of  their  price 
would  verymudi  aflfect  the  poorer  sort    These  taxes 


QF  PUBLIC  CREDIT.  86ft 

MiigdlBlort^ed^^bMdifficoIiyid&idiieviroDes!  what 
fdbtatiwi  nd  mia  of  d>«  pdor  I 

Duties  upon  c<mMimptictfui  are  mot6  equal  and  ea^  than 
those  upon  posaeMiodi*  What  a  loss  to  the  pnbli^  that 
the  former  are  ^l  efA^wted^  and  that  we  must  have  re- 
aootM  to  the  more  griofous  mediod  d*ktying  taxes ! 

Were  all  the  prt^rietors  of  land  Only  stewards  to  the 
public^  must  not  neeessity  foree  tbeta  t6  praetbe  all  ih6 
aarts  of  oppvesskm  used  by  stewards  ^  where  the  absence 
«r  aegl^Mce  of  the  proprietor  render  t^etn  s^ute  against 
Inquiry? 

It  will  soave^  fee  aaserted^  that  no  bounds  ought  evet 
^  be  set  to  national  debts^  wd  that  the  ppUic  would  be 
no  wtelter^  were  twelve  or  iMeen  shillhigs  in  the  pounds 
iaikUax^  tnortgsiged,  wHh  ell  the  present  eustottis  and  e)t^ 
dses.  tliere  Is  somedihig^  therdbre^  in  the  ^itse,  be^de 
|he  niev6  trasiilSirring  of  property  Aom  the  one  ha^ 
oibtri  in  fli«se  hundred  years^  die  posteriQr  of  those  now 
fti  Ao  Mtfehos^  and  of  those  op<m  <be  boxes,  willprobaMy 
faam  diai^;ed  plflpes^  Without  a0^e^  ^public by  these 
reroioiicmsw 

Sui^ose  th*  pufefie  OMe  fiirly  t»'ought  to  (hut  condtt 
Itav  to  whkdi  it  t^  hostenitig  with  sdd^  atnaring  rapidity  $ 
sKI^Mise  the  koid  to  be  ttted  e^hteen  i»  nhieteeii  shfflings 
in  the  poQia^(  fbt  h  cmt  nerer  bear  the  whole  twen^; 
svppbseali  theeoEdtfesand  eustomstobe  sprewediip  to  the 
fNMioitwIiieh  Ibo  iMAe^  eiui  bear,  i)p)thottt  endrely  loshig 
its  coamuitee  and  industry^  and  suppose  that  all  those 
jR)nds  ate  moitgaged  to  pel^fj^etuiQr,  and  that  the  invention 
and  wH  of  nil  our  projectors  ^an  find  no  tten  imporillon, 
wtMiniaiysi»veasthefeaiidatk»tiofaiiewl^  add  let 
us  cmisider  the  necessary  consecjuences  of  this  situiition. 
Though  the  imperfeet  state  cf  our  p<ditical  knowUd^anj) 

roL.  I.  2  a 


354  E88AT  IX. 

the  narrow  ciqpacilies  of  meii^  make  it  difficult  to  breUH  Urn 
dBfects  which  will  result  from  any  untried  neaauve^  the 
seeds  of  ruin  are  here  scattered  with  sudi  profiiaion  as  not 
to  escape  the  eye  of  the  most  careless  observer. 
.  In  this  unnatural  state  of  society,  the  only  persons  ^dio 
possess  any  revenue  bey<Hid  the  inunediate  eflfects  of  their 
industry,  are  the  stockholders,  who  draw  ahnost  idl  the 
rent  of  the  land  and  houses,  besides  the  produce  of  all  the 
customs  and  excises*  These  are  men  who  have  jio  con- 
nexions with  the  state,  who  can  enjoy  their  revalue  in  any 
part  of  the  globe  in  which  they  choose  to  reside,  who  wiU 
naturally  bury  themselves  in  the.  capital,  or  in  great  cities, 
and  who  will  sink  into  the  lethaigy  of  a  stupid  and  pam- 
pof^  luxury,  without  spirit,  ambition,  or  a^joym^it.  Adieu 
to  all  ideas  of  nobilily,  gentry,  and  fiunily.  Tlie  stocks 
can  be  traasierred  in  an  instant;  aodbanginsu^a.fluc- 
tuatiBg  state,  will  sddom  be  transmitted  during  three  ge- 
neratioDs  from  fiither  to  son.  Or  were  they  to  remaii^ver 
so  l<Hig  in  ope  family^  they  convey  no.hexcditary  authority 
or  credit  to  the  possessor ;  and  by  this  means  the  several 
ranks  of  men,  which  form  a  kind  of  independent  magistra- 
qr  in  a  state,  instituted  by  the  hand  of  nature,  are  esotirely 
lost;  and  every  man  in  authority  derives  his  influence  from 
the  commission  alone  of  the  sovereign.  No  ea])edient  re- 
mains for  preventing  or  siq^iressioginsurrections  but  mer- 
cenary amnes :  No  expedient  at  all  remains  for  resisting 
tyranny:  iUactiims  are  swfiyed  by  bribery  and  oormptioii 
alone :  And  the  middle  power  between  king  and  people  be- 
ing totally  removed,  a  grievous  despptism  must  iuSsjlibly 
prevail.  The  landholders,  despised  Sat  their  poirer^  and 
hated  for  their  oppressions,  will  be  utterly  unaUe  to  make 
any  opposition  to  it 

Though  a  resolutiim  should  be  formed  by  the  legislature 


OF  PUBLIC  CRVDIT.  35$ 

BtTer  to  impose  any  tax  which  hurts  commerce  and  dis- 
courages industry,  it  wUl  be  impossible  for  men,  in  subjects 
of  such  extreme  delicacy,  to  reason  so  jusdy  as  never  to  be 
mistaken,  or,  amidst  difficulties  so  urgent,  never  to  be  se- 
duced from  their  resolution.  The  continual  fluctuations  in 
conmierce  require  continual  alterations  in  the  nature  of  the 
taxes ;  which  exposes  the  legislature  every  moment  to  the 
danger  both  of  wilful  and  involuntary  error.  And  any 
great  blow  given  to  trade,  whether  by  injudicious  taxes  or 
by  other  accidents,  throws  the  whole  system  of  government 
into  confusion.  • 

But  what  expedient  can  the  public  now  employ,  even 
supposing  trade  to  continue  in  the  most  flourishing  condi- 
tion, in  order  to  support  its  foreign  wars  and  enterprises, 
and  to  defend  its  own  honour  and  interest,  or  those  of  its 
allies  ?  I  do  not  ask  how  the  public  is  to  exert  such  a  pro* 
digious  power  as  it  has  maintained  during  our  late  wars; 
where  we  have  so  much  exceeded,  not  cmly  our  own  natu- 
ral strength,  but  even  that  of  the  greatest  empires.  This 
extravagance  is  the  abuse  complained  oi^  as  the  source  of 
all  the  dangers  to  which  we  are  at  present  exposed.  But 
since  we  must  still  suppose  great  commerce  and  opulence 
to  remain,  even  after  every  fund  is  mortgaged;  theseriehes 
must  be  defended  by  prq[X)rtional  power;  and  whence  is 
the  public  to  derive  the  revenue  which  supports  it?  It  must 
plainly  be  from  a  continual  taxation  of  the'  annuities^  or, 
which  is  the  same  thing,  firom  mortgaging  anew,  on  every 
exigency,  a  certain  part  of  their  annuities ;  and  thus  ma- 
king them  contribute  to  their  own  defence,  and  to  that  of 
the  nation.  But  the  difficulties  attending  this  system  of 
policy  will  easily  appear,  whether  we  si4)pose  the  king  to 
have  become  absolute  master,  or  to  be  still  controlled  by 

2a2 


356-  E8SAT  IX. 

natk)iMil  couticils,  in  which  the  annmlants  thcimselvttft  aiMt* 
necessarily  bear  the  priiic^>al  sway. 

If  the  prince  has  becoBie  absokfte^  as  wcmy  naUursUy  b# 
expected  from  this  situation  oTaftdiiSy  it  is  so  easy  for  him 
to  increase  his  exactions  upon  the  anmutants,  whMi  mnount 
only  to  the  retaining  of  money  in  hia  own  bands,  that  tU9 
}^)ecies  of  property  would  soon  lose  all  its  credit^  and  (be 
whde  income  of  every  individual  in  the  state  must  lie  en^ 
tirely  at  the  mercy  of  the  sovereign;  a  degree  of  despo- 
tism which  no  cmental  monarch  has  ever  yet  attained.  I^ 
on  the  contrary,  the  coAsent  of  the  annuitants  be  requisite 
ft>r  every  taxation,  they  will  never  be  persuaded  to  odutri^ 
bute  sufficiently  even  to  the  support  of  government ;  as  the 
diminution  of  their  revenue  must  m  that  case  be  very  moh 
sibl^  would  not  be  disguised  under  the  appearance  of  a 
branch  of  excise  or  customs,,  and  would  not  be  shared  by 
any  other  order  of  the  state,  who  are  already  su|^>O0ed  to 
bcS  taxed  to  the  utmost  Hiere  are  instance^  in  some  re» 
publics,  <^a  hundredth  pem^r^  and  someciQes  of diefiftieth^ 
being  given  to  the  support  of  the  state ;  but  ihk  is  atwaya 
an  extraordiliaryexerticmrf  power,  and  can*  never  become 
the  foundatimi  of  a  ccmstant  ni^ional  defence.  We  hava 
always  found,  where  a  government  has  vaortgaged  bXL  'M 
revenues,  that  it  necessarily  sinks  into  a  ttfaate  of  bnguor, 
inactivi^,  and  impotoicew 

Such  are  the  inconveniences  which  may  reasonaUy  b< 
foreseen  of  this  situation  to  which  Great  Britain  in  visibly 
tending.  Not  to  mention  the  numberless  inconveuieiicesj 
which  cannot  be  foreseen,  and  which  must  residt  fh>m  so 
monstrous  a  situation  as  that  of  making  the  public  the  chief 
or  sole  proprietor  of  land,  besides  invedtii^  it  with  eveiy 
branch  of  customs  imd  excise,  which  the  fertile  imi^natiei^ 
of  ministers  and  projectors  have  been  able  to  invent. 


OF  PUBLIC  CREBIT.  357 

I  miuft  confess  tliat  there  has  a  strange  supineness,  from 
iopg  custoni)  creeped  into  all  ranks  of  men,  with  regard  to 
public  debts,  not  unlike  what  divines  so  vehemently  com- 
phin  of  wkh  r^^ard  to  their  religious  doctrines.  We  all 
own  that  the  most  sanguine  imagination  cannot  hope,  ei- 
tber  that  this  or  any  future  ministry  will  be  possessed  of 
such  rigid  and  steady  frugality,  as  to  make  a  considerd[>le 
iNTogress  in  the  paymmt  of  our  debts ;  or  that  the  situa- 
tion of  foreign  affiurs  will,  for  any  long  time,  allow  them 
leisure  and  tranquillity  for  such  an  undertaking.  What  then 
(s  t»  become  cfua  f  Were  we  ever  so  good  Christians,  and 
tver  ao  resigned  to  Providence ;  this,  methiaks,  were  a  cu- 
kious  question,  even  considered  as  a  speculative  one,  and 
what  it  might  not  be  altogether  impossible  to  form  some 
coogectural  solution  of.  The  events  here  wiB  depend  lit*' 
tie  upcm  the  contingencies  of  battles,  negotiations,  intrigues, 
and  factions.  There  seems  to  be  a  natural  progress  of 
things  which  may  guide  our  reasoning.  As  it  would  have 
required  but  a  moderate  share  of  prudence,  when  we  first 
b^an  this  practice  of  mortgaging  to  have  foretold,  from 
the  nature  of  men  and  of  ministers,  that  tilings  would  neces:* 
^rily  be  carried  to  the  length  we  see ;  so  now,  that  they  have 
at  last  hi^pily  reached  it,  it  may  not  be  difficult  to  guess 
*t  the  consequences.  It  must,  indeed,  be  one  of  these  two 
events ;  either  the  nation  must  destroy  public  c?%dit,  or  pu- 
Uic  credit  will  destroy  the  nation.  It  is  impossible  that 
they  can  both  subsist,  after  the  manner  they  have  been  hi« 
therto  managed,  in  this,  as  well  as  in  some  other  countries* 

There  was,  indeed,  a  scheme  for  the  payment  of  our 
debts,  which  was  proposed  by  an  excellent  citiaen, '  Mr 
Hutchinson,  above  thirty  years  ago^  and  which  was  mudi 
approved  of  by  some  men  of  sense,  but  never  was  likely  to 
take  eflfect     He  asserted  that  there  was  a  fallacy  in  ima- 


858  ESSAY  IX. 

gining  that  the  public  owed  this  debt ;  for  that  really  evety 
individual  owed  a  proportional  share  of  it,  and  pidd,  in  his 
taxes,  a  proportional  share  of  the  interest,  beside  the  ex- 
pense of  levying  these  taxes.  Had  we  not  better,  then, 
says  he,  make  a  distribution  of  the  debt  amcmg  ourselves, 
and  each  of  us  contribute  a  sum  suitable  to  his  property, 
and  by  that  means  discharge  at  once  all  our  funds  and 
public  mortgages  ?  He  seems  not  to  have  considered  that 
the  laborious  poor  pay  a  considerable  part  of  the  taxes  by 
their  annusd  consumptions,  though  they  could  not  advance, 
at  once,  a  proportional  part  of  the  sum  required.  Not  to 
mention,  that  property  in  money  and  stock  in  trade  might 
easily  be  concealed  or  disguised ;  and  that  visible  proper- 
ty in  lands  and  houses  would  really  at  last  answer  for  the 
whole :  An  inequality  and  oppression,  which  never  would 
be  submitted  to.  But  though  this  project  is  not  likely  to 
take  place,  it  is  not  altogether  improbable,  that,  when  the 
nation  becomes  heartily  sick  of  their  debts,  and  is  cruelly 
oppressed  by  them,  some  daring  projector  may  arise  with 
visionary  schemes  for  their  discharge.  And  as  public  cre- 
dit will  begin,  by  that  time,  to  be  a  little  fr^  the  least 
touch  will  destroy  it,  as  happened  in  France  during  the 
regency ;  and  in  this  manner  it  will  die  qfthe  doctor. 

But  it  is  more  probable,  that  the  breach  of  national  fiuth 
will  be  the  necessary  effect  of  wars,  defeats,  misfortunes, 
and  public  calamities,  or  even  perhaps  of  victories  and 
conquests.  I  must  confess,  when  I  see  princes  and  states 
fighting  and  quarrelling,  amidst  their  <lebts,  funds,  and 
public  mortgages,  it  always  brings  to  my  mind  a  match  of 
cudgel-playing  fought  in  a  China  shop.  How  can  it  be 
expected,  that  sovereigns  will  spare  a  species  of  property, 
which  is  pernicious  to  themselves  and  to  the  public,  when 
they  have  so  little  compassion  on  lives  and  properties,  that 


OF  PUBLIC  CREDIT.  359 

toe  useful  to  both  ?  Let  the  time  come  (and  sorely  it  will 
come)  when  the  new  ftmds,  created  for  the  exigencies  of 
the  year,  are  not  subscribed  to,  and  rabe  not  the  mcmey 
projected.  Sui^x>se  either  that  the  cash  of  the  nation  is. 
exhausted;  or  that  our  faith,  whidi  has  hitherto  been  so 
ain{de,  begins  to  fiul  us.  Suppose  that,  in  this  distress, 
the  naition  is  tbreat^ied  with  an  invasion ;  a  rebellion  is 
8ttq>6cted  or  broken  out  at  home ;  a  squadron  cannot  be 
equipped  for  want  of  pay,  victuals,  or  repairs ;  or  ev«n  a 
foreign  subsidy  cannot  be  advanced*  What  must  a  prince 
or  minister  do  in  such  an  emergence?  The  ri^t  of  self- 
preservation  is  unalienable  in  every  individual,  much  more 
in  every  communis*  And  the  folly  of  our  statesmen  must 
then  be  greater  than  the  folly  of  those  who  first  contracted 
debt,  or,  what  is  more,  than  that  of  those  who  trusted,  or 
continue  to  trust  this  security,  if  these  state»nen  have  the 
means  of  safe^  in  their  hands,  and  do  not  employ  them. 
The  funds,  created  and  mortgaged,  will  by  that  time 
bring  in  a  large  yearly  revenue,  sufficient  for  the  de£^e 
and  securi^  of  the  nation :  Money  is  perhaps  lying  in  the 
exdiequer,  ready  for  the  discharge  of  the  quarterly  in- 
terest: necessity  calls,  fear  urges,  reason  exhorts,  compasr 
sion  alone  exclaims :  The  money  will  immediately  be  seized 
for  the  current  service,  under  the  most  solenm  protesta^ 
tions,  perhaps,  of  being  immediately  replaced.  But  no 
more  is  requisite.  The  whole  fiibric,  already  tottering^ 
falls  to  the  ground,  and  buries  thousands  in  its  ruins..  And 
this,  I  think,  may  be  called  the  iiate^i/ifeeilA  of  public  cre- 
dit; for  to  this  period  it  tends  as  ni^turally  as  an  aniiml 
body  to  its  dissolution  and  destruction. 

So  great  dupes  are  the  generality  of  mankind,  that,  not- 
withstanding such  a  violent  shock  to  public  credit,  as  a  vo- 
lunt^  bankruptcy  in  England  would  occasion,  it  would 


360  ESSAY  IX. 

not  pcobibly  bo  long  ere  credit  would  agMn  reibfe  m  m 
floondung  a.  catkditicn  m  be^we.  The  i^resent  kjpgjof 
Fnoce,  dnnng  the  late  war,  bomMved  money  at  a  krmr 
intelrest  than  ever  hLi  gtaadfiuhar  did;  and  as  low  at  ^ 
Brittth  parliament^  ooaqiartng  tibe  natural  rate  of  iateragt 
iji  beth  kingdoms  Andtlunigh  men  areMomioiilymam 
governed  fay  what  they  have  aaen»  than  bj  what  they  fore- 
aae,  with  whatever  certainty ;  yet  promises^  protestakupia, 
fiur  appeamooai^  vofth  the  allnremflpta  of  preient  interaqft, 
have  f och  powerM  inflnffnee  as  few  are  able  to  resist. 
Mankind  are^  in  all  ages»  caught  by  the  same  baits  s  The 
same  tricksy  fi^yed  over  and  ovbr  again,  still  trqum  them. 
Thehaightsof  popnlari^andpatriotism  are  still  the  beaten 
Daad.to  power  and  tyram^;  flattery,  totreachery;  stand* 
■ig  an&iea  to  arbitrary  government ;  and  the  glory  of  Ood 
to  the  temporal  interest  of  the  clergy.  The  fear  of  an 
eaeriaating  destraotion  of  credit,  aUowiag  it  to  be  an  evil, 
is  a  neadless  bugbear.  A  pnsdent  man,  in  rea^f  would 
rather  lend  to  the  poblic  imnediately  after  we  had  taken  a 
sponge  to  pur  debts^  tfaimat  preasnti  as  mael^  as  an  opo* 
lent  knave,  cTen  thoagh  one  ooald  not  f^irce  him  \o  ^uf^ 
is  a  preferable  debtor  to  an  honest  banknipt:  FordiefbffK> 
mer,  in  onkr  to  carry  on  business  may  find  it  his  interast 
to  disduirge  his  dd>t%  where  theyjure  not  exorbitant:  Hie 
latter  has  Jt  not  in  his  power.  The  reasoning  of  Tacitus  % 
as  it  is  eternally  true,  is  Tery  applicable  to  our  present  case. 

ssnucsfKMgtejBaniaiiaawnrabaearr  Jjmdmfieftki  caim  he^ 
bekmtury  quatieqUidarineqW'aac^  mjifin  rqmUioci^  jKh 
ttroML  The  pubUc  is  a.  debtoiv  whom  no  BMn  can  oblige 
lo  pay.    The  only  cfa^  which  the  credijtors  hove  i^xm 

'  Hist.  Ubk  ii. 


Of  PUBLIC  CBXDIT.  Ml 

her^  is  die  interest  of  pzeserviog  credit^  an  intoresi  whieh 
may  easily  be  overbalanced  by  a  great  dAt^  and  by  a  diiw 
fienlt  and  extraordinary  emergenee»  even  suppoHing  that 
credit  irreeoverdble*  Not  to  mentioD,  that  a  pceseait  na* 
cessi^  (^en  fiDvees  states  ato  awamres,  wUch  aret  strictigr 
speakings  against  their  interest 

These  two  evmts  supposed  above,  are  ealamitoni,  b«t 
not  the  most  calamitous.  Thousands  are  therd>y  sacri« 
ficed  to  the  safety  of  nalUons.  Bnt  we  are  aot.wkhont 
danger,  that  the  contrary  event  may  tsike  place,  and  that 
millions  may  be  sacrificed  for  ever  to  the  temporary,  oaft  ty 
of  thousands  *.  Our  popular  government,  perhaps,  will 
render  it  difficult  or  dangerous  for  a  minister  to  venture 
on  so  desperate  an  expedient  as  that  of  a  voluntary  bank- 
ruptcy. And  though  the  House  of  Lords  be  altogether 
composed  of  proprietors  of  land,  and  the  House  of  Couh 
mons  chiefly ;  and  consequently  neither  of  them  can  be 
supposed  to  have  great  property  In  the  funds:  Yet  the  con- 
nexions of  the  members  may  be  so  great  with  the  proprie- 
tors, as  to  render  them  more  tenacious  of  public  faith  than 
prudence,  policy,  or  even  justice,  strictly  speaking,  requires. 
And  perhi^s,  too,  our  foreign  enemies  may  be  so  politic 
as  to  discover,  that  our  safety  lies  in  despair,  and  may  not, 
therefore,  show  the  danger,  open  and  barefaced,  till  it  be 
inevitable.  The  balance  of  power  in  Europe,  oiur  grand- 
fathers, our  fathers,  and  we,  have  all  deemed  too  unequal 
to  be  preserved  without  our  attention  and  assistance.  But 
our  children,  weary  of  the  struggle,  and  fettered  with  en- 
cumbrances, may  sit  down  secure,  and  see  their  neigh-* 
hours  oppressed  and  conquered  ;  tiU,  at  last,  they  them- 
selves and  their  creditors  lie  both  at  the  mercy  of  the  con- 

■  See  Nor  [S.] 


362  ESSAY  IX. 

queror*.    And  this  may  properly  enough  be  denominated 
the  violaU  death  of  our  public  credit 

These  teem  to  be  the  ev»it%  which  are  not  very  remote^ 
and  which  reason  foresees  as  dearly  almost  as  she  can  do 
any  thing  that  lies  in  the  wmnb  of  time.  And  though  the 
ancients  maintained  that,  in  order  to  reach  the  gift  of  pro- 
phecy^  a  certain  divine  fury  at  madness  was  requisitei  one 
may  saiely  affirm  that,  in  order  to  deliver  such  prophecies 
as  these,,  no  more  is  necessary  than  merely  to  be  in  one's 
senses,  free  from  the  influence  of  popular  madness  and  de*^ 
lusiOB. 


ESSAY  X. 


OF  SOME  REMABXABLS  CUCTOIM. 

1  SHALL  observe  three  remarkable  customs  in  three  cele» 
brated  governments ;  and  shall  conclude  from  the  whole^ 
that  all  general  maxims  in  politics  ought  to  be  established 
with  great  caution ;  and  that  irregular  and  extraordinary 
appearances  are  frequently  discovered  in  the  moral,  as  well 
as  in  the  physical  world.  The  former^  perhaps,  we  can 
better  account  for  after  they  happen,  firom  springs  and 
principles,  of  which  every  one  has,  within  himself,  or  from 
observation,  the  strongest  assurance  and  conviction :  But 
it  is  oflen  fully  as  impossible  for  human  prudence,  before<^ 
hand,  to  foresee  and  foretell  thenL 

I.  One  would  think  it  essential  to  every  supreme  coun- 
cil or  assembly  which  debates,  that  entire  liber^  of  speech 
should  be  granted  to  every  member,  and  that  all  motions 
or  reasonings  should  be  received,  which  can  any  way  tend 
to  illustrate  the  point  under  deliberation*  One  would  con- 
clude, with  still  greater  assurance,  that,  after  a  motion  waii 
made,  which  was  voted  and  approved  by  that  assembly  in 
which  the  legislative  power  is  lodged,  the  member  who 
made  the  motion  must  for  ever  be  exempted  firom  future 
trial  or  inquiry.  But  no  political  maxim  can,  at  first  sight, 
appear  more  indisputable,  than  that  he  must,  at  least,  be 
secured  from  all  inferior  jurisdiction;  and  that  nothing  less 


361*  ESSAY  X. 

than  the  same  supreme  legislative  assembly  in  their  subset 
quent  meetings,  could  make  him  accountable  for  those  mo-^ 
tions  and  harangues,  to  which  they  had  before  given  theii^ 
approbation.  But  these  axioms,  however  irrefragable  they 
may  appear,  hate  all  fitiled  in  the  Athenian  government^ 
from  causes  and  principles  tooy  which  appear  almost  in-^ 
evitable. 

By  the  y^m^  irtt^Kf^imy  or  indicbnentofUkgalUy,  (though 
it  has  not  beea  remarked  by  antiquaries  or  commentator^) 
any  man  was  tried  and  punished  in  a  common  court  of 
judicature^  for  4oy  law  which  had  passed  upon  his  motion^ 
m  the  asseoiUiy  of  th«  peofJie,  if  that  law  appeared  to  the 
tovrt  ^ntti  or  prejudicial  to  the  puUic.  Hius  Oemoa- 
ihm0$9  fiodu^  that  BhipHosoney  was  levied  irregularly,  and 
thai  the  poor  bore  the  aame  burden  as  ^  rich  in  equip* 
ping  the  galleys,  corrected  this  inequality  by  a  very  useful 
law*  which  proportioiied  the  expense  to  the  revenue  and 
income  of  eadi  individual  He  moved  Ibr  this  law  in  the 
assembly;  he  proved  its  advantages  * ;  he  convinced  the 
people  the  only  legislature  in  Athens;  the  law  passed,  ainl 
was  carried  into  execiUion :  Yet  was  he  tried  in  a  crimi^ 
iiel  court  for  that  law,  npon  the  complaint  a(  the  rich,  who 
resented  the  alteration  that  he  had  introdooed  into  th# 
finances  ^  He  was  indeed  acquitted,  upon  proving  anew 
the  usefulness  of  his  law. 

Ctesiphon  moved  in  the  assembly  of  the  people,  thai 
particular  honours  should  be  conftrred  on  Demosthenes 
«s  on  a  citizen  aCecUonate  and  useful  to  the  commoo- 
.  wealth :  The  people,  convinced  of  this  truth,  voted  thoae 
honours ;  Yet  was  Ctesiphcm  tried  by  the  y^^  w^^ttft^f^ 

*  Hii  barangiMi  fiir  ii  is  MiH  ejUant  f  Uim  Ttfi^tfuit 
►  Pro  Ctcsipbontc. 


OF  SOME  REMAllKAlftLE  CUSTOMS.  S6& 

it  wM  ossetud,  among  other  topk^^  U^t  Demodfheiie»  wa^ 
not  a  godd  dtiseu,  ikm*  aflfectionitte  to  the.cMMttonweahh  t 
And  ih^  orator  was  ci^bd  upon  to  defend  hh  iMend,  and 
Gonseqaendy  himself  |  which  he  execnted  by  that  sublime 
piece  of  eloquence^  that  has  errer  since  been  the  admiration 
of  mankind. 

AAer  the  battle  df  Ch^^ronea^  a  law  was  passed  upon  the 
motion  of  Hyperides,  giving  liberty  to  staves,  and  enroll- 
ing them  m  the  troops  *.  On  account  of  this  law,  the 
orator  was  afterwards  tried  by  the  indictment  above  men- 
tioned, and  defended  himself,  amcmg  other  topics,  by  that 
stroke  celebrated  by  Phi^rch  and  Longinus.  Ji  uxts  nd 
f,  said  h^  thai  mo/oedf&r  thiM  law :  It  tdas  the  necessities  of 
war i  it  was  thebatOe  ^Ckmimck  The  orations  of  p^i* 
tnosdienes  abotmd  with  many  instances  of  trials  of  this  na- 
ture, and  prove  clearly  that  nothing  was  more  commonly 
practised* 

'  The  Athenian  Demo<^«cy  was  such  $l  tumultuons  go* 
vemment  as  we  can  scarcely  fonn  a  notion  of  in  the  pre«- 
tMfit  age  42S  the  world.  The  whole  ooUective  body  of  the 
people  voted  in  every  low,  without  any  limitation  of  pror 
perty,  without  any  distinction  of  rank,  witfaonC  control 
froM  any  magistracy  or  senate  ^ ;  and  consequently  with- 
out regard  to  order,  justice,  or  prudence.  The  Athenians 
soon  became  sensible  of  the  mischiefs  attending  this  con- 
stkntion  2  But  being  averse  to  checking  themselves  by  any 
rule  or  restriction,  they  resolved,  at  least,  to  check  their 

*  Mittfchi!Sii!titAl>«e6fflOniforUtki.  DemostiienesgiTesmdifierentac 
cMint  of  tMs  law.  Contrs  ArfstogitOtt,  Oftit  II.  He  says,  that  its  purport 
wafl»  to  reticbr  tfie  amfMi  tirtttfUs^  &r  to  restore  Oie  privilege  ot  bdanng  of- 
ilett  in  those  who  had  been  d^Iared  incapable.  Perhaps  Uiese  were  both 
irlauses  of  the  same  1a\r. 

^  Tbtf  neneae  of  the  Bean  was  only  a  less  namerous  mob,  chosen  by  lot 
from  amon^  the  peOpte ;  and  their  authority  was  not  great 


966  ESSAY  X. 

demagogues  or  oounsellors,  by  tiie  (ear  of  future  ponish* 
ment  and  inquiry.  They  accordingly  instituted  dds  re- 
nuurkable  law ;  a  law  esteemed  so  essential  to  thdr  ferm  of 
gOTemment)  that  JEschines  insists  on  it  as  a  known  truth, 
that  were  it  abolished  or  n^ected,  it  were  impossible  for 
the  Democracy  to  subsist  *• 

The  people  feared  not  any  ill  consequence  to  liberty  from 
the  authority  of  the  criminal  courts ;  because  these  were 
nothing  but  very  numerous  juries,  chosen  by  lot  from  a- 
inong  the  pec^le.  And  they  justly  considered  themselves 
asin  astate  of  perpetual  pupilage ;  where  they  had  an  au- 
thority, afler  they  came  to  the  use  of  reason,  not  only  to 
retract  and  control  whatever  had  been  determined,  but 
to  punish  any  guardian  for  measures  which  they  had  em- 
braced by  his  persuasion.  The  same  law  had  place  in 
Thebes^,  and  for  the  same  reason. 

It  appears  to  have  been  a  usual  practice  in  Athens,  on 
the  establishment  of  any  law  esteemed  very  us^iil  or  po- 
pular, to  prohibit  for  ever  its  abrogation  and  repeaL 

Thus  the  demagogue,  who  diverted  all  the  public  reve- 
nues to  the  support  of  shows  and  spectacles,  made  it  cri- 
minal so  much  as  to  move  for  a  repeal  of  this  law  ^.  Thus 
Leptines  moved  for  a  law,  not  only  to  recall  all  the  immu- 
nities formerly  granted,  but  to  deprive  the  pec^le  for  the 
future  of  the  power  of  granting  any  more  ^.  Thus  all  bills 
of  attainder  *  were  forbid,  or  laws  that  afiected  one  Athe- 

*  In  Cteaphontem.  It  is  remarkAble,  that  th«  first  step  afttr  the  dissoliu 
tionof  thaDonocracybyCritias  and  the  thiitj,  was  to  annul  the  ox^ifv 
irM^iusfMnr,  as  we  leara  fitan  DeBKMthenes  Mif»  Ti^MK.  Ilieofalorintfaia 
oration  gires  us  the  words  of  the  law,  establishing  the  y{«^  wm^rnHftm, 
page  S97*  «ar  edii,  AldL  And  he  accounts  for  it  IWim  the  same  principles 
we  here  reason  upon 

^  Plut  in  Tita  Pelop.  «  Demest  OljnUi.  1*  8. 

'  Demost.  contra  Lept.  •  Denx»st  contra  Aristocratem. 


OF  SOBfS  REMARKABLE  CUSTOMS.  MT 

luam  'withaiit  extending  to  the  wkde  cmnmonwefllth. 
These  absurd  danses^  by  whick  the  legislature  Tainly  at^ 
tempted  to  bind  itself  for  ever,  proceeded  from  an  uni- 
versal sense  in  the  people  of  their  own  levity  and  incon- 
stancy. 

IL  A  wheel  within  a  wheels  such  as  we  observe  in  tjie 
German  empire,  is  considered  by  Lord  Shaftesbury*  as 
an  absurdity  in  politics :  But  what  must  we  say  to  equal 
wheels,  which  govern  the  same  political  machine,  without 
any  mutual  check,  control,  or  subordination;  and  yet  pre* 
serve  the  greatest  harmony  and  concord?  To  establish  two 
distinct  legislatures,  each  of  which  possesses  full  and  abso- 
lute authority  within  itself,  and  stands  in  no  need  of  the 
other^s  assistance,  in  order  to  give  validity  to  its  acts ;  this 
may  appear,  beforehand,  altogether  impracticable,  as  long 
as  men  are  actuated  by  the  passions  of  ambition,  emula- 
tion and  avarice,  which  have  hitherto  been  their  chief  go- 
verning principles*  And  should  I  assert,  that  the  state  I 
have  in  my  eye  was  divided  into  two  distinct  factions,  each 
of  which  predominated  in  a  distinct  legislature,  and  yet 
produced  no  clashing  in  these  independent  powers;  the 
supposition  may  appear  incredible.  And  i^  to  augment 
the  paradox,  I  should  affirm,  that  this  disjointed,  irregular 
government,  was  the  most  active,  triumphant,  and  illu»* 
trious  commonwealth  that  ever  yet  appeared;  I  should 
certainly  be  told,  that  such  a  political  chimera  was  as  al>» 
surd  as  any  vision  of  priests  or  poets.  But  there  is  no  need 
for  searching  long^  in  order  to  prove  the  reality  of  the  fore- 
going suppositions :  For  this  was  actually  the  case  with  the 
Roman  r^ublic. 
,    The  legislative  power  was  there  lodged  in  the  comitia 

*  Essaj  on  the  Freedom  of  Wit  and  Httmour,  P«t  9.  §  2. 


369  BefiiiT  %. 

teHh&kM  atfd  camiita  tribma.    in  tb«  kfnmt^  U  is  ^^ 

when  ihefim  t\iM  was  uiltti|itii»qB»  dknigh  H  MMained 
not,  perhaps  th^  hiBidredtfa  port  of  the  eMMaoaiNuJUi,  it 
determined  the  whole ;  and^  with  the  authority  o{  ^$^ 
Aat^edtaMtekedAkw*  In tlielalMr^eryvtciteWB^ equal; 
and  as  ^  authority  of  the  aenate  was  iiot  their  roqaisitei 
ihe  lewei*  pMj^e  wAxAj  pi^vailed,  and  gtve  law  to  thf 
whole  fitate.  In  alt  purQr-^BTiskms^  «t  first  bitw^ea  the 
F&ttidans  tod  Plebeians^  afterwards  between  A*  Mblea 
Md  the  people^  the  Interest  of  the  aristocrat  was  ptedo^ 
minant  in  the  first  legi^ture ;  that  of  the  dettocMey  i^ 
the  second :  The  one  could  always  destroy  what  tfalf  other 
had  established :  Nay,  the  <me  by  a  sodd^  and  toifcn-eseetl 
notion,  might  take  the  start  isi  the  other,  and  lottfly  im* 
pihilate  ib  rit^l,  by  a  rote,  wbich^  from  the  xtatnre  of  the 
constitution,  had  the  full  authority  of  a  law.  Bttt  flo  ^ch 
contest  is  obserred  in  the  history  of  Rome :  Nt>  ikistance 
of  a  qoarrel  between  these  two  legishttires  ;  though  ifiany 
between  the  parties  that  governed  in  each.  Whefice  of  os^ 
this  concord,  which  may  seem  so  eltraordintffy^ 

The  legfslfiture  established  in  Rome^  Isy  the  authblffty 
of  Servius  TuUius,  was  the  comUia  oeMherUiiaf  which,  iiftef 
the  expulsion  of  the  kings,  rendered  the  goye^rmneftt  tat 
tome  time  very  aristocrattcal.  But  the  people,  having 
numbers  and  force  on  their  side,  and  being  elated  wltft 
frequent  conquests  and  victories  in  their  ibrg%n  war^  al- 
t^ys  prevailed  when  pushed  to  extremity,  and  first  ex- 
torted fi*om  the  senate  the  magistracy  of  the  tribunes^  an4 
next  the  legislative  power  of  the  ixmifia  tribtda.  It  then 
behoved  the  nobles  to  be  more  careful  than  ever  Hct  to 
provoke  the  people.  For  beside  the  force  which  the  lat- 
ter were  always  possessed  of,  they  h&d  now  got  possession 


OF  SOME  REM ABKABLE  CUSTOMS.  869 

of  lqi;al  authority,  and  could  instantly  break  in  pieces  any 
order  or  institution  whicli  direcdy  ojptposed  then^  By  in* 
trigue,  by  influence,  by  money,  by  combination,  and  by 
the  respect  paid  to  their  character,  the  nobles  might  often 
prevail,  and  direct  the  whole  machine  of  goyemmient : 
But  had  they  openly  set  their  comUia  ceatwriaid  in  o|qpo» 
sition  to  the  trSmiay  they  had  soon  lost  the  advantage  of 
that  institution,  together  with  their  omsuls,  praetors,  edQes, 
and  all  the  magistrates  elected  by  it  But  the  comUia  irU 
flute,  not  having  the  same  reason  for  respecting  the  een- 
iwriatOf  frequently  repealed  laws  fkvourable  to  the  artsto* 
cracy :  Thqr  limited  the  authority  of  the  nobles^  protected 
the  people  from  oppression,  and  controlled  the  actions  of 
the  senate  and  magistracy.  The  cmhttiaia  found  it  con- 
venient always  to  submit ;  and  though  equal  in  authority, 
yet  being  inferior  in  power,  durst  never  directly  give  any 
shock  to  the  other  legislature,  either  by  repealing  its  laws, 
or  establishing  laws  which  it  foresaw  would  soon  be  re* 
pealed  by  it 

No  instance  is  found  of  any  opposition  or  struggle  be- 
tween these  comMoy  except  one  slight  attempt  of  this  kind, 
mentioned  by  Appian  in  the  third  book  of  his  civil  wars.. 
Mark  Antony,  resolving  to  deprive  Decimus  Brutus  of 
the  government  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  railed  in  the  Forumy 
and  called  one  of  the  oomtMo,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
meeting  of  the  other,  which  had  been  ordered  by  the  se- 
nate. But  aflairs  were  then  fidlen  into  such  confusion, 
and  the  Roman  constitution  was  so  near  its  final  dissolu- 
tion, that  no  inference  can  be  drawn  from  such  an  expe- 
dient This  contest,  besides,  was  founded  more  on  form 
than  party.  It  was  the  senate  who  ordered  the  comUia  iri' 
butay  that  they  might  obstruct  the  meeting  of  the  caUuria" 

VOL.  I.  2  b  / 


SVO  E68AT  X« 

ta^-^ffbithf  by  the  conititiitiolit  or  at  least  fidsnm  otihe  go« 
Teimnent^  co«U  alone  d&pose  of  {M^ovmcea. 

(Soero  was  recalled  by  the  eomitia  cmtmriatOf  thoof^ 
banished  by  the  iriMto»  that  i%  by  a>fa^^  Bi^hig 
faamshmeiit,  we  may  observe^  neyekr  was  eoAffidered  as  a 
kgal  deedy  arisfaig  from  Ae  free  choice  wd  indinadon  of 
the  Tpeofit*  It  was  always  ^scribed  to  the  ynoLmc^  alone 
of  dodinS)  and  to  the  disorders  introduced  by  him  intQ 
the  govemmdnt 

III.  The  tkiri  ciistom,  which  we  purpose  to  rem^k^ 
v^^^rds  Enghmd;  dioilgh  it  be  tiot  so  in^iortan^  as  those 
Whidi  we  have  pmnted  ant  in  Athens  and  Rome,  is  no  less 
fiiiyilar  and  une3qpe<^ed.  It  is  a  maxim  in  politics,  whidi 
wereadilyadmit  as  undisputed  and  universal,  thatapower^ 
however  great,  when  granted  by  law  to  an  eminent  mar 
gistrate^  is  not  so  dangerous  to  liberty,  as  an  authority, 
however  inconaidarable,  which  he  acquires  from  vidience 
and  usurpation.  For,  besides  that  the  law  always  limits 
every  power  which  it  bestows,  die  very  receiving  it  as  a 
concession  establishes  the  authority  whrace  it  is  derived, 
taid  preserves  the  harmony  of  the  constitution.  By  the 
aame  ri^t  that  onfe  prerogative  is  assumed  without  law, 
another  may  also.be  cb^med,  and  another  with  still  great- 
,er  £»ci]ity ;  white  the  first  usurpations  both  serve  as  prece- 
dents to  the  following,  and  gpiye  force  to  maintain  .them. 
Heate  the  heroism  of  Hampden's  conduct,  who  sustained 
the  whirfe  violence  of  royal  prosecvtipi^  rather  than  pay  a 
tax  of  twenty  shillings  not  in^sed  by  parliament  ;rhfnQe 
the  care  <rf'all  the  English  patriots  to  guard  agdnst  the 
first  encroachiUebtaof  the  crown ;  ai^d  hence  alone  the  ex- 
istence, at  this  day,\of  English  liberty^ 

There  is,  however,  one  occasion,  where  the  parliament 
has  departed  from  this  maxim ;  and  that  is,  in  the  press^ 


OF  80MS  RElCABKifflLS  CUSTOMS.  871 


JMf^mmmtit  I1ieelerai&oftoini6gUIar'|MNier  ithen 
taoidjr  permitted  ai  die  cnmn^  and  Atnigb  k  fies  £ne* 
qaendy  beea  wonder  deKbehltida  hok  diat  power  nigh  iibe 
rendertd  legal,  and  ipranAed,  mhdte  preper  Mstrictbiis,  ete 
tke  aorefeigd^  no  safe  espedieiit  teald  '^^^r  be  projkosed 
fiMT  Aat  perpose^  and  Aedai^er  to  liberty  alw$ji  i^pealp- 
ed  gteater^m  Ism  than  irom  osuipatiori.  Wlmn  ibis 
powvr  k  exercknd'to.no^Aer  dnd  than  to  man  the  nivjitj 
men  wllli^;fy  submit  to  it  from  a  sense  df  its  use  andiie^ 
oesriity;  and  the  sailors  who  are  alone  a£feoted  bj  it,  find 
no  body  to  snpp^nrt  them,  in  chiiisiing  the  rig^  and«pri» 
vil^es  which  the  laur  grahts,  without  difrtindion  to  stU 
Bng^h  sirti)ects.  But  wcore  this  power,  on  any  occasimi, 
made  an  instrument  of  fiu^on  or  miniiterbl  tyranily,  the 
opposite  faction,  and  indeed  all  lovers  of  their  country, 
would  immediately  take  the  alarm,  and  support  the  in- 
jured party ;  the  liberty  of  Englishmen  would  be  asserted; 
juries  would  be  implacable ;  and  the  tools  of  tyranny,  act- 
ing both  against  law  and  equity,  would  meet  with  the  se- 
verest vengeance.  On  the  other  hand,  were  the  parlia- 
ment to  grant  such  an  authori^,  they  would  probably  fidl 
into  one  of  these  two  inconveniences.  They  would  eidier 
bestow  it  under  so  many  restrictions  as  would  make  it  lose 
its  effect,  by  cramping  the  authority  of  the  crown ;  or  they 
would  render  it  so  large  and  comprehensive,  as  might  give 
occasion  to  great  abuses,  for  which  we  could,  in  that  case, 
have  no  remedy.  The  very  irregularity  of  the  practice  at 
present  prevents  its  abuses,  by  affordmg  so  easy  a  remedy 
against  them. 

I  pretend  not,  by  this  reasoninj[|  to  exclude  all  possi- 
bility of  contriving  a  register  for  seamen,  which  might 
man  the  ^avy,  without  being  tl'nt^rnin  to  liberty.    I  only 
observe,  that  no  satisfiu:tory  scheme  of  that  nature  has  yet 
2b2 


S72  ESSAY  X. 

been  proposecL    Rather  than  adopt  any  project  hitherto 
urrenled,  we  continue  a  practice  seeminj^y  the  most  ab-  * 
sard  and  nnacooontable.    Authority,  in  times  of  full  in- 
ternal peace  and  concord,  is  armed  against  law.    A  ooii-» 
tinned  yiolence  is  permitted  in  the  crown,  amidst  the  greats 
est  jealousy  and  watdifiilness  in  the  people;  nay,  pro- 
ceeding from  those  very  principles,    liber^,  in  a  country 
of  the  highest  liberty,  is  left  entirely  to  its  own  defence, 
without  any  countenance  or  protection.    The  wild  state . 
of  nature  is  renewed^  in  cme  of  the  most  civilized  societies, 
of  mankind ;  and  great  vidence  and  disorder  are  com- 
mitted with  inqmnity ;  while  the  one  party  pleads  obe- 
dience to  the  supreme  magistrate,  the  other  the  sa&ctioD 
of  fundamental  laws. 


ESSAY  XL 


OF  THE  POPULOU8M£88  OF  ANCIENT  NATIONS. 

jL  hsse  is  very  little  gronnd,  either  from  reason  or  ob- 
tervBtioii,  to  ooncliide  the  world  eternal  or  incomqptible. 
The  ecmtiniial  and  nfid  motion  of  matter,  the  violent  re- 
volutions with  which  every  part  is  agitated,  the  changes 
remarked  in  the  heavens,  the  plain  traces  as  well  as  tra- 
dition of  an  universal  delnge,  or  general  omvulsionof  the 
dfements;  alltheseprovestrongly  the  mortality  of  this  fii- 
bric  of  die  world,  and  its  passage,  by  corruption  or  dis- 
ttdution,  from  one  state  or  order  to  another.  -It  must 
therefore,  as  well  as  each  individual  form  which  it  con- 
tains, have  its  infiuicy,  youth,  manhood,  and  old  age;  and 
it  is  probable,  thi^  in  all  these  variations,  man,  equally 
with  every  animal  and  vegetaUe,  wUl  partake.  In  the 
flourishing  age  of  the  world,  it  may  be  expected,  that  the 
human  species  should  possess  greater  vigour  both  of  mind 
and  body,  more  prosperous  health,  hi^er  spirits,  longer 
life^  and  a  stronger  inclination  and  power  of  generation. 
But  if  the  general  system  of  things,  and  human  sodetyof 
course,  have  any  such  gradual  revolutions,  they  are  too 
slow  to  be  discernible  in  that  short  period  which  is  com- 
prehended by  history  and  tradition.  Stature  and  force  of 
body,  length  of  life,  even  courage  and  extent  of  genius, 
seem  hitherto  to  have  beoi  naturally,  in  all  ages,  pretty 


874  EUSAY  XI. 

much  the  same.  Tbe  arts  and  scieiices,  indeed,  have 
flourished  in  one  period,  and  have  decayed  in  anodier; 
bat  we  may  obsenre,  that  at  the  time  when  they  rose  to 
greatest  perfection  among  one  people,  they  were  perhaps 
totally  unknown  to  idl  the  neighbouring  nations;  and 
though  they  universally  decayed  in  one  ag^  yet  in  a  suc- 
ceeding generation  th^  again  revived,  and  diffitsed  them- 
selves over  the  world*  As  fer,  therefore,  as  observadcm 
reaches,  there  is  no  universal  difference  discetnibte  in  the 
human  species;  and  though  it  were  allowed,  that  tiie  uni- 
verse like  an  aniaul  body,  had  a  natoral  prqgms  from 
iafioicy  to  old  age^  yet  as  it  must  stSl  be  aneertan^  wImi^ 
ther,  at  present  it  be  advancing  to  its  point  of  perfisctaoB, 
or  decUniDg  from  it^  we  catmcyt  dience  presuppose  a^  de*> 
e&y  m  koun  nature  *•  To  prove,  tbarefoie,  ov  acoooat 
fev  that  siqserior  popidousness  of  anti^pitty,  which  is  com- 
monly supposed,  by  the  imaginary  youth  or  v^;onr  of  the 
world,  will  scarcely  be  admitted  by  «ny  just  reasoner. 
T:tme  jfeneNd  pkj^tiMl  oauaes  ought  entirely  to  be  eobdiH 
ded  from  this  question. 

Tb«re  are  indeed  some  more /lorttciilar  |il|^^ 
oF  iippoMance.  Diseases  aire  meolioBed  in  aatiquity, 
which  are  almost  unknown  to  modem  medicaie;  and  new 
diseases  have  arisen  and  propagated  themselves,  of  which 
there  are  no  traces  in  ancient  histcMry.  In  this  particular 
we  may  observe,  upon  ooaiqpariseo^  diat  tke'disadvaatage 
is  miidi  on  the  side  <tf  die  modems.  Not  lo  mmtiktn 
ma^  others  of  less  moment,  Ike  smaU-poK  oommks  saek 
ravages,  as  would  almost  akme  account  fin*  the  gnMt  sa« 
peiiority  ascribed  to  ancient  limes*  The  tentk  w  dM 
twdfth  partof  mankind  destroyed^  every  generatiijn,  should 

•8m  Von  (t.] 


POPULOU8NES8  OF  ANCIENT  NATIONS*  875 

make  a  vast  di£Eerence,  it  may  be  though  in  the  numbers 
of  die  people;  and  when  jdned  ta  Tenereal  dktempers,  a 
new  plague  diffiised  every  where,'  this  disease  is  perhaps 
equivaleiil,  by  its  constant  operation,  to  the  diree  great 
scourges  of  mankind,  war,  pestilence,  and  fiunine.  Were 
it  certain,  therefore,  that  ancient  times  were  more  popu- 
loos  than  the  present,  and  coold  no  moral  causes  be  as^ 
8^;ned  for  so  great  a  diange,  these  physical  causes  alone, 
inthecqpiniondTmany,  would  be  sufficient  to  give  us  satis* 
fiKtion  (m  that  head. 

But  is  it  certain,  that  antiquity  was  so  much  more  po« 
pulous,  as  is  pretended  ?  The  extravagances  of  Vossius, 
with  regard  to  this  subject^  are  well  known.  Butanauthor 
of  much  greater  genius  and  discernment  has  ventured  to 
afikrm,  thataccording  to  the  best  computations  which  these 
subjects  wiU  admit  <^  there  are  not  now,  on  thefiweof  the 
earth,  the  fiftieth  part  of  mankind,  winch  existed  in  the 
timeof  Julius  Csesar  \  It  may  easily  be  observed,  that  the 
comparison,  in  this  case^  must  be  imperfect,  even  though 
Yre  omfine  ourselves  to  the  scene  of  ancient  history;  £u-> 
nq>e,  and  the  nations  round  the  Mediterranean.  We 
Ipiow  not  exactly  the  numb^-s  of  any  Eurcqpean  kingdout 
or  e[vencity,  at  present:  How  can  we  pretend  to  calculate 
those  of  ancient  cities  and  states,  where  hi^rians  have  left 
us  such  in^er^ict  traces?  For  my  part,  the  matter  appears 
to  me  so  uncertain,  that,  as  I  intend  to  throw  tog^ev 
some  reflecti<ma<»  that  head,  I  shall  inteiwwngle  tibte  in* 
<IuiryconcemmgcaHaMwkhthatc(Hicernii]gyBK^  which 
ought  never  to  be  admitted,  where  the  &cts  can  be  ascer* 
tinned  with  any  tolerable  assuranofe.  We  doaiif  jfinsi,  CQUr 
sider  whether  it  be  probable,  from  what  we  know  of  the 

*  Lettres  Penanes.    See  tho  VEsprii  dm  laH,  lit*  txiii.  csp.  17,  IS^ 
19. 


S76  KS8AY  XI. 

tkuatim  of  society  in  both  periodsi  that  antiqiiiiy  muse 
liare  beoi  more  popukms ;  mxmUfj  wfaethar  in  reality  it 
was  so.  If  I  can  make  it  appear,  that  the  coocbision  is 
not  so  certain  as  is  pretended,  in  &voar  of  aati^ty,  it  is 
all  I  aspire  to. 

In  general,  we  may  obsenre,  that  the  qaesttcm  with  re- 
gard to  the  comparative  poptdousness  c^ages  or  kiogdoms, 
impCesimportantccmsequences,  and  commonly  determines 
concemii^  the  preference  of  their  whole  police,  their  man- 
ners, and  the  constitution  of  their  government.  For  as 
there  is  in  all  men,  both  male  and  female,  a  desire  and 
power  of  generation,  more  active  than  is  ever  universally 
exerted,  the  restraints  which  they  lie  under  must  proceed 
from  some. difficulties  in  their  situaticm,  which  it  bekmgs 
to  a  wise  legislature  cardhlly  to  observe  and  ranove.  Al- 
most every  man,  who  thinks  he  can  maintain  a  fiunily, 
will  have  one ;  and  the  human  species,  at  this  rate  of  pro- 
pagiitibn,' would  more  than  double  every  generation.  How 
fast  do  mankind  multiply  in  every  colony  or  new  settle- 
ment ;  where  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  provide  for  a  fiunily . 
and  where  men  are  nowise  straitened  or  confined  as  in 
long  established  governments  ?  History  tells  us  firequently 
of  plagues  which  have  swept  away  the  third  or  fourth  part 
of  a  people ;  yet  in  a  generation  or  two^  the  destruction 
was  not  perceived,  and  the  society  had  again  acquired 
their  former  number.  The  lands  which  were  cultivated, 
the  houses  built,  the  commodities  raised,  the  riches  ac- 
quired, enabled  the  people,  ifho  escaped,  immediately  to 
marry  and  to  rear  families,  wUchsnpplied  the  placeof  those 
who  had  perished  *•    And,  for  a  like  reason,  every  wise, 

*  This  too  it  m  good  ratioii  whj  the  maU-pox  does  not  dqiopulste  conn, 
tries  10  onidi  aft  mftj  at  int  nght  be  imiginod.    Where  titers  is  room  for 


POPULOU8VES3  OF  AKCIBMT  NATIOITS.  Wt 

just)  and  mild  goremiiieiiti  by  rendcfiog  die  coiiditwn  of 
its  sdbgectft  easy  and  secure^  will  always  abound  most  in 
pecqfde,  as  well  as  in  commodities  and  ridMS.  A  country^ 
indeed,  whose  climate  and  soil  are  fitted  for  vines,  will  nft- 
tnrally  be  more  i>opulous  than  one  which  produces  cons 
only,  and  diat  more  populous  than  one  which  is  only  fitted 
for  pasturage.  In  general,  warm  olimates,  aa  die  neoeasi- 
ties  of  the  inhabitants  are  there  fewer,  and  vegetation 
more  powerful,  are  likdy  to  be  BM»4  populous:  Buttfevcffy 
thing  else  be  equal,  it  seems  natural  to  eiqpect  diat,  where* 
ever  there  are  most  happiness  and  virtue,  and  the  wiaeat 
institutions,  there  will  also  be  most  people. 

The  question,  dierefore,  concerning  the  pq[>ulou8ness 
of  ancient  and  modem  times,  being  allowed  of  great  im- 
portance, it  will  be  requisite^  if  we  would  bring  it  to  some 
determination,  to  compare  both  the  dometHe  and  potiScal 
situation  erf*  these  two  periods,  in  order  to  judge  of  the  facts 
by  their  moral  causes ;  which  is  ih»Jbr9t  view  in  which. we 
proposed  to  ccmsider  them. . 

The  chief  difference  between  die  domegtie  economy  of 
the  ancients  and  that  of  the  modems,  consists  in  the  prac- 
tice of  slavery,  which  prevailed  among  the  former,  and 
which  has  been  abolished  for  scmie  centuries  throughout 
thegreater  part  df  Europe.  Some  passionate  admirers  of 
the  ancients,  and  aeakms  partisans  of  civil  IHierty,  (for  these 
sentiments,  as  thqr  are,  botb  of  diem,  in  the  main^  ex- 
tremely just,  are  found  to  be  almost  inseparable)^  cannot 
forbear  regretting  the  loss  of  this  institnticm ;  and  whilst 
they  brand  all  submission  to  the  government  of  a  single 

mora  people^  tbej  wUl  alwi^  aike,  •ten  witiioat  the  amiitanf  of  AAtu- 
ralisation  biUt.  It  b  remaiked  by  Don  Geronimo  De  Ustaris,  that  the 
proTinces  of  Spaio,  which  lend  most  people  to  the  Indies,  are  moet  popu- 
lous ;  which  proceeds  from  their  superior  riches. 


89S  BMAYXI. 

pew<wmrfih  thfthfurshdiaoroinflinn  of  daifety,  they  wooM 
gladly  roduoe  the  greater  part  of  Tnanlrind  to  real  sk^ 
very  end  subyeetioB.  But  to  one  who  considers  coolfyoa 
dM  subjeot,  it  will  appeat^  that  hsmaB  nature,  in  general^ 
MaUjei^oyBiDore  liberty  at  present,  in  the  nost  arbitrary 
ge^ornment  of  Europe,  tban  it  erex  did  duru^  tbe  moat 
fewrishing  period  of  andent  tmes.  As  much  as  snb- 
■UBsion  te  a  petty  prince,  wbose  dominions  extend  not  be- 
yend  a  single  city^  is  more  grievous  than  obecUcnoe  to  a 
great  monardi;  so  much  is  domestic  slarery  more  cruel 
and  c^ressive  than  any  ciril  sutjection  whatsoever.  Tlie 
more  the  master  is  removed  from  us  in  place  and  rank, 
die  gMater  liberty  we  «i}oy ;  the  less  are  our  acticms  in- 
spected and  controlled ;  and  the  fiiinter  that  cruel  com- 
parison becomes  between  our  own  subjection,  and  the  free- 
dom, apd  even  dominion  of  another.  The  remains  which 
are  found  of  domestic  sla^pery^  in  the  American  colonies, 
and  among  some  European  nation^  would  never  surdy 
create  a  desire  of  rendering  it  more  universaL  The  little 
humanity,  commonly  observed  in  persons,  accustomed^ 
fiom.their  infimey,  to  exeacise  so  great  authority  over  their 
fciiow  creatures,  and  to  tram{de  upon  human  nature,  were 
tfuffidentaloneto  disgust  ns  with  that  unbounded  dominion. 
Nor  can  a  nioie  probable  reason  be  assigned  fi[|r,the  seyeie, 
I  might  say,  barbarous  manners  of  ancient  times,  than  the 
practice  of  domestic  slavery;  by  which  ev^ry  man  of  rank 
was  rendered  a  petty  (j^ran^  andedncated  amidst  the  fla^ 
tary,  submission,  and  low  debasement  of  his  sliives. 

.^kceording  to  aneient  practice,  all  checks  were  on  the 
inferior,  to  restrain  him  to  the  duty  of  submission ;  none 
on  the  superior,  to  engage  him  to  the  reciprocal  duties  of 
gentleness  and  humanity.  In  modem  times,  a  bad  servant 
finds  not  easily  a  good  ^^fer,  npr  a  bad  master  a  good 


POPULOU8NESS  Wt  AMCIBMT  NATIONS.  S¥ft 

$tmat;  aad Jihe  chjacka  •»  itiinilj  mMtif  tptli^ianriohH 
ble  and  eltiBal  laws  of  reasoB  and  eqnitjr* 

Tbeoustoin  of  expoBiBg  old,  naeLeaSy  or  aokskuiet  in  an 
island  of  the  Tj^faer,  tbene  to  starye,  stems  lo  have  been 
pretl^ciaiimoninRonie;  and  whoever  feeofered,.  after  han 
Ting  been  mo  exposed^  ha^  kis  liberty  gbren  bins  by  an 
edict  of  the  Emperoat  Qandnia;  in  whi(^  it  was  Ucewiae 
forbidden  to  kill  ai^dave  merely  fer  old  age  or  skkness% 
But  supposing  that  this  edict  was  strictly  obqred,  woali 
it  betler  the  dofaestio  treatment  of  slav^  or  render  their 
lires  much  ipos«  comfortable?  We  may  imagine  whal 
others  would  practise,  when  it  was  the  professed  maxim  of 
the  elder  Cato»  to  sell  his  supeEamiuated  akses  for  any 
price,  rather  than  maintain  what  he  esteemed  mnselpsslmiw 
den^ 

Thesi^oilMici,  or  dmgeons,  whore  shtTos  in  chains  were 
forced  to  work,  were  very  cnmnimi  all  over  Italy. ,  Co^ 
mella®  advises,  that  they  be  always  boik  under  gsoundi 
and  reoopunends^  it  as  the  duty  of  a  oarefnl  overseei^  to 
call  over  every  day  the  names  of  these  slaves,  like  themii%« 
tering  of  a  regiment  or  ship^s  con^i^iy,  in  order  to  kaew 
presently  when  any  of  them  had  daaerted;*  mpwootaStba 
fosqnenqr  of  these  erffOfitdth  <^  o£  the  great  nnmbes  of 
slasres  usually  oonfined  in  them* 

A  chaine4  tlava  for  e  porter  was  usnalinBome,a8i^ 
pears  from  Ovid*,  and  other  auUuMrs  f.  Had.not  these 
people  shaken  off  idl  sense  of  compassion  toavi|rdl|i  that  mn 
happy  part  of  their  species^  would  they  hare  pteseif ted 

^  Sndoiiiiit  in  vita  Claodii.  ^  Pint,  in  vita  Catonls. 

^  •  Lib.  i.  cap,  6.  ^  lib.  li*  cqp.  t. 

•  Amor.  Vh.  I  «lig.  6 

'  Soeton.  de  Claris  Blietor.  flo  aho  tiie  aaeitaC  poat,  MniMi  tmUnnir^ 
mpedimenUittudiM 


SM  S88AY  XI. 

tkdr  firicack)  at  the  first  aitnnce,  with  such  aa  image  of 
the  severity  of  the  master  and  misery  oi  the  slaye? 

•  Nothing  so  common  in  all  trials,  even  of  civil  causes,  as 
to  call  for  the  evidence  of  slaves ;  which  was  always  extort- 
ed by  the  most  exquisite  tcwments.  Demosthenes  says  % 
diat,  where  it  was  possible  to  produce,  fiir  the  same  hct, 
tkher  fireemen  or  slaves,  as  witnesses,  the  judges  always 
preferred  the  torturing  of  slaves,  as  a  more  certain  evi- 

Seneca  draws  a  picture  <^  that  disorderly  luxury,  which 
changes  day  into  i^|fat,  and  night  into  day,  and  inverts 
every  stated  hour  of  every  office  in  life.  Among  other 
eircumistances,  such  as  displacing  the  meals  and.times  of 
bathings  he  mentions,  that,  r^ularly  about  the^third  hour 
of  the  night,  the  neighbours  of  one,  who  indulges  this.false 
refinement,  hear  the  noise  of  whips  and  lashes;  and,  upon 
mquiry,  find  that  he  b  then  taking  an  account  of  the  con- 
duct of  his  servants,  and  giving  them  due  correction  and 
discipline.  Tins  is  not  remarked  as  an  instance  of  cruel- 
ty, but  only  of  disord^,  which,  even  in  actions  the  most 
usval  and  methodical,  changes  the  fixed  hours  that  an  es- 
tablished custom  had  asngned  for  them  ^. 
<  But  our  present  busmess  is  cmly  to  consider  the  influ- 
&ice  of  slavery  on  the  populoiisness  <^a  state.  It  is  pre- 
tended, that,  in  this  particular,  the  ancient  practice  had 
infinitely  the  advantage,  and  was  the  chief  cause  of.  that 
extreme  populousness,  which  is  supposed  in  those  times. 
At  present,  all  masters  discourage  the  marrying  of  their 
male  servants,  and  admit  not  by  any  means  the  marriage 

•  In  OaHenm  Orat.  I. 

^  Hm  mom  pnctioe  wm  werj  cmamoa  in  Rome ;  but  Cicoto  seems  not 
to  think  UiSs  eridence  so  certain  ••  the  tcstunooy  <rf  lree..citiiens.   ZVoCMiff. 

•  See  NofB  [U.] 


POPULOUSNE88  OF  ANCIENT  NATIONS.  381 

of  the  female,  who  are  then  supposed  altogether  incapa- 
citated for  their  service.  But  where  the  properly  of  the 
servants  is  lodged  in  the  master,  their  marriage  ferins  his 
riches,  and  brings  him  a  successicm  of  slaves,  that  supply 
the  place  of  those  whom  age  and  infirmity  have  disabled. 
He  encourages,  therefore,  their  propagation  as  much  as 
that  of  his  cattle;  rears  the  young  with  the  same  care; 
and  educates  them  to  some  art  or  calling,  which  may  ren- 
der them  more  useful  or  valuable  to  him.  The  opulent 
are,  by  this  policy,  interested  in  the  being  at  least,  tibough 
not  in  the  well-being  of  the  poor ;  andeinich  themsdves 
by  increasing  the  number  and  industry  of  those  who  are 
subjected  to  them.  Elach  man,  being  a  soverdgn  in  his 
own  family,  has  the  same  interest i^ith  regard  t6  it^  as  the 
prince  with  regard  to  the  state ;  and  has  not,  like  the 
prince,  any  opposite  motives  of  ambition  or  vain  glory, 
which  may  lead  him  to  depopulate  his  litde  sovereignty* 
All  of  it  is,  at  all  times,  undar  hiseye;  and  he  has  leisure 
to  inspect  the  most  minute  detail  of  the  marriage  and  edu- 
cation of  his  subjects  *• 

Such  are  the  consequences  of  domestic  slavery,  accord- 
ing  to  the  first  aspect  and  appearance  of  things :  But  if 
we  enter  more  deeply  into  the  subject,  we  shall  perhapa 
find  reason  to  reti^ct  our  hasty  determinations.  Hie 
comparison  is  shocking  between  the  management  of  haaMti 
creatures  and  that  of  cattle;  but  being  extremely  just^ 


*  We  may  htra  obwirre»  that  if  dnnnnlc  •faifay  rwUy  iaewicd  pop«« 
Iniiinm,  it  would  b«  am  exoaptkm  to  the  ganend  rule,  thai  tbt  happinew  of 
any  lociaty  aod  ita  populouaneit  are  necessary  attendants.  A  master,  from 
bumour  or  interest,  may  make  hb  slares  Tory  unhappy,  yet  be  careftiJ,  from 
interest,  to  increase  their  number,  llidr  marriage  is  not  a  matter  of  choice 
to  them,  more  than  any  other  action  of  tiidr  life. 


8M  KStAT  Xf . 

when  applied  to  the  pmest  subject)  it  may  be  proper  to 
trace  die  cooteqiMices  of  it.  At  the  capital,  near  dl^t^at 
okies^im  idi  popokms,  ridi,  iiida8trioQ9»  provinces,  finr  t»t^ 
tIearebfecL  ProvisioBs,  lodgings,  jitteiidaikoe^  labour  are 
thore  dear;  and  men  find  their  accotmt  better  in  bt^i^g 
Ihe  catde^  after  tfaej  come  to  a  certain  age^  finom  the  re^ 
moter  and  cbsaper  eomitries.  Theaeareeonseqpiaitlytb^ 
only  breeding  countries  for  cattle;  an4  ^  a  pati^  of 
tmaaOf  ht  men;too,  when  the  biter  are^put  <m  ihe  sam^ 
footing  wkh  the  former.  To  rear  a  diild  in  Londod,  tHI 
he  conld  be  senriceaUe^  would  cost  much  dearer  than  to 
boy  one  of  the  same  age  from  Scotland  or  Ireland,  where 
he  had  been  bred  in  a  cottage^  cchFer^  with  rags,  and  ftd 
eaoatmed  and  potatoes.  Hiose  who  had  sbtye^,  there- 
fore, in  all  the  richer  and  more  pdpukmseountties,  would 
diaeourage  the  pregoaney  of  the  femal<>%  and  either  pre- 
vent or  destroy,  the  birth*  Hie  hnman  species  would  pe- 
rish in  those  places whereit  oug^  to  increase  the  fosteat; 
and  a  perpetual  recmit  bewahted  from  the  poorer  and 
more  desert  provinces.  Such  a  continued  drain  would 
tend  ni^;htily  to  depofmlate  the  state,  and  render  gctBt 
dtieB  ten  times  more  destroetivef  than  with  us;  where  eve- 
ry nmn  is.  master  of  faimaelf,  and  provides  for  his  children 
from  the  power&l  instinct  of  nature  not  the  calculations 
efjofdid  interest,  if  Ltrndsn^  at  present,  without  niuch 
iacreasingv  needs  a  yearly  reemt  from  tlie  coutry  dP  5000 
people,  as  is  usually  computed,  what  must  it  require,  if  the 
greater'part  of  the  tradesosett  and  common  peq^  were 
slaves,  ^nd  were  hindered  from  breeding' by  their  avari- 
cious masters  ? . 

All  anaient.authors  tell  us,  that  there  was  a  perpetual 
flux  of  slaves  to  Italy,  from  the  remoter  provinces,  parti- 


POPULOUSNESS  OF  ANCIENT  NATIONS.       SM 

colarly  Syria,  Cilicia  \  Oapi^adociay  aod  the  licsser  Asia, 
Tbrace,  ilod  Egypt:  Yet  tte  number  of  people  didapQt 
increeae  in  Itdiy ;  and  Itrriteni  cono^aia  of  tbe'coatinual 
decay  of  industry  and  agriculture  ^.  Wb^e  then  is  that 
extreme  feiNility  of  the  E<Hntm  dave^  which  is  commonly 
supposed?  So  ihr  frcnnmult^[)^ing|thQy  could  no^itseeras^ 
so  much  us  keep  up  the  cftock  withou);  immense  recruita^ 
Aiid  though  great  numbers  i^re  continually  mfuiumitted 
and  converted  kito  Roman  citizens^  die  ni|m)i)ers  even  of 
diese  did  not  increase  %  ttfl  the  free4Qm^of  the  ci^  wi|9 
communicated  to  foreign  provinf^es. 

The  term  for  a  dat%  bora  anti  biped,  inthe  £Eunily,  -was 
jwma^;  and  these  slaves  seem  to  have  been  entitled  liiyciia- 
totOL  to  privilegea  and  indulgences  b^yc^4  others ;  a  suffi- 
cient reason  why  the  itiastetis  woiild  ^ot  be;  fond  of  rearing 
many  ci  that  kind  ^  Whoev^  is  ^aequaip^d  with  the 
inaxims  of  our  {daflt^rs^  iriU  ludmbwledge  ^e  justness  of 
this  observattoii  ^ 

*  Ten  thousand  slaves  in  •  day  bave  oQen  been  sold  for  the  use  of  the 
Romans,  at  Delus  in  Cflida.     Strabo,  Ub.  tit. 

^  Cohimenay  Ub.  L  piMtti,  et-ca^  1.  ct  7.  Vano^  lSb>  HL  ta^  1.  Hd- 
ta^  lib.  it  od*  15.  Taok.  Aanal.  lib.  ilL  caf»  54.  Sueton*  in  vita  Aug. 
cap.  xliL     Flin.  lib.  xviiL  c^  13. 

^  Minora  indies  pUbe  ingentutf  says  Tacitus,  Ann.  lib.  zziv.  cap.  7. 

«  See  Noil  fX.] 
.    «  VttHan  used  by  fiomaa  wnten^aa  a  word  equlT^lent  to  fcnrrt^  on 
•ecmini^if  tira  petubwoeaBd  in^podence  of  those  sUves.    Mart.  lib.  .i.  ep^ 
■48.     Horace  «lao  maations  the  vima  procaca:  and  Petronius,  cap.  24. 
vermtia  urbanittu.     Seneca,  De  Prorid.  cap.  I.  vemnlarum  licentia* 

'  It  14  compoted  m  the  West  Indies,  that  a  stock  of  slaves  grow  worse 
JSi99  per  cent,  every  year,  unless  pe^v  slaves  be  bought  to  recruit  them.  They 
are  not  able  to  keep  up  their  number,  even  in  those  warm  countries,  where 
clothes'  an4  provisions  Are  so  easily  got.  How  much  more  must  this  happen 
in  European  countries,  and  in  or  near  great  cities  ?  I  shall  add,  that,  from 
the  experienoe  of  our  planters,  slavery  is  as  little  advantageous  to  the  master 
as  to  the  slave,  wherever  hired  servants  can  be  procured.  A  man  is  obliged 
to  clothe  and  feed  his  slave ;  and  he  does  no  more  for  his  servant :  iThe  price 


164  ESSAY  xr. 

AtticQS  is  mndi  praised  by  his  historian,  tar  the  care 
which  he  took  in  recruiting  his  fiumly  from  the  slaves  bom 
in  it*:  May  we  not  thenoe  infer,  that  Uiispractioe  was  not 
then  Tery  oonunon? 

The  names  o£  slavjes  in  the  Greek  comedies,  Steus, 
Mtsus,  Octa,  Thrax,  Dayius,  Ltdus,  Phbtx,  ftc  af- 
ford a  presumption,  that,  at  Athens  at  least,  most  of  the 
slaves  were  imported  frmn  for^^n  oouitfries.  The  Athe- 
nians, says  Strabo  ^  gave  to  their  slaves,  either  the  names 
of  the  nations  whence  they  w^  brought,  as  Lvnus,  St- 
mus ;  or  the  names  that  wane  most  oOTumm  among  those 
nations,  as  Makxs,  or  Midas,  to  a  Rirygian,  Tibias  to  a 
Ptephlagonian. 

Demosthtties,  having  mentioned  a  law  which  forbad 
any  man  to  strike  the  slave  of  another,  praises  the  huma- 
nity c^this  law;  and  adds,  diat  if  the  barbarians,  from 
whom  the  daves  were  bought,  had  infimnation  that  their 
countrymen  met  widi  such  gentle  treatment,  they  would 
entertain  a  great  esteem  for  the  Athenians  ^.  Isocrates  ^ 
too  insinuates,  that  the  slaves  of  the  Greeks  were  general- 
ly or  very  commonly  barbarians.  Aristode  in  his  politics^ 
plainly  supposes,  that  a  slave  is  always  a  foreigner.  The 
ancient  comic  writers  represented  the  slaves  as  speaking  a 
barbarous  language  ^.    This  was  an  imitation  of  nature. 

(>f  tiieilntpurdis«eis,tfa«refore,  loiiiidilowtoliini:  nottomentloiiytiMik 

die  fttf  of  puiiidAiieiit  wm  never  drew  80  mudi  lilw^ 

dndl  of  being  tuned  oil^  and  m>i  gvttiqf  mnotlM  MTTici^  idU  ft«^ 


•  Corn.  NepoB  in  viu  Attid.  Vfemtjnmurk,  diat  Attkui's  oetatolay 
chiefly  in  Epinis,  which  being  a  remote,  deiohite  place,  would  render  it  pro- 
fitable for  him  to  rear  tUrea  tfiere. 

^  Ub.  TiL  *  In  BGdiam,  p.  SSI.  ez  edit  AldL 

'  Panegyr.  *  Lib.  tIL  cap.  10.  sub  fin. 

'  Aristoph.  Equites,  I.  1 7.  Tlie  andent  scholiast  renarlcs  on  this  passage 

1 


POPULOU8NES8  OF  AN0IENT  NATIONS. 

it  is  well  known  tkat  Demosthenes,  in  his  nonage^  had 
4}e0n  definBu4ecl  of  a  kfge  fortune  bjr  his  totois^  and  UmI 
afterwards  he  recovered,  by  a  prosecution  at  law,  ihevahie 
lof  his  patrimony.  His  oratH>ns,  on  that  oocaskm,  stiEre- 
viain,.  andoontain  an  eocact  detail  of  the^slKde  snfatimce 
left  by  his  father',  in  money,  merdiandise,  honses^/iuld 
slaves,  tagethermth  the  value  of  eaidipaitiettkik*^  Aaft^ng 
Ae  rest  were  5ft  slaves,  handicfaftsmen»  namely,  a^  ssford»' 
outlers,  and  20  cabinet-makers^;  allmaks;  aota.welBd 
«f  any  wiv^. children,  or .fiunify^.. which,  they  cactaialj 
.monld  haye  had,  had  H  been  a  cammon  praMiee.ataAtflienS 
to  breed  from  the  slaves ;  and  the  value.of  the  wholemns^ 
have  much  depended  on  thi^  drcumstanoe.  No  £uude 
alaares  are  ^ven  so  much  as  mentioned,  except  aome  hwMr  ^ 
vmids,  who  belonged  to  his  mother*  This  ai^gumctit  has 
great  force,  if  it  be  not  altogether  coDohistve. 

Consider  thif  passage  of  PJntarcbS  speaking.  <^  the  £1* 
der  *Cato :  *^  He  had  a  great  number  of  slaves^  whom  Jie 
$ock  care  to  buy  at  the  saks  of  prisbnen  o£.i^^  mad  he 
<diose  them  youngs  that  dn^  might  easily  be  aosustoimed 
So  any  diet  or  manner  of  life,  and  be  instmctadinjmy  bu* 
sineas  or  labour^  aa  men  teach  any.  thing  to  youiig.dogs  or 
hone«.-*-Aiid  esfffliing  love  the  chief  source  e£>aU  cKmiv 
ders,  he  allowed  the  oiak  slaves  to  havee  oomnmce  with 
the  female  in  bis  family,  upon  paying  a.  certain  :suiIk:  for 
this  privilege:  But  he  strictly  prohibited  aU  intarignes  Out 
of  his  fiunfly.'.'  Are  there  any  symploBBur  ia  Ihb  narratkm 
of  that  care  which  is  supposed  in  the  ancients  of  the  mar* 
riage  and  propagation  qf  their  slaves  ?  If  that  w^s  a  cbqi- 
mon  practice,  founded  on  g^nejral  interi^tf  it  woukJlsujrel.y 

■  In  /imvi^ohyftn,  Otaif  1.  .1 

^  KAiy*«'#M,  makert  of  those  beds  which  the  ancients  Uy  upon  at  nieB|% 
•  In  Tita  CatonLw  .      .  .       ,  \ 

VOL,  I.  2  c 


iHMre  iiian  fiabraoed  bgr  C^^  wli»  wn$  agMUt  MMiMlist, 
lad  liv6d  m  timtt  whea  tke  topital  frugally  arid  ^wtfik- 
tHy  of  OMmert  v«re  stiU  ia  credit  rad  rcpntnti^ 
It  10  cqumdj  vemackcd  bgr  tbe  writers  «if  ^  RomM 

K  oooediBg  imn  tlMni*« 

Ottlackqrs  and  hiwaeHDttdi,.  l-awn^  doiadt  f^rF^jmadii 
iomdlSl^yibeirveotflit  But  tho  aaoiaBt>»  ImwIm  ttuM 
Jiiii»  tftteaded  M  their  piBEiOB,  bid  afattrMt  «UtlMir  1^^ 
y  lifaiMu  Jj  and  ewjO  nviimiitftnrRs  emwitrri  by  dbves,  iA» 
4t««dy  iiianyofthefl^iatlKn''fiMMi]gr;  end  some  fpreatoMi 
Itotkennmbercf  Ifl^MSw  If  there  beaajreos- 
» therefare,  Aatthis  iwtitaftion  vaj  osiamiiimble  to 
I  (and  the  same  rsaaoiv  at  kast  in  paxC,  Jiolda 
«tlh  ragax^  to  ancient  sbnres  as  medarai  8er¥aants),  how 
destructive  nmst  dK^mry  hxve  proved  ? 

Histofy  mentions  a  Roman  nnWomsni  vho  had  400 
alafM  im4er  the  aaaae  nsof  ^ritli  him.x  And  faaYifig.'been 
BSiassinjtailithBmeiyt^fmgangjfevetigedfetieofth^ 
dM  hMT  ims  gxeptsd  srith  rie(Mtr»  and  all  .vidboiit,e9»a(b- 
lion  isemisat  to  deaths  Jdanyodmr.Jbman  noblemen 
had  fiteiMios  eqoi^.or  nuxe  nameaou^;  andlbeKeve 
every  ott&mH^dloWt  timt  tUa  woold  aoarcbly  be  .pwti^ 
cable,  sivseiaeta^s^ipeBeaUlfaftsfevesiliarmed,  andliie 
fanalaa  tobetareeduv  K 

IBoJOfiBy  as  Ihe  poetliep]pd^  marriea  sbpres^  w^thdr 
male  or  ifaniie»  isawp  ustej  Wjed  incettiwfent    Hovnuich 

*  See  Non  [Y.]  ^  Tacit  Ann.  xir.  cap.  49. 

•  Dm  slaves  in  fb^  gi^eat  bouiet  had  Uttle  rooma  ascigntd  them  catlod 
dSifllvw    lAnWBeet^|UMMofoell%iatih|ni^m«di»«henMia^'a  TO^ 
eottfant.     See  fiurther  on  thb  head,  Jait  lipaioa,  Satonu  i.  cap.  14.  These 
Ibcm  strong  presumptions  against  the  maniage  and  propegatton  of  the  fiu 
AiHy  staTSS. 

'  Open  et  Dies,  lib.  ii.  L  S4.  alio  L  S90. 


POPULOUSMfiSft  mW  AMOf  KNT  NATIONS. 

iDopre^  mk^»  flui|i)iM  Jiad  jftcwatwi  to  m^  fn  eoonaous 
•tze  as  in.  Boiae»  aii4«li6cet)MmKsaiHiiii^pliekyafiii^ 
nttv  wits  ^MHudMd  Atnm  all  fanjcs  qf  people  ? 

X#iH)plioa  in  faU  OEJoonomics,  wliere  Iiegwes  d|geetiimt 
fer  the  inanagement  pi  a  ikrniy  icconmends  a  tiriet  earn 
and  fttenCiQ&of  laying  the  male  and  the  ftatiaWdanna  at  # 
cKatanoe  from  aacH  qdiar.  Qe  eeema  not  to  Mqpppse  Aat 
they  are  ever  married.  The  only  ria^et  among  the  Onak^ 
tfaatappaar  to  have  oantimied  their  09m  race,  were  the 
Heiotet,  who  had  hoaaes  apart^  aod  Jfcffemorettl^  skmra^ 
of  the  mbKc  than  of  indifidaak^ 

Thaaameaothor^  taUsus,  that  Hieias^  oimrsaer,  by 
agreement  ^h  hismaeter,  was  obliged  to  pi^  him  anabot 
his  a-day  for  eai^  slaye;  besides  maintaining  thaa^  an4 
keeptng  «q[>  the  nmnber.  ^ad  the  ancient  slavtes  been  aH 
bre#der8|  this  hat  oiromnstanoe  of  the  contraot  1^  beeii 
0uperflnou8» 

The  ancients  talk  so  fi^ne^itly  of  a  ^xed,  alyitedpatdp^ 
of  promions  assigned  tip  each  daseS  t}iatwei^natuMdly 
ledtoeonelnde,  that  flai^es  lived  almost  ^  singly  andw* 
ceived  that  portion  as  a  kind  of  boM4*wages. 

Hie  practice  indeed,  of  parrying  (iavas,  «eems  not  tSf^ 
hare  been  fery  common,  er»  aaoang  the  comtiy  libofr- 
ers,  where  it  is  more  n^tiuafiy  tiobe  expect.  (S^*s 
enamerating  the  slaves  Requisite  to  labour  a  vineyard  of  a 
hmidred  acres,  makes  lliem  amount  to  15;  the  overseer 
andhisvrife,  vSHe9f^  mai  vtUka,  and  Ml4i|ala  slaves;  'for 
an  dive  ptantatbn  of  240  acres,  the  overseer  and  Us  wife, 
and  II  male  slaves;  and  so  in  prop<^rtipn  t^  ft  fPeatqr  of 
less  plantation  or  viney.^rd* 

•  Stftibo,  lib.  Tui.  ^09  BMdom  VMitunaL 

**  *  8m  Ckto  De  Re  Rustioi,  cap.  50.  1>nwtii»  in  Pbonmoo,  L  i.  c  9. 
Bm^crn,  Epist  80.  '  De  Re  RuiCft.  eep.  tO,  t1» ' 

2c2 


tM  KS8AYXK 

Vsrro '» ipiottng  Ibis  passage  of  Cato^  aUows  hjaconqm-r 
Mkm  io  be  jdst  in  every  reject  except  the  last.  For  as 
it  is  requisite,  says  he,  toliaTe  jan  overseer  and  hia  wife» 
whether  the  vineyard  or  plantation  be  great  or  small,  this 
mast  alter  the  exactness  of  the  prc^rtion.  Had  Cato's 
corapatatioa  been  ertaneoas  in  aoy  other  respect,,  it  bad 
ceHaiiily  been  conreoted  by  Varro^  who  seems  fond  of  dis^ 
covtriag  so  trivial  an.  error. 

The  sameandior  S  as  well  as  Columella  ^,  reeommends 
it  as  reqiustte  to  give  a  wife  to  the  overseer,  in  order  to  at- 
tach him  the  more  strongly  to  his  master's  service^  This 
wAs  therelbre  a  peculiar  indulgence  grmted  to  a  slavey'  in 
mhom  so  great  confidence  was  reposed* 

In  the  same  place,  Varro  mentions  it  as  an  useful  precau*^ 
tion,  n6t  to  buy  too. many  slaves,  from  the  same  n&tiw^ 
lest tjbjr.  beget  fiictions  and  seditions  in  the  fiumly ;  Itpre? 
sumption,  that  in  Italy,  the  greater  part,  even  pf  th^  oomh 
try  ldb9uringslaves(for  he  speaks  of  no  other,)  we^n  bought 
from  tihie  jwiDQiter  prpvinces.  All  the  world  knp^^  .that 
the.fiumUy  slaves  in  IUdne>  who  were  instrumetits  ef.^«m 
and  luxury,  were  coknmonly  imported  iVom  the  £«it«  ^Mo^ 
frq^ioer^  says  Flinyi!  speaking  ^f  the  jealous  care  of  nms- 

wrumquoq^  cansa  mrnenck^  adhibendus ''. 

It'is  indeed  jreoommended  by  Varro '  to  propagate  young 
ahepAi^rds  fai  the  family  from  the  old  ones«  For  as  gra* 
4H9g  Uxjam  were  cofprnonly  in  remote  and  cheap  plgces^  ami 
eiM^  she^erd  lived  i^  acottage  apart,  his  marriage  and  in*- 
'Crease  were  not  liable  to  the  same  inconveniences  as  in 
dearer  places,  and  where  many  servants  lived  in  the  fami^ 

•  Lib.  i.  d^  18.  >"  Lib.  L  cap.  17.  <=  Lib.  i.  cap.  18« 
'  LiU  xzxiiL  cap.  1.     So  likewise  Tacitus,  Annal.  lib.  w»  cap.  44^ 

*  Lib.  ii.  cap.  10,    •  . 


POPULOUSNXSS  XHF  :AIIG]£NT' NATIONS.  889 

If ;  wkkli  was  iirihmrs«ny  th^  case  in  such  of  the  Roinan 
forms  aa  pibduoed  wine  or  .conw  If  we  consider  tbis'  «x-» 
eeption  with  regard  to  shepherds,  and  weigh  the  reasons 
•fit,  it  wUl  serve  for  astroagocynfiniMitioDof  aU'ourlbre« 
going  saspiciobs  f«  • 

I  C^um^a^  I  own,  advises  die  master  to  give  a  re#Ard^ 
and  even  libertyto  a  female  slave,  that  had  reared  him  a^ 
bove  three  children ;  a  proof  that  sometimes  the  ancient! 
propaga^d  frcm  their  slaves,  whidi  indeed  cannot  be  de^ 
nied*  Were  it  otherwise,  the  pvaeticd  of  slavery,  being  so 
common  in  antiquity,  must  have  been  destructive  to  a  de* 
gree  which  no  expedient  could  rqmir.  All  I  pretend  to 
infer  fi-om  these  reasonings  is,  that  slavery  is  in  general  dis«* 
fldyai^tageous  both  to  the  hiqipiness  and  p^^lonsness  of 
manliind,  and  that  its  place  b  much  better  supplied  by  the 
practice  of  hired  servants. 

The  laws,  or,  as  some  writers  call  them,  the  seditions  of 
the  Gracchi)  were  occasioned  by  their  observing  the  in- 
crease of  slaves  all  over  Italy,  and  the  diminution  of  free 
citizens.  Appian^.  ascribes  this  increase  to  the  propaga- 
tion of  the  slaves :  Plutarch  <*  to  the  purchasing  of  barba- 
rians, who  were  chained  and  imprisoned,  $mfiM^t*M  hrftm- 
tn^m  *.    It  is  to  be  presumed  that  both  causes  concurred. 

■  Pastorifl  duri  est  hie  filius,  ille  bubuIcL     Juveo*  Sa^  II.  1^1. 

*  Lib.  i.  cap.  8.  «  De  Bdl.  Civ.  lib.  L  , 

*  In  Vita  Tib.  et  C.  Gracchi. 

-  *  To  the  sanie  purpo^'  is  that  passage  in  the  elder  Seneca,  ex  eontrorer- 
My  5.  lib.  V.  **  AmU.qoondm  pc|Mill»nii««  aingolortttn  cfgaituloniiD  Mmt; 
M  latiusquA  mine  vilUd9,9uam  olim  rego^  imperaat.**  ''  At  nunc  eadett^** 
says  Pliny,  *'  vincti  pedes,  damnAts  manus,  inscripti  vultus  exercent.  *'  Lib. 
XTiii.  cap.  3.     So  also  Martial, 

*'  £t  sonet  innumera  compcdo  Thuscus  ager.**     Lib.  ix.  ep.  S3. 
And  Lucan^  **  Turn  longos  jungcrc  fines 

*'  Agrorum,  ct  quondam  duro  sulcata  Camilll, 
(•  Vomcrc  et  antiquas  Curiorum  passa  ligones,. 


SM  mmMTXJ 


Sktifj  my»  Fkirut',  wm  Ml  efftymlMli,  ud  wm  coIm 
thvted  bj  labMrert  in  chmaak  Ewms  tad  AAMio  ex-i 
eked  the  wtnUt  wzt^  by  hrtwkmg  np  tbate  notttrou  pri» 
foitt»MklgiTin9lftert3rt0  «tMMsla^Fe&  The  yom^^tv 
Pompejr  augmented  his  simj  m  l^win  bjr  the  smmm  expe* 
Aml^  HtbecKmstrfhrigMMrt^difoaghoattl^ 
Mipil:^  wtro  80  gtaeiidif  in  tfak  mtilBtiw^  ^ 
fiddt  w  impombk  to  ftud  s^pwste  lodgti^  fcrthefiMH 
Iks  ^  Ae  city  seifimii^  how  ttnfii?f(mmble  to  ptopag^thni 
AsweUlui  to  hmuuA^t  mist  the  instittttiDa  cf  domeslis 
i^ery  be  esteemcid? 

CopstmCtno^e,  atprcstet»  requires  the  seme  recraitt  of 
daft»  from  all  the  prOTAoes  that  Rome  did  of  old;  and 
these  pvovittees  Are  of  ooosequen^  fiur  from  being  pop»* 
loas. 

Egypt,  according  to  Mons.  Maill^  sends  continual  co* 
lonies  of  blach  slayes  to  the  other  parts^  the  Turkish  an- 
pire,  and  receires  «imu*Uy  an  equal  return  of  white :  The 
one  brottglit  from  the  iiJand  parts  of  Africa;  the  other 
from  Mingrelia»  Circassian  and  Tartary. 

Our  modem  conventa  are,  no  doubt,  bad  institattons  t 
But  there  is  re&son  t^  su^iect^  that  anci^tly  every  great 
^unily  in  Italy,  and  probably  in  other  parts  of  the  worldp 
was  a  species  of  conTcnt.  And  tluragh  we  have  reason  to 
condemn  all  those  popish  institutions,  as  nurseries  of  su- 
perstition, burdensome  to  the  public,  and  0{9>ressive  to  the 
|)Oor  prisoners,  nude  as  Well  as  female;  yet  may  it  be  ques- 
tioned  whether  they  be  so  destmctiTe  to  the  populou^eaa 
H3t  a  ^I6te^  as  is  commonly  imagined.   Were  the  land  which 

^  Ikmgti  M}  igttotok  extettdere  mra  colonis.**    lib.  i. 

**  Vincto  foMore  coluntur 
«•  Heqpeda  segetci-**— —  lib.  tu. 

*  Lib.  iii.  ctp.  19.  ^  Jd.  lib.  iv«  cap.  S. 


POPULOUSNE88  aTAHAONT  NATIONS.  Ml 


bUQiqpft.ta  a  cmvcal  bnlofred  oaaaablMiaih  he  mow^ 

Spcsd  itft  XBRT^Hie  mi  wUtWMf  ilQBMBt  fP'O^^BB^  lifllfmilH|  COQk% 

mri  h  wi  liaiflii , ,  niifl  h1i  fiiily  wnnM  unt  fimiiih  mhwy 
more  citizens  than  the  .eoiuMit. 

,  Th»pc)»iaaea  gsasyB  rfy  asqr  ylwit  threats  hitdtwgK" 
t6|«iBtf>Baons(iip^  is  thai  he  ang^upt  beaveatjivdttMd 
wl{h*tw  mnbetoiis  a  fiuailsr ;  but  A^  andtats  had  a  me- 
thod ahttost  as  ia^ooenti  and  move  eftetnal  ta  that  pw^ 
p08e,taiirk»exp«siP9dwi»cluhikeainear]^kifi^^  Tfaia 
pi^Mtioa  anas  very  ooBiqMA;  awl  is  not  spoken  (^ by  any 
authof  irfdioso  tines  wtdi  die  faonw  it  deserve^  or  aoar8»» 
ly 9  ef^sn wididisappvobacion*  Plntarcb,  the  hamaiiefpood-  . 
natiifed  Platafch  ^  mealioas Jt  as  anerit  in  Attahu^  hi§g 
oiFepgamm,  that  hemwderad,  CRr,ifyoawill^  eaq[Kisedatf 
his  own  children,  in  order  to  leave  hk  crown  to  the  son  of 
Usbrather  Evpsttes;  signaliaing  in  this  PHaum'hia  gra- 
titude and  afectiint  <|0  EiimeittSy  w%o  had  left;  hia  his  hair 
preferably  to  diatstfi^  It  was  Sedan,  die  nxistceMnratsd 
of  the  si^es  of  Greece,  that  gave  panents  permission  by  biw 
i0  kill  their  children  c. 

Shall  we  then  allqw  these  two  oircnmstaoces  to  eon^ 
panate  each  other,  to  wit,  mooastie  vows  and  die  ei|K>- 
sing  of  children,  and  to  be  iin&voonible,  in  equal  degrees, 
to  die  propagation  of  mankind  ?  I  doobt  the  advantage  is 
here  on  die  side  of  antiqfuty.  Fairhaps,  by  an  odd  oflB* 
nection  of  causes^  the  barbaroasi  pjitef  iee  of  the  anoiants . 
might  rather  render  those  times  mare  popdloHs.  By  ra^ 
moving  the  terrors  of  too  nmnerons  a  fiunily  it  wonld  e»- . 

«  TmHw  bUmti  it*     Db  MoqIs  Gflna. 

^  Pe  Fraterno  Amove.     Seneca  mIw  approves  of  the  eipoHiig  of  jicklj 
hifinn  children.     De  Ira,  lib.  i.  cap.  1 5* 
*  Sext.  £inp.  lib*  iii.  cap.  24. 


gli^ftinaDjr  people  lainarriBge;  mdsvdi  is  the  fiacmtf; 
nftoral  affiselioB)  tlMt  Toryfinr,  m  ooapwi^^ 
resoiotion  dKn^  Jtheu  k  cme  to  the  piuby  to  aorry  kn 
to  executicHi  their  former  iatcntions. 

CkiatLf  tfaeoolyco«ilrjwberethif  practioeofezpoaiDg 
cbUdrnpieevsikat  preaent,  is  the  most  popoknuoomtiy 
wobiow  of ;  end  every  man  18  oiorried  beliMe  he  is  twt^ 
Such  eerly  manrieges  cmU  seuxeijf  be  genenl,  had  not 
men  thefMro^aeeiof  so  ieasy  H  mediod  of  gettisg  rid<tf  tfaeh: 
chiidrai..    I  own  that  Mlvfearch  speaks  of  it  as  a  Jv^ 
general  maxim  of  the  poor  to  expose  their  diildrra;  and 
as  the  rich  ««re  then  averse  to  marriage^  on  acoount  of 
the  Gcprtshi(^  they  met  with  bom  those  who  expected . 
I^faoies  from  them»  the  public  imut  h«ve  been  in  a  bed  > 
sttiiatioo  between  than  W 

Of  aUsdences,  there  isnoim  where  first  apfiearaiioes  ^H 
more  deoeitfid  than  in  priitics.  Hospitala  for  fcmidliDgi 
seem  favom*able  to  th^  increase  of  numbors;  and»  perhaps^ 
mayi  be  so^  lii^^i  kept  und^  proper  restrictions.  Bat 
when  they  open  the  door  to  every  one,  without  distinctiotH 
they  have  probably  a  contrary  effort,  and  are  penudous 
te^^  state.  It  is  oompnted^  that  every  ninth  child  bom 
at  Park  is  sent  to  the  hospital;  thoi^  it  seems  oertaiOf 
according  to  the  common  course  of  hnman  affiurs,  that  it. 
is  not  a'faundr^th  child  whose  parents  are  altogether  in* 
capacitated  to.  rear  ai4t|echKate  hinu  The  great  difl^- 
enoe^  for  health,  industry,  and  morals,  between  an  edu- 
cfliion  in  anfaoqpital  and  that  in  a  private  family,  should 
induce  us  not  to  make  the  entrance  into  the  former  too 
easy  and  engaging.  To  kill  one's  own  child  is  shocking 
t6  nature,  and  must  therefore  be  somewhat  unusual ;  but 

•  De  Amorc  Proliti.  *  See  Nott  [Z.] 


POPULOUSKE6S  OF  ANCIENT  NATIONS.  999 

to  tttin  over  the  care  of  Mm  upon  others,  k  rety  tempting 
to  the  natural  indolence  of  mankind. 

Havhig  considered  the  domestic  life  and  manners  of  the 
ancients,  compared  to  those  of  the  modems ;  where,  in  the 
mam,  we  sdem  rather  superior,  so  fkr  as  the  present  ques* 
tion  is  concerned ;  we  shall  now  examine  the  poHHeal  cus" 
toms  and  institutions  of  both  ages,  and  weigh  their  mfluence 
in  retarding  or  forwarding  the  propagation  of  mankind. 
<  Before  the  increase  of  the  Roman  powers  or  rather  till 
its  full  establishment,  almost  all  the  nations,  which  are  the 
scene  of  ancient  history,  were  divided  into  small  territories 
or  petty  oommonweol^s,  where  of  course  a  great  equality 
of  fortune  prevailed,  and  the  centre  of  the  government  was 
always  very  near  its  frontiers. 

This  was  the  situation  of  affairs  not  only  in  Greece  and 
Italy,  but  also  in  Spain,  Gaul,  Germany,  Africa,  and  a 
great  part  of  the  Lesser  Asia:  And  it  must  be  owned, 
that  no  institution  could  be  more  favourable  to  the  propa- 
gation of  mankind.  For  though  a  man  of  an  overgrown 
fortune,  not  being  able  to  consume  more  than  another,- 
must  share  it  with  those  who  serve  and  attend  him;  yet 
their  possession  being  precarious,  they  have  not  the  same 
encouragement  to  marry,  as  if  each  had  a  small  fortune^ 
Secure  and  independent  Enormous  cities  toe,. besides, 
destructive  to  society,  b^t  vice  and  disorder  of  all  kinds,- 
starve  the  remoter  provinces,  and  even  starve  themselves, 
by  the  prices  to  which  they  raise  all  provisions.  Where 
each  man  bad  his  litde  house  and  field  to  himself,  and  each 
county  had  its  capital^  free  and  independent;  what  a  hiqipy 
situation  of  mankind  !  How  favourable  to  industry  and 
agriculture;  to  marriage  and  propagation  !  The  prolific 
virtue  of  men,  were  it  to  act  in  its  full  extent,  without  that 
restraint  which  poverty  and  necessity  impose  on  it,  wquld 


dM  EtlAY  XI. 

dottU«  tbeniiixibereiperygflmkailMm:  And  ao<iMig  evtly 
can  giTeJt  more  libert]?,  than  such  amallcoiniBQiiwealtli^ 
aod  sacb  an  equality  of  fimnne  among  tbe  ckkesi.  AU 
snail  states  naturally  produce  eqnali^  of  fiDrUm^  bacanaa 
they  a£bffd  no  opportunities  of  great  incraaae;  but  amtt 
oomnumwadtha  mudi  more,  by  tbatdivisicMi  of  power  and 
antborky  whidi  is  esasntial  to>  thesi. 

When  Xenopfaon  ^  returned  after  the  fiMBoua  exped^ 
tion  with  Oyrus^  he  hired  himself  and  6(MK)  of  the  Greeks 
into  the  serrice  of  Seatfaes,  a  prince  of  Thraoe;  and  the 
articles  of  his  agreement  were,  dbat  each  soldier  shoaJd  re* 
cdve  a  ddrJc  a  month,  each  captain  two  dorjoi^  and  he  hisi- 
sel^  as  general,  foar.  A  r^ulation  of  pay  which  would 
not  a  little  surprise  our  modem  officers. 

Demosthenes  and  .£sdiine%  with  eight  morei  were  sent 
ambassadors  to  I^iilip  of  Macedon,  and  their  appointments 
for  above  four  months  w^re  a  thoosand  dirocAaia^  which  k 
less  than  a  drodbaa  a  day  for  each  ambassador  ^  But  n 
dradma  a-day,  nay  sometiBies  two  ^,  was  the  pay  of  a 
common  fi>ot«ddier. 

A  centurion  among  the  Romans  bad  only  donble  p#y 
to  a  private  roan  in  Polybius's  time  ^ ;  and  we  accordingly 
find  the  gratuities  after  a  triumph  rtq^ulated  by'that  pro- 
portion  ^  But  Mark  Antony  and  the  Triumvirate  gave 
the  centurions  five  times  the  reward  of  the  other  ^  So 
much  had  the  increase  of  the  commonwealth  increased  the 
inequality  among  the  citiaens  '* 

*  De  Eip.  Cyr.  lib.  viL 

^  Denuat  De  F«lf«  Leg.     He  ealb  it  a  ceatideisbte  soat 
«  Thucyd.  lib.  iii.  *  lib.  vi.  cap.  37. 

*  Tit  Liv.  lib.  xli*  cap.  7.  13.  d  alibi  p<uum» 
'  Appian.  De  Bell  Civ.  lib.  it. 

*  Caraar  gave  t^  centurions  ten  times  the  gratuity  of  tbe  copMnon  seU 
diert.  De  Bello  GaUico,  lib.  viH.  In  tbe  Rbodiaa  cartel,  mentioMd  af. 
tcr wards,  no  distinction  in  the  ransom  was  made  on  account  of  ranks  in  the 
army. 


POPULOU8NG88  OF  ANCIENT  NATIONS.  M5 

•  ItflMut  be  owned,  tluitthesittuiticmof  sffiursinmodem 
tifBe%  witk  regard  to  civil  liberty,  as  equality  of  fortune, 
k  not  mar  m>  favourable  either  to  the  propagation  or  hap- 
pinest  of  mankind.  Europe  is  shared  out  mostly  into 
grieat  monarchies ;  and  such  parts  of  it  as  are  divided  into 
small  territories  are  commonly  governed  by  absdlute  prin<» 
ces,  who  min  their  people  by  a  mimicry  of  the  great  mo- 
nardis,  in  the  splendour  of  their  court,  and  number  of  their 
forces.  Swisserland  alone  and  Holland  resemble  the  an* 
eient republics;  and  though  the  former  is  fiur  firom  possess- 
ing any  advantage,  either  of  soil,  climate,  or  commerce, 
yet  the  numbers  of  people  with  which  it  abounds,  notwitln 
standing  their  enlisting  themselves  into  every  service  in 
Europe,  prove  sufficiently  the  advantages  of  their  pcditical 
inatitutions* 

The  ancient  republics  derived  their  chief  or  only  secu* 
rity  from  the  numbers  of  their  citizens.  The  Trachinians 
having  lost  great  numbers  of  their  people,  the  remainder^ 
instead  of  enriching  themselves  by  the  inheritance  of  their 
fellow«citizens,  applied  to  Sparta,  their  meUropolis,  for  a 
new  stock  of  iidiabitants.  The  Spartans  immediately  col- 
lected ten  thousand  men ;  among  whom  the  old  citizens 
divided  the  lands  of  which  the  former  proprietors  had 
perished  K 

After  Timoleon  had  banished  Dionysius  from  Syracuse^ 
and  had  settled  the  affiiirs  of  Sicily,  finding  the  cities  of 
Syracuse  and  Sellinuntium  extremely  depopulated  by  tyran- 
ny, war,  and  faction,  he  invited  over  from  Greece  some* 
new  inhabitants  to  repeople  them  \  Immediately  forty 
thousand  men  (Plutarch^  says  sixty  thousand)  offered 
themselves;  and  he  distributed  so  many  lots  of  land  among 
them,  to  the  great  sat^facticm  of  the  ancient  inhabitants ; 

•  Diod.  Cyc.  lib.  xii.     Tbucyd.  lib.  iii.  *»  Diod.  Sic.  lib.  zvi. 

<  In  y\U  TimoU 


896  ESSAY  XI, 

»  proof  at  ooce  of  the  maxims  of  ancient  poUcy,  wluch  af- 
fected populousness  more  than  riches;  and  of  the  .good 
efibcts  of  these  maxims,  in  the  extreme  populousness  of 
that  small  country,  Greece,  which  could  at  once  supply  so 
great  a  colony.  The  case  was  not  much  different  with  the 
Romans  in  early  times.  He  is  a  pernicious  citizen,  said 
M.Curius,  who  cannot  be  content  with  seven*  acres*  £luch 
ideas  of  equality  could  not  fail  of  producing  great  nuoH 
bers  of  people. 

We  must  now  consider  what  disadvantages  the  andeats 
lay  under  with  regard  to  populousness,  and  what  chedcs 
they  received  from  their  political  maxims  and  institutions. 
There  are  commonly  compensations  in  every  human  con*» 
ditioa ;  and  thou^  these  oxnpensations  be  not  always 
perfectly  equal,  yet  they  serve,  at  least,  to  restrain  the 
prevailing  principle.  To  compare  them,  and  estimate 
cheir  influence,  is  indeed  difficidt,  even  where  they  take 
place  in  the  same  age,  and  in  neighbouring  countries :  But 
where  several  ages  have  intervened,  and  only  scattered 
lights  are  affi>rded  us  by  ancient  authors ;  what  can  we  do 
but  amuse  ourselves  by  talking  pro  and  am  on  an  inierestr 
ing  subject,  and  thereby  correcting  all  hasty  aad  violent 
determinations? 

Firsts  We  may  observe,  that  the  ancient  republics  were 
alraosi  in  perpetual  war ;  a  natural  effect  of  their  martial 
spirit,  their  love  of  liberty,  their  mutual  emulation,  and 
that  hatred  which  generally  prevails  among  nations  that 
live  in  close  neighbourhood.  Now,  war  in  a  small  state  is 
mueh  more  destructive  than  in  a  great  one ;  both  because 
«U  the  inhabitants,  in  the  former  case,  must  serve  in  the 
armies,  and  because  the  whole  state  is  frontier,  and  is  all 
exposed  to  the  inroads  of  the  enemy. 

•  ScfiNotE[AA.] 


POPULOU8KESS  OT  ANCIENT  NATIONS.  397 

The  maxims  or  ancient  war  were  much  more  destruc* 
live  than  those  of  modem,  chiefly  by  that  distribution  of 
plunder,  in  which  the  soldiers  were  indulged.  The  pri- 
Tate  men  in  our  armies  are  such  a  low  set  of  people,  that  we 
find  any  abundance,  beyond  their  simple  pay,  breeds  con* 
fusion  and  disorder  among  them^  and  a  total  dissolution  of 
discipline.  The  very  wretchedness  aad  meanness  of  those 
who  fill  the  modem  armies,  render  them  less  destructive  to 
the  countries  which  they  invade;  one  instance,  among 
many,  of  die  deceltfulness  of  first  appearances  in  all  potlti* 
cal  reasonings  **  » 

Ancient  battles  were  much  more  bloody,  by  the  very 
nature  of  the  weapons  employed  in  them.  The  ancients 
<lrew  up  their  men  16  or  20,  sometimes  50  men  deep,  which 
jnade  a  narrow  front;  and  it  was  not  difficult  to  find  a 
field,  in  which  both  armies  might  be  marshalled^  and 
might  engage  with  each  other.  Even  where  any  body  of 
the  troops  was  kept  dT  by  hedges,  hillocks,  woods,  or  hot- 
low  ^ways,  the  batde  was  not  so  soon  decided  between  the 
contending  parties,  but  that  the  others  had  time  to  over- 
jcome  the  difficulties  which  opposed  them,  and  take  part  in 
the  engagement.  And  as  the  whole  army  was  Urns  en- 
.gaged,,  and  ead  man  closely  buckled  to  hb  antagonist,  the 
battles  were  commonly  very  bloody,  and  great  slaughter 
was  made  on  both  sides,  especially  pn  the  va^jiquisbjed. 
The  long  thin  lines,  required  by  fire-arms,  and  the  quick 
decision  of  the  fi*ay,  render  our  modem  engagements  but 
partial  rencounters,  and  enable  the  general*  who  is  foiled 

*  The  ancient  soldiers,  being  firee  citizens,  above  the  lowest  rank,  were  all 
married.  Our  modem  soldiers  are  either  forced  to  live  unmarried,  or  their 
OMrriagea  turn  to  smaU  account  towards  the  increase  of  mankind  -,  a  ipir. 
cumstance  which  oug^t,  perfaap,  to  be  ta^en  into  consideration,  asx)f  som; 
consequence  in  favour  of  the  ancients. 


9W  SMAY  Xl« 

in  die  begiDiuiig  of  the  daj»  to  draw  off  the  gventer  part 
of  Us  armjr,  sound  and  entire* 

The  battles  of  antiquity,  both  by  their  duratioQ  9tA 
their  reiemblanoe  to  ain^e  combats,  were  Wfoug^  v^  tm 
a  degree  of  fary  quite  unknown  to  later  ages*  Not^i^ 
could  then  engage  the  combatants  to  gi?e  quarter,  but  tb^ 
hopes  of  pro^t,  by  making  slaves  of  their  prisoii«rs»  Ifi 
civil  wars,  as  we  learn  from  Taoitiis  \  ^  batiks  witfe  the 
most  bloody,  because  the  prisoners  were  not  daves* 

What  a  stout  resistance  must  he  mad^  where  the  Tsn^ 
quished  expected  so  hurd  a  fiite  ?  How  inveterate  the  ragiQ^ 
where  the  maxims  (^  war  were,  in  every  reqpect,  so  bloody 
and  severe  ? 

Instances  are  frequent,  in  ancient  histosy,  of  cities  be^ 
sieged,  whose  inhabitants,  rather  than  open  their  gate% 
murdered  their  wives  and  children,  and  rushed  themselves 
on  a  voluntary  dead^  sweetened  perhaps  by  a  little  pio- 
spect  of  revenge  upon  the-^emy.  Gbreeks  ^,  as  wsU  as  baiv 
foarians,  have  often  been  wrought  up  to  this  degree  of  fury. 
And  the  same  determined  spint  and  cmdly  must,  in  other 
instances  less  rsmarkabk^  have  been  destmotive  to  haman 
society,  in  those  petty  comnonweakhs  which  lived  in  dose 
neighbourhood,  and  were  en^ged  ia  perpetual  wars  and 
contentions. 

Sometimes  the  wars  in  Oreece,  si^  PlntaidiS  wave 
carried  on  entirely  by  inroads,  and  robberies,  andx>iracies. 
Such  a  method  of  war  must  be  more  destructive  ip  small 
states,  than  the  bloodiest  battles  and  sieges.^ 

By  the  laws  of  the  twelve  tables,  possession  during  two 

«  Hilt  lib.  ii.  cmp.  4. 

^  At  Abydus,  mentioned  by  Livy,  lib.  zxxi.  cap.  17,  IS.  snd  Pbiyf>.  lib. 
XYi.     At  alto  the  Xanthiant,  Applan,  De  Bell.  CiriL  lib.  it. 
«  In  vita  Arati. 


POPULOUSNESS  OF  ANCIENT  NATIONS.  399 

jrears  finraed  a  prescription  for  land ;  one  year  for  move* 
ables* ;  an  indication,  that  there  was  not  in  Italy,  at  that 
tiaie,  mndb  more  order,  teanqniUity^  and  settled  police, 
Aai  there  is  at  present  among  the  Tartars^ 

T1»e  oviy  cartel  I  remember  in  ancient  jiistory,  is  that 
between  Dametrios  Poliorc^es  and  the  Ahodians ;  whck 
it  was  i^eed  that  a  free  citiasn  should  be  restored  for 
1600  tkaokmiB,  aslave  bearing  arms  for  500  ^« 

But,  aiC0M%,  It  iqopears  that  ancient  mannei^  were 
jnare  iiBbvoarable  than  the  modem,  not  only  in  times  of 
WATvlmtalaoiA  those  of  peace;  somI  that  too  in  every  rei- 
speet  eacept  the  love  of  civil  liboty  and  of  equality,  whiich 
48, 1  omi,  of.  cimaderable  importance.  To  exclude  he*' 
lien  firom  a  fxee  goveroment,  is  very  difficult,  if  not  alto- 
gether impracticable ;  but  anch  inveterate  rage  betweea 
the  factions,  and  such  bloody  mamms  are  founds  in  mo«- 
liem  times,  amongst  religious  parties  ^Ipne.  In  ancient 
history  we  may  al  wi^  observe,  where  one  party  prftvailed^ 
whether  the  npbks  or  people  (for  I  can  observe  no  diffisri- 
ence  in  this  respect  ^),  thatdiey  immediately  butchered  aU 
m£  Ae  opposite  parly  who  fdl  into  dieir  hands,  and  bam^h- 
•ed  sttdi -as  had  been  so  Ibrtmmte  as  to  eampe  their  forj^ 
NofontiofpnoeesB,nohiw,  notria],iiox>ardon*  Aifburth, 
« third,  peihaps  near  half  pf  the  city  was  sknghtered^  or 
eeqaelled,  ^yery  revolution ;  and  the  eidles  always  joined 
fttelgn  enemies,  and  did  all  the  mischirf.possible  to  their 
&Ilow<9tizens,  tifi  fortune  put  it  in  their  power  to  .tahe 
full  revenge  by  a  new  revolution*  And  as  these  were  fre- 
quent in  such  violent  governments,  the  disorder,  diffiden^^^e, 

•  Ilift  fiK  fi.  cap.  6.  *  Died.  SidiL  Vth  is. 

fmd  inm  Um  Chatty  tjfmak%  myt,  *•!  fht  Dmdemaj  wm  m  titlmff^- 
▼cmment  m  the  Oligarchy.     Ormt.  24,  De  Statu  Popul. 


400  ESSAY  XU 

jealousy,  eamity,  which  must  prevail,  are  not  easy  foGr  us 
to  imagine  in  this  age  of  the  world. 

Thera  are  only  two  revolutions  I  can  recollect  in  anckot 
history,  which  passed  without  great  severity,  and  great  eC- 
fusion  of  blood  in  massacres  and  assassinations^  namely, 
the  restoration  of  the  Athenian  Democracy  by  Thrasybu* 
lus,  and  the  subduing  of  the  Roman  Republic  by  Caesar. 
We  learn  from  ancient  history,  that  Thrasybulns  passed  a 
gonend  anmesty  for  all  past  offences ;  and  first  introduced 
diat  Word,  as  well  as  practice,  into  Greece  •»  It  appears^ 
however,  from  many  orations  of  Lysias  \  that  the  chiel^ 
and  even  some  of  the  subaltern  offenders,  in  the  precedii^ 
tyranny,  were  tried  and  capitally  punished.  And  as  to 
Caesar's  clemency,  though  much  celebrated^  it  would  not 
gain  great  applause  in  the  pnesent  age.  He  butchered,  fi»r 
instance,  all  Cato's  senate,  when  he  became  master  of  Ud* 
ca  ^ ;  and  these,  we  may  readily  believe,  were  not  the  most 
worthless  of  the  party.  All  those  who  had  borne  arms 
against  that  usurper  were  attainted,  and  by  Hirtius's  lav 
declared  incapable  of  all  public  offices. 

These  pe<q>le  were  extremely  fond  of  liberty,  but  seem 
not  to  have  understood  it  very  welL  When  the  tUrty  ty^ 
rants  first  established  their  dominion  at  Athens,  they  be- 
gan with  seising  all  the  sycophants  and  informers,  who 
had  been  so  troubles<Hne  during  the  democracy,  and  put* 
ting  them  to  death  by  an  aibitrary  sentence  and  execu«- 
tion.    Ev&yifum^  says  Sallust"^  and  Lysias  %  r^(riQ€dat 

•  Cicerok  Philip.  I. 

^  As  Or»t  11.  contra  Eratost ;  Orat  12.  contra  Agorat.;  Orat  ti^ 
pro  Mantith. 
«  Appian  De  BcA.  Civ.  lib.  it        ^  See  Ciesar's  speetk,  De  BeL  Cat 

*  Orat.  S4.  And  in  Orat,  'S9.  he  menttons  the  factioua  spirit  of  the  po- 
pular  assemblies  as  the  only  OMise  why  diese  iUegal  puni^unents  shoold  dis*> 
please. 


POPULOU8NES8  OP  ANCIENT  NATIONS.  401 

ikue  pmkhmaUs  s  not  considering  that  liberty  was  from 
that  moment  annihilated. 

The  utmost  energy  of  the  nenrcms  style  of  Thucydides, 
and  the  copioumess  and  expression  of  the  Greek  language, 
seem  to  sink  under  that  historian,  when  he  attempts  to  de- 
scribe the  disorders  which  arose  from  faction  throughout, 
all  the  Grecian  commonwealths*  You  would  imagine 
that  he  still  labours  with  a  thought  greater  than  he  can 
find  words  to  communicate.  And  he  concludes  his  pathe- 
tic description  with  an  observation,  which  is  at  once  re- 
fined and  solid :  ^^  In  these  contests,"  says  he,  <^  those  who 
«  were  the  dullest  and  most  stupid,  and  had  the  least  fi^'e- 
<<  sight,  commonly  prevailed.  For  being  conscious  of  this 
<<  weakness,  and  dreading  to  be  over-reached  by  those  of 
«  greater  penetration,  they  went  to  work  hastily,  without 
^<  premeditation,  by  the  sword  and  poinard,  and  thereby 
^*  got  the  start  of  their  antagonists,  who  were  forming  fine 
*<  schemes  and  projects  for  their  destruction  *." 

Not  to  mention  Dionysius  ^  the  elder,  who  is  computed 
to  have  butchered  in  cold  blood  above  10,000  of  his  fel- 
low-citizens ;  or  Agathocles  ^,  Nabis  ^,  and  others,  still 
more  bloody  than  he ;  the  transactions,  even  in  free  go- 
vernments, were  extremely  violent  and  destructive.  At 
Athens,  the  thirty  tyrants  and  the  nobles,  in  a  twelve- 
month, murdered,  without  trial,  about  1200  of  the  people, 
and  banished  above  the  half  of  the  citizens  that  remained  ^ 
In  Argos,  near  the  same  time,  the  people  killed  1800  of 
the  nobles;  and  afterwards  their  own  demagogues,  because 

•  Ub.  at  »»  Plut.  de  Virt.  et  Fort.  Alex. 

•  IMod.  Sic.  lib.  xviH,  xii.  *  Tit.  Liv.  xxxi,  xxxiJi,  xxim 

•  Diod.  Sic  lib.  xit.  laocnUes  says,  there  were  only  5000  baaMbed. 
He  makes  the  number  of  those  kUled  amount  to  1500.  Areop.  Aschinea 
contra  Ctetiph.  assigns  precisely  the  same  number.  Seneca  (De  Tranq* 
Anim.)  cap.  ▼.  says  I9,00a 

VOL.  I.  2d 


408  EiSAT  xr. 

they  had  reiused  to  carry  their  prosecutions  farth^  The 
people  also  in  Corcyra  killed  1600  of  the  inMes,  and  ba- 
nished a  thousand  ^  These  numbers  will  appear  the  more 
surprising  if  we  consider  the  extreme  nnallness  of  these 
states ;  but  all  ancient  history  is  Ml  o£  sudi  circumstan- 
ces ^ 

When  Alexander  ordered  aH:  the  adles  to  be  restored 
.throughout  all  the  cities;  it  w«s  fbnn^  that  die  ¥rhole  a- 
mounted  to  20^000  men  ^ ;  the  remains  probably  of  still 
greatev  slaughters  and  massacres.  What  an  astonidiing 
multitude  in  so  narrow  a  country  as  ancient  Greece!  And 
what  domestic  confusion^  jealousy,  partiafity^  revenge, 
heart-burnings,  must  have  torn  those  cities,  where  fr«tions 
were  wrought  up  to  such  a  d^ree«f  fury  and  despair  ! 

It  would  be  easier,  says  Isocratea  to  Hiilip,  te^  raise  an 
army  in  Greece  at  present  from  the  vagabonds  than-  from 
the  cities. 

Even  when  affiurs  came  not  to  such  extremities  (which 
they  failed  not  to  do  almost  in  every  city  twice  or  thrice 
every  century),  T^roperty  was  rendered  very  precarious  by 
the  maxims  of  ancient  govemmait.  Xenophon,  in  the  Ban- 
quet of  Socrates,  gives  us  a  natural  unaffected  description 
of  the  tyranny  of  the  Athenian  peqple.  <<  In  my  poverty," 
says  Charmides,  <<  I  am  much  more  happy  than  I  ever 
^  was  while  possessed  of  riches :  as  mudi  as  it  is  happier 
.^^  to  be  in  security  than  in  terrors,  free  than  a  slave,  to  re- 
*^  ceive  than  to  pay  court,  to  be  trusted  than  suspected. 
^<  Formerly  I  was  obliged  to  caress  every  informer ;  some 
<<  imposition  was  continually  laid  upon  me ;  and  it  was 
<<  never  allowed  me  to  travel,  or  be  absent  from  the  city. 
*<  At  present,  when  I  am  poor,  I  look  big,  and  threaten 

■  Diod.  Sic.  lib.  xv.  ^  Diod.  Sic  lib.  xiu* 

*  See  NoTB  [BB.]  ^  Diod.  Sic  lib.  xYiii. 


POPULOUSNESS  OF  AKCIKNT  NATIONS*  403 

^  odiers.  The  rich  are  afraid  of  me,  and  show  me  every 
<^k]nd  of  civili^  and  respect;  and  I  ambepomeakindof 
<<  tyrant  in  the  city  V 

In  one  of  the  pleadings  of  Lysias^  the  orator  very  coolly 
speaks  <tf  it,  by  and  bye,  as  a  nuodm  of  the  Athenian  peo- 
ple that  whenever  they  wanted  numey,  they  put  to  death 
some  of  the  rich  citizens  as  well  as  strangers,  for  the  sake 
of  the  forfeiture.  In  mentioning  this,  he  seems  not  (b 
have  any  intenticm  of  blaming  them,  still  less  of  provoking 
them,  who  were  his  audience  and  judges* 

Whether  a  man  was  a  citizen  or  a  stronger  among  that 
peqple,  it  seemed  indeed  requisite,  either  that  h^  should 
impoverish  hiuisel^  or  that  the  pe(^le  wopld  impoverish 
him,  and  perhi^  kill  him  into  the  bargain*  The  orat<»r 
last  mentioned  gives  a  pleasant  account  of  an  estate  laid 
out  in  the  public  service^;  that  is,  above  the  third  <^  it 
in  raree-shows  and  figured  dances* 

I  need  not  insist  on  the  Greek  tjrrannies,  which  were  al- 
together horrible*  Even  the  mixed  monarchies,  by  which 
most  of  the  anci^it  states  of  Greece  were  governed,  before 
the  introduction  of  republics,  were  very  unsettled*  Scarce;* 
ly  any  city,  but  Athens,  says  Isocrates,  could  show  a  suc- 
cession of  kings  for  four  or  five  generations  ^* 

Besides  many  other  obvious  reas<ms  for  the  instability 
<tf  anci^t  monarchies,  the  equal  division  of  pn^rty  amotig 
the  brothers  of  private  fieimilies,  must,  by  a  necessary  con- 
sequence, contribute  to  unsettle  and  disturb  the  state*  The 
universal  preference  given  to  the  elder  by  modem  laws, 
though  it  increases  the  inequality  of  fortunes,  has,  how- 
ever, this  good  effisct,  thft  it  accustoms  ipen  to  the  same 

•  Pfeg.  885.  cz.  edit.  LeimclaT.  ^  OnU  99,  in  Nicom. 

•  See  NoTc  [CC,]  f  Fteiatht 

2n2 


i04  ¥SSAY  XI^  . 

idea  in  public  9iiccession»  and  cul^  off  aU  claim  and  pte^ 
tension  of  tbe  younger* 

The  new  settled  colony  of  Heradeas  felUi^  iminediately 
into  faoti<Ni^  applied  to  ^parta»  who  aent  Heiipidas  with 
full  anthori^  to  quiet  their  ditaensioBis,  This  man,  not 
provoked  by  any  oppoaitioB,  not  ii^anied  by  party  rage^i 
knew  no  better  expedient  than  imniediatdy  putting  to 
death  about  500  of  the  citizois  * ;  a  strong  proof  how 
deeply  rooted  these  violent  maxims  of  government  were 
throughout  all  Greece. 

If  sudi  was  the  disposition  of  men's  minds  among  tfiat 
l^fined  people,  what  may  be  expected  in  the  oominoa* 
Wealths  of  Italy,  Africa,  l^pain,  and  Gaul,  which  were  de^ 
nominated  barbarous?  Why  otherwise  did  the  Greeks  so 
much  value  thansdves  on  their  humanity,  gentleness,  and 
moderation  above  an  oUier  nations?  This  reasoning  seems 
very  natural.  But  unluckily  the  history  of  the  Roman 
conuaoiiwealtb]^  in  its  earlier  times,  if  we  give  credit  to  the 
received  accounts,  presets  an  opposite,  conclusioo.  No 
Uood  was  ever  shed  in  any  sedition  at  Rome  tiU  the  mur^ 
derof  the  Gracchi*  Dionysius  Hallicamassseus^  observing 
the  singular  humani^  of  die  Roman  people  in  this  parti-^ 
cular,  make^  use  of  it  as  an  argument  that  they  were  oth 
ginaliy  of  Grecian  extraction :  Whence  we  may  condude, 
that  the  facticms  and  revolutions  in  the  barbarous  rqmblica 
were  usually  more  violent  than  ev^i  those  of  Greece  above 
mentioned. 

,  Jf  the  Romans  were  so  late  in  coming  to  blows,  they 
made  ampl^  comp^isation  after  they  had  cmce  entered 
upon  the  Uoody  scene ;  and  Appian's  history  of  their  dr» 
vil  wars  contains  the  most  frightful  picture  of  massacres, 

*  Diod.  8kN  Itb.  xvi.  *>  Lib.  L 


POPULOUSNESS  OF  ANCIENT  NATIONS.  405 

proscr^ons,  and  forfeitures,  that  ever  was  presented  to 
the  world.  What  pleases  most,  in  that  historian,  is,  that 
he  seems  to  feel  a  proper  resentment  of  these  barbarous 
proceedings ;  and  talks  not  with  that  provoking  coolness 
and  indifierence  which  custom  had  produced  in  many  of 
'the  Greek  historians  K 

The  maxims  of  ancient  politics  contain,  in  general,  so 
little  humanity  and  moderation,  that  it  seems  superfluous 
to  give  any  particular  reason  for  the  acts  of  violence  com- 
mitted at  any  particular  period.  Yet  I  cannot  forbear 
observing,  that  the  laws,  in  the  latter  period  of  the  Roikian 
commonwealth,  were  so  absurdly  contrived,  that  they  obli- 
ged the  heads  of  parties  to  have  recourse  to  these  extremi- 
ties. An  capital  punishments  were  abolished :  However 
criminal,  or,  what  is  more,  however  dangerous  any  citi- 
zen might  be,  he  could  not  regularly  be  punished  other- 
wise than  by  banishment :  And  it  became  necessary,  in  th^ 
revolutions  of  pArty,  to  draw  the  sword  of  private  ven- 
geance ;  nor  was  it  easy,  when  laws  were  once  violated,  to 
set  bounds  to  these  sangumary  proceedings.  Had  Brutus 
himself  prevailed  over  the  triumvirate ;  could  he,  in  com- 
mon prudence,  have  allowed  Octavius  and  Antony  to  live, 
and  have  contented  himself  with  banishing  them  to  Rhodes 
or  Marseilles,  where  they  might  still  have  plotted  new 
Commotions  and  rebellions  ?  His  executing  C.  Antonius, 
brother  to  the  triumvir^  shows  evidently  his  sense  of  the 
matter.  Did  not  Cicero,  with  the  approbation  of  all  the 
wise  and  virtuous  of  Rome,  arbitrarily  put  to  death  Cati- 
line's accomplices,  contrary  to  law,  and  without  any  trial 
or  form  of  process  ?  and  if  he  moderated  his  executions, 
did  it  not  proceed,  either  from  the  clemency  of  his  tem^- 

•  Sec  Note  [DD.] 


406  £8SAYkl. 

per,  or  the  conjunctures  of  the  times?  A^  wretched  jecuri- 
tj  in  a  goTemment  which  pretends  to  laws  and  liberty  ! 

Thus  one  extreme  produces  another.  In  th^  same  man- 
ner as  excessive  severi^  in  the  laws  is  apt  to  beg^  great 
relaxation  in  their  execution ;  so  their  excessive  lenity  na- 
turally produces  cruelty  and  barbarity.  It  is  dangerous  tp 
force  us,  in  any  case,  to  pass  their  sacred  boundaries^ 

One  general  cause  of  the  disi^ers,  so  frequent  in  aU 
ancient  govenunmts,  seeyps  to  have  consisted  ia  the  great 
difficulty  of  establishing  any  aristocracy  in  those  ^gei^  and 
the  perpetual  discontents  and  seditions  of  the  pec^le^ 
whenever  even  the  meanest  and  most  b^garly  were  ex- 
cluded from  the  legislature  and  from  public  offices*  The 
very  quality  oi  freemen  gave  such  a  rank,  being  opposed 
to  that  pf  slave,  di^it  it  seemed  to  entitle  the  possessor  to 
every  ppwer  and  privilege  of  the  commonwealth.  Solon's  ^ 
laws  excluded  no  freemen  fix>m  votes  or  elections,  but  con- 
fined some  magistracies  to  a  part^ular>i9t«t(^  /  yet  were 
the  people  never  satined  till  those  laws  we^  repealed. 
By  the  treaty  with  Antipater^,  no  Athenian  was  allowed 
a  vote  whose  census  was  less  than  2000  drachmas  (aboujt 
L.  60  Sterling).  And  though  su/eh  a  government  would 
to  us  appear  sufficiently  democratical,  it  was  so  ^Isagreer 
able  to  that  people^  that  above  two-thirds  of  thepi  ^mme^ 
diately  left  their  country  ^^  Cassanijer  reduced  that  CMsas 
to  the  half ^ ;  yet  still  the  government  was  considered  as 
an  oligarchical  tyranny,  and  the  effect  of  foreign  violence. 

Servius  Tullius's  ^  laws  seem  equal  and  reasonable,  by 
fixing  the  power  in  proportion  to  the  property ;  yet  the 
Roman  people  could  never  be  brought  quietly  to  submi|; 
to  them. 

*  Plutarch,  in  vita  Solon.  *»  Diod.  Sic.  lib.  XYiii. 

•  Id.  ibid.  *  Id.  ibid.  •  Tit,  Ut.  lib.  i.  cup.  45. 


POPULOU8NESS  OF  ANCIBMT  NATIONS.  407 

III  tbo$%  days  there  was  no  medhim  between  a  severe, 
jealous  aristocracy,  ruling  ova:  discontented  subjects,  and 
A  turbulent,  fiu^ous,  tyrannical  democracy.  At  present, 
4here  is  not  one  rq>abUc  in  Europe»  firom  one  extremity 
«f  it  to  the  other,  that  is  not  remarkable  for  justice,  lenity, 
4md  stability,  espial  to^  or  even  bey<xid  Marseilles,  Rhodes, 
•or  the  most  celebrated  in  antiquity.  Almost  all  of  them 
are  well  tempered  aristocracies. 

But,  MnBjf^  There  are  many  other  circumstances  in 
.whidi  ancient  nations  seem  inferior  to  the  modem,  both 
ibr  the  hf^iness  and  increase  o£  mankind.  Trade,  ma* 
nufisurtures,  industry,  were  no  where,  in  former  ages,  so 
Nourishing  as  they  are  at  present  in  Europe.  The  only 
qsLTh  of  the  ancients,  both  for  males  and  females,  seems  to 
have  been  a  kind  of  flannel,  which  they  wore  commonly 
white  or  grey,  and  which  they  scoured  as  often  as  it  be- 
came lUrty.  Tyre,  which  carried  on,  after  Carthage,  the 
greatest  commerce  of  any  city  in  the  Mediterranean,  be- 
fore it  was  destroyed  by  Alexander,  was  no  mighty  city, 
if  we  credit  Arrian's  account  of  its  inhabitants  \  Athens 
is  commonly  supposed  to  have  been  a  trading  city ;  but  it 
was  as.  populous  before  the  Median  war  as  at  any  time 
after  it,  according  to  Herodotua^ ;  3ret  its  commerce  at 
that  time  was  so  inconsiderable,  that,  as  the  same  histo- 
rian observes  ^,  even  the  neighbouring  coasts  <^  Asia  were 
as  litUe  frequented  by  the  Greeks  as  the  pillars  of  Heixu- 
)e%  for  heyood  these  he  conceinred  nothing. 

*  Lib.  11.  There  were  SOOO  killed  during  the  fiege,  and  the  csptiTes 
iinqfunted  to  30,00Q.  Dfodonis  8ieulus»  lib*  xriL  sajs  only  15,000 ;  but 
he  accounts  for  this  imall  number  by  saying,  diat  the  Tynans  had  sent  a- 
way  beforehand  part  of  their  wives  and  children  to  Carthage. 

^  Lib.  y.  he  makes  the  number  of  the  citizens  amount  to  30,00a 

« lb.  V. 


406  E88AY  XU 

Great  interest  of  money,  and  great  profits  of  trade,  are 

«a  infallible  indication,  that  industry  and  comtn^^ice  are 

iHtit  in  their  in£uicy*    Wereadin  Lytims^ctlW  per  emit, 

]>rofit  made  on  a  cargo  of  two  talents,  sent  to  no  greater 

distance  than  from  Athens  to  the  Adriatic ;  nor  is  this 

.mentioned  as  an  instance  of  extraordinary  profit.    Antt- 

4oita)  says  Demosthenes  ^,  paid  tSuee  talents  and  a  half 

for  ahouse,  which  he  letata  talent  ayear;  and  the  orator 

Jidames  his  own  tutors  for  notemplojdng  his  money  tx>  like 

advantage.  My  fortune,  says  he,  in  eleven  years'  minority, 

CHight  to  have  been  trqpled.     The  value  of  20  of  the  slaves 

left  by  his  frther^  he  computes  at  40  minas,  and  the  year^ 

ly  profit  of  their  labour  at  18  ^.     Hie  most  moderate  in* 

terest  at  Athens,  (for  thore  was  higher^  often  pud,)  was 

^3  per  cenL  %  and  that  paid  monthly.    Not  to  insist  upon 

the  high  interest  whidi  to  the  vast  sums  distributed  in 

elections  had  raised  money  ^  at  Rome,  we  find,  that  Ver-^ 

res^  before  that  factious  period,  stated  24  per  oemL  kr 

fnoney  which  he  left  in  the  hands  of  the  publicans ;  and 

though  Cicero  exclaims  against  this  article,  it  is  not  on 

account  (^  the  extravagant  usury,  but  because  it  had  never 

been  customary  to  state  any  interest  on  such  occasions  '» 

Interest,  indeed,  sunk  at  Rome,  afler  the  settlement  of  the 

empire ;  but  it  never  remained  any  considerable  time  so 

low  as  in  the  commercial  states  of  modem  times  \ 

.    Among  the  other  inconveniences  which  the  Athenians 

felt  from  the  fcnrtifying  of  Decdia  by  the  Lacedemonians, 

it  is  represented  by  Thucydides^  as  one  of  the  most  con- 

»  Orat  S3.  adTers.  IMagit.  ■>  Contra  Apbob.  p.  25.  ex  edit  AVIL 

«  Id.  p.  19.  ^  Id.  ibid. 

*  Id.  ibid,  and  JEschines  contra  Ctesiph. 

'  Epist.  ad  Attic,  lib.  iv.  epist  15. 

«  CoAtra  Verr.   Orat.  3.  >>  See  Essay  IV.  *  Lib  vu. 


POPULOUSNfiSS  Ot  ANCIENT  NATIONS.  409 

iudenUe,  that  they  coakl  not  bring  over  their  corn  from 
Euboea  by  land,  passing  by  Oropus,  bat  were  dUiged  to 
embark  it,  and  to  sail  round  the  promontory  of  Sunium ; 
-a  surprising  instance  of  the  imperfecd<m  of  ancitot  navi*- 
gBtion,'for  die  water-carriage  is  not  here  above  double  the 
famd. 

I  do  not  remember  a  passage  in  any  ancient  author, 
where  die  growth  of  a  dty  is  ascribed  to  die  establishment 
of  a  manu&cture.  The  commerce,  which  is  said  to  flou- 
rish, is  chiefly  die  exchange  of  those  commodities,  for 
which  difierent  soils  and  climates  were  suited.  The  sale 
of  wine  and  oil  into  AArica,  according  to  Diodorus  Si- 
culus  ^,  was  die  foundation  of  the  riches  of  Agrigentum. 
The  situation  of  die  city  of  Sybaris,  according  to  the'  seme 
abdior^,  was  the  cause  of  its  immense  pc^ulousness,  being 
built  near  the  two  rivers  Crathys  and  Sybaris.  But  these 
two  rivers,  we  may  observe,  are  not  navigable^  and  could 
only  produce  some  fertile  valleys  for  agriculture  end  til- 
lage ;  an  advantage  so  inconsiderable,  that  a  modem  wri* 
ter  would  scarcely  have  taken  notice  of  it. 

The  barbarity  of  the  ancient  tyrants,  together  with  the 
extreme  love  of  liberty  which  animated  those  ages,  must 
have  banished  every  merchant  and  manufacturer,  and 
have  quite  depopulated  the  state,  had  it  subsisted  upon 
industry  and  commerce.  While  the  cruel  and  suspicious 
Dionysius  was  carrying  on  his  butcheries,  who,  that  was 
not  detained  by  his  landed  property,  and  could  have  car- 
ried with  him  any  art  or  skill  to  procure  a  subsistence  in 
other  countries,  would  have  remained  exposed  to  such  im- 
placable barbarity  ?  The  persecutions  of  Philip  II.  and 

■  Lib.  xiii.  •»  Lib.  xii. 


410  Si64Y  XI. 

LewU  XIV.  AU«d  aU  Europt  i^ith  Um  nuutefiMfaMi  of 
Flaaderi  apd  Frftnce* 

I  gnmt^  that  agrictiltiire  b  the  qMcm  of  industry  ducAy 
xequiaile  to  the  uriisisteiice  of  amkitodes ;  and  it  is  poa- 
aible  that  tbia  iadnstrj  may  flourish,  eren  wbare  manu&o- 
tures  and  other  arts  are  unknown  and  n^ected.  SwiaMr- 
lend  is  ai  present  a  remarkable  inatanget  vherefve  fin^  at 
oQoc^  the  most  skilM  husbandni^^  atid  the  most  bungling 
trade wnfiUi  that  are  to  be  met  wilk  in  Europe.  Thai 
agricuknre  flourished  in  Greece  and  Italy,  at  least  in  some 
parts  of  them,  and  at  some  periods,  we  have  reason  to  pre- 
sume ;  and  whether  the  n^cbanical  arts  had  reached  the 
same  d^pree  of  perfection,  may  not  be  esteemed  so  mate' 
rial»  especially  if  we  consider  the  great  equality  oS  riches 
in  the  ancient  republics,  where  each  family  waa  obliged  to 
cultivate^  with  the  greatest  care  and  industry^  its  own  Utflf 
fields  in  order  to  its  s^baistencet 

But  is  it  just  reascming,  because  agricaltore  may,  in 
some  instances,  flourish  without  trade  or  manu&ctures,  to 
conclude,  that,  in  any  great  extent  of  country,  and  for  any 
great  tract  of  time,  it  would  subsist  alone?  The  most  na- 
tural way,  surely,  of  encouraging  husbandry,  is,  first,  to 
excite  other  kinds  of  industry,  and  thereby  a£Ebrd  the  la- 
bourer a  ready  market  for  his  commodities,  and  a  return 
for  such  goods  as  may  contribute  to  his  pleasure  and  en- 
joyment. This  method  is  infallible  and  universal ;  and, 
as  it  prevails  more  in  modem  governments  than  in  the  an*- 
cient,  it  affords  a  presumption  of  the  superior  populous^ 
ness  of  the  former. 

Every  man,  says  Xenophon  ^,  may  be  a  fanner :  No  art 
or  skill  is  requisite :  AH  consistsin  industry,  and  in  atten* 

»  (Econ. 


POPULOU8N£SS  OV  ANCIENT  NATIONS.  411 

turn  lo  the  execution.  A  strong  proafi  as  Columella  liintSy 
that  agriculture  was  but  little  known  in  the  age  of  Xeno- 
phon. 

All  our  later  improvements  and  refinements,  have  they 
done  nothii^  towards  the  easy  subust^ice  of  men,  and 
consequently  towards  their  propagaticm  and  increase?  Our 
superior  skill  in  mechanics ;  the  discovery  of  new  worlds, 
by  which  commerce  has  been  so  mvick  enlai^ged ;  the  es- 
tablishment of  posts;  and  the  use  of  bills  of  escchimge : 
These  seem  all  extremely  useful  to  the  encouragement  of 
art,  industry,  aiklpopulousness.  Were  we  to  strike  o£Pthese, 
what  a  check  should  we  give  to  every  kind  of  business  and 
labour^  and  what  multitudes  of  families  would  immediate* 
ly  perish  6rom  want  and  hunger  ?  And  it  seems  not  pro- 
bable, that  we  could  supply  the  place  of  these  new  inven- 
tions by  any  other  rc^uladon  or  institution. 

Have  we  reason  to  think,  that  the  police  of  ancient  states 
was  any  wise  comparable  to  that  of  modem,  or  that  meii 
had  then  equal  security,  either  at  home,  or  in  their  jour- 
neys by  land  or  water?  I  question  not,  but  every  impartial 
exammer  would  give  us  the  preference  in  this  particular  »• 

Thus,  upon  comparing  the  whole,  it  seems  impossible 
to  assign  any  just  reason,  why  the  world  should  have  been 
more  populous  in  ancient  than  in  modem  times.  The 
equality  of  property  among  the  ancients,  liberty,  and  the 
Bmall  divisions  of  their  states,  were  indeed  circumstances 
favourable  to  the  propagation  of  mankind :  But  their  wars 
were  more  bloody  and  destmctive,  their  governments  more 
factious  and  unsettled,  commerce  and  manufactures  more 
feeble  and  languishing,  and  the  general  police  more  loos6 
and  irregular.    These  latter  disadvantages  seem  to  form  a 

•  Sec  Part  I,  Essay  XI. 


412  BSSAY  XI. 

sufficient  coanterbalance  to  the  former  advantagies;  and 
rather  favour  the  opposite  opinion  to  that  wldch  commoii** 
ly  prevails  with  regard  to  this  subject 

But  there  is  no  reasonings  it  may  be  said^  against  mat- 
ter of  fiict  If  it  iq^pear,  that  the  world  was  then  more 
populous  than  at  present^  we  may  be  assured,  thatonr  oon* 
jectures  are  fabe,  and  that  wb  have  overlooked  some  ma* 
terial  circumstance  in  the  comparison.  This  I  readily 
own :  All  our  preceding  reasoningsr  I  acknowledge  to  be 
hierely  trifling,  or,  at  least,  small  skirmishes  and  frivolous 
rencounters,  which  decide  nothing.  But  unluckily  the 
main  combat,  where  we  compare  fiicts,  cannot  be  render^ 
ed  much  more  decisive.  The  facts,  delivered  by  ancient 
authors,  are  either  so  uncertain  or  so  imperfect  as  to  afford 
us  nothing  positive  in  this  matter.  How  indeed  could  it 
be  otherwise?  The  very  facts  which  we  must  oppose  to 
them,  in  computing  the  populousness  of  modem  states^  are 
lar  from  being  either  certain  or  complete.  Many  grounds 
of  calculation  proceeded  on  by  celebrated  writers  are  little 
better  than  those  of  the  emperor  Heliogabfdus,  who  form* 
ed  an  estimate  of  the  immense  greatness  of  RcMne  from  ten 
thousand  pound  weight  of  cobwebs  which  had  been  found 
in  that  city*. 

It  is  to  be  remarked,  that  all  kinds  of  numbers  are  un* 
certain  in  ancient  manuscripts,  and  have  been  subject  to 
much  greater  corruptions  than  any  other  part  of  die  text^ 
and  that  for  an  obvious  reason.  Any  alteration,'  in  other 
places,  commonly  affects  the  sense  or  grammar,  and  is 
more  readily  perceived  by  the  reader  imd  transcriber. 

Few  enumerations  of  inhabitants  have  been  made  of  any 
tract  of  country  by  any  ancient  author  of  good  authority, 
so  as  to  afford  us  a  large  enough  view  for  comparison. 

•  -Elii  Lamprid.  in  vita  Ilellogab.  cap.  26. 


POPULOUeNESS  OF  ANCIENT  NATIONS.  41^ 

It  is  probable  that  there  was  fomueriy^  a  go»d  foundi^ 
turn  for  the  number  of  citizens  assigned  to  any  £ree  cky^ 
because  they  entered  for  a  shAre  in  the  goveramentt  and 
there  were  exact  registers  kept  of  them.  But  as  the  num^ 
ber  of  slaves  is  seldom  mentioned,  this  leaves  us  in  as  grea4 
uncertainty  as  ever  with  regard  to  the  populousness  even 
of  single  cities. 

The  first  page  of  Thucydides  i%  in  my  opinioiii,  the  com«^ 
mencement  of  real  history.  All  preceding  narraUons  are 
so  intermixed  with  &ble,  that  philosophers  ou^t  to  aban-r 
don  them,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  embellishment  of 
poets  and  orators  *• 

With  regard  to  remoter  times,  the  numbers  of  peopla 
assigned  are  often  ridiculous,  and  lose  all  credit  and  autho- 
rity. The  free  citizens  of  Sybaris,  able  to  bear  arms,  and 
actually  drawn  out  in  btfttle,  were  809»000,  They  en-^ 
countered  at  Siagra  with  100,000  citizens  of  Crotona,  an«* 
other  Greek  city  contiguous  to  them,  and  were  d^eated.-— 
This  is  Diodorus  Siculus's^  account,  and  is  very  seriously 
insisted  on  by  that  historian.  Strabo  ^  also  mentions  the. 
same  number  of  l^barites. 

DiodoruB  Siculus  ',  enumeitidng  the  inhabitants  of 
Affrigentum,  when  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Carthaginiani^ 
says  that  they  amounted  to  20,000  citizens,  200,000  stran^ 
gers,  besides  slaves,  who^  in  so  opulent  a  city  as  he  rq)re- 
sents  it,  would  probably  be  at  least  as  numerous.  We 
must  remark,  that  the  women  and  the  children  are  not  iiw 
eluded ;  and  that  therefore,  upcm  the  whole,  this  city  must 
have  contained  near  two  millions  of  inhabitants  ^    And 

•  Sm  Notb  [££.]  ^  Lib.  xiL  •  Lib.  n.  <  Lib.  xiil. 

*  Diog«net  Lsertiui  (in  vito  Empedoclit)  ujm,  th«t  Agrigtatom  eontain* 
cd  <m]j  800,000  inhabitonts. 


414  BfleAT  XI. 


wbaA  w«i  tlM  reMon  of  so  inmenfe  an  increase?  Tbey 
wegeinJiiutiKHit  in  coltiyatingdie  neigkbonring  fields,  not 
^li^wji^iliiig  a  waH  English  eonn^;  and  they  traded  with 
hair  wine  and  oil  to  A£riea^  which  at  that  time  produced 
none  of  these  commodities. 

Plolemjt  says  Tbeoeritns  \  commands  SS^SW  cities. 
I  suppose  the  singolarity  of  the  number  was  the  reason  of 
assigning  it.  Dtodoms  Sicnlus^  assigns  three  imHions  cf 
iidmbitants  to  Egypt,  a  small  number:  But  then  he  makes 
the  iraraber  of  cities  amount  to  18»000;  an  evident  con- 
tradiction. 

He  says  «,  the  people  were  formerly  seven  milRons.  Thus 
remote  times  are  always  moat  envied  and  admired. 

That  Xerzes's  army  was  extremely  numerous  I  can  rea- 
dily bdieve ;  both  from  the  great  extrat  of  his  empire, 
and  from  the  practice  among  the  eastern  nations  of  en- 
cumbering their  camp  with  a  superfluous  multitude :  But 
will  any  rational  man  cite  Herodotus's  wonderful  narrations 
as  any  authority  ?  There  is  something  yery  rational,  I  own, 
in  Lysiai^s^aii^ument  upon  this  subject  Had  not  Xerxes^ 
army  been  incredibly  numerous,  says  he,  he  had  never 
made  a  bridge  over  the  Helleqxmt  i  It  had  been  much 
easier  to  have  transported  his  men  over  so  short  a  passage 
with  the  numerous  shipping  of  whidi  he  was  master. 

Polybius  says  *  that  the  Romans,  between  the  first  and 
second  Punic  wars,  being  threatened  with  an  invasion  flx>m 
the  Oauls,  mustered  all  their  own  forces,  and  those  of  their 
allies,  and  found  them  amount  to  seven  hundred  thousand 
men  able  to  bear  arms ;  a  great  number  surely,  and  which, 
when  joined  to  the  slaves,  is  probably  not  less,  if  not  rather 

^  UyU.  |7.  »  Lib.  i.  •  IdjVL  17. 

'  Ormt  de  Funtbm.  •  lib.  ii. 


POPULOUSNESS  OF  ANOSNT  NATIONS.  415 

more,  than  that  exlralof  country  aAbidsatpfcwiit*.  The 
tmmamnHmm  tBo  seems  to  have  been  made  with  some  ex* 
aetnetsr  ^umI  Polybius  gires  as  the  detail  of  the  particulars. 
But  m^t  not  the  number  be  magnified,  in  order  to  en** 
courage  the  people  ? 

Diodorus  Siculusb  makes  the  same  ennmeratiottamomt 
to  near  a  miUioik  These  variations  aie  suspicious.  He 
plainly  too  supposes^  that  Italy,  in  his  dme,  was  not  so  po- 
pulous ;  another  suspicious  circumstance.  Fo?  who  can 
believe,  that  die  inhabitants  of  that  country  diminished  from 
the  time  of  the  first  Punic  war  to  that  of  the  triumviraiegf 

Juliua  Cffisar,  according  to  Appian  ^,  encountered  four 
miUions  of  Oauls,  kiHed  one  million,  and  made  another 
million  prisonevs  ^.  Supposing  the  number  of  the  en«Boy*s 
army  and  that  of  the  slain  could  be  exactly  assigned^  which 
never  is  possible ;  how  could  it  be  known  how  often  the 
same  men  vetomed  into  the  armies,  or  how  distinguish  tba 
new  from  the  oU  levied  soldiers  ?  No  attention  ought  ever 
to  be  given  to  such  loose,  exaggerated  calculations,  espe^ 
dally  where  the  author  does  not  tell  ua  the  mediums  upon 
which  the  calculations  were  founded. 

Paterculus  ^  makes  the  nusiber  of  Gaula  killed  by  Gttsar 
amount  only  to  400,000 ;  a  more  probable  account,  and 
more  easily  reconciled  to  the  history  of  these  wars  given 
by  that  conqueror  himself  in  his  Commentaries  ^  The 
most  bloody  of  his  battles  were  fought  against  the  Helvetii 
and  the  Germans. 

*  The  country  that  supplied  this  number  wm  not  iboTe  a  third  of  Italy, 
▼is.  the  Pope'i  dominioni,  Tuscany,  and  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples : 
But  periiaps  in  those  early  times  there  were  Tery  few  sIsTes,  except  in 
Rone,  or  the  gfrn^  dtiea.  ^  Lib.  ij*  *  Cdtica. 

'  Plutarch  (in  rita  Css.)  makes  the  number  that  C«sar  fought  with  a- 
mount  to  three  millions ;  Julian  (in  C«saribus)  to  twow 

•  Lib.  ii.  cap.  47.  '  See  Nort  [FF.] 


416  tSSAX  XI. 

One  would  imagine,  that  every  circumstance  of  the  lifc 
and  actions  of  Dionysius  the  elder  might  be  r^arded  as 
anthenticy  and  free  from  all  fabulous  exa^eration;  both 
because  he  lived  at  a  time  when  letters  flourished  most  in 
Greece,  and  because  his  chief  historian  was  Fhilistos,  a 
man  allowed  to  be  of  great  genius,  and  who  was  a  courtier 
and  minister  of  that  prince.  But,  can  we  admit  that  he 
had  a  standing  army  of  100,000  foot,  10,000  horse,  alid  t 
fleet  of  400  galleys  *  ?  These,  we  may  observe,  were  m^"* 
oenary  forces,  and  subsisted  upon  pay,  like  our  armies  in 
Europe ;  for  the  citizens  were  all  disarmed :  and  when  Dion 
afterwards  invaded  Sicily,  and  called  on  his  countrymen 
to  vindicate  their  liberty,  he  was  obliged  to  bring  arms 
along  with  him,  which  he  distributed  among  those  who 
joined  him^.  In  a  state  where  agriculture  alone  flourishes, 
there  may  be  many  inhabitants ;  and  if  these  be  all  armed 
and  disciplined,  a  great  force  may  be  called  out  upon  oo 
casion :  But  great  bodies  of  mercenary  troops  can  never 
be  maintained,  without  either  great  trade  and  numerous 
manufactures,  or  extensive  dominions.  The  United  Pkh 
vinces  never  were  masters  of  such  a  force  by  sea  and  land, 
as  that  which  is  said  to  belong  to  Dionysius ;  yet  they  pos- 
sess as  large  a  territory,  perfectly  well  cultivated,  and  have 
much  more  resources  from  their  commerce  and  industry. 
Diodorus  Siculus  allows,  that,  even  in  his  time^  the  army 
of  Dionysius  appeared  incredible ;  that  is,  as  I  interpret  it^ 
was  entirely  a  fiction ;  and  the  opinion  arose  from  the.ex«> 
aggerated  flattery  of  the  courtiers,  and  perhaps  from  the 
vanity  and  policy  of  the  tyrant  himself. 
.  It'is  a  usual  fallacy,  to  consider  aU  the  ages  of  antiquity 
as  one  period,  and  to  compute  the  numbers  ccmtained  in 

■  Diod.  Sic.  lib.  li.  ^  Fluterch.  in  vita  Dionys. 


PO^ULOUSNXM  OF  ANCIENT  NATIONS.  417 

the  g^ttst  cities  mentioned  by  ancient  authors,  as  if  these 
cities  had  been  all  contemporary.  The  Greek  colonies 
flourished  extremely  in  Sicily  during  the  age  (^Alexander : 
But  in  Augustus's  time  they  were  so  decayed^  that  almost 
all  the  produce  of  that  fisrtile  island  was  consumed  in  Italy  S 

Let  us  now  examine  the  numbers  of  the  inhabitants  as- 
signed  to  particular  cities  in  antiquity;  and  omitdng  the 
numbers  of  Nineveh^  JSabylon,  and  the  Egyptian  Thebes^ 
let  us  omfine  ourselves  to  die  qphere  of  real  history,  to  the 
Grecian  and  Roman  states*  I  must  own,  the  more  I  con* 
sider  this  subject,  the  more  am  I  inclined  to  scq>ticism 
widi  regard  to  the  great  pt^ulousness  ascribed  to  ancient 
times* 

Athens  is  said  by  Plato*'  to  be  a  very  great  tity;  and 
it  was  surely  die  greatest  of  all  the  Greek  ^  cities  except 
Syracuse^  whidi  was  nearly  about  the  same  size  in  Thucy- 
dides's'  time,  and  afterwards  increayd  beyond  it  For 
Cicero  *  mentions  it  as  the  greatest  of  all  the  Cbreek  cities 
in  his  time ;  not  comprehending^  I  suppose,  either  Antioch 
or  Alexandria  under  that  denominatioiu  Atheneeus  '  saya^ 
that  by  the  enumeradon  of  Demetrius  Pbalereus,  there 
were  in  Adieus  81,000  citizens,  10,000  strangers,  and 
400,000  slaves*  This  number  is  much  insisted  on  by  those 
whose  opinion  I  call  in  question,  and  is  esteemed  a  funda- 
mental fitct  to  their  purpose:  But,  in  my  opinion,  there  is 
no  point  of  criticism  more  certain,  than  that  Atbenaeus 

■  StnOxH  liK  tL  ^  Apolog.  Soar. 

«  Argot  aecmi  ako  to  hATe  bem  a  great  city ;  for  Lydas  contents  him- 
■elf  with  saying  that  it  cBd  not  exceed  Atiiens.     Drat  54. 

'  Lib.  tL     See  also  Plutarch  in  Tita  Iffkim. 

•  Orat  contra  Verrem,  lib.  It.  capb  52*  Stiabo,  lib.  tL  si^il  was  twenty, 
two  miles  in  compass.  But  then  we  are  to  consider,  that  it  contained  two 
harixmiB  within  it ;  one  of  idiieh  was  a  reiy  Unge  one^  and  might  be  re^ 
garded  as  a  kind  of  bay.  /  Lib.  yrl  cap,  Sa 

VOL.   I.  2  E 


418*  ESSAY  XI. 

tfod  Cttsides,  whom  be  i|uoteS|  are  here  nmtriffn^  and  that 
tke  somber  <»rsfamis  is,  at  leait,  aagmeated  by  a^vliole 
tiypbev,  attd  ought  not  tp  be  iiq;axded  89  oioDe  t^ 

1«M|  Whan  l^e  numberof  dtueneiBaaid  tabe  21,CK^ 
byAitbeiWMisSiiieiifiiUofageatQoiilyiiiidenlnod.^  Watf 
L  HerodoiuBeay»^,4iat  Arktagaras^ambaasadar  £sNBiiiie 
lo&fiams  found  iiihgrderk)daceivecaieapafteiitipnaBva#> 
Atbeatani;  t^fiudagf  inalMeewa)!^  |ieiviHile)iUBte^aap4> 
peocd  tobe  Met  in  one  poyukir  afteeadbfy,  ranbiding  thai 
iPdttien  and  diilcbien.  2.  lliacjfdides'^aajrs^  fluit  nn&sqp 
allowance  for  all  the  absenneesin  theflee^  anay,  gwri90tt% 
and  iiMr  pe(^leem(doyed  in  theur  prhnUe  aftiis^'  the  Atha* 
nian  assembly  never  rose  to  five  thousand.  3.  Thefbnxi^ 
enuniei:iiCed  by  th^  sane  histtorian'^,  beingaM  dtiseu,  and 
amouatiag  to  13,000  heavynurmed  infimtry,  prafgtkeiBBiti 
metkod  of  calculation;  as  aba  the  idiok  tenor  cf  tlie  i3im^ 
htetoridas,  who'alimys  understand ioaea  of  fidlage  adien 
theyassign  the  number  ofcitisens  in  any  n^inbUc.  Nore^ 
these  faalag  but  Ae  fourth  of  the  inhabitants,  the  fiwe  AAa* 
mans  w«i«  by  this  acoonnt  84,000;  the  stiangers,  40,4100  9 
and  die  akvea,  oalcolating  by  the  saiaUer  nmnbet,  andad-r 
lowing  that  they  mai4*ied  and  projpagated  at  tkesamenta 
wMi  freemen,  weralt^OOO;  and  die  adiofe  of  the  inhi^ 
failants  284^000;  a  number  aatiely  kif^e  mongfa«  The 
othor  number,  l,tdO,00%  makes  Alliens  krgec  than  Lon* 
dim  and  Paris  united. 

Secondly^  There  were  but  10,000  houses  in  Ath^n^  *. 
.   Thirdfif^  Though  the  extent  of  the  walU^  as  ^iven  us  by 
Thucydides  ^  be  great,  ^feo  wit  eighteoi  railas,  beside  the 

*  Denoftaicnei  «tsigiis  ao>QeO ;  contra  Amiag. 

'    »  Lib.  y.  «  Ub-yiiL 

-     '  tMu  &    Bi#dorui  Seuhiflrs  teeoufit  perfeetly  ^tgree^,  Hb.  xH. 

*  Xeno^oii  Men.  lib.  it.  *  Ub.  iL 


POPULOUSNES»jDF  AK<>IENT  NATIONS.  410 

icA^oodst) :  Yet  Xem^hoo  *  says  there  was  much  waste 
frroand  wUhbi  ihii  yiMt^ '  Hi^y  «eem  indeed  to  have  jam- 
ed  four  disdnet  aiid  a^arate  cities  \     -    ^ 

HmrtUpf  'So  MBttrveotioa  of  th^  slavey  xir  saspicion  of 
insurrectsoiiy  is  e^eif  iiAntio»ed  by  hiatonaais,  except  one 
oeniuMjIian  df  <he  aAyrt  % 

F^iUi^  The  treatmeijt  of  flakes  by  the  Athenians  is  said 
by  XBnqsboii^t  and  Demostkien^  h  f^d  Plautus  ^  to  have 
been  extremely  ^esltle  itod  mM^j/ei^ :  Wliich  could  never 
haim  beea  the  cafle»  kad  tile  disproporlion  been  iwenly  to 
ene.  13ie  dispropodioii  is  not  to  great  in  any  of  our  co- 
Icmies;  yet  aire  we  gUigefl  to  exereis^  a  rigorous  and  mili- 
•<aiy  gdvonnmeok  o]rer  ibd  negroes. 

Siadklf,  No  mam  is  jemr  aateet^ed  iM^,  Gmt  possessing 
what  may  be  r»fcoaed  aa  e^ual  distributioa  of  property  in 
aoy^oiintry^oreven  triple  or  quiadruplelbat  wealth.  Thus 
every  person  in  England  is  compui^d  by  so^ae  to  spend 
sixpence  a-day;  yet  is  he  etileenMl  bat  poor  who  has  five 
times  that  sum.  Now  TiiimridHis  is  said  by  J£sdiines  <  to 
have  been  left  in  easy  dreumstanoes ;  but  he  was  master 
imly  of  ten  slates  empi^ed  in  aEianuiacturea.  Lystas  and 
bis'brbdier,  two  strangers,  were  proscribed  by  thednrty 
for  their  great  ridies;  thou^  tb^  bad  bitf^  sixty  appiece** : 
Demosdienes  was  left  very  rich  byhis  ftth^r;  yet  he  had 
no  more  than  fifty^two  daves  K  His  worlp-houfe,  of  twea- 
ty  oid>2net^makers9  ts  said  to  be  a  very  considerable  manu- 
facloly**' 

Sevmfklgt  During  the  Pi^cetian  wars  a^'the  Greek  his- 
torians call  it,  2O5OOO  slaves  deserted^  ^nd  bro«^t  tl^e 

•  De  Ratione  Red.  ^  See  Nm  [OO.]  "  Atti6n.  Ub.  ti. 

<>  Be  B^  AHietk.  •TUOip.a.  '  Stic^  > 

'«€«»«»  TlMunrcii.  i^.eiat.11.     .  .A  ,QmPm  A^Mb. 


k  Ibid. 


2e2 


420  tSSAV  XJ. 

Athenians  to  great  distress,  as  we  learn  from  Thncy^dcv^. 
This  could  not  have  happened  had  they  been  only  the 
twentieth  part    The  best  slaves  would  not  desert 

Eiffhihfyy  Xenophon**  proposes  a  scheme  for  mamtun- 
ing  by  the  public  10,000  slaves :  And  diat  so  ^great  a  num- 
ber may  possibly  be  supported^  any  coie  will  be  convinced, 
says  be,  who  considers  the  numbers  we  possessed  before 
the  Decelian  war ;  a  way  of  speaking  altogether  incom- 
padble  idth  the  larger  number  of  Adienasns. 

JJwMyy  The  whole  census  of  the  state  of  Alliens  was  less 
than  6000  talents.  And  though  numbers  in  ancient  ma- 
nuscripts be  often  suspected  by  critics,  yet  this  is  unexcep- 
tionable ;  both  because  Demosthenes^  who  gives  it,  gives 
also  the  detail,  which  checks  him ;  and  because  Polybtus^ 
assigns  the  same  number,  and  reasons  upon  it  Now,  fhe 
most  vulgar  slave  could  yidd  by  his  labour  aa  Mbts  a-day, 
over  and  above  his  maintenance^  as  we  learn  from  Xeno- 
phon  %  who  says,  that  Nicias's  overseer  paid  his  master  so 
much  for  slaves,  whom  he  employed  m  mines.  If  you  ynXi 
take  the  pains  to  estimate  an  Mbu  a-day,  and  ibe  slaves 
at  400,000,  computing  only  at  four  years'  purdiase,  you 
will  find  the  sum  above  12,000  talents;  even  though  allow- 
ance  be  made  for  the  great  number  of  holidays  in  Adiens. 
Besides,  many  of  the  slaves  would  have  a  much  greater  va- 
lue tirom  their  art  The  lowest  that  Deniosthenesestbuates 
any  of  his '  Other's  slaves  is  two  minas  a-head.  And  up- 
on this  supposition,  it  is  a  little  difficult,  I  confess,  to  re- 
concile even  the  number  of  40^000  slaves  widi  &e  o&mms 
of  6000  talents. 

TenMy,  Chios  is  said  by  Thucydides*  to  contain  more 


•  Lib.  tH. 

»  D«aat.E^ 

•  BsaMwAw 

«  Llb.H.«^6t. 

•  DeRAt.  Btod. 

Cott(r»AfMHnii. 

KLib.Tiii. 

FOPULOUSNESS  OF  AKCIENT  NATIONS.  421 

skyes  than  any  Greek  cityj  except  Sparta*  Sparta  then 
had  more  than  Athens,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  ci- 
tizens. The  Spartans  were  9000  in  the  town,  30,000  in 
the  country  *•  Hie  male  slares,  ther^re,  of  full  age,  n^ast 
have  been  more  than  780,000;  the  whole  more  than 
8,180,000;  a  nnmber  impossible  to  be  maintained  in  a 
narrow  barren  country,  such  as  Laconia,  which  had  no 
trade.  Had  the  Hdotes  been  so  very  numerous,  the  mur- 
der of  2000,  mentioned  by  Thucydidea^  would  have  irri^ 
tated  them  without  weakemng  them* 

Besides^  we  are  to  consider,  that  the  number  assigned 
by  Athenseus  ^^  whatever  it  is,  comprehends  all  the  inha- 
bitants of  Attica,  as  well  as  those  of  Athens.  The  Athe- 
nianii  affiscted  much  a  country  life^  as  we  learn  from  Thu- 
i^didea  ^ ;  and  when  they  were  allchased  into  town,  by  the 
invasion  of  their  terriU^  during  the  Pdoponnesian  war^ 
-die  city  was  not  able  to  contain  them ;  and  they  were  ob- 
liged to  lie  in  the  porticos,  temples,  and  even  streets,  for 
want  of  lodging  ^' 

Hie  same  renuurk  is  to  be  extafided  to  all  the  other 
Greek  cities ;  and  when  the  number  of  citizens  is  assi^- 
ed,  we  must  always  understand  it  to  ocmiprehend  the  in- 
habitants of  the  ndghbouriog  country,  as  well  as  of  the 
city.  Yet  even  with  this  allowance^  it  must  be  confessed 
that  Greece  was  a  populous  country,  and  exceed^  what 
we  could  imagine  concerning  so  narrow  a  territory,  nati^ 
irilly  not  very  fertile,  and  which  ^w  no  supplies  of  com 

*  Plutarch.  In  Tito  Lyeurg.  ^  Lib.  ir. 

•  The  Munt  aothor  sfflnnsy  Uiat  Corindi  had  once  460,000  sIatcs  ;  JBgina 
470^00a  But  the  fbregoing  argnmanti  bold  tUfOuger  againat  Uiaaa  ttcU, 
which  araiadaadaatlrdyabamd  and  impoawble.  It  ia  bowarer  lanarkabla 
Uiat  AthaMRM  dtaa  to  great  an  autboritj  ai  AiiMotlelbr  Uib  laatAct: 
And  tiie  acfaoUaat  on  Pindar  nentioDS  Uie  tame  number  of  ilaivet  in  JBgina. 

'  lib.  iL  •  ThucTd.  lib.  it 


4dB  S88AY  XI. 

fl-on  odier  plaoesr  For,  excepting  AdMils,  wbkb  traded 
to  Pontoft  for  that  ooMmodtty^  the  odiet  dtka  teem  to 
have  subsisted  chiefly  from  their  neigfabonrtng  territMrj  *. 

RhcKles  is  well  kaown  to  have  beeo  a  city  of  extsBshre 
commerce,  and  of  great  fime  a&d  splendonr^  yet  it  ocm*- 
tained  only  6000  citizens  able  to  bear  arms  wfaea  it  wa* 
besieged  by  Demetrius  **. 

Thebes  was  alwi^s  one  of  the  capital  cities  of  Greece*  ; 
but  the  number  of  its  dtiaens  exaceedrd  not  those  of 
Rhodes  '.  Phliasia  it  said  to  be  a  smaU  city  by  Xeii»* 
phon  S  yet  we  find  that  it  contwfied  6Md  citinos  ^  I 
pretend  not  to  rec<mcile  these  two  &cts;  PeriMftt  Xeno* 
phon  ctl&s  Phliasia  a  small  town,  because  it  madq  hmt  a 
small  figure  in  Greece)  aid  itfaiMikitd  only  a  sobaRbnata 
alliance  with  Sparta;  or  perhaps  die  counliy^  bek«i|pog 
to  it,  was  extensrreiaiidlDostof  tibecdtbensweseemplojN 
ed  in  the  cultiyation  of  it,  and  dwelt  m  the  najghbeoraig 
Tillages. 

Mantinea  was  equal  to  any  city  in  A^cacUa  K  Goovt^ 
quently  ft  was  equal  to  MegalopdMs,  wkicfh  wis  fifty  sta- 
dia, or  six  miles  and  a  quarter  in  ciifcttmferMioe.^^  But 
Mantinea  had  only  8000  citi^MisV  The  OmA  citie% 
therefore,  contained  oAai  fi^Ms  and  gpsrdeos,  togettietwiA 
the  houses;  and  we  cannot  judge  €#  them  li^Mfae  extent  of 
iheir  waRs.  Athens  ccmtained  no  more  than  lOyMO 
houses ;  3ret  its  walls,  with  the  sea^coast,  wereabofe  twt»- 
ty  m9es  in  extent  Syracuse  was  €wen^-iwo  miks  in  cir- 
cumference ;  yet  was  ever  scarcely  spoken  of  by  the  an- 

•flMl9oa[Ra]  »  OiiMi.  Si«.  lik  zx. 

•  Hirt.  Qwmt.  lib.  vE  Ud.  lib.  nj. 

•  Folyb.  Kb.  il.  ^  Poljb,  lib.  ix.  ci|>.fl(X 
^  I*7liiii  Qrtd,  84, 


POPULOUSNESS  OF  ANCIENT  NATIONS.  490^ 

cimto  i^.mof»  p^!fl^ow  than  Atbens.  Babylon  wa^  a 
a^^lM^  0f  fift^el)^  wtt^  or  ^ixtgr  mile3  in  dn^ 
tlMil^d  torg<l  fitdtk^s^  fields  apd  indo$ufes»  as  we  leani^ 
4mMb  PUnjr*  TlMim^  Awelian'ti  wall  was  fifty  miles  in 
circtiiQferm€#  ^»  the  Girmit  of  all  the  thirteen  divisions  g£ 
BiNPe^  taken  afparV  accordiim^  Publiua  Victor,  waa  on* 
}y  akwm  forQhtiMrae  mUas.  When)  an  enemy  invaded  th^ 
cowtiiy)  aU  th^  inhabitants  retired  within  the  waUs  of  the^ 
ancient  cities,  with  their  cattle  and  furniture  and  iostru-^ 
Bttinla.itfihltobaa^;  op^  the  fceat  heig^it  to  whi^  the 
widia  w<^re  faised,^  enabled  a  small  number  to  defiend  them^ 
iridi&cititBi/ 

Spartl^  saya  X^lM>phol|^  Jb  <mi  ^^  fitiesof  Graei^ 
fhalhtsthc  faiftt$ti>ihabitaots*  yatP(dybiiis,«  s^ystbi^i^ 
«a»  fintynsight  ittdia  bt  curwif^p^ae,  an^  ims  r^miA-  > 

AU  the  iBtoOaiM  able  te  ^ar  ^rms  in  Antt)^l^g'atj«w^ 
deducting  sone  (tm^gur^G^H  wer^  b«t  Ip^OO^jq^^ 

Polybroa  "*  talla  v,  dbat  the.Ach«Q$n  le^go^  IP^jJ^.i^th^ 
init^y  loMOTenieB^  maroh  9<^  or  40»090^  e^en;  Atd 
d^  sMQiiht  aealiiat>robabto;  filr  that  )e^0«e  ocmprdi^mk 
ad  Ae.gtseater  part  of  Pelop9i>i|esiN^  :Yf«  PaUMnina  ^ 
apaidciiigfilthfa  aame  {Hurjod^  8ay%  that  all  the  Acbmi* 
ahfe  tH'hMV  8nn«»  even  ^hei>  se^^ral  nwMmi>t|id  »lw^ 
MTi  jdiiAd  bof  thm^  did  n^t  amowi^  |o  1%«00, 

Hit  TbesaiUlWi  laU  iMr  M  ppqqsest  h;  the  Ror 
jniani^  1v«le,  in  dl  age^  Itokulaiiti  f^ctipn9>  ^oditioqA,  djar 
orderly  '•  It  i»  n<vl  therefore  nptturat  to  au|f>QK  thftt;  thi> 
fArtof  Greete abowded  iMiCh  m^  pia^le. 

•  Vopiscus  in  TiU  Aurel. 

tarch  abore,  who  Mjt  that  Sparta  IM  foaadtisiaib 
«  Polyb.  lib.  ix.  cap.  zx.  '  Diod.  Sic  ztiii. 

•  Legat  '  '  In  Achaickk 

<  Tit  lir.  lib;  incxiT.*  cap.  51.     Plato  iv  CrHoitek  ' 


424  liSAY  tt. 

W«  arc  told  by  Thiicydid«tS  that  tlM  put  of  Pelopoa^ 
nesus,  adjoining  to  Pjdoa,  was  detert  and  QncoltiTatod* 
Herodotus  says  ^  that  Bfacedonia  was  full  of  lions  and 
wild  bulls;  animals  which  can  only  iidialnt  vast  unpeoplMl 
forests.    These  were  the  two  eiLtremitiei  of  Gi^eeee. 

All  the  inhabitants  of  ^ims,  of  all  i^e%  sexes^  and 
conditions,  who  were  sold  by  Paulus  JRwiiltus^  amounted 
only  to  150,000  «•  Yet  Epirus  might  be  double  the  ex- 
tent of  Yorkshire. 

Justin  '  tells  us,  that  when  Philip  of  Maoedon  was  de- 
dared  head  of  the  Greek  ccmfederacy,  he  called  a  congress 
of  all  the  states,  except  the  Lacedemonians,  who  i^fiised 
to  concur ;  and  he  found  the  force  of  the  whol^  upon 
cementation,  to  amount  to  900^000  infimtry  and  1&,000 
cavalry.  His  must  be  understood  to  be  aU.tiie  cidaens 
capable  6t  bearing  arms.  For  as  the  Greek  republics 
maintained  no  mercenary  forces,  and  had  no  militia  dis- 
tinct from  the  whcde  body  of  cittsens,  it  is  not  conceivable 
what  other  medium  therecouM be <rf*Gompntatioii.  That 
such  an  army  could  ever,  by  Greece,  be  brought  into  the 
field,  and  be  maintained  diere,  is  contrary  to  all  histcHry. 
Upon  this  supposition,  therefore,  we  may  thus  reason. 
The  fiwGredcs  of  all  ages  and  sexes  were  800^000.  The 
fdaves,  estimating  them  by  the  number  of  Athenian  slaves 
as  above,  who  seldom  married  or  had  fiunilies,  were  doable 
the  male  citisens  i^ML  Bget  to  wit,  430,000.  And  all  the 
inhabitants  of  and^it  Ghreece,  excepting  Laconia,  were 
about  one  milliim  two  hundred  and  nineQr  thousand :  No 
migh^  number,  nor  exceeding  what  may  be  found  at  pre- 
jie&t  in  Scotland,  a  country  of  not  much  greater  extents 
and  very  indifferently  peopled. 

«(  lib.  vii.  »  Lib.  tIL 

•  Tit.  LIt.  lib.  xlf.otp.  SI.  '  lib.  is.  cape  S» 


POPULOUSNtSS  or  ANCnSMT  NATIONS.  4M6 

We  may  now  oonader  the  numbers  of  people  in  Rome 
ind  Italy,  and  cdlect  all  the  lights  afforded  us  by  scattered 
passages  in  anci^it  authors.  We  shall  find,  up<m  the 
whole,  a  great  difficulQr  in  fixing  any  opinion  on  that 
head;  and  no  reason  to  8ujqH>rt  those  exaggerated  calcur 
lations  so  much  insisted  on  by  modem  writers* 

Dionysius  HalUcamassseus  *  says,  that  the  ancient  walla 
of  Rome  were  nearly  erf*  the  same  compass  widi  those  of 
Athens,  but  that  the  suburbs  ran  out  to  a  great  extent; 
and  it  was  difficult  to  tell  where  the  town  ended  or  the 
country  b^^an.  In  some  places  erf*  Borne,  it  appears,  firom 
the  same  author^  finm  JuvenalS  and  fix>m  other ancknt 
writers  ',  that  the  houses  were  high,  and  families  lived  in 
separate  stories,  cme  above  another :  But  it  is  probable 
that  Aese  were  only  the  poorer  citizens,  and  ^nly  in  some 
few  streets.  If  we  may  judge  firmn  the  younger  Pliny's  ^ 
account  of  his  own  house,  and  firom  Bartoli*s  plans  of  an- 
cient buildings^  the  men  of  quality  had  very  spacious  pa^ 
laces :  and  their  buildings  were  like  the  Chinese  housesat 
this  day,  where  each  apartment  is  separated  from  the  rest^ 
and  rises  no  l^;her  than  a  single  story.  To  which  if  we 
add,  that  the  Roman  nobffitjr  much  affected  extensive  por* 
ticoes^  and  even  woods '  in  town;  we  may  perhaps  aBov 
Vossius,  (though  there  is  no  manner  of  reason  for  it)  to 
read  the  famous  passage  of  the  dderHinys  his  own  way, 
without  admitting  the  extravagant  consequences  whichhe 
draws  fr<Hn  it 

The  number  <rf'ctta8ens  lAko  recMvedcom  by  thepnUic 

•  lib.  IT.  *  Lib.  X.  .    •  Sit|T.  iiL  L  S69,  S7a 

«  8m Nob [KK.]  '  8m MofB[LL.] 

<  VitniT.  Ub.  It.  cap.  II.  Tsdt  Amud.  lib.  sL  ea|i.  9r  Sadon.  in viU 
OcUt.  cap.  79,  &ۥ 
f  Ste  KoiB  [MH] 


4M  £86A¥  XI. 

dirtrilmlioD  in  4b»  tame  ^  Aagiutas  was  tw»  buB^d 
tbonsMd  ^  Tbk  one  wouU  tsUeen  a  ptetty  oQttiuf^ 
gMmA  of  calouktion ;  yet  it  is  attended  with  sucb  cir- 
cmnstancet  as  throw  ua  back  iato  doi;Ait  and  luicertahi^^ 

Did  the  poorer  citizens  only  receive  the  distributieik? 
It  was  calculated,  to  be  sure^  chiefly  figar  tbefar  benefit  BttC 
k  appears  bom  a  pessa^  in  Ciee«>*>  tbsit  Ike  rieh  might 
also  take  their  portioB>  and  that  k  ^rtw  toUesaeda^r^* 
proach  in  them  to  apply  for  It 

To  whom  was  ihe  eom  f^m;  whether  only  to  heada 
of  iamiUes,  or  to  erery  mai^  woraan  andchild  ?  The  poe« 
tioBccTeryaMNitkwaBfiYe^lioriittoeaeh^  (abotit  five-iiKthB 
efabfttbel).  Tki^  was  loo  Utile  for  a  family^  and  too  midt 
faraikindiTidiiaL  A  very  aecBrateaatMpiary  <^»  IfaorcAnpe^ 
mfinrsy  that  it  jwas  given  to  every  nAn^Wtfatt  age:  Bnikie 
aUows  ibe  Mitler  IQ  be^woevtaiii. 

Was  it  strietlgp  toqiiifod^  whethef  the  ekimnk  lived 
within  Ihe  predncta  df  Itome  ?  or  waail  suffideiUz  thae  he 
preasntad  hiaMelf  at  the  flHiiithI|[.distriimtkai  ?  Huhvt 
sterns  laoie  pmbable^ 

Were  dure  no  fiiba  ffbiMMts?  We  aria  told'^  flnt 
CflBsar  ibnidi  off  at  once  ITMM,  who  hiid  ciept  im 
wiAoat  a  jost  titk ;  and  H  ia  vary  fittk  peohabb  that  he 
temedied  dl  abuses. 

•  Ex  nKmumcnt.  Ancyr.  ^  TubC  Qusst  lib.  m.  cap.  48. 

«  lidnfui  apud  SalhtsC,  'Aht  IrSg.  Ift.  ifi. 

'  Nioolaui  Hortoiiiius  De  Re  Frumentaria  Roman. 

«  M9ttotdweNp«Dc^to^iiiw:kft<9P^eMrb«tiiieiih  Ang$ttM  ^rgkin- 
cd  the  distribution  of  corn  to  be  made  onlj  tfarice  a-year:  Bat  the  people 
fining  the  mealhly  dtft^bntiona  more  ebmvsioit  (as  preaervfii^  t  &p. 
pose,  a  more  rtgAr  ecdbomj  in  their  fimiily,)  dcihpad  to  fearre  aMm're- 
atored.  Soelon*  Atfguaf.  Mp.  ilOi  llafl  aot  seme  of  the  people  eeme^om 
some  distance  for  their  com,  Augustus's  precaution  se^tts  fuperilieus. 

'  Sueton.  in  JuL  cap.  41.  * 


POPULOUSNESS  01  AKCllNT  NATIONS.  IdTT 

But  laitly^  wluit  propoitioii  of  tkiTes  must  we  aaatgn  to 
these  citizens?  This  is  the  awst  material  qMstiDD,  aad 
the  BKMt  uncertaiiu  It  is  very  douhlfiil  in^thei  Atheina 
can  be  established  as  a  rale  for  Rome.  Perl|apstheAt£e- 
nians  had  more  dares,  because  tfa^  emfdoryed  them  in-ma-* 
nafactureS)  for  which  a  capital  dtji,  like  Rome,  seems  not 
so  proper^  VeAtps^  <m|  the  other  hand,  die  Rcmians  bad 
more  slates  on  account  of  their  Mpeiiarlaxnrjr  and  riches. 

Tliere  were  exact  bills  of  mortally  kept  at  Rook;  but 
no  ancient  author  has  given  us  die  number  of  burials,  eX'* 
cepi  Sufi|toniu&*,  who  tells  usy  that  ki  oneseason  there  were 
80,000  namea  earned  to  the  tenq^e  of  Libet^ia:  But  this 
was  dvrmg  a  phigue,  which  eaa  afioad  ho  certain  founda^ 
tion  fcnr  any  inferenee. 

The  public  conv  though  distsUMted  only  to  900,000  ci> 
Usmus,  aflfected  very  CimsMerably.l&e  whoie  agsioAtuieof 
Italy**;  a  fact  nowise  reconoikaUe to  some modecneBci^ 
gerations  with  ifegard  to  the  udkabitants.  of^tkat  coontty. 

The  best  greund  of  congteoturet  can  find  canceimingtbe 
greatness  df  ancieM  Rome  is  lia^  i  Werase  told  by  Hena- 
dian%  that  Anttoch  and  Aiexandl-ia  wei«  very: little  in. 
ferior  to  RoBie.<  It  apj^ears  iirom  Diedoms  Skufaia<^,  that 
one  stnrighl  st^et  of  Alett&dii%  seaofwig  irom  gate,  to 
gate,  waa  Hve  m3es  k^g^  and  aa  Akbamdnft  was  iamA 
Hiofe  extended  in  Jbengtlt  than  te«|dtky  it  juimi  tahfre 
been  a  aty  nearly  «f  the  buttt  of  Park/  ^  and  Ifome  mi^ 
be  about  die  size  of  Xoi^on. 

There  lived  in  Alexandria,  in  Diodorus  3iculus's  time^, 
300,000  free  people,  comprehending,  IsnptK>se,  wbmenand 

*  In  vita  NeroDii.  ^  Suetdfu  Au^p^  4S«     •         i 

*  Lib.  nr.  cap.  5.  •*  Lib.  xrii. 

*  *te  How  [KK.]  ^Li>.xWL 


488  E8IAT  XI. 

children*.  Bat  wbat  number  of  sUves?  Had  we  any  just 
ground  to  fix  these  at  an  equal  number  with  the  free  in-» 
habitants,  it  would  fitvour  the  foregoing  computation* 

There  is  a  passage  in  Herodian  which  is  a  little  surpri- 
sing. He  says  positively,  that  the  palace  of  the  Emperor 
was  MM  large  as  all  the  rest  of  the  city  \  This  was  Nero's 
golden  house,  which  is  indeed  represented  by  Suetonius  ^ 
and  Pliny  as  of  an  aiormous  extent  ^ ;  but  no  power  of 
imagination  can  make  us  conceive  it  to  bear  any  propor- 
tion to  such  a  city  as  London* 

We  may  observe,  had  the  historian  been  relating  Nero's 
extravagance,  and  had  he  made  use  of  such  an  repression, 
it  would  have  had  much  less  Weight;  these  rhetc^cal  ex- 
aggerations being  so  i^t  to  creep  into  mA  author's  sfyle^ 
even  when  the  most  chaste  sindcorrecL  But  it  is  mention- 
ed by  Herodian  only  by  the  bye,  in  relating  the  quarrels 
between  Geta  and  Caracalla. 

It  a{q)ears  from  die  JNune  historian  %  that  there  was  then 
muck  land  uncultivated,  and  put  to  no  manner  of*  use ; 
and  he  ascribes  it  as  a  great  praise  to  Pertinax»  that  he 
allowed  every  one  to  take  such  land,  either  in  Italy  or 
elsewhere,  and  cultivate  it  as  he  pleased,  without  paying 
any  taxes.  L(md$  ummUivaled,  Md  pti  ia  no  mmmer  ^ 
UMM I  This  is  not  heard  of  in  any  part  of  Christendom,  ex- 
cept in  some  remote  parts  of  Hungaiy,  as  I  have  been  in- 
ibrmed :  And  surely  it  corresponds  very  ill  with  that  idea  of 
the  extreme  populousness  of  antiquity  so  much  insisted  on. 

•  He  ttTt  iXivli^*,  BOl  w^Xi/nu^  wjiich  iMt  ezpremon  rnuft  havft  been 
undaritood  of  dtiMU  aloM^  and  grown  nieii. 

^  lib.  iT.  cap.  I.  ir«nK  «r#Aii^«     PolitUn  inteiprets  if»  '^adibtts  migo- 
xibuB  etUm  rdiqua  mbe.'* 

•  8m  Non  [00.] 

'  Flmius,  lib.  xxvil  o^g.  15.    <'  Bif  ▼idimus  urbcm  totam  dogi  dfltmbua 
**  priDcipum,  Gail  ac  Naronit." 

•  Lib.  ii.  cap.  \6, 


Ml^ULOUSNESfl  OV  AKCICKT  NATIONS.  480 

We  learn  from  Vopiscns  \  that  there  was  even  in  £tni- 
ria  much  fertile  hmd  oncultivated^  which  the  emperor  Ai»- 
relian  intended  to  convert  into  vinqrards,  in  order  to  fur- 
nish the  Roman  people  with  a  gratuitous  distribution  of ' 
wine;  a  very  prq>er  e:q>edient  for  dej^ulating  stiU  fiur- 
ther  that  capital,  and  all  the  neighbouring  territories. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  take  notice  of  theaocount  which 

.  Polyfaitts'*  gives  of  the  great  herds  of  swine  to  be  met  with 

in  Tuscany  and  Lombardy,  as  well  as  in  Greecei  and  of 

the  method  of  feeding  them  which  was  then  practised. 

*^  There  are  great  herds  of  swine,^  sayshe,  ^  throu^^ut 

<<  all  Italy,  particularly  in  former  times,  through  Etruria 

^  and  Cisalpine  Oaul.    And  a  herd  frequently  consists  of 

^  a  thousand  or  more  swine.  When  one  of  these  herds  in 

<^  feeding  meets  with  another,  they  mix  together;  and  the 

^  swine-herds  have  no  other  expedient  for  separating  them 

.  <<  than  to  go  to  difierent  quarters,  where  they  soiind  their 

*^  horn ;  and  these  animals,  being  accustomed  to  that  sig« 

<<  nal,  run  immediately  each  to  the  horn  of  his  own  keep- 

^  er.     Whereas  in  Greece,  if  the  herds  of  swine  happen 

.  <f  to  mix  in  the  fiirests,  he  who  has  the  greater  flock  takes 

<<  cunningly  the  opportunity  of  driving  all  away.    And 

.  ^  thieves  are  very  apt  to  purloin  the   stragglmg  hogs, 

<<  which  hav6  wandered  to  a  great  distance  from  their 

«<  keeper  in  search  of  fbod.^ 

Mttj  we  not  infer,  from  this  account,  that  the  ncurth  of 
.  Italy,  as  well  as  Greece,  was  then  much  less  peopled,  and 
worse  cultivated  than  at  present?  How  could  these  vast 
herdsbefed  in  a  country  so  fiillrfindosures,  soinquroiml 
by  agriculture,  so  divided  by  ferms,  so  planted  with  vines 
and  com  intermingled  together  ?  I  must  confess,  that  Po* 

•  In  Aur^Uuii  cap.  48,  ^  Lib.  iii.  cap.  2. 


4W  E88AT  Xr. 

lybUis's  rdttion  has  More  the  air  of  that  economjr' which  is 
^l>en6tvithinoiir  An»erieaiicoloiiie8y  thmliia nMmage- 
-meiit  of  an  Eiiropeaa  coantiy. 

We  meet  mth a  reflection  in  Aristotle's^  EtUca^'wfakh 
-^eeiss  9vmrfmantMt  on  any  toiqpositaoii,  and  bypnmmg 
too  nmoh  in  frvaat  of  onr  present  jemomng,  may  be 
^hienght  really  to  pro^  nodUng*  That  philosopher,  tneat- 
ing'ef  iHtndship,  and  observing  that  thb  rdation  ought 
•nebber  to  be  eontraciied  to  a  rerj  fair,  ner  extended  otbt 
a  gMtlnaititude,  ilkstrates  his  opinion  by  tbe  feliowiag 
argoaieaitt  <<  in  Iftenumner,*  sqra he,  ^aeneity cannot 
^  sabtist,  if  it  either  bare  so  few  iphabitints  as  ten,  or  so 
^  many  as  a  hmidred  thonsand;  so  is  there  a  medEocn^ 
•^  fieqoiied  in  Ae  nnnberof  friends ;  md  yen  doatrby  the 
«*  essence  of  friendshtp  by  running  into  ebhnr  cxtnase/' 
What  I  impossible  that  a  ci^  can  contain  a  hnndind  thou- 
sand inhabitants  !  Had  Aristotle  never  seen  nor  heard  ef 
a  city  so  p(^lous  ?  TbiSy  i  rnnat  own,  passes  mjeompre- 
bension* 

PBny*  tells  us,  that  Seleucia,  die  seat  of  the  Chreek  em- 
pire in  the  East,  was  reported  to  contain  «(K>,000  peofple. 
Carthage  is  said  by  l^abo  ^  to  haw  contained  f  €0,^09. 
The  inhabitants  oS  Pekin  are  not  mu(rh  more  nnmeroos. 
London,  Paris,  and  Constantinople^  nn^  adndt  of  neariy 
the  same  computation ;  at  leas4^  the  two  Istter  Gitiaadonot 
^  exceed  it  Rome,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  wn  bmwe  wbmady 
qx>kenof.  Frcm  die  eiqierience  of  past  and  presoit  ages, 
Goe  might  com^eotore  that  tfaetfe  ts  a  fckd  of  impostSiilky 
diat  upy  eky  could  e^er  rise  much  beefond  this  proportioii. 
Whether  the  grandeur  of  a  city  be  founded  on  coanneree 

•  Lib.  n.  cap.  10.     His  expression  is  wf^^mfH^  not  ^^Xtrnty  inHabiUnt, 
not  citiieii. 

«»  Lib.  Ti.  28,  *  Lib.  xrii. 


POPULOUSNESS  OF.ANaENT  NATIONS,  4Sl 

•r  on  "empire,  tliere  oeem  to  be  iowicible.  obstades  nduch 
pedveai  lt&  ftrther  progrfesaw  'Qie  jeftta.  cf  vast  OMMur* 
olueSy  bj  i&ttoodiickig  ejUiftiagaiit  lajnivy^  xrr^ular  ex-^ 
pcnse^  uUencBSi  idep^Bdaiec^  land  £ike  ideas  cf  rank  and 
sopeiiorki^  are  kaprapcr  ibr  oaauMroe^  Extenme  ^tem^ 
snoa!  ehodds  itari^.  b]r  laMiig^tbe'iirioe  <tf 
toannodhies.  'WhoLM  Jgiisateciart  engages.  4he  atumd- 
ance  of  a  numerous  nobility,  possessed  of  overffrntm  for- 
tunes, the  middling  g^nt^  realign  in  thoirproviixpuil  towns, 
where  they  can  make  a  figure  on  a  moderate  income.  And 
if  the  dominions  of  a  state  arrive  at  an  enormous  size,  there 
nfioeasaxily  arise  wmxff  OBpiftilis.  iiL  the  ita»t&i  ptovtiktes^ 
^fUdier  iaU  ifae  inhabfaaq^p,  except  a  few  c^intiorsi,  repair 
fir  cdosaiiaBy  finrtiuie,  jdid  amuscmeik  *«  Ij0ndo%  by 
mattng  estoismcomittesceaqdaDif  dling^ispire,  has  per- 
fci^  utmfl  at  <a  .gnotoaas  >diUi  ao  city  will  erver  ^ 
teiti^eBedi. 

.  Chooea  Dover  or  Calais  fin*  a  aeatimi  Dtmw  a  oir<^  of 
Jkwo  fauDdied  niks  laidims :  You  comprehend  Lomlon, 
Pans,  the  Netherlands,  the  United  Frovnlce5^  and  some  df 
^ha  he$t  oikivaited  partBicf  France  Mid  Bngland*  It  may 
maMj^lHadk^  beaffinned,  that  no  q)iit  of  ground  can  be 
found,  in  antiquity^  .of  eqpaal  extent^  which  oonCained  Heat 
~803itiBy^i«ik8iidpop«kM8  cities,  and  was  so  atoi^^  with 
jEkhea  joid  liifaaUtaHtsr 

To  balaiioe,  ill  bioth  period«s  tfcesMes  which  poaseaaed 
(jBibat  art,  jcnoi^ledge^  cvrility,  and  £be  best  police,  aeens 
-itlift  tzuait  medioA  ^eoaoparison* 

.  It  i^  «B  ebaervptiaa  af  IfMiA  flu  Boa,  that  kdy  Is 

• .      •    I      '  •  i 

*  Such  were  Alexandria,  Antiocb,  Carthage,  Ephesus,  Ljops,  &c^  in  the 
'^mari  empire.  Such  are  even  Bourdeauz,  Hioulouie,  Dijon,  Bennet, 
Rouen,  Aix,  &c.  in  France ;  Dublin,  Edinburgh,  York,  in  the  British  do- 


4SS  KMAT  XI. 

i^armer  at  present  than  it  was  in  andait  times.  ^^  The 
«  annalB  of  Rome  tell  us,*"  says  he»  ^  that  in  the  yewr  4d0 
^  ab  U.  C.  the  winter  was  so  severe  that  it  destroyed  Ale 
^  trees.  The  Tyber  frose  in  Rome,  and  the  gromid  was 
^<  covered  with  snow  finr  fisrty  days.  When  Jmrenal*  do- 
^  scribes  a  superstitions  woman,  he  rtpremats  her  as  break-  . 
(<  ing  the  ice  of  the  Tyber,  that  she  might  perfiMcm  her 
^^ablutiaos* 

**  H jbtfimm  IbeU  glade  ijniwrtjft  in  aiiuMia« 
**  T«r  matatino  lyberf  mtrgtHm, 

<<  Ub  Speaks  of  that  riv^s  fteezii^  as  a  common  event 
<<  Many  passages  of  Horace  smppoBt  the  streets  of  Rome 
^  fall  of  snow  and  ice.  We  dioald  hare  more  certainty 
^  with  regard  to  this  point,  had  the  ancients  known  the 
«<  use  of  thermometers:  But  their  writers,  without  intend- 
*<  ing  it,  give  us  information,  sufficient  to  convince  us,  that 
*^  the  winters  are  now  much  more  temperate  at  Rome  than 
«<  formerly.  At  present  the  Tyber  no  more  freezes  at 
<<  Rome  than  the  Nile  at  Cairo.  The  Romans  esteem  the 
<<  winters  very  rigorous  if  die  snow  lie  two  days,  and  if 
<<  one  see  for  eight  and  forty  hours  a  few  iddes  hang  from 
«  a  fountain  that  has  a  north  eaqiosure.*^ 

The  observation  of  this  ingenious  critic  may  be  extendi 
ed  to  other  European  climates.  Who  conid  discover  the 
mild  climate  of  France  in  Diodorus  Siculus's^  description 
of  that  of  Gaul?  <<  As  it  is  a  ncurthem  dimate,''  says  he, 
<«  it  is  infested  with  cold  to  an  extreme  degree.  In  cloudy 
<<  Weather,  instead  of  rain,  there  foil  great  snows;  and  in 
<<  dear  weather  it  there  freezes  so  excessive  hard,  that  the 
«  rivers  acquire  bridges  of  their  own  substance ;  over 

•  S»t.  6.  *  Lib.  if. 

2 


POPULOU8NE88  OF  ANCIENT  NATIONS.  4SS 

<<  wbich,  not  only  single  travellers  may  pass,  but  large  ar- 
^  inies,  accompanied  with  all  their  baggage  andjo^ed 
<<  waggons.  And  tl;ere  being  many  rivers  in  Gaul,,  the 
^  Rhone,  the  Rhine,  &c.  almost  all  of  them. are  frc^sen 
«  over ;  and  it  is  usual,  in  order  to  prevent  falling,  to  co« 
^  ver  the  ice  with  chaff  and  straw  at  the  places  where  the 
<<  road  passes."  CMer  Hum  a  Gallic  WmteTf  is  used  by 
Petronius  as  a  proverbial  expression.  Aristotle  says,  that 
Gaul  is  so  cold  a  climate  that  an  ass  could  not  live  in  it*. 

North  of  the  Cevennes,  says  Strabo  ^,  Gaul  produces 
not  figs  and  olives :  And  the  vines,  which  have.been  plant- 
ed, b^ar  not  grapes  that  will  ripen. 

Ovid  positively  maintains,  with  all  the  serious  affirm- 
adon  of  prose,  diat  the  Enxine  Sea  was  frozen  over  every 
winter  in  his  time ;  and  he  a{qpeals  to  Roman  govemprs, 
whom  he  names,  for  the  truth  of  his  assertion  ^.  This  sel- 
dom or  never  happens  at  present  in  the  latitude  of  Toini, 
whither  Ovid  was  banished.  All  the  complaints  of  the 
same  poet  seem  to  mark  a  rigour  of  the  seasons,  which  is 
scarcely  experienced  at  present  in  Petersburgb  or  Stock- 
holm. 

Toomefort,  a  Provenfoly  who  had  travelled  ii^to  jthe 
same  country,  observes,  that  there  is  not  a  finer  clinvite 
in  the  world:  And  he  asserts,  that  nothing  but  Ovid's 
melancholy  eould  have  given  him  such  dismal  ideas  of  it. 
But  the  fiu^ts,  mentioned  by  that  poet,  are  too  circum- 
stantial to  bear  any  such  interpretation. 

Polybius^  says,  that  the  climate  in  Arcadia  was  very 
cold,  and  the  air  moist 

*  De  Oencimt.  Anim.  lib.  ii.  ^  Lib.  ir, 

•  TtkU  lib.  iiL  ekg.  9.     De  Ponto,  lib.  it.  eleg.  7,  9.  10. 
^  Lib.  !▼.  cap.  2K 

VOL.  I.  2  F 


4S4  K8SAYXI« 

<<  Italy,''  says  Varro  %  <*  is  tbe  aioBt  temp^mte  i 
^  in  Ei]r<^>e.    Tbe  inland  parts,  (Gaol,  Oeniiaiqr»  and 
^  Pannoni%  no  doubt)  bare  almost  perpetual  winter*'' 

Tbe  ncrtbem  parts  of  l^pain,  aooonlingto  Straho  ^,  iro 
but  ill  inhabited,  because  of  the  great  ecdd* 

Allowing^  therefore^  this  remark  to  be  just,  IbaiEmtjpe 
is  become  wanner  than  fermerly ;  how  can  we  acooont  for 
it  ?  Plainly,  by  no  other  method,  than  by  supposin^^  thai 
the  land  is  at  present  much  bMer  cukrnited,  andthafc  the 
woods  are  defied,  whidk  fermeriy  threw  a  dbade  upon  the 
earth,  and  kept  the  rays  of  the  sun  fifom  penetratangto  it 
Our  northern  colonies  in  Ammea  become  move  t*>mp^rfl<#^ 
in  prc^rticm  as  the  woods  are  Mled  «  ;  bo^  in  general, 
every  (me  may  remark,  that  ooid  is  stiU  nuich  more  senerei^ 
ly  felt,  both  in  North  and  South  America,  than  k  placet 
under  the  same  latitude  in  Eurqpe^ 

Saserna,  quoted  by  Columella  ^,  affirmed,  that  the  dis^ 
position  of  the  heavens  was  altered  before  his  time,  'and 
that  the  air  had  become  much  milder  and  warmer;  asi^ 
pears  hence,  says  he,  that  many  places  now  abound  with 
vineyards  and  olive  plantations,  which  formerly,  by  reason 
of  tbe  rigour  of  the  climate,  could  raise  none  of  these  pro- 
ductions»  Such  a  change,  if  realt  wiU  be  allowed  an  evi» 
dent  sign  of  the  better  cultivaticm  and  peopling  of  oountries 
before  the  ^e  of  Saserna  <>;  and  if  it  be  contimmd  to  tbe 

*  lib.  L  cap.  9,  ^  lib*  Mi. 

•I1iew«intottth«lrn«d(mMt«bob8O0BMinffrebMUfaftil:  AaAithr^ 
markable,  tlutt  in  the  Spuiith  historiet  of  the  Snt  disoofrery  andcoiiqaesl  of 
these  countries,  they  tpp^^  ^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^T  healthful ;  being  then  wdl 
peopled  and  cohiTaled*  No  account  of  the  sickness  or  dec^  of  Covtes's 
or  Fixarro's  small  armies* 

«  lib.  L  cap.  1. 

«  He  seems  to  have  lived  about  the  tine  of  the  yo«ngerAiH€iMi«;  lil».i. 
cap.  I. 


]^ULOU8NE86  OV  ARClSNT  NATIONS.  4ft5 

pi^font  tiflMH^  Is  Ik  proof  tbttt  th«M  ttdvinuigeB  hftve  bten 
oMttHMlly  increaiing  ifarouf  bout  this  |Nurt  <rf*tiM  imtM. 

Let  tts  now  cMt  o«r  ey«  otomtt  the  cotmtties  wbidh  ire 
die  MOM  tf  Mieient  and  nodan  hidtory^  laid  Miftpft«« 
their  pa«t  ind  preiMt  silttatiaii  t  W^  diall  Mt^  p^AiApg^ 
find  ^iich  fbundatton  fiM*  the  eoaq^nt  of  the  pmmt  ^mf^ 
ness  Md  deiolAtiaii  of  die  workL  ASgypi  ts  Hij^dtiMdd 
by  MeUlet)  to  whom  we  owe  the  b^ikiuoootmitt  ity  sutli^ 
treadiy  populous;  though  he  etteems  the  lumber  of  it» 
inhnbileiitstobediaaiftklwd^  Syria^  And  the  Lesser  Atri% 
as  wen  as  the  coasts  of  Barbary^  I  can  rtedily  owh  io  be 
desert  in  comparison  of  theii"  anciebt  cadditk)ti»  Tb^ 
depopulation  of  Greece  is  also  obrtons.  But  wfaetbifir  tl^ 
country  now  dtUed  Tarkey  m  Eoro^  aoay  n6t^  te  genefal^ 
contain  more  inhabitants  than  during  ite  iouri^ing  pijriod 
of  Greece^  may  be  a  little  doabflil*  The  Thraeiails  seem 
then  to  have  lired  like  the  Tartars  at  prestat^  by  ptuftm^ 
rage  and  plunder*:  The  Gete$  were  still  more  and^zed*'} 
And  the  Blyrians  were  no  b^ttsr  ^  i  These  oecepy  ntiiei> 
tenths  of  that  country :  And  tbot^h  the  gotertiioeitt  of 
the  Turks  be  not  very  favourable  to  industry  and  propaga^ 
tion ;  yet  it  preserves  at  least  peace  and  order  anioii^  the 
iilhabitatttB,  and  is  preferable  to  lh4t  barbarous^  ms^tlied 
eonditfoa  bi  which  tbey  anei^ndy  fivedi 

PoIaiMl  aad  Mttsdovy  in  Europe  are  tiot  populous;  btti 
Aie  oertafoly  mMcbsftoresothaA  the  aucient  Sertnatiaaod 
Scythia,  where  no  husbandry  or  tillage  iihe»  (dver  betfrd  0(4 
aftd  pasturage  was  <he  sole  art  by  which  the  people  li^^re 
snuntabied.  Hie  Uke  obe^Yalioft  may  b^  extended  to 
Settmailc  aasl  Sweden.    No  Me  omht  to  0^wm  Aa  im- 

•  XSBopi  mi^  WL  til.     Potjb.  lib.  iT.  ctp.  45. 

»  Orid  ^ririaij  Ai&     Sferabo,  Ub.  TiL  •  Polyb.  fib.  fi.  ci)^>  1% 

2f3 


486  E88AT  XI. 

^mense  swanns  <^  people  which  formerly  came.fjrom  the 
North,  and  overran  all  Eurcqpe»  tobeany  objection  to  this 
opinion.  Where  a  whole  naticHi,  or  even  half  of  it,  re- 
move their  seat,  it  is  easy  to  imagine  what  a  prodigious 
multitude  they  must  form;  with  what  desperate  valour 
they  must  make  their  attacks;  and  how  the  terror  th^ 
strike  into  the  invaded  nations  will  make  these  magnify,  in 
their  imaginariim,  both  the  courage  and  multitude  of.  the 
invaders.  Scotland  is  neither  extensive  nor  populous; 
but  were  the  half  of  its  inhabitants  to  seek  new  seats,  they 
would  form  a  colony  as  numerous  as  the  Teutons  and  Cim- 
bri ;  and  would  shake  all  Eairope,  supposing  it  in  no  better 
conditiim  for  defence  than  formerly. 
,  Germany  has  surely  at  present  twenty  times  more  in- 
habitants than  in  ancient  times,  when  they  cultivated  no 
ground,  and  each  tribe  valued  itself  on  the  extensive  deso- 
lation which  it  spread  around ;  as  we  learn  from  Caesar*, 
and  Tacitus  %  and  Strabo  ^ ;  a  proof^  that  the  division 
into  small  republics  will  not  alone  render  a  nation  popu- 
lous, unless  attended  with  the  spirit  of  peace,  order,  and 
industry. 

The  barbarous  condition  of  Britain  in  former  times  b 
well  known,  and  the  thinness  of  its  inhabitants  nmy  easily 
be  conjectured,  both  from  their  barbarity,  and  fi*om  a 
circumstance  maitioned  by  Herodian  ^,  that  all  Britain  was 
marshy,  even  in  Severus's  time,  after  the  Romans  had 
been  fully  settied  in  it  above  a  century.  * 

It  is  not  easily  imagined,  that  the  Gauls  were  anciently 
much  more  advanced  in  the  arts  of  Ufe  than  their  northern 
neighbours;  since  they  travelled  to  this  island  for  their 

•  De  Bello  Gallico,  lib.  vi.  ^  De  MorOras  Genn.^ 

•  liK  Tii.  A  Lib.  iii.  e«p.  47. 


P0PUL0U8NESS  OF  ANCIENT  NATIONS.  437 

education  in  the  mysteries  of  the  religion  and  philosc^by 
of  the  Druids  >.  I  cannot,  therefore,  think  that  (jraul  was 
then  near  so  populous  as  France  is  at  present 

Were  we  to  believe,  indeed,  and  join  together,  the  tes- 
tunony  of  Appian,  and  that  of  Diodorus  Siculus,  we  must 
admit  of  an  incredible  populousness  in  Gaul.     The  former 
historian^  says,  that  there  were  400  nations  in  that  couiw 
try ;  the  latter  ^  a£Srms,  that  the  largest  of  the  Gallic  na- 
tions consisted  of  200,000  men,  besides  women  and  chil- 
dren, and  the  least  of  50,000.     Calculating,  therefore,  at 
a  medium,  we  must  admit  of  near  200,000,000  of  people 
in  a  country  which  we  esteem  populous  at  present,  though 
supposed  to  contain  little  more  than  twenty  ^.     Such  cal- 
culations, therefore,  by  their  extravagance,  lose  all  man- 
ner of  authority.     We  may  observe,  that  the  equality  of 
proper^,  to  which  the  populousness  of  antiquity  may  be 
ascribed,  had  no  place  among  the  Gauls  ^.     Their  intes- 
tine wars  also^  before  Caesar's  time,  were  almost  perpetual  ^. 
And  Strabo  ^  observes,  that  though  all  Gaul  was  cultiva- 
ted, yet  was  it  not  cidtivated  with  any  skill  or  care :  the 
genius  of  the  inhabitants  leading  them  less  to  arts  than 
arms,  till  their  slavery  under  Rome  produced  peace  among 
themselves. 

Csesar  ^  enumerates  very  particularly  the  great  forces 
which  were  levied  in  Belgium  to  oppose  his  conquests ; 
and  makes  them  amount  to  208,000.  These  were  not  the 
whole  people  able  to  bear  arms :  For  the  same  historian 
tells  us,  that  the  Bellovaci  could  have  brought  a  hundred 

*  Cmar  de  BeUo  GmllicOy  lib.  xn.  Stnbo,  lib.  viL  mjn,  the  Chuik  wqre 
not  much  more  improved  than  the  Germani. 

k  Celt.  puB  1.  c  i^  ^^ 

*  Ancieot  Gaul  wat  more  exttnuTe  than  modem  Fruice. 
•Cmar  de  BeUo  Galileo,  Ub.  ▼<.  <  Id.  ibid. 

«  Ub.  iv.  -  »»  De  BeUo  Gallioo,  lib.  ii. 


4S8  KM4Y  XJ« 

itiOttsaod  I9W  ipta  the  fielf),  ikwDi^ 
msty.  Takii^  Urn  wbole,  Uwrffor^  iq  this  profiortioQ  of 
ten  to  six,  tbo  01m  of  figh^g  flion  imiU  th^  aUtciof  B#)r. 
gimnf«9«bout3$0i000;  aUtbeinlMibltaotsamiUioatnd 
a  bnUI  And  BdgiwQ  boipg  about  a  fourtb  of  Oaul,  thai 
oountiy  laight  ooataiii  six  milliona,  vfakh  is  aoC  oear  tbe 
tbird  of  iHis  pre^ai^  mhabitwis  K  We  art  ufonnod  bjF 
Oi^saJTs  that  tbe  Gaols  bad  no  Axed  pivtq^ty  inland ;  hot 
that  the  cbiefUiaa»  i?ban  any  imA  happimed  ia  a  hmSy^ 
made  a  new  diviskm  of  all  &a  Imda  among  lbs  aeverd 
siember^  of  tbe  fan%.  This  ^  the  <aisteiii  of  Tamtrp, 
vbich  90  long  prevailed  w  lfdand»  and  vi^ieb  eetaiaed 
tba^  country  in  a  state  of  ini«eiy>  barbariaflm  and  deaola^ 
tioBu 

Tbe  anciettt  Helyetia  was  850  mOes  in  Iwgth>  and  180 
in  breedtb,  according  t»  tbe  same  avtbof  ^ ;  yet  contained 
only  SQ0,,990  inhabitants*  TheeantoiiefB^nieakmeha% 
at  present,  as  many  people^ 

AiiUr  this  competatibaof  Appian  and  Dtodomt  Sicuhifl, 
I  know  not  whether  I  date  affiiait  tbat  the  modemDuteh 
aie  more  numerona  than  tbe  ancMOfc  Baitan^ 

Spain  is»  perha|M»  decayed  iroM  wbalit  waa  three  cen- 
turies ago ;  but  if  we  step  backward  two  thousand  yaaf% 
and  consider  the  restless,  turbulent*  unsettML  condition  of 
its  inhabitants,  we  may  probaUy  be  indined  to  think  tbat 
il  is  now  ipuch  more  populou9*  Many  ^aaniaids  killed 
themsekve^  wbw  deprived  of  their  arms  by  the  Romans  ^ 
It  appears  from  Plutardi<^  that  robbery  and  phmdsr  were 
esteemed  honourable  among  the  Spaniards.  Hirtius^  re- 
presents in  the  same  light  the  situation  of  that  country  in 

•  Sm  Man  [FP.]  ^  D«  BtoBe  CNiHico,  Ub.  L 

•  Titi  LMi» Ub.  niir.  cap.  17.        <  InvhaMwii.       •DelMtoHi^ 


POPULOU8Mfi86  OF.  AKCIENT  NATIONS.  i89 

Gmmt's  time;  aiidlieav|riB»that<T€i7nuinmi«oUi^;edta 
live  in  oa«tles  and  walled  towm  for  hi$  ne^mkjp  It  wfi» 
not  till  its  final  conquest  under  AugufNwfly  that  these  disr 
orders  were  repressed  K  The  account  which  Strabo  ^  and 
Justin  ^  gave  of  ^Miin^  corresponds  exactly  with  those 
above  nentioDed.  How  mndis  therdbre,  must  it  diminish 
from  our  idea  of  the  populousness  of  antiquity,  when  we 
find  that  Tully»  comparing  Ita^,  Africa*  Gaul,  Greece, 
and  Spaiiv  m^itions  thue  great  number  of  inhabitants  as 
the  peculiar  circimstance  which  rendered  this  latter  coun- 
try fonoSdiOile  <>  ? 

Italy,  however,  it  is  probaUe^  has  decayed :  But  how 
Biany  great  cities  does  it  ttSl  contain  ?  Venice,  Genoa, 
Faviat  Turip,  Milan,  Naples^  Fh)renc^  Leglmm,  which 
either  subsisted  not  in  andmt  times,  or  were  then  veryinr 
omsideraMe?  If  we  reflect  pn  this,  we  shall  not  be  apt  to 
«arry  matters  to  so  great  an  extreme  as  is  usual  with  re^ 
gard  to  this  sulject 

When  the  Roman  authors  complain  that  Italy,  which 
formerly  exported  com,  became  depend^it  on  all  the  pro- 
vinces for  its  daily  bread,  they  never  ascribe  this  alteration 
to  the  increase  of  its  inhabitants,  but  to  the  neglect  of  tal- 
lage and  agricnlture^;  a  natural  effect  of  that  pemici<Mifi 
practioaof  importiaigcora,  in  order  to  distribute  it  ^nolis 
I  the  Roman  citiasens^  and  a  very  bad  means  of  mul- 


•  VelL  F^terc  lib.  iL  $  90.  »  lib.  Hi.  lib.  xUv. 

•  ''  Kec  numero  Hiipanof,  nee  robore  Oallos,  nee  calliditate  Porooty  nee 
**  utibQt  Onecot,  nee  denlque  boe  ipioe  Imjos  gentbt  me  term  domeitieo 
**  nthroqoe  eenwi^  itriotlpeoe  •elMtfaoa  ■  '  ■apaaflmm."  De  Heruep. 
Knp.  cip*  9»  ^Rie  duforaenoi  fl^pini  fleenito  bive  been  elnM)et  pvoveiMil: 
**  Nee  impeeitoe  e  tergo  horNbie  Iberoe.**  Vhg.  Oeoig.  lik  iii.  the 
IbOTi  are  bere  plainly  taken,  by  e  poKtIeal  figure,  for  robberB  in  generai 

•  Varro  De  Re  Rustica,  lib.  ii.  pr«£  Columella  praC  SmIoii.  Angutt 
cap.48. 


440  E86AV  XI. 

Uplying  Ae  iiibiri>itaiit8  of  any  ooantry  *.  The  apantdoi 
wo  much  talked  of  by  Martial  and  Juvenal,  being  presets 
r^ulariy  made  l^  the  great  lords  to  their  smaller  client^ 
most  bare  had  a  like  tendency  to  produce  idleness,  de- 
bauchery, and  a  continual  decay  among  the  people.  The 
parish  rates  have  at  present  the  same  bad  consequences  in 
England. 

Were  I  to  assign  a  period  when  I  inuigiiied  this  part  of 
the  world  might  possibly  contain  more  inhabitants  than  at 
present,  I  should  pitch  upon  the  age  of  Tn^  and  the 
Antonines ;  the  great  extent  of  the  Roman  empire  being 
then  civilized  and  cultivated,  settled  almost  in  a  profound 
peace,  both  foreign  and  dcHnestic,  and  living  under  tte 
same  regular  police  and  government  ^.  But  we  are  told, 
that  all  extensive  governments,  especially  absolute  moniur- 
chies,  are  pernicious  to  population,  and  contain  a  secret 
vice  and  poison,  which  destroy  the  effect  of  all  these  pro* 
mising  appearances  ^«  To  confirm  this,  there  is  a  passage 
cited  from  Plutarch  **,  which  being  somewhat  singular,  we 
shall  here  examine  it. 

Hiat  author,  endeavourinjg  to  account  for  the  silence 
of  many  of  the  orades,  says^  that  it  may  be  ascribed  to  the 
present  desolation  of  the  world,  proceeding  from  former 
wars  and  factions ;  which  common  calamity,  he  adds,  has 
fallen  heavier  upcm  Greece  than  on  any  odier  country; 
insomuch  that  the  whole  could  scarcely  at  present  furnish 

*  Though  the  obsomilioiis  of  L'AbU  du  Bot  should  be  admitted,  diat 
Italy  ra  uow  wanner  than  in  Banner  tiaaip,  thecooiefueiiceaiay  notbene- 
oeMarf^  that  U  ia  mora  popokue  or  better  cultiTated.  If  the  other  countnes 
of  Europe  were  noiore  Mvage  and  woody,  the  cold  windf  that  Uew  from 
tham  inigfat  affect  the  climate  of  Italy. 

»  See  Nova  [QA*] 

'  L*£8prit  de  Loix,  liv.  xiiii.  chi^.  19.  '  De  Orac  Defcctu. 


POPULOUSNX8S  OF  ANCIENT  NATIONS.  441 

three  thousand  warriors;  a  number  whicb»  in  the  iune  0f> 
the  Median  war»  was  supplied  by  the  single  city  of  Me-*. 
ganu  The  gods,  therefore,  who  a£fect  works  of  dignity 
and  importance,  have  suppressed  many  of  their  ora(4^. 
and  deign  not  to  use  so  many  interpreters  of  their  will  to 
so  diminutiye  a  people. 

I  must  confess,  that  this  passage  contains  so  many  dif- 
ficulties, that  I  know  not  what  to  make  of  it.  You  may 
observe,  that  Plutarch  assigns,  for  a  cause  of  the  decay  of 
nuudcind,  not  the  extensive  dominion  of  .the  Romans,  but 
the  former  wars  and  factions  of  the  several  states,  all  whicl^ 
were  quieted  by  the  Roman  arms.  Plutarch's  reasoning^ 
th«refore^  is  directly  contrary  to  the  inference  which  is 
drawn  from  the  fact  he  advances.  j 

Polybius  supposes,  that  Greece  bad  become  more  pro* 
sperous  and  flourishing  after  the  establishment  of  the  Ror 
man  yoke  * ;  and  though  that  historian  wrote  before  theiff 
conquerors  had  degaierated^  from  being  the  patrons,  to 
be  the  plunderers  of  mankind,  yet  as  we  find  from  Taci- 
tus ^,  that  the  severity  of  the  emperors  afterwards  correct- 
ed the  licence  of  the  governors,  we  have  no  reason  td  think 
that  extensive  monarchy  30  destructive  as  it  is  ofi^n  repre^ 
sented. 

We  learn  firom  Strabo  S  that  the  Romans,  from  tl^ 
regard  to  the  Greeks,  maintained,  to  bis  time,  most  of  the 
privileges  and  liberties  of  that  celebrated  natioi]^ ;  :  and 
Nero  afterwards  rather  increased  them  ^.  Hqw,  there- 
tore,  can  we  imagiiie  that  the  Roman  yoke  if?as  S9  burden- 
some over  that  part  of  the  world  ?  The  oppression  of  the 
proomsuls  was  checked ;  and  the  magisti^acies  in  Greece 
being  all  bestowed,  in  the  several  cities,  |l>y  the  firee  votes 

•  Sm  Von  [RR.]        ^  AnnaL  Ub.  L  cap.  3.        «  lib.  yui.  and  iz. 

*  Fhitarch.  Dt  his  qui  sero  a  Kumine  paniuntur. 


440  fittAY  XI. 


atikmfeefpii^f  tbtrt  was  bo  neeeiHly  for  thft  eota^MtkorB 
tOBttand^IkipenHr's  oourt.  If  giwt  numbers  were  to 
wfA  dieur  fbrtmies  in  Rome,  snd  edymoee  thooMelves  b j 
kendng  or  eloqacnesi  Che  cmnmndities  of  tbeir  netive 
eoiHiCry»  many  of  tihem  would  retem  with  the  fortuHs 
which  they  had  aoqnired,  and  therd>y  enrich  the  GnectMi 
commewwealths. 

Bat  Plutarch  si^  that  the  general  depofmlalioa  had 
bemnoresensUilyfeltin  Oveeee  than  in  any  other  ooiub' 
tij.  How  is  tkb  recondleaUe  to  its  superior  privflsgss 
aadadmntages? 

Besides  ^  passage,  by  praving  too  mnch,  really  proves 
ttodiing.  Opi^  diris  tkotmmd  mm  0Ue  i»  itar  mnm  Ai 
mB  Chreeoe  I  Who  can  admit  so  strange  a  proposition^ 
espedafy  if  we  consider  the  great  number  of  Greek  cities, 
whose  names  still  remain  in  histoiy,  and  which  are  mesb- 
tioned  by  writers  long  after  the  age  of  Plutarch?  HMse 
are  Aere  sorely  len'times  more  peo|^  et  psesen^  whtm 
there  scarcely  remains  a  city  in  all  tlie  bounds  of  ancient 
Greece.  That  ooontry  Is  still  telerahly  cultivated,  and 
Inmidies  a  sure  sapflj  of  com,  hi  case  of  a  scarcity  in 
Spain,  Italy,  or  the  south  of  France. 

We  may  observe,  that  the  ancient  frugality  of  the 
Greeks,  and  their  equality  of  property,  still  subdsted  du- 
fteg  the  age  (rf*  Plutarch,  as  appears  from  Lucian**  Nor 
is  there  any  ground  to  imagine)  that  diat  cooQtry  wtfs 
possessed  by  a  few  masters,  and  a  great  number  of  slaves. 

It  is  probable^  indeed,  that  military  discipline  being  cu- 
tirdy  usdess,  was  extremely  negleeted  in  Greece  after  dK 
estaUishment  ai  the  Roman  emfMre;  and  If  dMse  com- 
monwealths, formerly  so  warlike  and  ambitious^ 

*  Ih  mcrcediii  cQndMCtii* 


POPULOU8NES8  OF  AKCIENT  NATIONS.  44S 

ed  each  of  them  a  small  ci^  guard,  to  prevent  mobbish 
disorders,  it  is  all  they  had  occasion  for;  and  these,  per- 
haps, did  not  amount  to  SOOO  men  throughout  all  Greece. 
I  own,  that  if  Plutarch  has  this  fact  in  his  eye,  he  is  here 
guil^  of  a  gross  paralogism,  and  assigns  causes  nowise 
proportioned  to  the  e£Pects.  But  is  it  so  great  a  prodigy, 
that  an  author  should  fall  into  a  mistake  of  this  nature  ^  ? 
But  whatever  force  may  remain  in  this  passage  of  Plu- 
tarch, we  shall  endeavour  to  counterbahmce  it  by  as  re- 
markable a  passage  in  Diodorus  Siculus,  where  the  histo- 
rian, after  weotioning  Ninns's  army  of  1,700,000  foot,  and 
800,000  boifse,  mdaavowrs  to  airport  the  oredifailitjr  of 
thi9  aocouAt  by  some  poat^ior  facta;  and  adds,  thai  we 
must  not  fotm  a  notion  of  the  attdeiic  popukmsDess  of 
nankind  from  the  present  en^tiiiesa  and  depopuktioii 
which  ia  spread  ov^  the  world  \  Thus  an  author,  who 
lived  at  that  v^ry  period  of  antiquity  whidk  is  representid 
as  moBtpopulpua  S  orwnplaiw  of  the  deaolatkn  wfaieh  dwii 
iweviuledfi  gives  the  pfefeiencie  to  former  times^  and  has 
recourse  to  anoSent  iablos  as  a  foundatioii  for  hb  opiniab. 
The  humour  of  blamng  the  present^  and  admimg  die 
pastf  is  «tnng\y  rooted  m  human  nature,  and  has  an  in- 
floence  even  on  persona  endued  with  thoprofiwmdest  jud^^ 
nent  and  most  cxtensiva  learning. 

«  He  WM  coDtfmpovsrj  widi  CmHir  tnd  Aiifmtii9. 


ESSAY  XII. 


or  THE  ORIGINAL  CONTRACT. 

At  fio  party)  in  the  present  age^  jcan  wdl  support  itself 
without  a  philosophical  or  specnlative  system  of  principles 
aaneKodto  its  political  or  practical  one,  we  accordingly 
find,  thateadi  of  tbefiustions,  into  which  this  nation  is  di^ 
Tidedt  has  reared  up  a  bbnc  of  the  former  kind,  in  order 
to  protect  and  corer  that  scheme  of  actions  which  it  pur- 
sues. The  pt&fie  being  commonly  very  rude  builders,  es- 
pecially in  this  qpecalative  way,  and  more  especially  still 
idienjbctaated  bypartyieal;  it  is  natural  to  imagine,  that 
their  workmanship  must  be  a  litde  unshapely,  and  disco- 
ver erident  marks  of  that  tioleiice  and  hurry  in  which  it 
was  raised.  The  one  party,  by  tradng  up  government  to 
the  Deity,  endeavour  to  render  it  so  sacred  and  invio^ 
late,  that  it  must  be  little  less  than  sacrilege,  however  ty- 
rannical it  may  become,  to  touch  or  invade  it  in  the  small- 
est article.  The  other  party,  by  founding  government  al- 
together on  the  consent  of  the  People,  suppose  that  there 
is  a  kind  of  origi$ud  coniractf  by  which  the  subjects  have 
tacitly  reserved  the  power  of  resisting  the  sovereign,  when- 
ever they  find  themselves  aggrieved  by  that  authority,  with 
which  they  have,  for  certain  purposes,  voluntarily  entrust- 
ed him.    These  are  the  speculative  principles  <^  the  two 


OF  THE  OAIOTNAL  CONTRACT.  446 

-parties ;  and  Uiese  too  are  the  practical  coniequenoes  de- 
duced from  tbem. 

I  shall  venture  to  affirm,  'naiboih  them  systems  qfig^ 
ctdatioe  pr merries  are  just  f  thoughnot  in  ihe  eenae  iiUmied 
byAepartiee:  And^  J%at bath  the  scheoieBtfpractkxdcot^ 
segtiemxe  tare  prudent  i  tkmgh  notinAe  extremes  to  which 
eachpartjff  inapposMm  to  the  other^  has  comtmmfy  emka^ 
voured  to  carry  them. 

That  the  Deity  is  the  ultimate  author  of  all  gorerttmen^ 
will  never  be  denied  by  any,  who  admit  a  general  piovi- 
.denoe,  and  allow,  that  all  events  in  the  universe  are  con- 
ducted  by  an  uniform  plan,  and  directed  to  wise  purposes. 
As  it  is  impossible  for  the  human  race  to  subsist,  at  least 
in  any  c(»nfortable  and  secure  state,  without  the  protectiim 
of  government ;  this  institution  must  certainly  have  been 
intended  by  that  beneficent  Being,  who  means  the  good  of 
all  his  creattires :  And  as  it  has  universally,  in  fiict,  taken 
place  in  all  countries,  and  all  ages,  we  may  conclude,  witii 
still  greater  certainty,  that  it  was  intended  by  that  omni* 
scient  Being,  who  can  never  be  deceived  by  any  event  or 
operation.  But  since  he  gave  rise  to  i^  not  by  any  parti- 
cular or  miraculous  interposition,  but  by  his  concealed  and 
universal  efficacy,  a  sovereign  camo^  prq^eriy  speaking, 
be  called  his  vic^^erent  in  anyother  sense  than  everypower 
or  force,  being  derived  from  him,  may  be  said  to  act  by 
his  commissicm.  Whatever  actually  hiqipens  is  compre- 
hended in  the  general  plan  or  intention  <^  Providence ; 
nor  has  the  greatest  and  most  lawfid  prince  anymore'tea^^ 
son,  upon  that  account,  to  plead  a. peculiar  sacredness  or 
inviolable  authority,  than  an  inferior  magistrate,  or  even 
an  usurper,  or  even  a  robber  and  a  pirate.  The  same  Di- 
vine Superintendant,  wIkh  for  irise  purposes,  invested  a 
.Titus  or  a  Tngan  with  authority,  did  also,  for  purposes  no 


446  SMAT  XIU 

dOttU  oqpMUy  wifB^  thai^[;h  ttiikiiowii#  b9t(Mr  powitr  on  a 
Borgia  or  an  Angria*  The  same  causes^  wliiob  gMre  riae 
ta  the  tovcnign  power  in  atery  itate>  aslabiiAed  likewiae 
•tary  pel^  jnrisdictioii  In  ^  and  arerj  limited  aolbod^ 
AaooilaUai  tliar«fiara»  no  ki*  diiO  a  kaig^  aMa  I7  a  di* 
irina  comauMioDi  and  poateiiai  an  indafiwwible  riglit* 

Whan  we  aoDiider  how  naarljr  oqiial  all  men  are  in  tbair 
bodily  force,  and  even  in  their  mental  powara  and  fiwnl^ 
tiae»  tiU  cnUiralad  by  adneationi  we  nnist  neaessarily  aU 
1m^  that  nothing  but  thai^  own  codaeni  ocmld  at  first  a»- 
aoaiate  tham  together,  and  aol:g«ot  tbam  toany  anthori^. 
The  people^  if  we  trace  government  to  iti  first  origin  in  the 
wooda  and  desarts,  are  the  sonroe  of  all  power  and  jorii- 
dnttton^  and  Tcdnntarily,  finr  the  sake  of  peace  and  order, 
abandoned  their  natiTe  liberty,  and  received  laws  from  their 
equal  and  conq>aniolu  Hie  condilionsy  upon  which  they 
wa^  willing  to  subnit,  were  either  ei^ressed^  or  wera  so 
ctear  ahd  obvious,  dntt  it  might  well  be  esteemed  supers 
flooos  to  express  tbeuL  If  this^  then,  be  meant  by  the 
wrifm&l  coniraety  it  cannot  be  darned,  that  all  government 
ill  at  first,  founded  en  a  contract,  and  that  the  most  an^ 
ount  rude  oombinatiooB  of  mankind  were  fonaaad  cUtfly 
by  duit  principle.  In  vnn  are  we  asked  in  whnt  reeoyds 
thisdiarterofourlibertiaaisreglstared*  Itwasnotwrit*- 
tenon  parchment,  nor  yet  Mlea^M  or  barks  of  tiv«s^  It 
pteqeded  the  nse  rf  wttlii^  and  aU  the  other  civiUaed  arte 
ofMfa.  Bm  We  trace  it  {dainly  hi  the  nation  of  mankind 
in  tfae«pnlity,  or  Boaitfifaitigapproaeh&i|geqiialily,  wMA 
we&idinalltheindivkhMdsofthntqNMteS.  Theforas 
which  now  pcnvafls)  and  which  it  fbnndbd  m  taets  and  MN- 
mieais  plainly  polkM,nnd.daiivedflwi  nnAorlty,  itit 
i  of  astaUfidiad  gammmefic  A  aam^s  natcml  ftMfe 
i  onlyia  dit  vigour  of  Ms  limbs,  and  di€  imtiiHs 


OF  THS  OmiOIKAL  CONTRACT.  447 

of  bis  OMuragt;  whidi  could  nev«r  tiibycct  tdidtiliftfks  to 
ike  onnMfiiid  of  out.  Nothing  but  tlleir  own€Otiteiit»  add 
tbair  aatiM  of  tbe  adTBiittges  MrakiBg  froHl  p«ioe  dttd  or- 
der»  could  btn  bad  tbat  kAuenoo. 

Yel  «9«i  this  canaaot  was  long  Tery  inqperfi^Ay  and  could 
not  be  tbe  baabof  a  ragular  admbiMtrtioii*  Tbe  obicC- 
tain,  wbo  bad  probably  aoq^uirad  bla  influanca  during,  tbe 
continuance  of  war,  ruled  more  by  persuasion  tban  ooa»- 
juand;  and  till  be  Could  Employ  force  to  rtduoadM*  re- 
fractory and  diiobedimt^  tbe  society  could  scarody  be  said 
to  bave  attained  a  state  of  civil  goferamcDt.  Noaaupaot 
or  agreement^it  is  eytdanty  was  expressly  farmed  lor  gen^ 
ral  subnusaion ;  an  idea  £yr  beyond  the  ctuK^nrebeusion  of 
saragest  Eatb  ez«rtio» of  authority  ill  tbe  dikftaiAmiMt 
htem  hemk  paletaoulajf^  and.  caUad  ferth  by  the  present  en- 
gendes  of  the  case:  The  sensible  utilitgr,  ttsultii^  firom 
bis  interpositiDn^  made  these  estertions  beeowe  daily  more 
frequent;  and  dunrfrecpMncjr gradually  pH)duoed  an  habi- 
tual^  andyif  you  please  to  oillksdy  ft  voluntary,  and  there- 
ibre  precarious^  adquitsoenoe  in  the  peq[)le» 

But  philosophers,  who  have  embraced  a  party  (if  tbat  be 
not  a  oontradictioB  in  tenns)  are  not  contented  with  these 
ooBCessions*  Theyasserti  not  ottlytba^tgovemmirat  inits 
earliest  Mufnc^aroas  from  consent,  or  rather  the  voluntary 
actjttiescenoe  i£  the  people;  but  aUo  that,  even  at.  pr^ 
sent,  when  it  baa  attained  ita  filll  maturity,. it  u$U  m 
no  other  foundation.  They  afilm»  that  aU  men  are  stiU 
bmmequaltaod  owe  allegiance  toBoprinte  orgovantmao^ 
unless  bound  by  the  oUigitioii  and  lanctioB  of  ajnmfia. 
Ajsd  aa  BO  man,  witbebt  some  eqniv^ent^  wouU  /oT^igP 
4lie  advantages  of  hia  nallini^  libera,  and  sd:90^ 
the  will  of  another ;  diis  pRunise  ia  dhiay  t  wdeistood  tO 
be  eondidoBal^  and  isiposes  on  him  no  iiblirtsljnii;  ualsas 


448  figSAT  XII. 

be  meet  with  justice  and  protection  tieom  his  wver^ga* 
These  advantages  die  sovereign  promiaes  him  in  return ; 
«m1  if  he  fiil  in  the  execution,  he  has  brdcen,  on  his  part, 
the  articles  of  engagement,  and  has  thereby  fireed  his  sub- 
ject fixxn  all  obligations  to  allq^ianpe.  Such,  according  to 
these  (dulosophers,  is  the  foundation  of  authority  in  every 
gbvemment ;  and  such  the  r^;ht  of  renstance,  possessed 
by  every  subject* 

But  would  these  reasoners  look  abroad  into  the  world, 
ihcy  would  meet  with  nodiing  that,  in  the  least,  corre- 
sponds to  their  ideas,  or  can  warrant  so  refined  and  philo- 
sophical a  system.  On  the  ccmtrary,  we  find  every  where 
princes  who  daim  their  suligects  as  their  property,  and  as- 
sert their  independent  right  of  sovereign^,  firom  conquest 
or  sucoessioiu  We  find  also  every  where  subjects  who  ac- 
knowledge this  right  in  their  prince,  and  suppose  them- 
sebres  bom  under  obligations  of  obedience  to  a  certain  so- 
vereign, as  much  as  under  the  ties  of  reverence  and  duty 
to  certain  parents.  Hiese  connexions  are  always  con- 
ceived to  be  equally  independent  of  our  consent,  in  Persia 
and  China ;  in  France  and  Spain ;  and  even  in  Holland 
and  England,  wherever  the  doctrines  above  m^itioned 
have  not  been  carefully  inculcated.  Obedience  or  subjec- 
tion becomes  so  familiar,  that  most  men  never  make  any 
inquiry  about  its  origin  or  cause,  mcnre  than  about  the 
^principle  of  gravity,  resistance,  or  the  most  universal  laws 
of  nature.  Or  if  curiosity  ever  move  them,  as  soon  as 
they  learn  that  di^  themselves  and  their  ancestors  have^ 
for  several  ages,  or  from  time  immemorial,  been  sidgect  to 
such  a  form  of  government  or  such  a  fiimily ;  they  imme- 
diately acquiesce,  and  acknowledge  their  obligation  to  al- 
legiance. Were  you  to  preach,  in  most  parts  of  the  world, 
that  political  connexions  are  founded  altogether  on  volun^ 


OF  THE  ORIGINAL  ODNTRACT.  449 

tery  consent  ^or  a  mutual  promise,  the  magistrate  would' 
soon  imprison  you  as  seditious  for  loosening  the  ties  o£ 
obedience;  if  your  friends  did  not  brfore  shut  you  u|)  as 
delirious  for  advancing  such  absurdities.  It  is  strange, 
that  an  act  of  the  mind,  which  every  individual  is  supposed 
tohai^  formed,  and  after  he  came  to  the  use  of  reason  too^- 
Otberwiae  it  could  have  no  authori^;  that  this  ac(^  I  say, 
should  be  so  mudi  unknown  to  all  of  them,  that,  over  tb* 
&ce  of  the  whole  earth,  there  scarcely  remain,  any  traises^ 
or  memory  of  it. 

.  But  the  contract}  on  which  government  is  founded^  19 
said  to  be  the  original  contretct,-  and  consequently  may  be 
supposed  too  old  to  &11  under  the  knowledge  of  the  pre- 
sent goieration.  If  the  agreement,  by  which  savage  meh  i 
first  associated  and  aonjoincd  their  force,  be  here  meant,! 
this  is  acknowledged  to  be  real ;  but  being  so  ancient,  andl 
being  obliterated  by  a  thousand  changes  of  govertim^t 
and  prinoes,  it  cannot  now  be  supposed  to  retain  any  au- 
thority. If  we  would  say  any  thing*  to  the  purpose,  we 
must  assert,  that  every  particular  government,  which  is 
lawAil,  and  which  imposes  any  duty  of  allegiance  on  the 
svkjectj  was,  at  first,  founded  on  consfent  and  a  voluntary 
compact.  But  besides  that  this  supposes  the  consent  of 
the  fathers  to  bind  the  children,  even  to  the  most  remote 
geaerfitions  (which  rcpublicai)  writers  will  never  alloW,) 
besides  this,  I  say,  it  is  not  justified  by  history  or  expet 
rience  in  any  age  or  country  of  the  )vorld. 

Almost  all  the  governments  which  exist  at  present,  01* 
of  which  there  remains  any  record  in  history,  have  been 
founded  origmaUy,  either  on  usurpation  01*  conquest,  ote 
both,  without  any  pretence  of  a  fair  consent  or  voltmtarjr 
subjection  of  the  people.  When  an  artful  and  bold  man  is 
placed  at  the  head  of  an  army  or  faction,  it  is  oflen  easy 

VOL.  I.  2  G 


46Q  i^a^xxii^ 

for  hkfit  by  exttifhf'mg,  nowciiiWft  viokAoiy  i 

pcet^io^  W  ealahlifh  his  dowMbiaa  •¥»«  a  ptopk  a  1mm»» 

died  ti|in<»  iB^re  nuBMroiM  tfaaa  hb  partiia»8>    HeaUoirv 

i^  fttdl  opw  comaMUfittkNE^  tkat  kb 

irithocvttio^)^  their  niimbaroifiNroe.    Ha  gheft  lb«D  no 

]^Wf  to  atienbk  tigethtr  'm  a  bod^  to  ^ppoae  hm. 

Hiijr  wUi  hk  fi|U ;  but  d^b  igMOBUioe  of  each^  othet^v  in- 
iNUJm  keeps  tlMm  m  awt^  aad  B  the  iokfr  cavM  €f  hbM^ 
cori^.  By  sadi  arts  as  these  many  goTemi^snts  have 
beeaeetablished;  aad  tfab  b  aU  the^r^^mf  «M«raHC  ii4^ 
they  have  to  boaat  oC 

The  face  of  tke  earth  b  contiDaally  chaogiag,  by  ^ 
uicrease  of  saudlkiagdfims  into  great  einpbes,  by  Aedis- 
sohrtioii  of  giea^  empires  into  amaUer  kiagdona,  by  ik» 
ideating  of  eoh)iiiei^  by  tfa^migratbikoC  tribes.  It  there 
my  thiag  diaooveraUe  in  aU  these  events  but  fevceand 
vkdence?  Whete  b  the  aiaiual  agraanent  or  vofamtai*f 
assooiatmi  ao  moA  iplkod  of? 

Eyw  the  siMOlhest  way  by  which  a  natbn  may  veeewre 
a  fomgn  meater^  by  aiarriaga  or  a  wiU»  b  not  eztcemi^ 
hiWMivaUe  for  the  people;  bufe  aapposea  dienLto  be  jfe« 
poa^  of  lik^  9  dowry  or  a  lega^  aooording  to  the  piea» 
sure  or  interest  oCthw  rubra. 

Bnt  where  no  force  bterpoaesr  and  election  takes  pbce; 
whut  b  thbelePtioQ  so  highfy.  vaunted?  It  b  etthei?  Ae 
combination  of  a  iew  great  asen^  who  decide  for  the  irtole^ 
a^d  wi}li4)owof»oop|)mitiM;  oritbthefasyofamul- 
titn4e»  thut  roUow  a  sedi^usjdiq^bader)  whobaot  known^ 
p^r^pi^  to  a  iomask  amoAgtbeni)  and  wdio  oweahb  ad* 
vancemcmt  merely  to  hb  own  impudence,  or  to  the  mo* 
m^tisry  caprioe  of  hb  fellows. 

Ar^  th^se  disorderly  election^  which  are  rare  too,  of 


OF  THE  OmUmVAZ  0ONTRACT.  4tl 

of  >ll  gmmmfaeat  imdl  alhgiMitf  n  ? 

b  reali^  dKre  is  nok  a  mora  MrUe  tfent  dum  a  tdid 
iKaniatbn  (^(pvanuneDt^  wUdiFgiTeB  iberty  to  iite  nml^ 
titiidB^  Mmi  BMikea  th^  dettrmiiuitbB  or  ehoieei  ol  a  new 
oftablialiaiiflnt  depend  upon  a  vmBher^  wkkk  neariy  afM 
proacheatalfaatoftibebodf  df  dve  peopfe:  Fork] 
comes  antirtty  to  Ae  whole^  bcH^  of  Aam*  Everf ' 
naii»  dia%  wish^a  to^  ste^  et  tlia  h%ad  of  a  powisrlbl  and 
afcodieM  aii^y^  a  genend  ivha  nmy  spaedUy  sdaa  Use  p^ 
and  give  to  the  people  a  maatcai^whiGh  lbe«^  ave  so-nnfittn 
ekooaa  fixr  tkemseUw.  So*  little  oorregpondgnt  m  fact  ahd 
reality  to  those  phifeaophu^  notiops^ 

I^  not  tivs  estaUi^Monni  at  die  Revolutien  decern 
or  make  us  so  much  in  love  with  a  philosc^hical  origin  to 
gcnrennuentv  as>  to  imagiiie  all  others  monstroai  and  iire* 
goUnr.  Efmi  tiMt  event  neir  far  from  corvespekidiiig  to 
liMMarefibed'ftlea&'  Ifcitasoi^tHersuooession^andtliat 
only  itt  dM  rtgii  part  of  the  gkiVemmenf^  wUdr  was  ihm 
changed :  And  itwas  only^thnnMiorilj  of  seven  huhdnrf^ 
who detorndnedtluitdiani^ felt neaor ten milliDns*  Idodbt 
not,  indeed^i  Imt  the;  bttUs  of  tboae>tcv  millions  acqitieseed 
wStail^ 01  dw determination:  But  was  the  niatter  leA^ 
in  die  leasts  to  dinar  cholee?  War  it;  net  jnsdy  sqipoaid 
to  be,  front  tkatnfcanent,  deeidbd^  aAdeiPei^ntalpittia4» 
ed^  ^priMvfefiised  tp^  subnet  w  die  new  sofreragnr?  Hotr 
odii^wise  oonid  th»mnttm  hm^  emniMNmbreught  to  anr^ 
Isstie  or  oonelaston  ? 

The  repnblio  of  Adiem  was,  Ibelieiae^  dioi]tfo5teitte» 
sivedtmocneytlMtwenndof  inhi8tov7«  YetrilwemalBe 
the  requisite  allowances  for  the  women,  the  slaves,  and 
the  strangers,  we  shaU-  fiadf  that  that  establishment  was 
not  at  first  made,  nor  any  law  ever  voted,  by  a  tenth  part 
2o2 


459  X88AY  XII. 

of  tboie  who  were  bound  to  payobedtence  to  it;  not  ta 
mention  the  blands  and  ibreign  dominions,  whk:h  .the 
Athenians  daimed  as  dieirs  by  right  of  conquest.  And  as 
it  is  wen  known  that  popular  assemblies  in  that  city  were 
alwmys  fiiU  of  licence  and  ilisorder,  notwithstanding  the 
institutions  and  laws  by  which  diey  were  checked;  how 
modi  more  disorderly  murt  they  prore,  idiere  they  £>rm 
not  the  established  constitution,  but  meet  tumultuously  oa 
the  dissolution  of  the  ancient  government,  in  order  to  gvve 
rise  to  a  new  one  ?  How  chimerical  must  it  be  to  talk  ot 
a  thciee  in  such  circumstances  ? 

.  The  Achaeans  enjoyed  the  freest  and  most  perfect  de^ 
mocracy  of  all  antiquiQr ;  yet  they  employed  force  to  oblige 
some  dties  to  enter  into  their  league^  as  we  learn  from  Fo- 
lybius  *• 

Harry  IV.  and  Harry  VII.  of  England  had  really  no 
title  to  the  throne  but  a  parliamentary  dection ;  yet  they 
never  would  acknowledge  it,  lest  th^  should  thereby 
weaken  their  authority.  Strange^  if  the  only  jreal  /bundiw 
tion  of  all  authoriQr  be  consent  and  promise  ? 

It  is  vain  to  say,  that  all  governments  are  or  should  be 
at  first  fijonded  on  popular  consent^  as  mudi  as  the  ne- 
cessi^  of  human  affiurs  will  admit  This  favours  entirdy 
my  pretension.  I  maintahi,  that  human  afiairs  will  nev^r 
admit  of  this  consent,  seldom  of  the  iqipearance  of  it ;  but 
that  conquest  or  usurpation,  that  is,  in  plain  terms,  forces 
by  dissolving  tlie  ancient  g9vemments,  is  the  or^nof  al^ 
most  all  the  new  ones  which  were  ever  estaWshed  in  the 
world.  And  that  in  die  few  cases  where  consent  may 
iseem  to  have  taken  place,  it  was  commonly  so  irregular, 

•  Xik.  ii  eap,  3S, 


OF  THE  OBiaiNilX.  CONTRACT.  458 

90  (kmfme^  or  so  much  intemixed  either  with  fraud  or 
viideiice,  that  it  cannot  have  any  great  authorify* 
'.    ]^y  intention  here  is  not  to  exclude  the  conseat  of  the  ' 
people  irom  beingone  just  £bundati<m  of  gev«mnie|it  where 
ithaspliice.    It  is  surely  the  best  and  most  sacved  of  ai^. 
i  only  contend^  that  it  has  Tery  sdd(»n  had  place  in  any 
degree,  and  never  almost  in  its  full  extent;  andthatther&« 
forq  some  other  foundation  of  government,  must  also  ba  . 
admitted^  ^ 

Were  all  men  possessed  of  so  inflexible  a  regard  tojns^^ 
tice,  that  of  themselves  they  would  totaUy  abstain  firom 
the  properties  of  others ;  they  had  for  ever  remained  in  a 
itatQ  <^  absolute  liberty,  widiout  subjection  to  any  mi^^tsi^ 
trate  or  political  society :  But  this  is  a  state  jof  per&ctioD  ^ 
•fwhich  hmnan  nature  is  justly  deemed  incapable^  Agaii^ 
were  all  men  possessed  ci  so  perfect  an  understanding  aa 
always  to  know  their  own  interests,  no  form  of  government 
had  ever  been  submitted  to-  but  what  was  established  on 
consent,  and  was  fully  canvassed  by  every  member  of  the 
society :  But  this  state  of  perfection  is  likewise  much  supe- 
rior to  human  nature.  Reason,  history,  and  experience 
shew  us^  that  all  political  societies  have  had  an  origin  much 
less  accurate  and  tiegularg  and  were  one  to  choose  a  pe-* 
tiod  of  time  when  the  people's  consent  was  the  least  rer 
garded  in  public  transactions,  it  would  be  precisely  4Hi  the 
«ist9blishment  of  a  new  government.  In  a  settled  consti^ 
tution  their  inclinations  are  often  consulted;  but  during 
the  fury  of  revolutions,  conquests,  and  public  convulsions^ 
military  force  or  political  craft  iisually  decides  the  ccmtro- 
y^rsy.  .     . 

,  When  a  new  gov^mmettt  is  established,  by  whatever 
neanst  the  people  are  commonly  dissatisfied  with  it,  and 
pay  obedience  more  from  fear  and  necessity,  thM  froin 


4M  KBUkirut. 

aoyuimaf aMegiatuieor €f mcM«loUigataoQ.  Thfltptinoe 
iswatchAdnijcdoOy  «dl  amit  atre&dUjr  giard  agaiMt 
fiiry  bugBMMigiir  wiff/mnmu 9£ msmreciiaiiL  TIsM^by 
chgrra^  nmo^C9  aU  then  dMirtthjea,  wsd  aeonstomt  lim 
iiBtblitongtnl^aiidMifimMoriialm  Cjuit&l<^ 

sdljrirliicli  fit  fiiist  lii^coiifidcnd  as  wnipeni  or  fivi^gm 
wnqiMron.  In  miat  io  f (Mmd  tibis  epinkm^  they  butit 
to»  xaeotne  U  any  ootifan  of  vdhmtary  cooieni  or  pio* 
mbe,  which,  they  know,  never  was,  in  this  case,  ehbtre9D» 
peded  or  dBiaaihJ.  Tke  original  cgliiHiflhmcnt  was 
fixined  by  Tialenoe^  aid  sidimiMed  to  froflEi  necessity.  Tlia 
mbsacpantadminislratien  is  also  sBf^iorted  by  powmv  and 
aoqvicaccdiabytfaepospli^&otasamattefofdiolte^  but 
of  Gft>ligatiott,  TThcy  imagine  aot  that  th^  consent  {^^Toe 
their  prinoe  a  titk :  Bat  tiiey  wSlingly  oomteat,  becansa 
IImj  think,  that,  from  kng  possessioB,  he  has  acqtnred  a 
title  independent  of  their  dioioe  cr  indiaation. 

■Should  it  be  said,  that,  by  living  under  the  damiman  of 
a  prfaca  ifhkik  me  nij^t  leavoi  every  individnal  has  gi-' 
veq  a  tacit  consent  to  his  aathority,  and  promised  himobe* 
dience;  it  may  be  answered,  that  such  an  implied  consent 
ean  oiJy  have  place  where  a  man  imagines  that  the  mat* 
ter  depend  on  bis  choice^  But  where  he  thinks  (as  all 
mmkind  do  who  are  bom  under  establidied  governments) 
that  by  his  birth  he  owes  allegiance  to  a  certidn  prince  or 
certain  fenn  of  government^  it  would  be  absurd  to  infera 
consent  or  dioioe,  which  he  expressly,  in  this  oasc^  r^ 
nooMes  and  disclaims* 

Can  we  seriously  say,  that  a  poor  peasant  or  artisan  has 
a  free  choice  to  leave  his  country,  when  he  knows  no  fo* 
reign  language  or  manners,  and  lives,  from  day  to  dayv 
bv  the  small  wages  which  he  acquires  ?  We  may  as  weU 
isssert  that  a  man,  by  remaiaJng  ina  vessel  freely  coasenla 


OF  THE  OEfGINAL  CONTRACT.  455 

blhe^dlDttiiUmordieimfller;  though  he  wiit  duiied  bn 
bOM^  While  t^kfe^f  tM  Mittsi  Iea]p  infto  the  oc^an,  andpfe- 
tlA,  ih^  DKMent  he  letvek  hfen 

"Wlltt  if  the  prince  fitf bid  hiis  mlijects  toi^iitt  his  do- 
«llDiiM>,  AsiilTHkriti^iaBetHWasiTegariedi&^ltcrime 
Hn  ^  botiuA  kn^t  that  he  hM  attempted  tb  %  to  Ae 
^M^thiaafi^  fii  <(^er  to  escape  the  tyrmAy  of  that  etnpe- 
fW^  ?  O  as  di^  anSetit  Mitsoovftes  prohibited  all  travel- 
th%  Mdl^r  pamof  defeitfi?  And  did  a  prince  observe,  that 
ttitiy^  ^  hia  sdbjeets  irt^e  iieb^  wiOi  the  ft^^ 
tfaig  te  foirdgn  cMntries,  he  woutd,  doubUesis^  wi^  greiit 
reaaoo  atid  j«ntfd^  Restrain  them,  in  order  to  present  the 
dtpopn^enofhiaownkkigdom*  Would  he  forfeit  the 
attegiatiee  of  all  his  MiEgects  by  so  wise  and  reteondble  a 
law:  Yet  die  freedom  oflheirchirfce  is  snfeljr,  in  that  case^ 
•jratished  Srim  them. 

Acompanyirf'tteii^  whoshouldleave  their  natiye  country, 
•m  order  to  people  some  miinhi^ited  region,  might  dream 
of  recovering  their  native  freedom,  but  they  would  soon 
ind,  that  their  prince  still  laid  claim  to  Aein,  and  called 
them  his  stibjeels^  even  in  their  hew  settlement.  And  in 
this  IM  would  bat  aet  conformably  to  the  common  ideas  of 
manktndi 

The  truest  UieU  consent  of  dus  kind  that  is  ever  obser- 
ved, is  when  a  foreigher  settles  in  any  countrjr,  and  is  be^ 
forebMd  acquainted  with  the  prince,  and  govemment, 
and  laws  to  which  he  must  submit:  Yet  b  his  allegiance, 
though  more  voluutaiyj  much  less  expected  or  depended 
on,  than  that  of  a  natural  bom  subject  On  the  contrary, 
Ms  native  prince  s^  assorts  a  clabn  to  him.  And  if  h^ 
pm^sh  not  the  renegade^  when  he  seises  him  in  war  With 

^  TuH,  Ann.  lib;  ti.  cup.  Mi 


4M  E8SAY  XII. 

his  new  prince's  cpmmissioD;  this  demeiicy  is  ootibniui- 
ed  on  the  municipal  law,  which  in  all  countries  condeauia 
the  prisoner;  but  on  the  consent  of  princes,  who  have 
agreed  to  this  indulg^cey  jn  ord^r  to  prevent  reprisals. 

Did  one  generation  <^  men  go  off  th9  stage  at  ooce^  and 
pother  sucoeedi  as  is  the  cas^  with  siljk  wouqs  and|>^^ta^ 
flie%  the  new  race,  if  thej  had  sense  enoog^  ^1  chiKM -their 
government,  which  surdy  is  never  the  case  with  menvmi^t 
voluntarily,  and  by  .general  consent,  establish  their  own 
ibrm  of  civil  polity^  wi^ontany  regard  to  the  laws  or  pre- 
cedents which  prevfuled  among  their  ancestors.  But  itt 
human  socifsty  is  in  perpetual  flnz,  one  man  every  hour 
.going  out  of  the  world,  another  comii^  into  it^  it  Is  neeea- 
.sarjf^  in  order  to  preserve  stability  in  government,  thai  the 
new  brood  should  conform  themselves  to  the  established 
constitution,  and  nearly  follow  the  path  which  their  fathers, 
treading  in  the  footsteps  of  theirs,  had  marked  out  to  tb^m. 
jSome  innovations  must  necessarily  have  place  in  every  ha- 
.man  institution ;  and  it  is  hi;>py  where  the  enlightened 
jgenius  of  the  age  give  these  a  Erection  to  the  side  of  rea- 
son, liberty,  and  justice ;  3ut  violent  innovations  no  indir 
vidufli  is  entitled  to  make :  They  are  even  dangerous  to  be 
attempted  by  the  legislature :  More  ill  than  good  is  ever 
.to  be  expected  from  them :  And  if  history  affords  exam- 
ples to  the  contrary,  they  are  not  to  be  drawn  intoprece- 
dent,  and  are  only  to  be  regarded  as  proofs,  that  the  science 
of  politics  affords  few  rule^  which  wiU  not  admit  of  some 
(exception,  and  which  may  not  sometimes  be  controlled  by 
fortune  and  accident.  The  violent  innovations  in  the  reign 
oF  Henry  VIII.  proceeded  from  an  imperious  monarch, 
seconded  by  the  appearance  of  legislative  authority :  Those 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  were  derived  from  faction  and 
fanaticism ;  and  both  of  them  have  proved  happy  in  the 


OF  THE  OSiaiNAL  CONTRACT.  457 

mti^    But  jeveki  the  former  were  long  die  source  of  many 

.  difforders,  tod  stiU  more  dangers;  and  if  the  measures  of 

.aUegiciuoe  were  to  be  taken  firom  the  latter,  a  total  anarchy 

oatUst'lMiTe  place  in  haman  society,  and  a  final  period  at 

.  once  be  put  to  every  government. 

SupfoiOf  tfifiAaa  usurper,  after  having  banished  his  law- 
fid  prince  and  royal  -fiimily,  should  establish  his  dominion 
for  ten  or  a  dozen  years  in  any  comitry,  and  should  pre- 
aewe'.so  exact  a  ^o^ilme  in  his  troops,  and  so  regular  a 
dispdshfam  in  his  gavrifom^  that  no  insurrectiofi  had  ever 
been  raised,  or  even  murmur  heard  against  his  administrft- 
tation :  Can  it  be  asserted,  that  the  people^  who  in  their 
hearts  abhor  his  treason,  have  tacitly  consented  to  his  au^ 
thority,  and  promised  him  allegianoe,  merely  because,  from 
.neces»^,  they  live  imder  his  dominion  ?  Snppo^  agmn 
their  native  prince  restored,  by  means  of  an  army,  which 
he  levies  in  foragn  countries :  They  receive  him  with  joy 
and  exultation,  and  show  plainly  with  what  reluctance  thej 
had  submitted  to  any  other  yoke.  I  may  now  ask,  upon 
what  feundadcm  the  prince's  title  stands  ?  Not  on  popular 
consent  surely :  For  though  the  people  willingly  acquiesce 
in  his  authori^,  they  never  imagine  thatthetr  consent  made 
him  sovereign.  They  consent^  because  they  apprehend 
him  to  be  fdready,  by  birth,  their  lawful  sovereign.  And 
ias  to  that  tacit  ccmsent.  Which  may  now  be  inferred  from 
their  Kving  under  his  dominion,  this  is  no  more  than  what 
■they  formerly  gave  to  the  Qrrant  and  usurper. 

When  we  assert,  that  all  lawful  government  arises  from 
the  consent  of  ike  people,  we.  certainly  do  them  a  great 
deal  more  honour  than  tfey  deserve,  or  even  expect  and 
desire  from  us.  After  the  Roman  dominions  became  too 
ufiwieldy  for  the  republic  to  govern  them,  the  pec^le  over 
the  whole  known  world  were  extremely  grateful  to  Augus- 


iM  ESSAY  Ktl* 

Uis  for  tbstatttliority  wUdi  by  tioleiioe  fat  hid^stiMMi. 
«d  over  tteni ;  and  tbejr  sbrred  an  «i|tel  dbpMhkMi  to 
sibnk  totiie  siMbBKor  iflmiitekftdMtt  bylwlM 
and  liiteiiMML  it  w|»  aAmmeds  tbik  arisftMae^  Itat 
there  nerer  was,  in  ooe  fiuBilf^  aaylaag  ]!«(|[d^ 
ImiI  th*t  dibir  Ike  of  princes  was  coadnyalljr  kffoiH%  ^^ 
by  privUte  affsasiinatinhi  or  paUia  ndMymte..  IWjifMti- 
.naa  bandar  Mt  :tbe  fidnce  of  eveiy  familT^  ^ 
,pet<Mri  ibaltc^miatatiieBMtasaaoidlrthQaamiHnMi- 
Bjt  pnhwfBy  a  Ihiffds  And  the  rarad  rioM  cmU  dstiic 
the  ^^OpttovMBji.  Th^  coHditkni  of  the  pac^  m^  that 
mgh^  mtMiarcl^4  was  to  be  haneated^  not  betaaae  the 
jdioied  of  the  easfieror  was  nerer  left  to  tbeao,  fiir  that  was 
impractieaUe;  but  because  they  aetcr  idl  under  any  suo- 
cesskm  of  Masters  who  might  regularly  follow  eadiodnr,* 
Aa  to  the  Tioleiusa,  and  wars,  and  bloodshed,  oCcassMMd 
by  crrery  new  settlement;  these  were  aoi  blnwcablei  bo- 
cajsse  they  were  iaevitabie* 

The  house  of  Lancaster  nded  m  this  islaiid  about  matiky 
•years;  yet  the  partisans  of  the  white  roaeseMteddaUy  to 
multiply  im  E^tg^bttML  The  ftfeswat  estsblishmcBt  has  t»- 
ken  place dariig  a  atiU  loBger  period*  Have  all  viewsof 
lri|^  in  another  fmily  been  utterly  exfinguisbed^  ev« 
though  scarce  any  man  now  alive  had  arrived  at  the  yiers  of 
discr#tiou  when  it  was  eaq)elfed»  or  could  ha^  Isoosedlted 
to  its  dominion,  or  hens  promised  it  aU^iance?  A  sofr- 
cient  indication,  surely,  of  the  general  sentiment  of  maa^ 
kind  on  this  head.  ForweblaaseBetlltepaitisaaBof  the 
abdicated  fiuuily,  aurely  en  account  of  the  k>^  thne  dn- 
rin^  which  they  have  preaerred  their  BM^inaiy  loyi^. 
We  blame  them  for  adhering  to  a  family,  wbidi  we  affirm 
has  been  jnstly  expelled,  and  which,  from  the  moment  dife 


1  .J 


OF  TU£  ORfOIHAL  CONTRACT.  459 

h&w  MtflenMit  took  places  kad  forfeited  all  titkto  aatho- 

'  BqC  vvolikl  we  have  atfiofe  regular,  at  leort  a  more  phi* 
loMpliical  nAtatiop  of  tbk  principle  of  an  original  con« 
trais^  o^yepnlar  cooNVt^  perfaape  the  fcUowing  obserra* 

All  ladraTdatias  nay  be  divided  flito  two  kinds.  Tli^ 
JIni  are  those  to  %^di  men  are  impelled  by  a  nateral  in* 
ftinct  or  Imaediate  prepeneity^  whidi  opemtes  on  then^ 
ifldependent  of  idl  ideat  of  obUgation,  and  of  all  views  m^ 
Aier  to  pttblit  or  private  utility*  Of  this  natone  are  bve 
of  iMdren,  gratitiide  to  benefactors,  pt^  to  the  onfort^- 
nate.  Wh^a  we  reflect  <m  die  advantage  which  results  to 
society  from  such  humane  insthicts,  we  pay  them  the  just 
tribute  of  moral  approbation  and  esteem :  But  the  person 
actuated  by  them  feds  their  power  and  influence  antece- 
dent to  any  such  reflection. 

Hie  seocmd  kind  of  moral  duties  are  sticfa  as  arenotsup* 
ported  by  any  original  instinct  of  nature,  but  are  perform- 
ed  entirely  from  a  sense  of  obligation,  when  we  consider 
die  necessities  of  human  society,  and  the  mipossibillty  cf 
supporting  it,  if  these  duties  were  neglected.  It  is  thus 
juOice^  or  a  regard  to  the  properQr  of  others,  JfdeUi^^  or 
the  observance  of  promises,  become  obligatoiy,  andacquhre 
an  authority  over  mankind.  For  as  it  is  evident  that  every 
man  loves  himself  better  than  any  other  person,  he  is  na- 
turally impelled  to  extend  his  acquisitions  as  much  as  pos^ 
sible ;  and  nothing  can  restrain  him  in  this  propensity  but 
reflection  and  experience,  by  whi<A  he  lemrns  the  pemi- 
cions  eflects  of  diet  licence,  and  the  total  dissolution  of  so* 
ciety  which  must  ensue  from  it.  His  original  inclmation^ 
therefore,  or  instinct,  is  here  checked  and  restrained  by  a 
subsequent  judgment  or  observation. 


460  SS8AY  xn«  ' 

TIm  case  is  precisely  the  same  widi  tbe  political  or  oivft 
duty  of  (iUegiance,  as  with  the  natural  duties  of  justicejuul 
fiddiQr.     Oar  primary  instincts  kad  us,  eidite  to  indulge 
onrselves  ia  unlimited  fireedom^  or  to.  seek  dom^uoa  OY&t 
others;  and  it  b  reflection  only  which  engages  us  to  saori-' 
fice  such  strong  passions  to  the  interests  of  peace  and  pubr 
lie  order*    A  small  degree  of  esqperience'ani  observafion 
saffices  to  teach  us,  that  sodety  canaoi  possibly  be  maiii* 
tained  without  Ae  authority  of  magistnMtJeSy  and  tliat  Ibis 
authori^  must  soon  fall  into  GdRtempt»  wJWre  exact  ob^ 
dtence  is  not  paid  to  it*    The  obserratioiv^  these  general 
and  obiiouB  interests  is  the  sotirce  of  aU  aUc^ancci  and  OC 
that  moral  obligation  which  we  attribute  ta  i^ 
.   What  necessity,  therefore,  is  there  to  ibund  th^  duty  of 
^UeffioBee,  or  obedience  to  magistrates,  on  that  offideStf, 
or  a  regard  to  promises,  and  to  suppose  that  it  is  the  con- 
sent of  each  individual  which  subjects  him  to  government^ 
when  it  iqipears  that  both  all^ianee  ilnd  SdeUty  stand 
precisely  on  tlie  same  foandation^  and  are  both  submitted 
to  by  mankind,  on  account  of  the  apparent  interest  and 
tiecessides  of  human  society?  We  are  bound  to  obey  our 
sovereign,  it  is  said,  because  we  have  given  atadt  promise 
ta  that,  purpose*    But  why  are  we  bound  to  observe  our 
promise  ?  It  mutft  here  be  asserted,  that  the  commerce  and 
intercourse  of  mankind,  which  are  of  such  mighty  advan-^ 
tagie,  can  have  no  security  where  niei|i  pay  no  regard  to- 
their  engagements.     In  like  manner,  may  it  be  said,  that 
men  could  not  live  at  all  in  society,  at  leaat  in  a  civilized 
society,  without  laws,  and  magistrates  and  judges^  to  pre- 
vent the  encroachments  of  the  strong  upon  the  weak,  of 
the  violent  upon  the  jast  and  equitable.     The  ol^igation 
to  allegiance  being  of  like  force  and  authority  with  tbe 
obligation  to  fidelity,  wc  gain  nothing  by  resolving  the. 


OF  THE  ORtl;iKAL  CONTRACT.  461 

oi>e  into  the  other.     The  general  mterests  or  necessities 
of  society  are  sufficient  to  establbh  both. 

If  th^  reiisoQ  be  ask^  of  that  obedience  which  we  are 
bonnd  to  pay  to  goremment^  I  readily  answer,  because  90* 
day  coidd  noi  oiherwi$e  mAmsi  >  and  this  answer  is  clear 
and  intelMgible.  to  all  mankind.  Your  answer  is,  because, 
we  should  hetp  our  word  But  besides  that  nobody,  till 
trained  in  a  philosophical  system,  can  either  comprehend 
or  relish  this  answer,  besides  this,  I  say,  you  find  your* 
self  ^embarrassed,  when  it  is  asked,  why  we  are  bound,  to 
keep  our  word?  Nor  can  you  gwe  any  answer,  but  what 
would  immediately,  without  any  circuit,  have  accounted 
for  our  obligation  to  allegiance. 

Bat  iO'Wkam  is  n^B^cnice  due^  and  who  is  our  lawfkl  so^ 
vereigmf  This  question  is  often  the  most  difficult  of  any, 
and  liable  to  infinite  discussions.  When  people  are  so 
happy  that  ^y  can  answer.  Our  present  sovereign^  who 
Merits,  in  a  dired  Ime,  from  a^westors  that  have  governed 
MS  fir  many  ages :  This  answer  admits  of  no  reply,  even 
thou^  historians,  in  tracing  up  to  the  remotest  antiquity, 
the  origin  of  that  royal  family,  may  find^  as  commonly 
happens,  that  its  first  authority  was  derived  frxnn  usurpa- 
tion and  violence.  It  is.  confessed,  that  private  justice,  or 
Ibe  abstinence  from  the  properties  of  others,  is  a  most  oar^ 
dinal  virtue. .  Yet  reason  tdls  us,  that  there  is  no  pro« 
perly  in  durable  ol]9ects,  such  as  land  or  houses,  wfaea 
e«refully  examined  m  passing  from  hand  to  hand,  but 
must)  in  some  period,  have  been  founded  on  fraud  and 
hqustice.  The  iiece»»ties  of  human  society,  neither  lia 
private  nor  public  life,  will  sX\ow  oi  such  an  accurate  in- 
quiry ;  and  there  is  no  virtue  or  oipral  duty,  but  what 
may,  with  &cility,  be  refined  away,  if  we  indulge  a  false 
philospptiy.in  sifting  and  scrutinizing  it,  by  every  captious 


46S  XS&AXUI. 

n^of  b^  in^vtryfiglil  or  pofltioii  in  whkk  itwm^ 
be  placed* 

Thtt  qaMrintta  "rilikk  ifgwil  to  priwl^  F^^P^^  lM«re 
fiUtd  infinite  wtam  of  Inv  and  ttukmaphj^  if  in  bidi 
¥it  add  the  commentator  t^lha owgiaiii  %sA^  tmd'miim 
eadf  im  bm^  aafriyr  prononooe^  that  manjr  of  (ke  rulea 
there;  eatahlithftd  areoaoartain^  aiabig»oiM»  aad  ariatearyu 
The  Uke  opinbiimagF  be  formed  vilhiegaird  to  ti^ 
ocMJon  and  lif^ts  of  prinoaa^  and  fooM  of  govenunaiil. 
Several  caaeB  no  doabi  ocour^  etpeoaUy  in  tke  iafiiMy  o( 
way  eonatitiitioB,  whidt  admk  ef  no  determmalbn'  6mm 
the  lawa  of  jastice  and  eqakj;  and  onr  Urtoriani  Rapiiir 
pretends,  that  the  c<HitroTeEay  between  Edvard  the  Thifcfi 
and  niil%>  De  Valoia  waa  ef  diis  natere^  and  caold  be 
deddad  only  by  m  appeal  to  hesvent  tiiafc  isi  l^  war  aadr 
violence* 

Who  ahall  teU  me^  whether  GenDntcM  «r  Draaaa 
ought  to  hare  ancceadedta  Tibecki^  had  ha  «Bedw<hiiar 
thej  wwe  both  almi  withoot  namiiig  anyof  theaa  Ac  hia^ 
sncoeaaor?  Ought  the.  light  of  adoption  to  he  leeeited  an 
equivalent  to  that  of  l^xid,  in  a  nation  where  it  had  the 
same  effect  in  private  familim,  and  had  already  in  tnro  in^ 
stancet,  taken  jriace  in  the  pnUae?  CNigU  Gemmnona  to 
be  eateemod  the  elder  son,  becaaaa  he  was  bom  brfofo 
X>nuut;  or  die  yonngei^  because  he  wB*ad<^iftad  after  the 
birth  of  hia  brother?  Ought  the.  Of^  of  the  eldeir  to  be 
legarded  in  a  nation^  where  he  had  no  advantsgp  in  tha^ 
soccessim  of  private  fiunilies  ?  Ought  die  Bobmu  empira 
at  that  time  to  be  deemed  heceditary,  becanae  of  two  «i?* 
amplea;  or  ought  it,  even  so  early,  to  be  regarded  as  be^ 
longing  to  the  stronger,  or  to.  the  present  possassor^  aa 
being  founded  on  so  recent  an  usurpatioii  ? 

Commodus  mounted  the  throne  after  a  pretty  Umg  i 


OF  THE  OBIOmil.  CONTRACT.  463 

oesfkin  af  exoclfent  enperars^  ivha  had  ac<pHred  tkelr> 
tide^  nor  bjr  birtb^  M  public  ele6tio%  Inrt  by  the  flditioos 
rke  of  adoption.  That  Uood^  debnchee  being  murder- 
ad  bjr  a  coDBpiraoy)  saddndj  fonned  batweaa  kU  wanck 
and  ker  gallant^  who  happened  at  that  tkiie  to^ba^  A«ft^- 
rkm  Pr€B/€ctf  tkaie  iiamedkiliely  ddibaratad  iboiil  eboa- 
$aigaa|asliertohumafn  l(iad>  tospeak  m  Ike vtytaof  those 
ages  9  and  they  oast  their  ^ee  on  Pertiaax.  Before  the* 
lyraafs  death  was  known,  the  Frmfbtt  went  secretly  to 
that  senator,  wko,  at  the  appearance  ef  the  seldiei^  kna« 
ffoed  that  his  executkm  had  been  ordered  by  Conipoclus. 
Ha  was  iBMnediately  saluted  en^ror  by  the  officer  and 
ki^  attandsntB,  cbeerfliHy  proclaimed  by  the  populace  un- 
wiliiiigly  sabnitled  to  by  the  guards^  (brmatty  recognised! 
ky  tka  senate^  and  paasvvely  received  by  the  prorinces  and 
araiies  of  tke  empire. 

The  discontent  of  tke  Praidrian  bands  broke  out  ki  a 
sudden  sedllion,  which  occasioned  tke  murder  of  Aat  ex*-^ 
aeHent  pikiee;  and  die  woiW  beiiig  now  without  a  maen 
Uff9  mni  mtkool  govemment,  the  guards  thought  proper 
to  set  the  empire  ibnnalty  to  sale*  Julian,  the  puvcheser, 
was  proclaimed  by  the  soldiers,  recognised  by  tke  senate^ 
and  submitted  to  by  the  people ;  and  must  also  have  been 
submitted  to  by- the  provinces,  had  not  the  ^wy  of  thele* 
gions  begotten  opposition  and  resistance.  Pescennius 
Niger  ii)  %ri|i  elected  himself  emperois  gained  the  l»4 
multuary  oenseat  ef  his  army,  and  was  attended  wi«b  the 
seoMt  good  will  of  tke.  senate  and  people  of  Rome.  At* 
binus  in  Brkahi  found  an  equal  right  to^  set  np  his  claim ; 
but  S^vetuB,  whp  go^med  Pftnnonia,  prevailed  in  the 
and  above  both  of  them.  That  able  politician  and  war- 
rior, finding  his  own  birth  and  dignity  too  much  inferior 
to  the  imperial  crown,  professed,  at  first,  an  intention  only 


464  EMAY  XII* 

of  revenging  the  death  of  P^rtiiiBX.  He  inarched  as  ge-« 
neral  into  Italy,  defeated  Juliaii»  and  without  being  able 
to  fix  anj  preciae  commencement  even  of  the  soldio^' 
consent,  he  was  from  necessity  adaiowledged  enqieror  by 
the  smate  and  peqple,  amd  fully  estiJ^lished  in  his  violent 
authority,  by  subduing  N^jer  and  Albinus  *. 

IwHer  kcK  Gordumus  Cmmr  (says  Capitolinus,  spealdng^ 
of  another  period)  mMatu  a  miliiibus.  Imperator  es^  ig^ 
peBatuij  quia  mon  erat  oUmm  inprasetOu  It  is  to  be  re- 
marked, that  Gordian  was  a  boy  of  fourteen  years  of  age. 

Frequent  instances  of  a  like  nature  occur  in  the  history 
of  the  emperors ;  in  that  of  Alexander's  successors ;  and  of 
many  other  countries;  Nor  can  any  thing  be  more  unhap-: 
py  than  a  despotic  govermnent  <^ this  kind ;  where  the  sucr 
cession  is  disjointed  and  irregular,  and  must  be  determirr 
ned  on  every  vacancy  by  force  or  electicm.  Ia  a  free  gov 
vemment,  the  matter  is  oft^n  unavoidable,  and  is  also 
i4uch  less  dangerous*  The  interests  of  liberty  may  thero 
firequently  lead  the  people^  in  their  own  defence,  to  alles 
the  succession  of  the  crown.  And  the  coiistitaition»  bei«g 
compounded  of  parts,  may  still  maintwi  a  sufficient  at%« 
bility,  by  resting  on  the  aristocratical  or  democratical  memr 
bers,  though  the  monarchical  be  altered,  from  time  to  time^ 
in  order  to  accommodate  it  to  the  former. 

In  an  ajbsolute  government,  when  tberp  is  no  legai 
prince,  who  has  a  title  to  die  thrOne,  it  may  safely  ba  de? 
termined  to  belong  to  the  first  occupant.  Instances  of  iim 
kind  are  bqt  top  frequent,  especially  in  the  eastern  monar- 
chies. When  any  race  of  princes  e)(pires,  the  will  or  diefr> 
tination  of  the  last  sovereign  will  be  regarded  as  a  tide; 
Thus  the  edict  of  Lewis  XIV.,  who  called  the  bastard 

■  Herodian,  Ub.  ii. 

3 


OF  THE  OEIOtNAfr  CONTRACT.  46S 

priMM  to  Ibe  soccmboii  fat  diw  df  flit  &]ha»  ti  idl  .tf|i^ 
UfgitoDiitoprliioei)  wmM^mtfaA9h^mAt4^htm  9m»eBm^ 
thprUjr^    Tluibtiwwillc^eiwleitlb^iSMMod 
of  the  whole  Spanish  monarchy^!   ThftloeisigaiJofidie«iN 
ciciit  fn^etm^jftgrntlMy  Wiettjciadd  totaaaquglsi^  isfike- 
wnB{daMiMl  a  good  titkb   <Tlil^^gaKnidb^g^tklI^la^^ 
bHfd»w  to  gofcnuDoity^aitlii^  int^^ 
sotie^^  aod  flnaobUgatioii^kmfjr  adto^gu.  HedatenpuMN; 
tioD  of  kto4iBorjd«tp8ffticsahatf»rindt^orfiBtfraar^o^ 
menl^  fa  ftagmdntiy  mopo  imcgrtwin  mmi  djhklm  i  FammL 
ppiiowiatt  hit  ooiiakkndile  aatbofitpiiB  thofooafei^  afad 
graitar'thaa  iq  private  prpparty;  beeatue«lith»dfaardaii^ 
whkhi  attnul  all  royolatkp^  and  cHaagw  itf  goref  it^ « 
We  shaU  onbfobaar^  before  are  coadHcfa^  tlpatit}toiigki 
an  appeal  to  gettotal  opiaioii  may  JMtlyv  in  die  ipiaoulatiVe 
Bciencea^rfiaetapliyaiei,  natwral  pluiuaupfcyvdr  aatrenfxnyt 
be  deemed  unfair  and  inconclusive,  yet  in  all  questicms 
with  regard  to  morals^  as  well  as  crfdi^tsm,  Atei^  is  really 
no  other  standard,  by  which  any  controversy  can  ever  be 
decided.     And  nothing  is  a  clearer  proo^  that  a  theory  of 
this  kind  is  erroneous,  than  to  find,  that  it  leads  to  para- 
doxes repugnant  to  the  common  sentiments  of  mankind, 
and  to  the  practice  and  opinion  of  all  nations  and  all  ages. 
The  doctrine,  which  founds  all  lawful  government  on  an 
original  contrcuty  or  consent  of  the  people,  is  plainly  <^ 
this  kind ;  nor  has  the  most  noted  of  its  partisans,  in  pro- 
secution of  it,  scrupled  to  affirm,  Aat  akmihde  monarchy  is 
imxmsistait  wiA  cmt  sociefy,  andwcanbenojbrmqfciwl 
govemmeni  ai  oSS  md  tkai  the  supreme  power  in  a  state 
cannot  takefnm  anff  man^  by  taxes  and  imposiHonSj  any 
part  of  his  property,  wi^ont  his  own  consent  or  that  of  his 

*  Sm  Nan  [TT.]         ^  Sm  Lock*  on  Qoffmmont,  chap.  rii.  $  90. 
VOL.  I.  2  H 


4M  KstAT  xir. 

njprettntofa'gei  **  What  aadiority  any  moral 
canhaTC^  idtich  leads  intoopinioiisaowideofdiegeDerttl 
practice  of  manlrind,  in  every  place  butt  diis  stngte  ktng^ 
dom,  it  is  easy  to  determine. 

>  The  only  passage  I  meet  with  in  antiquity,  where  tfie 
obligation  of  obedi^ce  to  government  is  ascribed  to  aprb- 
nuse,  is  in  Plato's  CHto  .*  wh^re  Socrates  refbses  to  escape 
from  prison,  becaose  he  had  tacitly  jHronused  to  obey  the 
laws.  Thus  he  builds  a  Tofjf  ccmseqnenoe  of  pasnye  obe- 
dience on  a  WUff  foondation  of  the  original  ccmtraet. 

.  New  discoveries  are  not  to  be  expected  in  these  matten. 
If  scarce  any  man,  till  very  ktdy,  ever  imagined  that  go- 
venuDSttt  was  founded  cm  oonpact^  it  is  certain  that  it 
cannot,  in  general,  have  may  such  foudation. 

The  crhne  of  rebellion  among  the  andents  was  common- 
ly expressed  by  the  terms  nmn^mh  Mtm  raf.Moftrt. 

'  Locke  oa  OormmBtent,  cbap.  zi  $  MSB,  159,  i4(k 


.is    t 


ESSAY  XIII. 


OF  PASSIVE  OBBDISKCE* 


In  the  fanner  «ssay,  we  endeavoared  to  refute  the  qMcti* 
have  systems  of  politics  advanced  in  this  nation ;  as  well 
the  religious  system  of  the  one  party,  as  the  philosophical 
of  die  other.  We  come  now  to  examine  the  praetkal 
omsequenees  deduced  by  each  party,  with  vegard  to  the 
measures  of  submission  due  to  sovereigns* 

As  the  oblation  to  justice  is  foimded  entirely  on  the 
interests  of  society,  which  require  mutual  abstinence  from 
property,  in  order  to  preserve  peace  among  mankind;  it 
is  evident,  that,  when  the  execution  of  justice  would  be  at* 
tended  with  very  pernicious  consequences,  that  virtue  must 
be  suspended,  and  give  place  to  public  utiltky,  in  such  ex- 
traordinary and  such  pressing  emergdicies.  '^Qie  maxim, 
JIat  JugtiOa  et  ruai  Ocdumj  let  justice  be  performed,  though 
the  univ^nse  be  de$tiroyed,  is  a|^rently  false,  and  by  sa- 
crificing the  end  to  the  means,  shews  a  preposterous  idea 
of  the  subordination  of  duties.  What  governor  of  a  town 
makes  any  scruple  of  burning  the  suburbs,  wlien  they  fa- 
cilitate the  approaches  of  the  enemy?  Or  what  generill 
4ibttains  from  plundering  a  neutral  country,  when  the  ne- 
'  eessities  of  war,  require  it,  and  he  cannot  otherwise  subsist 
his  army?  The  case  is  the  same  with  the  duty  of  allegiance ; 
and  common  sense  teaches  us,  that,  as  government  binds 

2hS 


408  ESSAY  xid. 

us  to  obedience  only  on  account  of  its  tendency  to  publie 
utilityt  that  duty  must  always,  in  extraordinary  cases, 
when  public  ruin  would  evidently  attend  obedience,  yield 
to  the  primary  and  original  obligation.  Sabupopuli  gur 
jprema  Lex^  the  safety  of  the  pe(^»  is  the  supreme  law. 
This  maxim  is  agreeable  to  the  sentiments  of  mankind  in 
all  ages :  Nor  is  any  one,  when  he  reads  of  the  insurrec- 
tions against  Nero  or  Philip  the  Second,  so  infatuated  with 
party  systems,  as  not  t6  ^i^vlk  Success  U>  the  enterprise,  and 
praise  the  undertakers*  Even  our  high  monarchical  party, 
in  qpite  of  their  jSubKme  d»«oty»  areforc^  in  such  Gase% 
to  jtt(%e,  Mid  M^  and  ^ipra^  in  coti&rtaity  to  Ae  r«8t 
tf  mankiikL 

Resistance,  therefore,  being  admtt^ln  o^tfaorddi^ 
emeificsicies,  the  question  oeo  oily  be  among  good  lee* 
soners,  with  regard  to  the  d^pree  of  necessiOV  whkh  cao 
justify  resistance,  and  mder  it  lawftil  or  eolamcBideble. 
And  here  I  must  confess,  tbet  I  shaU  idwayd  incline  U> 
their  side,  who  draw  the  bond  of  aU^ianoe  revy  dose^aad 
consider  an  infringement  of  it  as  the  last  refiige  in  deq>e^ 
rate  cases,  when  the  puUio  b  in  thelugheat  danger  from 
Tioknce  and  tyranny.  For  besidea.lhei  iischidb  of  a  cvA 
war,  which  commonly  attonds  imurrectioii^  it  is  oertara, 
that,  where  a  disposition  to  rebelUoH  aH»c«ns  ttteng  any 
people,  it  is  one  chief  cause  of  tyranny  in  the  raLon^  and 
finrces  them  into  many  .itiolent  meastnres  Irhidi'tbey  MPer 
would  liaTe  embraced,  .had  evcaey  one  been  ittdined  to  sUb- 
missidn  and  obedisiice.  Thus  the  tpnmnriade  or  assasstna- 
tio%  approved  of  hgr  andent  mucioMly  isslead  dt  keeping 
tyrants  and  usurpers)  in  .aw«^  niade  them  ten  tfanea  nore 
fierce  and  unrelenting;  end  is  aowjusdyv  upon  that  ae- 
eooBt,  abolished  by  the  laws  oEttadens,.  and  tonmrsaliy 


OF  FA8tIT£  OBEDIENCE.  460 

txBidcflBiied  fts  A  base  and  treacbfecous  method  of  bringbg 
to  jintioe, these  disturbers  of  society. 

Besides,  we  most  consider,  that  as  obedience  is  our  duty 
m  the  common  course  of  things,  it  ou^t  diiefly  to  be  in- 
cttieate^ ;  nor  can.  any  thing  be  more  preposterous  than 
on  lUDXioas  care  and  solicitude  in  stating  all  the  cases  in 
iwhich  resistance  mi^  be«Uowed»  In  like  manner,  though 
A  philosopher  reasonably  acknowledges,  in  the  course  of 
4m  aEi^gnment,  that  the  mks  cf  justice  may  be  dispensed 
.with  ki  cases^  of  porgent  neceraity;  what  should  we  think 
of  apflcacher  or  casnist,  whoidiould  make  it  bis  chief  study 
to  find  out  such  cases,  and  enforce  them  with  all  the  ve- 
faemeiKe  of  argument  and  eloquence  ?  Would  he  not  be 
l>etter  employed  in  inculcating  the  general  doctrine,  than 
^  dismaying  the  particular  exoeptions,  which  we  are,  per- 
iiapa,  but  too  mudi  indined,  of  ouraelyes,  to  embrace  and 
to  extend  ? 

Thece  aae,  bowevei^  two  reasons,  which  may  be  pleaded 
^ki  defence  4)f  that  party  among  us,  who  bave^  with  so  much 
jihdustiy,  propagated  the  maxims  of  resistance ;  maxims 
wfaidiy  it  must  be  confessed,  are,  in  general,  so  pemicwus, 
and  ao  destructive  iof  civil  society.  The^«^  is,  that  their 
antagonists^  carrying  the  doctrine  of  obedience  to  such  an 
extravagant  heig^  as  not  only  never  to  mention  the  ex- 
ertions in  extraordinary  cases,  (which  might,  perhaps,  be 
iQxcusabb)^  but  mm  poulively  to  exclude  them;  it  became 
necesaary  to  insi^  on  these  exceptions,  and  defend  the 
xiglits  o{  injured  truth  and  liber^)  iThe  sec(mdt  and,  per- 
liaps,  better  reason,  is  fouiided  on  the  natuie  qf  the  Bri- 
tish Gonstitwdon  and  fbian  of  government. 

It  is  almost  peoidiar  to  our  cooatitutiOQ  to  establish  a 
first  magLltrafte  with,  such  high  pre-^mittence  and  dignity, 
that,  though  limited  by  the  laws,  he  is,  in  a  manner,  so 


*W  EMAY  XIII. 

far  as  regards  bis  own  person,  above  the  laws,  and  oui 
neither  be  questioned  nor  punished  for  any  mjury  or  wrong 
which  may  be  committed  by  him.  His  ministers  alone, 
or  those  who  act  by  his  commission,  are  obnoxious  to  jus- 
tice ;  and  while  the  prince  is  thus  aUnred,  by  the  pn»pect 
of  personal  safety,  to  give  the  laws  their  free  courses^  an 
equal  security  is,  in  ^ect^  obtained  by  the  punidmient  of 
lesser  offenders,  and  at  the  same  time  a  civil  war  is  avdd- 
ed,  which  would  be  the  infallible  consequence,  were  an 
attack,  at  every  turn,  made  direcdy  i^khi  the  sovereign. 
But  though  the  constitution  pays  this  salutary  oompliaent 
to  the  prince,  it  can  never  reasonably  be  understooi^  by 
that  maxim,  to  have  determined  itsown  destruction,  or  to 
have  established  a  tame  submission,  where  he  protects  his 
ministers,  perseveres  in  injustice,  and  usurps  the  wh<4e 
power  of  the  commonwealth.  This  case,  indeed,  is  never 
expressly  put  by  the  laws ;  because  it  is  impossible  for 
them,  in  their  ordinary  course,  to  provide  a  remedy  for  it, 
or  establish  any  magistrate,  with  superior  authority,  to 
chastise  the  exorbitances  of  the  prince.  But  as  a  ri^t 
without  a  remedy  would  be  an  absurdity ;  the  remedy,  in 
this  case,  is  the  extraordinary  one  of  resistance,  when  af- 
fiurs  come  to  that  extremity,  that  the  constttuticm  can  be 
defended  by  it  alone.  Resistance,  therefore,  must,  of 
course,  become  more  frequent  in  the  British  govemaaent, 
than  in  others,  which  are  simpler,  and  consiist  of  fewer 
parts  and  movements.  Where  the  king  is  an  absolute  so- 
vereign, he  has  little  temptation  to  commit  such  enormous 
Qrranny  as  may  justly  provoke  rebellion.  But  where  he 
b  limited,  his  imprudent  ambition,  without  any  great  vices, 
may  run  him  into  that  perilous  situation.  This  is  fre- 
quently supposed  to  have  been  the  case  widi  Charles  the 
First;  and  if  we  may  now  speak  truth,  after  animosities 


OF  PA88IVS  OBEDIXMCX.  471 

are  ceased,  this  was  also  the  case  with  James  the  Second. 
These  were  harmless,  if  not,  in  their  private  character, 
good  men ;  bat  mistaking  the  nature  of  onr  constitaticMi, 
and  engrossing  the  whcde  legislative  power,  it  became  ne- 
cessary to  ofqpose  them  with  some  vehemence ;  and  even 
to  deprive  the  latter  formally  of  that  authority,  which  he 
had  used  with  such  imprudence  and  indiscretion. 


» ■ 


I 
1       '    /       *    .' 

.    '    '  »   '    .1 


ESSAY  XIV, 


OF  THE  COALITION  OF  PARTIES. 

1  o  abolish  all  distinctions  of  par^  may  not  be  practica- 
ble, perhaps  not  desirable  in  afireegoremiiient.  The  only 
dangerous  parties  are  snch  as  entertain  opposite  views  with 
regard  to  the  essentials  of  government,  the  succession  of 
the  crown,  or  the  more  considerable  privil^es  belonging 
to  the  several  members  of  the  constitution ;  where  there  is 
no  room  for  any  compromise  or  accommodation,  and  where 
the  controversy  may  9pptur  so  momentons  as  to  justifyevea 
an  (^positi<m  by  arms  to  the  ^pretaisions  of  antagonists. 
Of  this  nature  was  the  animosi^  continued  Sat  above  a 
century  past,  between  the  parties  in  England ;  an  animo- 
si^  which  broke  out  sometimes  into  dvil  war,  which  ooca^ 
sioned  violent  revolutions,  and  which  continually  endan- 
gered the  peace  and  tranquillity  of  the  natioiu  But  as  there 
have  iqppeared  of  late  tlie  strongest  synqitoms  of  an  uni- 
iversal  desire  to  abolish  these  party  distinctions ;  this  ten- 
idency  to  a  coalition  affords  the  most  agreeable  prospect  of 
/future  happiness,  and  ou^t  to  be'careftdly  cherished  and 
i  promoted  by  every  lover  of  his  country. 

There  is  not  a  more  effectual  method  of  promoting  so 
good  an  end,  than  to  prevent  all  unreasonable  insult  and 
triumph  of  the  one  party  over  the  other,  to  encourage  mo- 
derate opinions,  to  iSnd  the  proper  medium  in  all  diq^utes, 


_j 


OF  THE  COAUnMi  OF  PAETIKt.  IVS 

te  paEgadeitadi4luKlit8  iini^iiiiii  iiw<jifliMiriliyb»Mnif 
•timeb  Jn  die  rj|^tviMd.tak<ttp  m.}Mam^ib.  tfie  pmiBhm 

f  otjrij  umimriiiiM  tho  miffimiiniMHitU-i,  mA  jaiifiiii  phi 

ti66,  ittui  tjkmd  totkowtbat  iiBitfaar'.6ide«ce.iiiliMae  re- 
«p0(A$  tto  fWy  ««p|^orti6d  ty  MaMu  w  tkfy  «ii4wv«nir  to 
Halter  (iidiiiMlire«.  We«lNilt>foc0^|p«fteftiBeliw«uiie 
iBoAeMloa  iHdi  rtigilrdte  tlM^4AltoNMditpat0^  b«t4reM 
ike  piiPties,  by  pnydng^Mit  eMk  of  them  irlu  jmHiimA  by 
l^lamiUe  i»fim  t  Aat  there  mm  od  both  aides  wise  men^ 
who  meant  well  to  their  country ;  and  that  the  ptuit  a»^ 
tmAf  betireett  die  iJMtiou  ;bid;noii^ter  feondatioMithan 
aittToo  ye|adBoe  or  aitnusted  paasUm, 

3%i&popiiarp8r^,)99iK>«fterwiada  aoqsmd  tlM  name 
4>f:i^fyg%  tfigbt  jorti^^ by ^etfmptdmm  layHnam^  timt 
oyy^aition  .t»  the  «0iw%  ft^fc  #iii€h  n^ii  pwwBtrifteo  con- 
'iCtedM^iadeiivdL  Though  ob%id  to  aoimowkdc^tlMt 
pMtoedearta  in  &cwwe  pf  yteingati^u  had  imifeni^  taken 
plaeedwhig  nny  Migna  befaiieChariea  ibe  fir^  thqr 
lhrt>a(l|ht,>that  therew»  no  «aai^ 
t^uo4mgetimamwtiAKfikj.  ihwh odghtiMrte beenitair 
tWMi&teg  t  Ac  «he  id{^  of  Hunktnd  aro  for  emor  cobe 
dittoed  aai*«id,  no  ^ptmati/lAom  of  tycamy  or  attritMry 
-pifir^r  Mtt  htt»le  awwhority  MtteieWttMiMtWi  them  iyM- 
ben^jja  >  bleaifaig'-aotfaMiiiiiiwiiij  thii^  nlMtevarilMre 
appears  any  probabilky  of  recoveringky  a  nadMi  mayiprili* 
higly^nfMi  iMaHf  bM«vdsr««id^«^  HOtusvenlo  repine  at 
-dte  gt«tfiest  eihaUm  of  Mood  «r  dtesipattoii  c^tMttiM. 
jMl^hutean  inMMitieks^' Mid  maie  iMr«  «ban  |f0^^^ 
iMteooi^JMtof4ii<»ttMS«M»f:  Kings  o#e  viM'4tif^eai<braoe 
"crferyi^ippcRiMDliy^f^iQendmg  thekpiwOgtiClMes';  And4f 


4V4  EMAruv.     . 

^mmmmhA^hum^ntmhAjaot  t^^hdd hold  nf  £tw  .rrt0»»^,V|g 

aad  serariag  tfcepvmk^  o£  die  ptto|d%.«^ 
potiim  mart  fcr  e^er  prevail amongit  imuilrind,  Hieex- 
•Mpk  of  aU  the  Migkbovnog  nad^ 
loa^Br  safe,  to  etitniit  with  the  crown  the  siune  high  pne- 
ragatives  which  had  fiHaiieri|y  bean  exerobed  dmriag  tlnde 
and  ample  ages.  And  though  the  example  cCnany  late 
jreigos  may  be  pleaded  in  fe^our  of  a  power  in  the  prinee 
foOMwiail  arlHtraiy^  more  remote  reigns  afford  Jnntanoia 
of  atrictor  limitalMNla  attpoaed  on  die  croim;  andlhoie 
preteaunoos  of  the  pat liaiittit  now  branded  with  the  tide 
of  inno^ratiottii  are  only  a  recovery  of  the  jnst  rights  of  the 
people. 

Thcae  view%  fer  fiflkn  bdng  odiottv  are  sosdy  large»  and 
generousi  and  nohla:  to  thmr  preivalrace  md  aucoeas  the 
hingdlMn  owetita liberty:  porhapa  its  leamik]^  its indus- 
ttff  cofluneroe»  aaMi>  naval  powter:  By  them  chiisty  the 
Eof^liah  name  isdistjaguishedtfmo^g  the  aocietyof  nations, 
and  aspires  to  a  rivakhip  widi  diat  of  die,6eeat  and  moat 
iUikstriooa  conmionwealths  of  andqiu^.  But  as  all  these 
mighty  oonacquencas  oould  not  reiaionaMy  be/oveaeen  at 
die  time  sHiM  the  ocH^estb^;an»  theroyalists.of  (hatjige 
wanted  notapciciousaigmBents  ^m^dur  side^  by  which  tl^ 
cdaU  justify  their  defence  of  thedfeneatidditfied  ps^^ 
tms  of  <be  prince.^  We^  shall  atale.  die  ^jmstidlb.  as  it 
mig^t  ha^e  a{q[ieared  to  dietnat  the  awwnibling  of  diet  pai;- 
liament»  wlndi^  by  its  videaitencfoachmentsmi  tbeicroms, 
began  the  civil  wars. 

The  only  rule  of  gavemmentf  they  nnght  ham  aaidf 
km»im  and  acknowledged  Amoag  maii»;l^vaae  and  prsio- 
tice:  BttMon  is  8o  uncertain  A  gnid^  that  it  will. always 
beecxposed  to  doMbt  and  contiovenpyir  Copied  i|;  evei:  ren- 
der itself  prevaWttt  over  the  jieqdie,  D»eniJ|iad.alw;i^.*re- 


J 


OF  THE  COAUnON  OF  PARTI£S«  475 

tahied  i|  as  their  sole  rule  of  conduct:  They  hadstill  ooi>- 
tiiiaed  in  the  primitive  unconnec^  stale  c€  nature)  i^icb- 
out  snbmittmg  to  political  government,  whose  8<^  basis 
iS)  not  pure  reason,  bat  authori^  and  precedent  Dissntfe 
these  ties,  you  break  all  the  bonds  of  civil  society,  and  leave 
every  man  at  liberty  to  consult  his  private  interest,  by  thoae 
expedients,  which  his  appeths,  disguised  under-  the  i^ 
pearance  of  reason,  shall  dictate  to  him.  The  spirit  of 
innovation  is  in  itself  pernicious,  however'  favouraUe  its 
particular  object  may  sometimes  appear ;  a  truth  so  ob- 
vious^ that  the  pc^ular  par^  themselves  are  sensiUe  of  it, 
and  therefore  cover  their  encroachments  on  the  crown  by 
the  plausible  pretence  of  their  recovering  the  ancient  liber- 
ties of  the  people. 

But  the  present  prerogatives  of  the  crown,  allowing  all 
the  suppositions  of  that  party,  have  be^i  inconteetaUy  es- 
tablbhed  ever  since  the  accession  of  the  House  of  Tudor ; 
a  period  which,  as  it  now  comprehends  a  hundred  and 
sixty  years,  may  be  allowed  sufficient  to  give  stability  to  , 
any  constitution.  "Would  it  not  have  i^peared  ridiculous, 
in  the  reign  of  the  Smperor  Adrian,  to  have  talked  of  the 
republican  constitution  as  the  rule  of  govemtncni;  or  to 
have  supposed,  that  the  former  r^^fats  of  tiie  senate^  and 
consuls  and  tribunes,  were  still  subsisting. 

Bin  the  present  claims  of  the  English  mcfuarehs  are  much 
more  favourable  tiian  tiios^  of  the  Rotkui  empeoMs'  dtl- 
rii^  iimt  Bge.  Hie  authcmty  of  Augustus  was  a  pbin 
usurpation,  grounded  only  on  military  violence,  imid  forms 
^uoh  an  epoch  in  the  Roman  hbtory  as  is  obVious  to^  .eve- 
ry reader.  But  if  Henry  VIL  redly,  as  some  pretend, 
enlarged  the  power  of  the  crowns  it  Was^idy  by  ins^lsible 
aocjuisitions,  which  escaped  the  apprebenrion  of  the  people, 
and  have  scarcely  been  remarked  even  by  historians  and 


4f96  MMAf  JWr. 

poMtfaiMtfc  .  The  n^wgonBcOmolity  if  U  4e9erv€3  tk«  (gpi- 
«bel|  is  <B  wt|irgcaprible  tr^milhm  finore  th»  fiMrmar^  iseO" 
tmlyMgrnfiadoi^iti  ^faiwPMitotitblaUyfitmi  that  root; 
aod  a»  to  be  MMidffed  only  as  iwe  of  tbiise  gi^^ 
I    IniiMt^  t)a  wkkh  hMMMa  affiiir9»  iq  ov^iy  aatJoD,  will  be 


The  hotea  of  Tkidor,  and  after  tbem  that  of  Stuart,  ^xr 
erciaad  bo  prenfpatiTOB  biH  what  had  been  dainedaiidex- 
tfdiedbjrltiePlMlageiieta.  Nota«^iabraQdii^thair 
(  mkborStj  aw  bo  aaid  to  be  aa  kmwfiti<mw  The  pnlydif- 
.&r«iioe  i%  tbat  parfaapa  fermer  kii^  exerted  these  pow«^ 
^diy^sgrinaenndsytaid  «rere  »at  aUe^  by  reaaoQ  ofdie«fK 
poiiliaii  of  their  baroaa,  ip.tMder  them  ao  atea^  a  riUe 
of  administration.  But  the  sole  inferenoe  from,  this  £Mt 
is,  tfaiat  those.aaoiaiittU&ea  were  m<Nre  turbident  and  aedi- 
tkm;  and  thai  i^yal  anthorily^  the  eonstittttioQ,  and  the 
.hoM^  liaye  happily  of  late  gained  the  asoendaqt. 
.  Uvkr  what  pretenoe  «an  the  popular  party  now  apeak 
df  reoovarti^  the  aacimt  conatitutioii?  The  fiiraier  ooia- 
tool  over  the  luagB  wm  Hot  ptecedin  the  commons,  but  in 
liie.hanms:  The  people  had  no  ai^horii^,  and  even  Utftfe 
lar  no  lihiA  If  ^titt  the  crown,  by  auppreswng  these  f^^ 
iaftairtB,  cBforoedtheaxeciitiDiiof  die  bars,  and  obliged  all 
the  subjects  eqaa%  to  seapact  ie»eh  other's  rights,  privi- 
lagei,  said  psoperties.  If  we  xmat  reluni  to  die  ancient 
iMnrbaraw  and  fiuidal  oanatitntion,  kfc  those  g^itleme*, 
adk)  now  behave  thonselves  WBth  ao  much  insolence  to  their 
aavereign,  aet  the  fint  exanqple.  Lat^themnudKeoonntfeo 
be  adinilted  as  iielaineM  to  a  neigyi)oiiringhamB^  and  by 
aubteittiBg  to  slavery  nnder  hin,  acqukescsne  piioteetioii 
io  thmaaeivies  ;  Sogetber  with  the  posier  of  eaoeroising  ra- 
pioe  andopprosmoM  over  their  iac^MEaar  alaves  and  yfflfins. 


OF  THE  €X>iltlVieir  Ot*  PARTIES.  Wt 

This  wfli  tile  condkion  ef  the  commoin  maoag  thor  ir^ 
Aole  tticestotg; 

But  hiDwikF  back  most  we  go»  in  haring  recoor8et94Ui« 
dMt  eotistitiitkmd  andgovenmietitB  ?  There  was  a  tootti^ 
tntkm  still  tnore  ancient  than  that  to  which  these  inncnra* 
tors  iiS^t  S6  jxaatch  tt>  ^ppeaL  During  thiaS  pe»bd.4«Te 
was  no  li^tffna  Charkt :  Hie  barons  tbemsehes  poasessecl 
few  regnUuT)  stated  privil^^es;  and  tbebomeof  cmnmona 
probably  hiA  not  an  existenee. 

It  is  rtdioulons  to  bear  the  Commons,  whfl&diey  area»i 
siming^  by  ustirpation^  the  whole  power  of  |>0¥a»imeDi^ 
talk  6f  reviroig  the  andest  instilntioiis.  Is  it  not  kniswiii 
that,  though  representatives  received  wages  from  their  oon« 
stituents;  to  be  a  member  of  t^  lower  hpttse  was  always 
considered  as  a  biffden,  and  aa  exemptkn  ftomitaa  a  {Mi^ 
viTege?  Will  they  persuade  us,  that  power,  wliieb,  oTdl 
faumai^  acquisitions,  is  the  most  coveted  and  in  compari- 
soitof  which,  even  reputati<Mi,  and  pleasvre,  and  riches^ 
are  slighted,  could  ever  be  r^arded  as  a  burden  by  any 
man? 

The  property  acquired  of  late  by  t^  commons,  it  is 
said,  entitles  them  to  more  powor  (ban  thcar  Aneestors  en^ 
joyed,  l^ut  to  what  is  diis  increase  of  their  piq>erty  ow^ 
ing,  but  to  an  increase  of  their  liberty  and  thehrsecuritjrP 
Let  them  llierefbre  acknowledge,  that  Aeif  fmeestM^  while 
ihe  crown  was  restr^ed  by  the  seditiou^^  batons,  really 
enj<^ed  Jess  l{berf3^^anf  they ^i^ttselte^  b«^  jottkkKsd, 
after  the  sot^reigii  acquilred  tfaeHscendaM}  And'let  tbe^ 
«njoy  that  liberty  with  moderation^  andnot  ibi<feil  iV'% 
now  exorbltiuit  ctoittiss  and  %  rend^Wng  It  ^rMeptO'lbr 
erfffless  ititib'fatio^'      :  'i  v  ,  .nr^vj/jrlT 

IChe  Jme  rufe  of  gov^timeot  is  the  present  escibltshkl 
-practice  of  th^  ^e.    That  has  motit  mff^^yh^tic(M^t 


478  ESSAY  XIY. 

kveottit:  ItigftLBobegtkiiowii,forthesaiaereagoB«  Who 
has  assured  those  tribunes,  that  the  Plantagenets  did  not 
•xersiae  as  hi^  acts  of  authority  as  the  Tudors  ?  Histo- 
rians>  they  aay,  do  not  mention  them.  But  historians  aie 
abo  siient  with  regard  to  the  chief  exertions  of  preroga- 
tive by  the  Tudors.  Where  any  pow^  or  prerogative  is 
fidly  and  undoubtedly  eataUished,  the  exerdse  of  it  passes 
finr  a  thing  of  course,  andireadUy  escaped  the  notice  of  his- 
tory and  annals.  Had  we  no  other  m(mum^its  of  Eliza- 
bath's  T^ffh  Iban  what  are  preserved  even  by  Cambden, 
the  most  copious,  judicious^  and  exact  of  our  historians, 
we  diouldbe  enturely  igmmmt  of  themost  impcMrtant  max- 
ims xif  hcri  f^vermoant. 

Was  not  the  preseiUiiioKiarchicalgovaiuaeQt,  in  its  fi^ 
e(al^iltt.aatb(Mr{9^.by.lawy6r$,  recoq(w«iiiled  \>y  divines, 
aohiowledgad  by  politidans,  acquiesce^  in,  nay  passion- 
at4y  cherished*  l^  the  people  in  general ;  and  all  this  du- 
jii\g  A  period  of  at  least  a  hundred  and  sjxty  yefur%  and, 
^  oClat^  without  the  smallest  murmur  or  contnoversy  ? 
This  general  consent,  surely,  during  so  long  a  time,  must 
be  sufficient  to  reader  a  constitution  l^al  and  valid.  If 
die  origin  of  ail  power  be  derived^  as  is  pretended,  from 
.the  people,  here  is  their  c<msent  in  the  fullest  and  most  am- 
ple terms  that  can  be  d^red  or  imaged. 

But  the  people  must  not  pretttid,  because  they  can,  l^ 
their  oonsmt,  lay  the  fiNindations  of  government,  that  there- 
fore  they  are  to  be  permitted,  at  their  pleasure,  to  over- 
throw and  subvert  them.  There  is  no  end  of  these  sedi- 
tious and  arrogant  daims.  Thepower  ofthe  crown  isnow 
43pmiy  struck  at :  The  nobility  are  also  in  visiUe  peril: 
The  gentry  will  soon  follow :  The  popular  leaders,  who  will 
tfata  assume  the  name  of  gentry,  will  next  be  exposed  to 
.danger :  And  the  people  tliemoelves,  having  become  inca- 


.JH 


OF  THE  COALITION  OP  PARTIES.  479 

pttMe  of  civil  government,  and  lying  under  the  festhnvt  vf 
iMt>  ttudiority,  must,  for  die  sake  of  peace,  -ftddu^  inkefld'^f' 
their  legal  and  mild  monarchs,  a  flUoeesdon'-of  JnOiHiry^ttid 
deflpotio  tyratnts*  ^  ^^  •^'  '•^'-  • 

Thede  oonseqaences  are  die  more  to  bedreadedy  a».<he 
present  hty  of  the  people,  dv>iigh  glosaad  lOrver  b^preiMt^ 
sions  to  ciWl  liberty,  is  in  realky  incited  by  tUi»i|iiitifiiB|a 
gf  rdyppn  'v  a  princ^le  the  most  blind,  headstrong^  and 
ungovernable,  by  which  human  nature  can  possibly  be  acU 
taated.  Popular  rage  is  dreadfiil,  from  whatever  niotlve 
derived :  But  must  be  attended  witfi  tlie  most  pemieious 
consequences,  when  it  arisen  flrom  a  principle,  whidi  di»» 
claims  all  ccmtrcd  by  human  law,  reason  or  antbority. 

These  are  the  arguoentB^  wkicH  eady^wrtT^ttMrf  makC: 
use  of  to  justify  the  omduct  of  th<dir  pydkbessdra  dning* 
dM;  great  crisis.  The  eveni,  M^l)iattin  be  Mirilted  as.a 
rieason,  has  shown,  that4iie  arguments  of  the'pcqjndar  pfuru 
ty  were  better  founded  $  fafut  perbapa/  aoconUtig  toUw^^ 
tablished  maxrnis  of  lawyeirs  and  pc^I^ians,  the  views  of 
the  royalists  oi^ht,  beforehand,  to  have  appeared  nufn 
solid,  more  safe^  and  morel^aL  But  this  is  certaip,  that 
the  greater  moderatioo  we  now  employ  in  representnigpatt 
events,  the  ^nearer  shdl  we  be  to  produce  a  iiiU  omlkioii 
of  the  parties,  and  an  endre  aequi^se^nca  in  oar  present 
establishment  Moderatkm  is  (tfadvaotagvto  every  est** 
blishment  >  Nbdiing  but  v^\  can  ov^^rtwnjtseilled  power;; 
and  an  oveivacdv^  zeal  unfriends  iriqfit  t&b^p^k  like  a^i* 
rit  inf  antigoniMa.  The  transltiimfimnamodefatooppo* 
sitSon  iigaihst  anestMriiABwnt,  to  an  entire  acqnseacence' 
in  it,  is  easy  and  insenslUe* 

There  are  many  invincible  argumeatowhifah  shasUiin^' 
duce  the  malecontent  par^  to  acquieaee  entirely  in  the  pre* 
sent  setdement  of  the  constitution.    They  now  find,  that 


H 


ligLmk&MUtm  oMiU  {)^ai|^  italic  frgp^ 
aiidififMrviMUr  »mm  gtmiMMd^wgiigw^a^ia^i 
a  friend  to  toleratioiiy  and  encoorager  of  all  ^  ealioged 
ttdlga&MNMtitttitMPla  thiitdo  ImaMrtoliiuBaii  nature. 
TlM|r.  Biiy.uht<np%  Uiat  tlie  populai:  dates  aonU  sipp  al 
a|Mtotwr|iedod;  and  after  teCiwchiagdMlwgbelaiiiia  of 
|vaD09irtiv%<OMM  stOl  maintain  a  daefaiiK^ 
tkfraotili^f  and  to  all  anoMft  kialilttliooi.    A}»ort^^ 
th^jMfllba  wtwUcy'thiftdba  taiypancifik^  iMch  made 
tbaittoiglh  oClhtil?  pntlgr,  and  fimn  wUdi  H  demad  it^ 
oUif  aallMirit^  liaa  now  deMctad  thw»»  find  gsm^  over  to 
their  tnnggnbta     Tl^idanoflibnCyi^a^ttM;  k&Bap- 
pjraftclaMftpatiedli/ei^ieciracai  a  loojt  tyigt  of  <ime_ 
hw  gitenititabiityi  iind  iwimnrer  wwMjaWfflfit  ti^  ovcar* 
tnint  il^  attA  to  raeaU  tlM  |MI  gatwrniMtit  or  abdicated  fi^ 
BBijf  wciM%  haftidea  od^r  mora  criminat  w|Hitatk>n%  ba 
expoa»d»  in  theiv  tan^  to  dia  tqpro^ob  of  ibctieii  a<id  ior, 
Dovmiofek    Wide  Ihajparaia  the  Uaiorjr  of  past  ei^tib 
tbcy  o«§^  la  leflaaty  bodi  dia^  tliaie  rif^  of  tb»  e^ 
»e  kyi«  amee  tmOwhtfid^  andtbat.  the  tyranBy^md  Ho- 
Icofi^  «idoppreiiioai#  to  wUck  tl»^  often  ga^exise^  «ra 
iU%  fiam  whidb  the  WdMH4  Vbw^  ef  t^ 
faM  now  to  iMthiwflirpaatoctod  die  people.    Hiesere* 
flaatmtmUpMnFfin  batter  aaeani^to  our  fige^dannipd 
pnwkgcB^diantoAMiy^  conlrtoj^tott^f^toto^slevodbi^ 
of  fiMt%  dud;  Midi  arffial  powers  etor  bad  ap  epdatepa^ 
T^reknota  noreirffcotod  «athad  <rf*  batoayiBg  aifi^^ 
thantolagr  theatreoBof'tfae  a^gtoOeM  on  n  wiMg  plMBi 
and  by  disputing  an  untenable  poMrMlifleitbi^  ad^f^aj^lto 
tO( nmiiMi  nnd  ilii uaiy   '^i'         .,.j.  ',  ■  ^ 


-v.*.        ^^^^m^mmmtmm^^^smm^tammrm'^g^ 


ESSAY  XV. 


OF  THE  PROTESTANT  SUCCESSION* 

I  suvrosfi,  that  if  a  member  of  Parliament  in  die  reign  of 
King  William  or  Queen  Anne>  while  the  establishment  of 
the  iVtfefftmf  iStocoefvte  was  yet  uncertain,  were  delibe- 
rating concerning  the  party  he  would  choose  in  that  impor- 
tant qoestioB,  and  wei^g^  with  impartidity,  the  advan- 
tages and  disadvantages  on  each  side^  1  believe  the  follow- 
ing  particulars  would  have  entered  into  his  consideration. 
He  would  easUy  perceive  the  great  advantage  resulting 
fipom  the  restoration  oi  the  Stuart  family ;  by  which  w© 
should  preserve  the  succession  dear  and  undisputed,  free 
from  a  pretender,  with  such  a  specious  title  aa  that  of  blood, 
which,  with  the  multitude^  is  always  the  claim  the  strong- 
est and  most  easily  comprehended.  It  is  in  vain  to  say,  a^ 
many  have  done,  that  the  question  with  r^ard  to  gaver- 
MTj^  independent  of  gavemmenif  is  frivolous,  and  Httle 
wofdi  di^mting,  much  less  fightmg  about  The  genera^ 
lity  of  mankind  never  wUl  enter  mto  these  sentiments  ; 
tod  it  is  much  happier,  I  believe,  for  society,  that  they  do' 
^ot,  but  rather  continue  in  their  natural  prepossessions. 
How  oould  stability  be  preserved  m  any  monarchical  go- 
vemment  (which,  diough  perhaps  not  the  best,  is,  and  al- 
ways  ha^  been,  the  most  common  of  any,)  unless  men  had 

VOL.  I.  2  I 


482  E88AT  xr. 

so  panioDate  a  regard  for  the  tni^  heir  of  their  rojal  fa- 
Hiiiy;  and  even  though  he  be  weak  in  understanding,  or 
infirm  in  years,  gave  him  so  sensible  a  preference  above 
persons  the  most  accon^lished  in  shining  talents,  or  cele- 
brated for  great  achievements  ?  Would  not  every  popular 
'  leader  put  in  his  claim  at  every  vacancy,  or  even  without 
any  vacancy ;  and  the  kingdom  become  the  theatre  of  per- 
petual wars  and  convulsions  ?  The  condition  of  the  Ro- 
man empire,  surely,  was  not  in  this  respect  much  to  be 
aivied ;  nor  is  that  of  the  JSagtem  nations,  who  pay  little 
i^egard  to  the  titles  of  their  sovereign,  but  sacrifice  them, 
every  day,  to  die  caprice  or  momentary  humour  of  the  po^ 
pulace  or  soldiery*  It  is  butaibolish  wisdom,  which  is  so 
carefully  diq[>kyed  in  undervaluing.  priacM^  and  plAcinf^ 
them  on  a  level  with  the  meaneai  of  mankinds  To  be 
sure,  an  anatomist  finds  no  more  in  the  greatest  monarch 
than  in  the  lowest  peasant  or  day  labourer;  and  amorak- 
ist  may,  perhaps,  fireqoendy  find  leatu  But  what  do  all 
these  reflections  tend  to?  We,  aJl  of  us,  stilt  retain  these 
prejudices  in  favour  of  birtk  and  fiumly;  and  neither  in 
our  serious  occupations,  nor  most  careless  amusementa, 
can  we  ever  get  entirely  rid  of  th^n.  A  tragedy  that 
should  rq>resent  the  adventurea  of  sailors,  or  porters,  «r 
even  of  private  gendemen,  would  presendy  disgust  us ;  but 
one  that  introduces  kings  and  princes,  acquires  in  our  eyes 
an  air  of  importance  and  iigMty.  Or  ihoidd  a  moi 
b^  able,  by  his  superior  wisdomp  to  get  entire^  above  such 
prepossessions,  he  would  soon,  by  means  of  the  same  wis- 
dom, again  bring  himself  down  to  them  for  the  sake  of 
society,  whose  welfare  he  would  perceive  to  be  intimatdy 
connected  with  them.  Far  from  endeavouring  to^und^ 
ceive  the  people  in  this  particular,  he  would  cheriah  sucb 
sentiments  of  reverence  to  their  princes^  as  rec^iiaite  ta 


OF  THE  PROTBSTAMT  SUCCESSION.  488 

prtflsrre  A  dm  suboffdinalioD  intocietjk  Andthoiiglktb^ 
lirea  mftw^ntf  thowmnd  sm  be  often  setrlfic^  to  bmiwi- 
tain  a  king  in  poesesskiti  of  his  throne^  or.  preMrve  tkm 
fight  a£  gmeommn  undiBtiirbedy  he  eaterUuif  oA  indig&a* 
tion  at  the  lots,  on  pretence  that  every  individual  of  these 
ira%  perhaps,  in  himsell^  as  valaable  as  the  prince  he  ser<- 
ved.  He  considers  the  consequences  of  vioUting  the  here^ 
ditary  right  of  kings :  Consequences  whith  iniy  be  felt 
for  many  centaries ;  while  the  loss  of  several  thousand  men 
brings  so  little  prcgudiee  to  A  large  kingdom^  that  it  may 
not  foe  perceived  a  few  years  after. 

The  advantages  of  Ae  Hanov)^  succession  are  of  an  4^ 
posite  nature,  and  arise  from  this  very  circumstabee,  that 
it  vfolates  hersdttary  rights  and  places  on  the  throne  a 
prince  to  whom  birth  gave  no  tide  to  that  digni^.  It  is 
evident,  from  the  history  of  this  adand,  that  the  privileges 
of  the  people  have,  during  near  two  centuries^  been  conti^ 
nually  upon  the  increase^  by  the  division  of  the  churdi«- 
iands,  by  the  alienations  of  the  barons^  estates,  by  the  pro- 
gress of  trade,  and  above  all  by  the  happiness  of  our  sitna* 
tion,  whidi,  for  a  long  time,  gave  us  sufficient  security, 
without  any  standing  army  or  military  establishment.  Oo 
the  contrary,  public  liberty  has,  almost  in  every  other  na* 
tion  of  Europe,  been,  during  the  same  period,  extremely 
on  the  decline ;  while  the  people  were  disgusted  at  the 
hardships  of  die  cid  femiti  militia,  and  rather  chose  to  ent 
trust  their  prince  with  mercenary  armies,  which  be  ea8% 
tamed  against  themselves.  It  was  nothing  extraprdinary, 
-therefore,  that  some  of  our  British  sovereigns  n^istook  the 
•nature  of  the  eonstitation,  at  least  the  geluu^  o(  the  people; 
and  as  they  embraced  all  the  favourable  precedents  leff 
them  by  their  ancestors,  they  overlooked  all  those  which 
were  contrary,  and  which  supposed  a  limitation  in  our  go«- 

2i  2 


4M  ESSAY  XV. 

^emmeiit.  They  were  cnoouraged  in  this  misuke^  fay  the 
ezain|de  of  aU  the  neighbcNuring  prinoesy  who  beariag  the 
•erne  tide  or  appeUatimi,  and  being  edoraed  with  the 
same  enrigns  of  anAority ,  natnrally  led  them  to  chum  the 
same  powers  and  prerogatiTes.  It  appears  Snxa  the 
speeches  and  prochunations  of  James  L  and  the  whole 
train  of  that  prince's  actions,  as  well  m&  his  son's,  that  he 
regarded  the  English  government  as  a  simple  monarchy^ 
and  never  imagined  that  any  considerable  part  of  hb  sub* 
jects  entertained  a  contrary  idea.  This  i^inion  made  those 
monarchs  discover  their  pretensions)  widiout  preparing  any 
ibrce  to  support  them ;  and  even  without  reserve  or  dis- 
guise, which  are  always  employed  by  those  who  enter  up^ 
on  any  new  project,  or  endeavour  to  innovate  in  any  go- 
vernment. The  flattery  of  courtiers  farther  confirmed 
their  prejudices ;  and,  above  all,  that  of  the  clergy,  who 
firom  several  passages  cS  Scriptwrej  and  these  wrested  too^ 
had  erected  a  regular  andavowed  system  of  arbitrary  power* 
-The  only  method  of  destroying  at  once,  all  these  h^gh 
claims  and  pretensions,  was  to  depart  from  the  true  here- 
ditary line,  and  choose  a  prince,  who,  being  plainly  a  crear* 
txure  of  the  public,  and  receiving  the  crown  on  conditions^ 
expressed  and  avowed,  found  his  authority  established  oa 
the  same  bottom  with  the  privileges  of  the  people.  By 
electing  him  in  the  royal  line,  we  cut  off  all  hopes  of  am- 
bitions subjects,  who  might,  in  fuiure  emergencies^  disturb 
the  government  by  tbeir  cabals  and  pretensions:  By  ren- 
dering the  crown  hereditary  in  his  family,  we  avoided  all 
the  inccmveniences  of  elective  monarchy ;  and  by  exdn- 
ding  the  lineal  heir,  we  secured  all  our  constitutional  limir 
tations,  and  rendered  our  government  untform  and  of  a 
piece.  The  people  cherish  monarchy,  because  protected 
by  it :  The  monarch  favours  liber^,  because  created  by 


OF  THE  PROTESTANT  SUCCESSION.  485 

it:  And  thus  erery  advantage  is  obtained  by  the  new  es- 
tablisbinent,  as  fiur  as  human  skill  and  wisdom  can  extend 
itseU: 

These  are  the  separate  advantages  of  fixing  the  succes- 
sion, eidier  in  the  bouse  of  Stuart,  or  in  that  of  Hanover. 
There  are  also  disadvantages  in  each  establishment  which 
an  impartial  patriot  would  ponder  and  examine,  in  order 
to  form  a  just  judgment  upon  the  whole. 

The  disadvantages  of  the  protestant  succession  consist 
in  the  foreign  dominions  which  are  possessed  by  the 
princes  of  the  Hanover  line,  and  which,  it  might  be  sup- 
posed, would  engage  us  in  the  intrigues  and  wars  of  the 
continent,  and  lose  us,  in  some  measure,  the  inestimable 
advantage  we  possess,  of  being  surrounded  and  guarded 
by  the  sea,  ^ich  we  command.  The  disadvantages  of 
recalling  the  abdicated  fimiily  consist  chiefly  in  their  reli- 
gion, wlHcfa  is  mora  prejudicial  to  society  than  that  esta- 
blished amoing  us,  is  contrary  to  it,  and  affords  no  tolera- 
tion, or  peace,  or  security,  to  any  other  communion. 

It  appears  to  me,  that  these  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages are  allowed  on  both  sides;  at  least,  by  every  one 
who  is  at  all  susceptible  of  argument  or  reasoning.  Np 
su[fagect,  however  loyal,  pretends  to  deny,  that  the  disputed 
title  and  foreign  dcnninions  of  the  present  royal  family 
are  a  loss*  Nor  is  thereany  partisan  of  the  Stuarts  but 
-will  confess,  that  &e  daim  of  hereditary^  indefi^asible 
a^ght,  anid  the  Roman  Catholic  reUgioilt  are  also  disad- 

•  vantiiges  in  that  family.  It  belongs,  therefore,  to  a  philo- 
aophiof-  alone^  who  is  of  neither  party^  to  put  all  the  cir- 
cnmstanoes  in  the.aeale,  and  assign  to  each  of  them  its 
proper  poise  and  influence.     Such  a  one  will  readily  at 

*  first  aduiowledge,  that  all  political  questions  are  infinitely 
coibpUcated,  and  that  there  scarcely  ever  occurs  in  apy 


486  BS8AY  XV. 

ddiberatioo^  a  choice  which  is  either  purdy  geod»  or 
purely  ilL  Cobsequenccs,  mixed  and  varied^  may  be  fore* 
teen  to  flow  from  every  measure :  And  many  consequoi* 
eea»  unfiHreseen,  do  alwajra,  in  fiu:t»  result  from  every  one. 
Hesitation  and  reserve,  and  suspense,  are  tberelhre  the 
cnly  sentiments  be  brings  to  this  essay  or  triaL  Ob>  if  he 
indulges  say  panioii,  it  is  that  of  deriskm  agdnst  die  igi 
norant  multitude,  who  are  idways  clamorous  and  dognuH 
taeal,  even  in  the  nicest  questions,  of  which,  from  waht  of 
tcmpef,  perhaps  ftiU  more  than  of  undrrstanding,  they  are 
ahogether  mofit  judges. 

But  to  say  something  more  determinate  on  diis  headi 
the  following  reflections  will,  I  hope,  show  the  temper,  if 
net  the  understandii^  of  a  philosopher. 

We^e  we  to  juc^e  merely  by  first  appesnnoes»  and  fa^ 
past  experknoe,  we  must  allow  that  the  advantages  of  a 
parKamentary  title  in  the  house  o£  Hanover  are  greater 
than  those  of  an  undiluted  hereditary  title  in  the  house 
of  Stuart,  and  that  our  frilhers  acted  wisely  in  preferring 
the  former  to  the  latter.  So  long  as  the  house  of  Staart 
ruled  in  0?«at  Britain,  which,  widi  some  inlemiption,  was 
above  eighty  years,  the  government  was  kept  in  acontinual 
fever,  by  the  contention  between  die  privil^;es  of  the  peo|de 
and  the  prerogatives  of  the  crown.  If  arms  weredrepped, 
the  noise  of  disputes  continued:  Or  if  these  were  sflenced, 
jealousy  still  corroded  the  heart,  asd  threw  the  natioii  in- 
to an  unnatural  ferment  and  disorder.  Andwhaeweansse 
thus  occupied  in  domestic  ^Esputes,  a  Ibreign  powers  dan- 
gerous to  public  Iflbertj^  erected  itself  in  Europe^  widmit 
any  opposition  from  0$,  and  even  sometimeB  with  mir  as- 
sistance. 

But  during  these  last  sixty  years,  when  a  parliamentary 
e8tidt>lishment  has  taken  place;  whatever  fectioasniay have 


OT  THE  PROTSSTANT  SUCCSSaiOK.  48T 

pterailedy  either  among  the  people  or  in  ptiblic  aieemblies, 
Che  whole  finrce  of  our  constitution  has  always  fallen  to  one 
side,  and  an  uninterrupted  harmony  has  been  jM^eserved 
lietween  our  princes  and  our  parliaments.  Public  liber^^ 
with  interna]  peace  and  order,  has  flourished  almoeti  with- 
out interruption :  Trade  and  manufiustnres,  and  agricul* 
ture,  hare  increased:  The  arts,  and  sciences,  and  philpso* 
phy,  have  been  cultivated.  Even  religious  parties  have 
been  necessitated  to  lay  a^de  their  mutual  rancour;  and 
^he  i^ry  of  the  nation  has  spread  itself  all  over  Europe; 
deiived  equally  fiom  our  progress  in  the  arts  of  peace, 
and  from  valour  and  success  in  war.  So  long  and  so  glot- 
none  a  period  no  nation  almost  can  boast  of:  Nor  is  theve 
another  instance  in  the  whole  history  of  mankind,  that  so 
jnany  miUkms  of  pecyle  have,  during  such  a  space  of  time, 
been  held  together,  in  a  manner  so  fre^  so  rational,  and 
ao  sttilahle  to-the  digni^  of  human  natura 

But  thoi^h  this  recent  eaqj^ence  secns  dearly  to  de^ 
cide  in  £ivoar  of  the  present  establishment,  there  are  somfs 
chrcumstances  to  be  thrown  into  ihe  other  scale ;  and  it 
is  dangerons  to  regulate  our  judgment  by  one  event  or  e»- 
an^>le» 

We  have  had  two  rebellions  durii^  the  flourishmg  pe- 
riod above  maitioned,  besides  plots  and  oonqifarades  witli- 
out  number*  And  if  none  of  these  have  prodnsed  may 
v«vy^£itat  evcKnt,  we  may  ascribe  omr  escape  chieflyto  the 
narrow  genius  of  those  princes  who  disputed  oar  establish- 
Bwnt;  and  we  may  esteem  oursdves  so  fiur  foitiaiate*  Bttt 
thedaimsof  ihtbaiilMklfiunily,  I  fear,  are  net  yet  anti- 
quated; andwhp  can  feretetl,  that  their  flitnre  attempts 
mil  prodiioe  no  greater  discwder  ? 

The  disputes  between  privilege  and  prerogative  nmy  ea- 
sily be  composed  by  laws,  and  votes,  and  conibrenoes^  and 


4W  ESIAT  X¥. 


where  there  k  tolarable  tenqper  or  j^adeooe 
oa  both  sides,  or  on  either  side.  Among  oo&teodingtitlei^ 
the  question  can  only  be  determined  by  the  sword,  and  by 
devastation,  and  by  ciril  war. 

A  prince,  who  fills  the  throne  with  a  diqwted  title, 
dares  not  arm  his  snbfects;  the  onfymetbodofseraringr  a 
peopkfiiUy,  both  against  domestic  oppieasKin  and  fecalgn 
conquest 

Notwithstanding  onr  riches  and  renown,  what  a  crili* 
cal  escape  did  we  make,  by  the  late  peace,  firom  daggers, 
idiidi  were  owing  not  so  nmch  to  bad  conduct  and  ill 
success  in  war^  aa  to  the  perniooos  practice  of  moctgaging 
iMur  finances,  andthe  stiUmore  pemicions  maxim  of  neier 
paying  off  onr  encumbrances?  Such  fiital  measures  would 
not  probably  have  been  embraced,  had  it  not  been  to  ae*- 
oare  a  precarious  estaUlAmei^ 

But  to  ccmvince  us,  that  an  hereditary  title  is  to  be  «n* 
braced  rather  than  a  parliamentary  one^  which  isnotsiq>- 
porled  by  any  othor  news  or  motives;  a  man  needs  only 
transport  himself  back  to  the  era  of  the  Restoration,  and 
suppose  diat  he  had  had  a  seat  in  that  psriiament  wUdk 
recalled  the  royal  fiunily,  and  putaperiod  to  the  greatest 
disorders  that  ever  arose  fitm  Hit  opposite  pratenaons  of 
prince  and  people.  What  would  have  been  thmiglrt  of 
OK  that  had  prqmed,  at  diat  time,  to  set  aside  CSuucks 
U.  aad  settle  the  crown  on  dse  Dakex>f  Yorkcor  Olo»* 
oest6r,  merely  in  order  to  exclude  all  high  daims,  like  those 
irf  thair  finheir  and  grandfiither  ?  Would  not  sndi  a  one 
hare  been  regarded  as  an  extrmagant  {wcgedxir,  who  lo» 
Ttd  dang^K>us  ramedie^  and  could  tamper  and  play  with 
a  goremment  and  national  constitntion,  like  a  quack  widi 
H  sickly  patient« 

In  reality,  the  reason  as8i|;ned  by  the  nation  for  esdu'- 


OF  THB  PROTfifiTAMT  SUCCESSION.  40# 

ding  the  race  of  Staart^  and  so  many  other  bran^es  of 
the  royal  finoily)  is  not  on  accoimt  of  their  hereditary  tMe/ 
(a  reason  whidi  woald,  to  ndgar  apprebensioiis,  haveap-^ 
peered  altogether  absnrdO  but  on  acooont  of  their  religion^ 
wUsh  leads  us  to  oompare  die  disadtantages  above  men* 
tioned  in  each,  estflblislment* 

I  confess  that,  considering  the  matter  ii^getiend,  it  were 
mnch  to  be  wished  that  out  prince  had  no  finreign  domi- 
and  could  ocmfine  all  his  attention  to  the  govern* 
;ofdiisMlaBd  For  hot  to  mention  some  reaiincon* 
veniepoes  that  nutyreswkfiwa^  territories  on  the  coptinsii^ 
diey  afford  such  a  ha&db  far  cahunny  and  defiahotieti,  as 
is  greedily  seised  by  the  people,  always  ijispoted  to^dunk 
ill  of  their  superiors.  Itinust,howeiwr,beadinoid6C^gei^ 
that  Hanover  is,  periiaps,  die  spot  of  ground  in  Europe 
the  least  inconvenient  for  a  King  of  Bnglknd.  .  It  lies 
in  die  heart  of.Oennany^  at  a  <Kitance  fro«i  the  gl'eat 
powers,  which  are  our  natural  riv^dsiItsiproSeeSsd  byti^ 
laws  of  the  empire,  as  well  as  by  the  anns  of  its  own-so- 
vereign :  And  it  serves  only  to  connect  us  more  closely 
with  the  house  of  Austria,  our  natural  aUy« 

The  rel%ions  persuasion  of  the  house  of  Stuart  is  an 
iBWWwsimce  of  a  much  daq>er  dhy  and  woidd  threaten 
us  with  much  move  dismal  CMsequenoes.  The  Ro(Mn 
Catholic  religion,  widi  ita  train  of  priests  and  friars,  is 
■M>re  expensive  than  ours;  evsb  diough:  unaccumpanied 
widi  its  natural  attendants  of  inquhdtoni  anAetakes,  and 
gibbets,  it  is  less  tolerating:  And  notoontentwith  dividing 
dio  saoerdotal  from  the  regal  oflBee^  {wlttcb  must  be  prqtf* 
dicial  to  any  state^)iit  hestows  the  ibsmttr  en  a  foee^pier, 
who  has  always  a  separate  interest  firoin  that  of  the  public, 
and  may  often  luM^e  an  Of^xisite  one«  - 

But  were  this  religion  ever  so  advantageous  to  society. 


4M  E«ftAT  anr. 

it  is  cOotrafy  kH  Ihat  which  k  onteMiihed  aiMi^  us,  anfl 
whifih  is  likely  to  http  posfleswn,  for  a  long  timc^  <^tlie 
iiuBcUafthepeafile.  And  dboii^  it  b  much  to  be  hc^KcU 
that  th^progreu  of  jreMon  will,  by  d^precs,  abate  the  acri- 
lao^y  i£ opposite  ffoUgioiu  a&  over  Europe;  yot  the  ^iff^ 
of  moderation  has,  as  yet,  made  too  dow  adTanoes  to  be 
otirdiy  trusted. 

Tkn%  apoti  the  Irholoi  die  adrantages  of  the  setd^nent 
IB  the  frmily  of  Stuart,  wfcidb  frees  us  from  a  ^spi^ed 
titl^aesaatorbearsomeproportioa  with  those  ef  Ilia  settle- 
IMSit  in  the  family  of  Hanofer,  which  fi«es  us  from  the 
daioM  of  prefeogaliw;  but,  at  ithe  ssme  tune^  its  disadvan- 
Isges,  by  placing  on  ihe  throne  a  Bomaa  CathoU^  are 
gresicr  thaii^theie  of  the  other  establiAiacnt,  in  settUng 
the  «rown  on  a  fordgn  jHriniie.    What  parly  an  impartial 

{  petriet,  in  Ihe  teign  of  K.  William  or  Q.  Anne,  would 
hew  ohosen  amidst  these  opposite  news,  may  perhaps  to 
adeeie  appear  htni  1o  determine. 

Bnt  the  settkmort  in  the  house  of  Hsnover  has  actually 
lakeApbioe.  The  princes  <^tliatfiuauly,widiout  intrigue^ 
without  cabal,  without  adieitation  cm  thw  part,,  hawe  been 
/icaUed  to  mtiaot  out  throne,  by  the  united  voice  of  the 

,' wh(^  le|;islat^  body.  They  hav^  since  dieiraooessiod, 
disjJeyed,  in  all  their  actions,  the  utmost  mildness,  equily, 
4ttd  n^l^  to  dbe  laws  and  oonatitntion^  Onrowniuni- 
stlsrsi  ourown  perliameats,  oursdTes»  have  governed  us; 
andifiiui^illhasbefifillflnus,  we  can  only  blame  ihrtune 
<Hr  ourselves.  What  a  rqHroach  must  we  become  aiimng 
oatiepsiiifcdi^gested  with  a  settlement  so  deUberately  medlB, 
end  whose.oonditioBS  have  been  so  rdigiously  ohservfed,  we 
should  throw  every  thing  again  into  confusidn;  and  by 
our  levity  and  rebellioHS  disposition  peove  ourselves  tbtalr 


OF  THE  PROTESTANT  SUCCE88IOK.  491 

ly  unfit  for  any  state  but  diat  of  absolute  slavery  and  sub- 
jection? 

The  greatest  inconvenience,  attending  a  disputed  title, 
is,  tbat  it  brings  us  In  danger  of  omlwars  and  rebellions. 
What  wise  man,  to  avoid  this  inconvenience,  would  run 
directly  into  a  civil  war  and  rebellion?  Not  to  mentioiiy 
that  so  long  possession,  secured  by  so  many  laws,  must, 
ere  this  tima^  in  die  apprefaeoaian  of  a  fpfMt  part  of  the 
nation,  haveb^otten  a  title  in  the  house  of  Hanover,  in- 
depettdeHt  ^f  Ibeir  p^eseni  posaeasioii^t  So  tliat  aow  we 
should  9ot,-eiven^bya  goPufciliop»  oUaintliieeadc]^  avoid* 
inga^iipMNltitld* 

No  revolution  made  bynational  fi)roeaw91  ever  be  ahle^ 
wMioot  some  odner  great  necesnty,  to  abofirii  our  debts 
and  eDcmnbrances,  m  whi(&^e]nt«E«stof  wnany  pev^ 
aOfls  i^  dOQoemed^  And  a  y«fVol«lioii  made  by  fisteigii 
Ibfoes  is  aKxmquest;  •  ealami^ witk wkkk  the ptecari* 
ous  balance  a(  pmter  thvoateas  us,  and  whieb  omt  cipttt 
dissensions  are  lUtely,  above  att  other  eircauMtances^  to 
bring  upen  us. 


ESSAY  XVI. 


IDEA  or  A  PERFXCT  OOmOlTWEALm. 

» iiDOtirflh  forms  of  goyensmitt  an  with  othtt  artifi^ 
ctal  contrhMMtt ;  where  an  old  engine  may  be  n|eeted»tf 
we  can  discorer  another  more  accorate  atid  ooaamodioast 
or  where  triab  mqr  aafidy.be  madfe,  even  though  tbe  mic- 
ceislMdoidMhL  AneatabUfbedgo^emknentbasaninfi* 
nite  advantage^  by  that  v^  circmnstilnce  of  ks  bek^estar 
Miahed;  thelmlk  of  manhind  beipg  governed  by  aqth<Mri- 
^,  not  rcMMn,  and  nevor  aitlnbiiliii^  aioho^ 
that  haa  ndt  the  kwopminendaljaRpfanlifaU}!^ 
. .  To  tampei^  tl^r^lclre,  te  tbia  aAUr,  or  try  experiment^ 
merely  upon  the  credit  of  supposed  argument  and  phikMo* 
phy,  can  never  be  the  part  ot  a  wise  magistrate,  who  will 
bear  a  reverence  to  vrfiat  carries  the  marks  of  age;  and 
though  he  may  attempt  some  improvemoits  for  the  puUic 
good,  yet  will  he  ac(iust  his  innovafimiSy  as  much  as  possi- 
ble, to  the  ancient  fabric,  and  preserve  entire  ^  chief 
pillars  and  supports  of  the  constitntkm* 

The  mathematicians  in  Europe  have  been  mudi  divided 
concerning  that  figure  of  a  ship  whidi  is  the  most  commo- 
dious for  sailing :  and  Huygens,  who  at  last  determined 
the  controversy,  is  justly  thought  to  have  obliged  the 
learned  as  well  as  commercial  world ;  though  Columbus 
had  sailed  to  America,  and  Sir  Francis  Drake  made  the 


IDEA  OF  A  PEEFBCT  COMMOKWEALTH.  4M 

tottr  of  the  woiU,  without  any  tndi  disodvel^.  As  on4 
Ibrm  of  government  mutt  be  allowed  more  perfect  than  aor 
othor,  iodependeiit  of  the  manners  and  hiimanr$  of  parti^ 
•cuLir  men;  why  may  we  not  inquire  what  is  the  moat  per- 
fect of  all»  diough  the  commaabotdied  and  inaepnirate  go* 
▼eraments  seem  to  serre  thepuipoflesof  s<>Qiety>  aDdtboiigh 
it  be  not  so  eaay  to  establish  a  new  aijstem  of  government, 
as  to  build  a  vessel  upon  a  new  constrm^tion  ?  The  sub* 
j^t  is  surely  die  most  worthy  of  curiosity  of  any  the  wit  of 
•man  can  possibly  devise,  Aix^  who  kqpw^^.if  thip/W^ti^ 
versy  were  fixed  by  the  unl?ei:sal  consent  oCthe^  wii^  <u^ 
-learned^  but,  in.some  fiituGe  age^  an  opportunity  mig^t  be 
afibrded  of  reducing  the  theory  to  practice^  either  jby  a  dis* 
sidution  of  some  cUL  govemmwty  or  by  Xh^  qcwtoaiaon  of 
men  to  fitrm  a  newone^  in  somedistantpartof  the  world? 
-In  all  cases,  it  must  be  advantageous  to  know  what  i|  the 
most  perfect  in  the.kmdy  that  we  miQr  be  ftble  to  brii^  aqy 
real  constitutkm  or  fi)mi.0f  gpvenpoentas  near  it  s^.pq^ 
sifale,  by  such  gentle  alteti^tions  and  innovations  as  may 
not  give  too  great  distorbancie  to  society*  » 

All  I  pretend  to  in  the  present  essay  is»  to  revive  thfe 
subject  of  apeeulatioii;^  and  therefiore  I  s^all  deliver  my 
sentiments  in  as  few  words  as  possible.  A  long  dissertation 
on  that  head  would  not,  I  apprehend,  be  very  acceptable 
to  the  public,  who  will  be  q>t  to  te^i;d  such  disquifjiitions 
both  as  useless  and  cUmericaL 

AH  planas  df  govenunfsnt,  which  suppose  gr^  refonpar 
tion  in  the  manners  of  mankind,  are  plainly  imaginary. 
Of  this  nature,  are  the  BepMic  of  Plato^  and  the  Utcfia 
•q{  Sir  Thomas  More.  The  Oceana  is  the  only  valuably 
onodel  of  a  commonwealth  that  has  yet  been  offered  to  %\^ 
public. 
..  The  chief  defects  of  the  OeMma  seem  to  be  these:  JF\(rs^ 


4M  CMATXfl. 


its  roMioa  Is  noonvenieiitt  by  knowing  men^  of  wbatsser 
abilitiesybjhiternds^oatorpvbliceinpkiyin^  8mmd- 
4S  te  Agrmnm  b  loiprMtieftble.  Men  wiU  soon  kam 
theartvpfaidi  WAspractmd  inancieBt  Rome^  of  oonoeal* 
n^  Ihsir  possessioM  umfer  adicr  people's  iiaiiie%  tiU  mt 
lost  the  abttsQwittbetoaw  so  qimmni^tlttrt  they  wiMdin^ 
offerenthe  appeoraocoof  restnmt  31ini|y,  the  Ooeafm 
provides  not  a  soBcicttt  secni^for  Uber^,  or  die  redress 
of  griefanoss.  The  senate  most  propose^  and  the  people 
eottsent^  by  iriiioh  means,  the  senate  have  not  oidy  a  ne^ 
gatite  vpon  the  people^  bat^  what  is  of  nrach  greater  coO" 
seqMDoe,  their  n^gatit^  goes  befare  the  rates  of  the  peo- 
ple. Were  the  Idng^s  negative  of  the  sanse  nature  in  the 
Eikglnh  eonstitaitiom  9mA  oovid  he  prevent  any  bill  from 
coming  into  pulianient^  be  would  be  an  absdote  moaardi. 
As  his  n^atfve  follows  the  votes  of  the  houses,  it  is  of  lil- 
ile  ooRsequeaoe^  sech  a  diflferenee  is  there  in  the  manner 
of  placing  the  tame  thing*  When  a  popular  biH  has 
been  debated  in  parliament,  k  broaght  to  mmiarhyj  ail  its 
conveniences  and  inconveniences  weighed  and  balanced ; 
if  afterwards  it  be  presented  for  the  rc^al  assent,  few 
princes  wHl  venture  to  reject  the  unaaimoas  deme  of  die 
people.  Bat  coaM  the  king  crush  a  disagreeable  bill  in 
embryo,  (as  was  the  case  for  soawe  time  in  the  Scotttdi 
paiitament,  by  means  of  the  lords  of  die  articles,)  the  Bri- 
tish government  would  have  no  balance,  nor  would  gri^ 
'vances  ever  be  redressed;  and  it  is  eertam,  that  exorbitant 
power  proceeds  not  in  any  government  from  new  laws,  so 
maclr  m  ftom  neglecting  to  remedy  the  abuses  wfaidi  firo- 
quendy  rise  from  die  old  ones.  A  government,  says  Ma^ 
dnavel,  must  often  be  brought  bade  to  its  ordinal  pr»- 
ciplps.  It  appears  then,  that  in  the  Oouma^  the  whole 
legislature  may  be  said  to  rest  in  the  senate ;  whidi  Har- 


i 


IDEA  Of  A  PEBfBCT  COMMONWEALTH.  4M 

irington  would  own  to  be  an  inooQvmitiit  fioann  of  govern- 
mcfktt  especUly  after  the  Jgrariam  it  aboittkecL 

Here  is  a  form  of  goTemment,  to  whiqh  I  cannot,  in 
theory,  ditcover  any  oonaidcrable  ol^tion. 

Let  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  or  any  tenitoiy  of  eqpal 
extent,  be  divided  into  100  coontiiw,.  and  each  oounty  in* 
to  100  parishes,  making  in  all  10^000*  If  die  opoDtry  pro- 
posed to  be  erected  intoa  commonwealth  be  of  more  nar- 
row extend  we  may  diminish  the  number  of  counftiea ;  but 
never  bring  them  below  thirty*  If  it  be  of  ^raaler  ex- 
tent, it  were  better  toenlarge  the  parishes,  or  diiEOW  BMnre 
parishes  into  a  ooon^,  Aan  increase  tiw  number  of  oom- 
ties. 

Let  all  the  freeholders  of  twenQr  pounds  a-year  in  the 
oouaty,  and  all  the  householders  worth  600  pp«n^  in  the 
town  parishes,  meet  annually  in  die  parisk-dturch,  aad 
choose,  by  ballot,  some  freehcdder  of  the  coun^  fiar  their 
wfecobety  whom  we  shall  call  the eom^i  iiijiiinwifti^i^ii. 

Let  the  100  ooun^  represeitetives,  two  days  after  their 
electioo,  meet  in  the  county  town,  and  choose  by  ballot, 
from  their  own  body,  ten  county  maguirate$y  and  one  se*- 
oator.  There  are^  therefinre,  m  die  whole  commonweakb, 
100  senators,  1100  county  magistrates,  and  10,000  county 
representadves ;  for  we  shall  bestow  on  aU  senators  the 
authority  of  coun^  magistrates,  and  on  all  oounty  anagi»- 
trates  the  authority  of  county  representadyes* 

Let  the  senatofs  meet  in  the  capital,  and  be  endowed 
with  the  whole  exeeotive  power  of  the  commonwealth; 
the  power  of  peace  and  war,  of  gifing  ordeis  to  gmerals, 
admirals,  and  ambassadors,  and,  in  short,  all  the  pren>- 
gatiyes  of  a  Brittsh  king,  except  his  negatvre^ 

Let  the  county  representadvcs  ineet  in  thdr  partfamlar 
counties,  and  possess  the  whole  legislative  power  of  the 


4M  sasAT  x^f . 

oommoaweaU),  the  grailer  nandier  of  oountiet  dedding 
the  question;  and  whene  these  are  equel,  let  the  senate 
have  the  cattiog  vote. 

Every  new  law  m^st  first  be  debated  in  the  senate;  and 
thoi^[h  reacted  by  k,  if  ten  senatots  insist  and  protest,  it 
must  be  seat  down  tO'the  ooonties.  The  snate^  if  thej 
pleasf^  may  join  to  the  copy  of  the  kw  their  reaaoos  /or 
receiving  or  rcyeottng  it. 

Becaase  it  would  be  troublesome  to  assemble  all  die 
coanly  representatives  for  every  trivial  law  that  may  be 
requisite^  the  senate  have  their  dioice  of  sending  down  the 
law  dither  to  die  coaaty  magistrates  or  ooonty.represen* 
tatives. 

The  magbtrates,  fhough  the  law  be  referred  to  them, 
may,  if  thqr  [dease,  oall  the  rqires^tatives,  and  sdbaMk 
the  affiur  to  their  ^V^ti*'*'wnationi 

Whedier  the  law  be  referred  by  die  senate  to  diecoon^ 
ty  magistnites  or  itprasentativies,  a  copjy  of  il^  and  of  the 
senate's  reasons,  must  be  sent  toevery  representative  e%ht 
days  before  the  day  appointed  for  the  assembling,  in  order 
to  deliberate  conosrning  it  And  though  the  detenaina- 
iion  be,  by  the  senate,  referred  to  the  magistrates,  if  five 
rquresentatrres  of  the  counQ^  order  tke  magistrates  to  as- 
semble the  whole  eonrt  of  representatives,  and  submit  the 
afcir  to  thek  determination,  they  must  obey. 

Either  the  county  nu^trates  or  representatives  may 
give,  to  the  senator  of  the  county,  tfae<^yof  alaw  tobe 
proposed  to  the  senate ;  and  if  five  counties  concur  in  the 
same  orders  die  law,  though  refiised  by  the  senate,  must 
<oine  either  to  the  coai^  magistrates  or  r^resentatives, 
as  is  contained  in  the  ordor  of  the  five  counties. 

Any  twen^  counties^  hy  a  vote  either  of  dieir  uiagis- 
1  - 


ID£A  OF  A  PER7XCT  COMMONWEALTH.  49T 

tniies  or  rtpf esentadvest  Hiay  ihvow  any  man  out  of  all 
pobiac  oAoas  for  a  year*    Thirtj  eoonties  for  diree  yeaihw 

Thd  senate  haa  a  power  of  tfaorowbig  out  ai^  mettibcr 
or  number  of  members  of  its  own  body,  not  to  be  r6KiMlrt 
ad  fgr  tltat  year.  Hie  tanate  cannot  direw  oat  twiod  in 
a  year  tha  saHaior  of  tbo  same  oevaubj. 

Tkm  power  ^flbmcid  aenata  coaCmnas  for  thtaa  weeka 
after  the  annual  election  of  the  county  rqpresentatii^^H; 
Tbem  aU  the  new  stna^rs  are  ahat  vp  in  a  ednciave  fike 
lile  cardiMk  3  and  by  an  intricate  ballot^  suc^  as  tihat  of 
Venice  or  Malta,  they  choose  the  following  magiitrfttea; 
*  protectoiv  who  rcptesents  the  d%iiHy  af  the  cdiiniion- 
wealdiy  and  prasidca  in  the  senate;  two  iCBiatariei  of  state: 
th^aa  six  coanefls,  a  eowicil  of  slAta^  a  oouadl  of  rdigicai 
aaditttTniiig^  a  oouimU  of  trade,  a  oouadl  of  lilw%  a  conii« 
eQ  of  war,  a  eooncU  of  the  lidnwaily,  eiidi  council  con«- 
flistiiig  of  five  persons;  together  with  six  commissioners 
of  the  treasury,  and  a  ibrst  commissioaer*  All  these  nlnst 
be  sanators*  The  senate  also  names  aU  the  attibassaddars 
to  faveigii  courts,  who  may  akber  be  senators  or  not. 

.Tha  sttiata  may  oontnlue  any  or  all  of  these,  but  amst 
reHcbot  them  crvaty  year. 

'  T|ie  prutector  and  two  aecretaries  bore  ses^dh  add  ntf- 
frage  in  ifad  coondl  of  state^  The  business  of  Aat  eonur 
pl  is  all  fotfeigapotiticB.  Hie  ooundt  of  state  laui  steasion 
and  auffipage  in  aU  die  other  cmmciis. 

The  council  of  r^igBoH  and  learning  inspeclatba  uni- 
T8Bsi|tas  and  olergyi  That  of  trade  inspects  every  thing 
littt  may  a&ct  eomiaeroe.  lliai  of  hiwi  itoqiecis  aU  die 
ihwses  of  lawT  by  the  iHforior  magiBtrates^  and  e«aMuies 
wiiat  impnyfaniaats  miff  be  made  of  4be  municipal  law. 
That  of  war  inspects  the  militia  and  its  discipline,  maga- 
xkles^  stores,  Sdcv  mi  when  the  repaUib  is  in  war,  exa- 

VOL.  I.  2  k 


498  X6SAY.  XTT. 

miiies  into  the  proper  orders  far  geoerals.   Tlie  council  of 
admindfty  has  the  same  power  with  regsatd  to  the  navy, 
together  with  the  nominaiion  of  the  ^^ptaitu  and  all  infe- 
rior officers. 

None  of  these  bonncils  can  gire  orders  themaebres^  ex-« 
cept  where  they  receive  8a<^  powcns  from  the  senate.  In 
other  cases,  they  must  comnumicate  every  tiring  to  the  se- 
nate. 

When  the  senate  is  under  adjoummoit,  any  of  the 
toundls  may  assemble  it  befiMre  the  day  appointed  for  its 


Besides  these  councils  or  courts,  thare  is  another  called 
the  court  of  eompetiiorg ;  which  is  thus  constituted  If 
any  candidates  lor  the  office  of  senator  have  more  votes 
than  a  third  of  the  representatives,  that  candidate  who  has 
most  votes,  next  to  the  senator  elected,  becomes  incapable 
for  one  year  of  all  public  offices,  even  of  being  a  magi»* 
tnite  or  representative:  But  he  takes  his  seat  in  the  court 
of  competitors.  Herethen  is  a  court  which  ma/ sometimes 
consist  of  a  hundred  members,  sometimes  have  no  mem- 
bers at  all ;  and  by  diat  means  be  for  a  year  abolidied. 

The  court  of  competitors  has  no  power  in  die  common- 
wealth. Ithasonly  the  inspection  of  puUic  accounts,  and 
the  accusing  of  any  man  before  the  senate.  If  the  senate 
acquit  him,  the  court  of  competitors  may,  if  they  please, 
appeal  to  the  people,  either  magistrates  or  representatives. 
Upcm  that  appeal,  the  magistrates  or  representatives  meet 
on  die  day  appointed  by  ihe  court  of  competitors^  and 
choose  in  each  county  three  persons ;  from  wbixk  number 
every  soiator  is  excluded..  Tliese,  to  the  !nuniber  of  SOD^ 
meet  in  the  cqiital,  and  bring  the  person  accused  to  a  new 
trial. 

The  court  of  competitors  may  propose  any  law  to  the 


IDEA  OF  A  PERFECT  COMMONWEALTH.  499 

senate;  and  if  refused,  may  appeal  to  the  people,  that  i^ 
to  the  magistrates  <*  representatives,  who  examine  it  in 
their  counties.  Every  senator,  who  is  thrown  out  of  the 
senate  by  a  vote  of  the  court,  takes  his  seat  in  the  court 
9f  comp^tors. 

The  senate  possesses  all  the  judicative  authority  of  the 
House  of  Lords,  that  is,  all  the  appeals  from  the  inferior 
courts.  It  likewise  appoints  the  Lord  Chancellor,  and  all 
the  officers  of  the  law. 

Every  county  is  a  kind  of  republic  within  itself,  and  the 
representatives  may  make  bye-laws ;  which  have  no  autho- 
rity tiU  three  months  after  they  are  voted.  A  copy  of  the 
law  is  sent  to  the  senate,  and  to  every  other  county.  The 
senate,  or  any  single  county,  may,  at  any  time,  annul  any 
bye-law  of  another  county. 

The  rq)resentaUves  have  all  the  authority  of  the  British 
justices  of  the  peace  in  trials,  commitments,  &c. 

The  magistrates  have  the  appointment  of  aU  the  officers 
of  the  revenue  in  each  county.  AU  causes  with  regard  to 
the  revenue  are  carried  ultimately  by  appeal  before  the 
magUtrates.  They  pass  the  accounts  of  aU  the  officers; 
but  must  have  their  own  accounts  examined  and  passed 
at  the  end  of  the  year  by  the  representatives. 

The  magistrates  name  rectors  or  ministers  to  all  the 
parishes. 

The  Presbyterian  government  is  established;  and  the  ^ 
highest  ecclesiastical  court  is  an  assembly  or  synod  of  all  1 
the  presbyters  of  the  county.    The  magistrates  may  take  / 
anycause  from  this  court,  and  determine  it  themselves.    / 

The  magmrates  may  try,  and  depose  or  suspend  anv 
presbyter.  \  ^ 

The  militia  is  established  in  imitation  of  that  of  Swisser- 
land,  which  being  well  kno^n,  we  shall  not  insist  upon  it 

2k2 


60d  £SSAT  xri. 

It  will  only  be  proper  ta  m«ketbU  «ddkio%  tbat  aa  ttn^ 
of  80,000  men  be  anmuilfy  drawn  omt  by  rotatioB^  paid  aiid 
•Manpod  dttriag  six  weekd  in  rammer,  thttt  tbe  dafy  of 
a  omp  maj  not  be  altegeiher  ludcttowii^ 

The  magistrates  appoint  all  the  colonels  and  dowwntfds. 
Tbe  aengte  all  upwards.  Oaring  war,  tbe  gtaerai  Bppokits 
tkt  colond  i»d  do^wQwards,  «m1  bis  eibvoatission  is  good 
kn  *  twehttnoHdu  But  after  that,  it  must  be  eonflttned 
by  the  magistrates  of  the  coun^  to  wbieh  tbe  regbnent  be* 
kit^^  Tbe  magistratcaHMy  break  any  officer  in  tbe  cottn- 
ty  regiMMUit.  And  the  senate  jnay  do  tbe  sune  to  any  of 
ficer  in  the  service.  If  tbe  magistrates  do  not  think  pro- 
per to  confinm  the  general^  choice^  tbey  flHiy  appoint  an- 
other officer  in  tbe  place  of  hJQi  tbey  reject 

All  crimes  are  tried  within  the  county  by  die  magistirat^ 
and  a  jury :  But  ^  aenate  can  stop  any  trial,  and  bring 
it  before  tfaemsd^ea. 

Any  county  nay  indict  tmy  man  befev^e  tbe  senate  for 
any  erne. 

Tbe  protectoor,  the  two  teortAavies,  Ake  cooneil  erf"  state, 
with  any  five  or  more  thai  die  smate  appoints,  are  pos- 
sesaedi  on  extraoidbiary  emergendeB,  of  dMs^bfutf  power 
for  six  months. 

TImi  pvoteder  ivay  pardon  any  persofi  condemned  by 
the  inferior  courts. 

In  tim^  ctf  war^  no  offieer  of  die  arn^  tbat  is  m  the  field 
can  have  any  dril  office  in  the  commonwealtb. 

.  The  capkal,  which  we  shall  call  London,  may  be  aHow^ 
ed  finir  munbers  ia  the  senate^  it  nH^tfterefbre  be  di- 
vided into  four  counties.  The  repvesentativea  of  each  of 
these  choose  one  senator,  and  ten  magistrates.  There  are 
tberefiMre  in  the  city  fovr  senators,  ferty^burmagistrates, 
and  four  faundred  r^resentitives.     The  magistrates  have 


IDEA  OF  A  PKBFECT  COMMONWEALTH.  JOl 

thfi  lame  auUu>ritjr  as  in  the  counties.  The  represeatatives 
alio  have  the  «Mie  authofcity ;  but  they  never  meet  in  one 
geoeral  court  t  Tbey  give  their  votes  in  their  particular 
tonoty  or  division  of  hundreds. 

When  they  enact  any  bye-law,  the  greater  number  of 
countiee  or  divisions  determinefi  th^  matter.  And  where 
these  are  equals  the  magistrates  have  the  casting  votis. 

The  magistrates  choose  the  mayor,  sheriff,  recorder^ 
aod  other  officers  of  the  city. 

In  the  commonwealth,  no  representative,  magbtrate^  or 
senator^  as  such,  has  any  salary.  The  ptoitctotf  secreta- 
ries, councils*  and  ambassador  have  salaries. 

The  first  year  in  every  century  is  set  apart  for  cortbcting 
all  ioeqoalitiea*  which  tinie  may  have  prixluc^  in  the  re- 
preseatalm. ..  Tliis  must  be  done  by  the  legislature. 
.   The  foUowmg  p<ditical  aphorisms  may  explain  the  rea- 
son  of  these  orders. 

The  lower  sort  di  people  and  small  propri^tots  ate  good 
enough  judges  of  one  not  very  distant  from  them  in  rank 
or  habitation ;  and  therefore,  in  their  parochial  meetings, 
will  probably  choose  the  best,  or  nearly  the  best  represen*  "^ 
tative :  But  they  are  wholly  unfit  for  county^-meetings,  and 
tar  electing  into  the  higher  offices  of  the  republic*  Their 
ignorance  gives  the  grandees  an  oppoitunity  of  deceiving 
them. 

Ten  thousand,  even  thbugh  they  were  not  annually  elect- 
ed, are  a  basis  large  enough  for  atiy  free  govemtnent 
It  is  true,  the  nobles  in  Poland  are  mote  than  10,000|  and 
yet  these  oppress  the  people.  But  as  power  always  con- 
tinues there  in  the  same  persons  and  families^  this  makes 
them,  in  a  manner,  a  diffinrent  nation  from  the  people. 
Betides,  the  nobles  are  there  united  under  a  few  beads  of 
fiuniliei. 


502  '^  IKSSAV  XVI. 

All  free  governments  must,  consist  of  two  oomicils,  a  less-' 
er  and  greater ;  or,  in  other  words,  of  a  senate  and  people. 
The  pec^le,  as  Harrington  obs^^es,  would  want  wisdom 
without  the  senate :  The  senate,  without  the  peopk,  would 
want  honesty. 

A  large  assembly  of  1000,  for  instance,  to  represent  the 
people,  if  idlowed  to  debate,  would  fell  into  disorder.  If 
not  allowed  to  debate,  the  senate  has  a  n^ative  upon 
them,  and  the  worst  kind  of  negative,  that  b^ore  resolu- 
tion. 

Here  therefore  is  an  inconvenience,  which  no  govern- 
ment has  yet  fully  remedied,  but  which  is  the  easiest  to  be 
^remedied  in  the  world.  If  the  people  debate,  all  is  oon- 
^  fusion :  If  they  do  not  debate,  they  can  only  resolve;  and 
I  then  the  senate  carves  for  them.  Divide -the.  people  into 
:  many  separate  bodies ;  and  then  they  may  dd^ate  with 
;  safety,  and  every  inconvenience  seems  to  be  prevented. 

Cardinal  de  Retz  says,  that  all  numerous  assemblies, 
however  composed,  are  mere  mob,  and  swayed  in  their 
debates  by  the  least  motive.  This  we  find  confirmed  by 
daily  experience.  When  an  absurdity  strikes  a  member, 
he  conveys  it  to  his  neigfibour,  and  so  on,  till  the  whole 
be  infected.  Separate  this  great  body;  and  though  every 
Tnember  be  only  of  middling  *^nse,  it  is  not  probable  that 
*any  thing  but  reason  can  prevail  over  the  whole.  Influ- 
ence and  example  being  removed,  good  sense  will  always 
Iget  the  better  of  bad  among  a  number  of  people. 

There  are  two  things  to  be  guarded  against  in  every 
senate :  Its  combination  and  its  divisi<m.  Its  combination 
is  most  dangerous.  And  against  this  inconvenience  we 
have  provided  the  following  remedies:  1.  The  great  de- 
pendence of  the  senators  on  the  people  by  annual  elec- 
tions; and  that  not  by  an  undistinguished  rabble,. like  th\» 


Mi 


IDEA  OF  A  PERFECT  COMMONWEALTH.  d08 

English  electors,  but  by  men  of  ft^rtune  and  edacation*  2. 
The  «mall  power  they  are  aUowed*  They  hare  few  offices 
to  dispose  of.  Almost  all  are  given  by  the  Aiagistrotes  in 
the  counties.  8.  The  court  of  competitors ;  which  being 
composed  of  men  that  are  their  rivals,  next  to  them  in  in* 
ter^t,  and  imea^  in  their  present  situation,  will  be  sure 
to  take  all  advantages  against  them. 

The  division  of  the  senate  is  prevented,  1.  By  the  small- 
ness  of  their  number.  2.  ABfiustion  supposes  a  combination 
jn  a  sqmrate  interest,  it  is  prevented  by  their  dependence 
on  the  pieople.  8.  They  have  a  power  of  expelling  any 
factious  member.  It  is  true,  when  anodier  member  of  the 
same  spirit  copies  from  the  coun^,  they  l^ave  no  power  of 
expelling  him :  Nor  is  it  fit  they  should ;  for  that  sl^ow^ 
the  humour  to  be  in  the  pebple,  and  may  possibly  arise 
fit>m  some  ill  conduct  in  public  aflGdrs.  4.  Almost  any  man, 
in  a  senate  so  r^^ularly  chosen  by  the  people,  may  be  sup<^ 
posed  fit  for  any  GivU  office.  It  would  be  proper,  there- 
fore^ for  the  senate  to  fom)  some  general  resolutions  with 
r^ard  to  the  disposing  of  offices  among  the  members : 
Which  resolutions  would  not  confine  them  identical  times, 
when  extraordinary  partson  theone  hand,  pr  extraordmary 
stupidity  on  the  other,  appears  in  any  senator ;  but  they 
would  be  sufficient  to  prevent  intrigue  and  faction,  by  mas- 
king the  disposal  of  the  offices  athing  of  course. '  For  in- 
stance, let  it  be  a  resolution,  Tbat  no  maashaS enjoy  any 
office  till  he  has  sat  four  years  in  the  senate;  That,  exc^t 
ambassaddrs,  oo  man  shall  be  in  office  two  years  fcdlowtng : 
That  no  man  shall  attain  the  higher  offices  but  through  the 
lower :  That  no  man  shall  be  protector  twice,  &c*  The 
senate  of  Venice  govern  themselves  by  such  res(dutions. 

In  foreign  politic  the  interest  of  the  senate  can  scarcely 
ever  be  divided  from  that  of  the  people ;  and  therefore  it 


OM  «64AY  XVJ. 

it  fil  to  oftkf  tk^  fW^te  »b«oli«ite  intb  regwrd  Iq  ibem ; 
othcrwif^  thcTQ  codid  be  no  flecrrair  w  reiiMd  polkjr*  Bq- 
adetiwithoiilmcm^ynotltiaiioeowbeejef^utod;  mbmIAc 
KHMte  is  ilall  ittfBciMdy  depsodant  Notto iMiHiom  tfagt 
the  legidalive  power,  being  alweji  superior  to  the  execs- 
ii?%  the  nagiatratas  or  represcnUrtiiws  n»y  isteipooe 
whenever  they  think  pnoper* 

Tifte  chief  support  of  the  British  govenuDMiitis  the  op- 
poririon  of  iotflffost:  But  tlut,  thougb  in  the  amk  ser*- 
Tioeeble,  breeds  eodhss  loottons.  In  tlio  forogoiiv  plan, 
it  4ot9  all  the  good  without  any  of  the  faacm*  The  eoai* 
pMuTM  ha^e  m  pow^r  of  controUiag  tha  aeMie:  Tbey 
have  09lf  the  powear  of  aocnaiog,  and  appealing  to  the 
pac^«. 

U  is  aaoessarjr,  likewise,  to  prtfrent  boA  eoiAi'mlttkai 
and  dinsion  in  the  Ihousand  iMgistMlMu    Thia  b  done 
■■i^aaffioiondy  by  the  separatkm  of  plaoes  and  inteMita. 

Bat  lest  that  should  not  be  safteien^  their  dependanoe 
on  the  10,000  for  their  ebetiQiia  serraa  i0  the  sanaB  par* 
poaa* 

Nor  is  that  all :  for  the  10,000  amy  resume  the  power 
whenever  they  please;  and  not  only  when  they  ail  plmse, 
but  wiwn  fuiy fire  of  mhundred  please ;  whiob  will  happen 
upon  the  very  first  suspicion  of  a  soparttbe  interest. 

The  10,000  are  too  large  a  body  either  to  unite  or  di^ 
Tide,  ezoept  whan  they  naeet  in  one  fdaoe,  and  All  under 
tibe  guidance  of  axnbitioas  leaders.  Not  to  mention  their 
annual  election,  hj  the  whole  body  of  diepei^le,  that  are 
of  any  oonsideration. 

A  small  coramonweahli  is  the  happiost  government  in 
the  world  withui  itself,  because  every  thing  lies  uader  the 
eye  of  die  rulers:  But  it  may  be  subdued  by  great  force 


k 


IDEA  OF  A  PEBFBCT  OOMMOMWEALTH.  f05 

from  widiput.    This  fcbeme  99tam  to  h»^  aU  Ibe  adVm^ 
tagei  both  of  a  gnat  and  a  litdrcoiaitiDnwcaltii, 

Eveiy  iQOttBty4aw  nu^  be  ananUed  attbct  by  die  4aiM« 
<Hr  aaotber  coimty ;  because  iktit  $hows  ad  opl^oiitio*  of 
uiteMtt :  In  which  case  no  part  ought  to  deckle  for  itself* 
The  natter  Buist  be  referred  to  the  wbole»  whicjh  will  best 
detemune  what  agrees  witb  general  interest* 

As  to  the  dergy  and  militia,  the  reasons  of  these  ordeiv 
are  obvious.  Witboatdiedependenoeoftbe  clergy  on  the » 
etril  ma^tratesy  and  without  a  militia^  it  is  in  Tain  to  think; 
Uuit  any  free  government  will  ever  hare  Mcnrityovstabilky4 

la  nuonf  goveitinient%  the  inferior  iMgistrates  hive  no 
rewards  but  what  arise  from  their  andiiticnit  Tanity,  or 
pnUie  spirit  Tlie  salaries  of  tihe  French  judges  amount 
not  to  the  interest  of  the  swns  they  pay  §x  their  offices* 
The  Quteh  bnifo«masters  have  little  more  imttiediate  piro- 
fitlhsp  the  English  jaetices  <rf'peaoe,  or  the  members  of  the 
Hsuse  of  GoBMaons  finrmerly,  Bot  lest  any  shouUsus^ct 
that  this  would  beget  ne^igenoe  in  the  admini^ation 
(which  is  iktie  to  be  feared,  considering  the  natural  ambi- 
tion (>f  mankind,)  let  the  magisbratesfaaveoompelent  sale* 
ries.  Tlie  senators  have  aooeas  to  so  many  honourable 
and  laoratrm  ofikes,  that  their  attendance  needs  not  be 
bought  There  is  little  attendance  required  of  the  repre- 
sentatives. 

That  the  Ibrsgoing  plan  of  government  is  piraetioehie, 
no  one  ean  doubt  who  comoders  the  resemblance  that  tt 
bears  to  the  eommonwealtk  of  die  United  jProvinces^  a 
wise  and  renowned  govennnent  The  altssatmns  in  the 
present  sdieme  seem  idl  evidteatly  for  die  better.  L  The 
representation  is  more  equal.  2.  The  unlimited  power  of 
the  burgo-mastem  in  the  towns,  which  forms  a  peiAot 
aristocracy  in  the  Dutch  commonwealth,  is  corrected  by 


Nc^ii^  >..* 


6M  fiSSAT  XVI. 

a  well-tanpered  democracy^  in  giving  to  the  peojpie  the 
annual  eleetion  of  die  comity  r^resentadves.  8.  The  ne* 
gadve,  which  everyprovince  and  town  has  upon  the  whole 
body  ct  the  Datch  Republic,  with  r^ard  to  alliances, 
peace,  and  war,  and  the  imposition  of  taxes,  is  here  re* 
moved.  4.  Hie  coonties,  in  the  presoit  pian,  tare  not  so 
independent  of  each  other,  nor  do  they  form  separate  hoo- 
dies to  much  as  the  seven  provinces ;  whore  the  jeakmsy 
and  envy  of  the  smaller  provinces  and  towns  against  the 
greater,  particularly  Holland  and  Amsterdam,  have  fre* 
qoently  disturbed  the  government.  5.  Larger  powers, 
though  of  the  safest  kind,  are  entrusted  to  the  senate  than 
the  States-Oenoral  possess ;  by  which  mems,  the  ibrmer 
may  become  more  expeditious  and  secretin  their  resohi-* 
tions  than  it  is  posnble  for  the  latter* 
'  The  diief  alterations  that  could  be  made  on  the  British 
government,  in  order  to  bring  it  to  the  most  perfect  model 
of  limited  monarchy,  seem  to  be  the  following^  JF£rj4 
The  plan  of  Crcmiwell's  parliament  ought  ia  be  restored, 
by  making  Ihe  representation  equal,  and  by  allowing  none 
to  vote  m  the  county  elections  who  possess  not  a  property 
of  SOO  pounds  value.  Secorndfy^  As  such  a  House  of 
Commons  would  be  too  weighty  for  a  frail  House  of  Lords, 
like  the  present,  the  Bishops,  and  Scotch  Peers,  ought  to 
be  removed :  The  number  of  the  upper  house  ought  to  be 
raised  to  three  or  four  hundred :  Their  seats  not  heredi- 
tary, but  during  life :  They  ought  to  have  the  election  of 
their  own  members ;  and  no  commoner  should  be  allowed 
to  refuse  a  seat  that  was  offered  hinu  By  this  means  the 
House  of  Lords  would  consist  entirely  of  the  men  of  chief 
credit,  abilities,  and  interest  in  the  nation ;  and  every  tur- 
bulent leader  in  the  House  of  Commons  might  be  taken 
off,  and  connected  by  interest  with  the  House  of  Peers* 


IDEA  OF  A  PERTKCT  COMMONWEALTH.  SOT 

Such  an  aristocracy  would  be  an  excdlent  barrier  both  to 
the  monarchy  and  against  k*  At  present,  the  balance  of 
our  government  depends  in  some  measure  oh  the  abilities 
and  behaviour  of  the  sovereign ;  which  are  variable  and 
uncertain  circumstances. 

This  plan  of  limited  monarchy,  however  corrected,  seems 
still  liable  to  three  great  inconveniencies.  FirUy  It  re-* 
moves  not  entirely,  though  it  may  soften  the  parties  of 
court  and  ooumtry.  Secondly^  The  king's  personal  charac« 
ter  must  still  have  great  influence  on  the  government. 
Thirdigi  The  sword  is  in  the  hands  ^f  a  single  perscm^ 
who  will  always  n^lect  to  discipline  the  milij^  in  order 
to  have  a  pretence  for  keeping  up. a  standi]]^  arnqr« 

We  shall  conclude  this  subject,  with  observiag  the  fab^Tf 
hood  of  the  coomion  opinion,  that  ao  large  atate^  such  9^ 
France  or  Great  Britain,  ooold  ever  be  modelled  into  ^ 
commonwealth,  but  that  such  a  form  of  goversunent  can 
only  take  place  ina  city  or  small  territory.  The  contrary 
seems  probable.  Though  it  is  more  difficult  to  form  a  re-* 
publican  government  in  an  extensive  oountry  than  in  »| 
city,  there  is  more  facility,  when  once  it  is  formed,  of 
preserving  it  steady  and  unifbrai,  glhrinhtumult  aud  facw 
tion.  It  is  not  easy  for  die  distant  parts  of  a  iai^  state 
to  combine  in  any  plan  ofifree  goyemmeBt ;  but  they  easi- 
ly conspire  in  the  esteenx  end  reverence  for  a  single  per- 
son, who,  by  means  o£  this  popular  fiivour,  may  seize,  the 
power,  and  forcing  the  mqre.obslbKate  t6  submit*  may 
establish  a  monarchical  govendnent  On  the  oti^r  band, 
a  city  readily  concurs  in  die  same  n<Aions  of  government, 
the  natural  equality  of  property,  favours  liberty,  and  the 
nearness  of  halntation  enables  the  dtizens  mutually  to  as* 
sist  each  other.  Even  under  absolute  princes,  the  subor- 
dinate government  of  cities  is  <;ommonly  republican;  while 


6M  BSSAY  XfU 

ttwCoTcouBtks  aadprovincts  »  inoa«rchk»L  B^  these 
same  oircamMmoei^  whidi  fatUiMe  tbe.ereoCioBof  ooqh- 
■KHiwMltlu  in  cttm»  rewkr  their  eonUkntkm  flaort  fml 
and  oncerriwu  Demooracies  are  turbulent.  For  however 
the  people  may  be  separated  or  divided  info  small  parties, 
ekber  in  dieir  votes  or  elections ;  tbeir  near  habitation  in 
a  city  will  alwajrs  make  the  force  itf  popular  tides  and  our- 
rents  very  amsibk.  Aristocracies  nre  b^ter  adapted  for 
peace  and  orderi  ai»d  aooordioi^  w«re  most  adimred  by 
ancient  wiilers ;  but  tbey  are  jealous  and  op|»esaive»  In 
a  large  govcmmeiM^  vrbieb  ia  modelled  with  masterly  dull, 
jtfacEeJsjcan^ng.a^  enough  to  refine  the  democm- 

Icyi  from  the  lower  people  who  mity  be  admitted  into  the  ~ 
jfirst  elections  or  Arat  concoction  of  the  eommMwealthi  to 
Ihe  Mgfaer  magistvatM^  %riio  dowtall  Ibemovements,  At 
the  same  time,  the  parts  an  so  distant  and  remote,  tbatit 
Is  v^ry  dtflcult,  eilher  by  int^ne^  prejudice^  or  passion,  to 
liurry  them  into  any  oeasuses  ii^paiast  She  pohlic  interest. 
It  ii  needless  to  inquare,  .whether  such  a  government 
would  be  immoftaL  I  idlow  the  justness  of  the  poef s  ex« 
ckmatfon  cm  the  endless  projects  of  human  race,  Mianmid 
/brevetf  The  world  itself  probably  is  not  launortaL  Such 
consuming  plagues  may  arise  as  would  leave  even  a  per^ 
fectgofermnente  weafcineytoitsneighbonra.  We  know 
not  to  what  lengdi  cndiusiasm»  or  crther  extraordmary 
movements  of  the  huasaa  mindy  may  transport  men,  to 
the  neglect  of  all  order  and  publio  good.  Where  difibr« 
ence  of  interest  is  removed,  jyJH)!PA'r!*l.y^  J?9SR!^5S&tl^^ 
jactiou^oAen  arise,  Crom  personal  favour  or  enmity.  Per- 
haps rust  may  grow  to  the  tprings  of  the  most  accurate 
political  machme,  and  disorder  iU  motkms.  Lastly,  ex- 
tensive conquests,  when  pursued,  auut  be  the  ruinof  every 
firee  government ;  and  of  the  more  perfect  governments 


IDEA  OF  A  PERFECT  COMMONWEALTH.  509 

sooner  than  of  the  imperfect;  because  of  the  very  advan- 
tages which  the  former  possess  above  the  latter.  And 
though  such  a  state  ought  to  establish  a  fundamental  law 
against  conquests,  yet  republics  have  ambition  as  well  as 
individuals,  and  present  interest  makes  men  forgetful  of 
their  posterity.  It  is  a  sufficient  incitement  to  human  en* 
deavours  that  such  a  government  would  flourish  for  many 
ages ;  without  pretending  to  bestow,  on  any  work  of  man, 
that  immortality  which  the  Almigh^  seems  to  have  refu- 
sed to  his  own  producti<His. 


NOTES 


TO  THE 


FIRST  VOLUME. 


NOTE  EA.]  p.  «0, 

1  HAVE  taken  it  for  granted,  accbr^ng  to  the  anpporition  of 
IVfadiiarely  that  the  ancient  Persiana  had  no  nohility;  tfaongh 
there  is  reaaon  to  anapect,  that  the  Florentine  aecrettfy,  who 
aeema  to  have  heen  better  acquainted  with  the  Boman  than  ihe 
Greek  authors,  was  mistaken  in  this  particnlar.  The  more  an- 
dent  Persians,  whose  manners  are  described  by  Xenophon, 
were  a  free  people,  and  had  nobility.  Thdr  •fMttfut  were  pie- 
aerved  eren  after  the  extending  of  their  conquests  and  ^e  con- 
seqneiit  change  of  4idr  goremment*  Arrian  mentions  them  in 
Dtoins^s  time,  De  exped*  Akx,  Hb.  iL  Historians  also  speak 
often  of  nie  penons  in  command  as  men  of  ftmily.  Tygranes, 
whovwas  general  ci  the  Modes  under  Xerxes,  was  of  the  race  of 
Achnmnes,  Herod,  lib.  viL  cap.  62.  ArtacluBus,  who  directed 
the  cutting  of  the  canal  about  Mount  Athoe,  was  ci  the  same 
fiunily.  Id.  cap.  117.  MiiBgabyeus  was  one  of  the  seven  emi- 
nent Persians  who  conspired  against  the  Magi.  His  son,  Zo- 
jyynus  was  in  ihe  highest  command  under  Darius,  and  d^ver- 
ed  Babylon  to  hhn.    His  grandson)  Megabysus,  commanded 


512  MOTES  TO  THE  FIRST  VOLUME. 

the  vtmy  deletted  «t  Marathon.  His  great-grandfloo,  ZapjruB, 
was  also  eminaiit,  and  was  banished  Peraa.  Herod,  lib.  iiL 
Thnc  lib.  L  Rosaces,  who  commanded  an  army  in  Egypt  wi- 
der Artaxenes,  was  also  descended  from  one  of  the  seven  con- 
spiratori,  Diod.  Sic  lib.  ztL  Agesiknsy  in  Xenof^ioii.  Hist. 
Gnse.  lib.  ir.  bdng  denrons  of  making  a  rnamage  betwixt  king 
Cotys,  his  ally,  and  the  damhier  of  Sptthridates,  a  Perakn  of 
rank,  who  had  deserted  to  him,  firet  asks  Cotys  what  huaaHy 
l^»ithridates  is  o^  One  of  the  most  omsiderable  in  Perma,  says 
Cotys.  ArisBiis,  when  offered  the  sovereignty  by  Ckardnis 
and  the  ten  thousand  Greeks,  refused  it  as  of  too  low  a  rank, 
and  said,  that  so  many  eminent  Pernans  would  never  endnre  hb 
mle.  Id.  de  exped.  Uk  iL  Smmi  of  th#  fiuniEes  descended 
from  the  sevm  Penians  above  mentioned  remained  dming 
Alexander's  successors ;  and  ^fithridates,  in  Antiochns's  time, 
is  said  by  Polybins  to  be  descended  from  one  of  them,  lib.  v. 
cap.  43.  Artabazos  was  esteemed,  as  Arrian  says,  n  rmt  w^imuf 
ni(#«p,  lib.  iiL  And  whea  MmmABt  mnried  in  one  day  80  of 
his  captains  to  Peraian  womm,  hb  intention  plainly  was  to  aDy 
ib%Mttwdoniawwiihth»iMat  tDunsntP^^  li 

Kkvii.  I)iDdonia  9ici^hi»  safs^  th«y  weiB  sf  tb  miM  n 
birth  ia  Peaia,.]ik  «vii  nefowenunantof  Psiaia  wa^despo- 
tis,  and  oondwBtaJt  im  man^  rsi^aoks  aftss  th6  eaaftavv  manner, 
.  bat  was  not  carried  so  &raa  to  fxtiKpaU  all  nohSitfaand  oon- 
foood  aD  ranks  and  oidivsr  It  kit  mea  wl»  wen  adi  pasd^ 
by  thsminlvfla  and  tbew  familf ,  indq^ndnt  of  tbsb  ottca  and 
.oonmiiBicm.  And  the  isasan  why  tba  MyoAsniaM  Isepi  so 
rimly  doniaion  over  them^  waa  owii^  «a  vAer  ctnassaaCT  to 
be  firand  'm  the  laaiDriana ;  ihoi^ijb  it  auMt  bp  ownsd  that  Ma- 
cfaiaval!9  reaaaniBf  i^  iaiMdfvjwWlMni'v^rw  dovbtMits  agpU- 
cation  ta  tha  praseat  case. 


only  thai  whioh  aiisas  from  ll»  affiotf  and  hf¥Jmm  Aal ««  at 


*A 


NOTES  TO  THE  FIRST  VOLUME.  513 

the  disposal  of  the  crown.  As  to  private  bribery^  it  may  be 
considered  in  the  same  ligfat  as  the  practice  of  employing  spies, 
which  is  scarcely  justifiable  in  a  good  minister,  and  is  infinnoiis 
in  a  bad  one :  But  to  be  a  spy,  or  to  be  oormpted,  is  always 
infiunons  ander  all  mimsters,  and  is  to.be  regarded  as  a  sbaiiMh 
less  prostitotion.  Polybius  justly  esteems  the  peconiary  iaflii- 
enoe  of  the  senate  and  censors  to  be  one  of  the  regular  and  cofr- 
stttutional  weights  which  preserved  the  balance  of  the  Roman 
government.     Lib.  vi.  cap.  15. 


NOTE  [C]  p.  55.  . 

I  SAY  m  part;  for  it  is  a  vulgar  error  to  imagine,  that  the 
ancients  were  as  great  friends  to  toleration  as  the  English  or 
Dutch  are  at  present.  The  laws  against  external  superstitimi, 
among  the  Romans,  were  as  ancient  as  the  time  oi  the  twelve 
tables ;  and  the  Jews,  as  well  as  Christians,  were  sometimes  pu- 
nished by  them  ;  though,  in  general,  these  laws  were  not  rigo- 
rously executed.  Immediately  after  the  conquest  of  Craul,  thejr 
forbad  all  but  the  natives  to  be  initiated  into  the  region  of  the 
Druids ;  and  this  was  a  kind  of  persecution.  In  about  a  cen- 
tury after  this  conquest,  the  emperor  Claudius  quite  abdished 
that  superstition  by  penal  laws ;  whidi  would  have  been  a  very 
grievous  persecution,  if  the  imitation  of  the  Roman  manners  had 
not,  beforehand,  weaned  the  Grauls  from  their  ancient  preju- 
dices. Suetonius  m  viia  Claudii.  FKny  ascribes  the  abolition 
of  the  Druidical  superstitions  to  Tiberius,  probably  because  dutt 
emperor  had  taken  some  steps  towards  restrainii^  them  (fiS. 
XXX.  cap.  i.)  This  is  an  instance  of  the  usual  caution' and  mo- 
deration of  the  Romans  in  such  cases ;  and  very  different  from 
their  violent  and  sanguinary  method  of  treating'  the  Christians. 
Hence  we  may  entertain  a  suspicion,  that  those  furious  perse- 
ontions  of  ChrisHanify  were  in  some  measure  owing  to  the  im- 
ptudent  seal  and  bigotry  of  the  first  propagators  of  diat  sect ; 
and  ecclesiastical  history  afibrds  us  many  reasons  to  confirm  this 
suspicion* 

VOL.  I.  2  L 


514  MOTBS  TO  THB  WltMT  VOLVMK. 

NOTE  [D.]  p.  99. 

Tiu  octton  ikmied  the  tMte  of  the  Alhenkn  people 
people  of  tbe  oraton.  Gorgtas  Leontiiiin  wae  Toy  tiJdiig  with 
thoB,  tin  dioy  beeune  eoqannted  with  a  better  muiner.  Hie 
ignree  of  qieecfa,  nye  Diodom  Sicnhi^  his  eotttbeoB,  his  i#MEe- 
XHf  Ua  ifMmAivvMry  irfiidi  are  now  despiMid,  bad  m  pceat  effect 
upon  the  audience.  Lib.  ziL  p.  106,  ex  ediiiome  Bbod.  It  is 
in  Tain  thorefore  for  modeni  orators  to  plead  the  taste  of  tbnr 
hearers  as  an  apdogy  for  their  kme  perfonnances.  It  would  be 
atrange  prejudice  ni  fimnir  of  antiqnitjry  not  to  allow  a  Britidi 
pariiaaMiit  to  be  natnatty  soparior  in  judgment  and  delicacy  to 


NOTE  [E.]  p.  116. 

If  it  be  asked  how  we  can  reconcile  to  the  foregcniig  prin- 
cqto  the  hKppoBm,  ndbm,  and  good  pofiqr  of  the  Chinese, 
who  hare  always  been  goroned  by  a  monarch,  and  can  scarce- 
ly form  an  idea  of  a  free  gonnonent ;  I  woold  answer,  that 
thoogfa  the  Chinese  gorermnent  be  a  pure  numardby,  it  is  not, 
protKBrly  qpealdng^  abaohrte.  Una  proceeds  from  a  pecofiaxity 
m  the  sjtnation  of  that  country:  They  have  no  neigfaboan, 
ezcept  the  Tartars,  from  whom  they  were,  in  some  measore, 
8ecared,at  least  seemed  to  be  seemed,  by  their  fionoos  wall, 
and  by  the  great  Bopariorityc^  their  munben.  Bythismeans, 
military  discipline  has  always  been  mnch  neglected  amongst 
them;  and  their  standing  forces  are  mere  militia  of  the  worst 
kind,  and  unfit  to  suppreas  any  general  insunection  in  conn> 
tries  so  extremely  popnkms.  TIms  sword,  therefore,  may  pro- 
perty be  aaid  to  be  always  in  the  hands  of  the  people;  lAoA 
u  a  sufficient  restraint  upon  the  monarch,  and  obl^ea  him  to 
by  his  MOiidStwtiiJ^  or  goreniorB  of  provinces,  under  the  restramt 
of  genecal  laws,  in  order  to  prevent  those  rebellions,  vi^ich  we 
learn  from  history  to  bare  been  so  frequent  and  dangeroos  in 


NOTKS  TO  THB  FIRST  VOLUME*  515 

that  goYenuneiit.  Perhaps  a  pare  monarchy  of  this  kiiid>  were 
it  fitted  for  deftnce  against  foeign  enemies,  winild  he  the  best 
of  aU  governments,  as  having  both  the  tranquillity  atten^ng 
kingly  power,  and  the  moderation  and  liberty  of  popoho-  as^ 
sen^lies. 


NOTE  [F.]  p.  162. 

Were  I  not  afraid  of  appearing  too  philosophical,  I  shoold 
remind  my  reader  of  that  fiunons  doctrine,  siqyposed  to  be  lol- 
ly proved  in  modon  times,  "  That  tastes  and  coknors,  and  aU 
*^  other  sensible  qualities,  lie  not  in  the  bodies,  but  merely  in 
^  the  senses*"*  The  case  if  the  same  with  beanty  and  defor- 
mity, virtue  and  vice.  Hub  doctrine,  however,  takes  off  no 
more  from  the  reality  of  ilie  latter  qualities,  tlmn  from  that  of 
the  former ;  nor  need  it  give  any  mnbrage  eitiher  to  critics  or 
mondists.  Though  ocdoons  were  flowed  to  lie  <mly  in  the  eye, 
would  dyers  or  painters  ever  be  less  regarded  or  esteemed  ? 
There  is  a  sufficient  unifomity  in  the  senses  and  feefings  of 
mankind^  to  make  all  lliese  qiudifties  the  objects  of  art  and  rea- 
soning, and  to  have  tbe  greatest  influence  on  life  and  man- 
ners. And  as  it  is  certain,  that  the  discovery  above  menti<med 
in  natural  philosophy  makes  no  aheratioii  on  action  and  con- 
duct, why  should  a  Eke  disoovery  in  moral  philosophy  make  loiy 
alteration?  - 


NOTE  [GO  p.  175. 


Tii»  Sceptic,  perhaps,  carnes  the  natter  too  ftr,  when  he 
limits  all  phfloaophieal  tofucs  and  reflectaons  to  these  two. 
There  seem  to  be  odiers,  whose  truth  is  undeniiMe,  and  whose 
natural  tendency  is  to  tranquillise  and  soften  aU  the  pemon^. 
FhikMoiAy  greedily  seises  dieee;  studies  them,  weighs  Aem, 
cenmdts  them  to  the  memory,  and  fimdMarissB  tbeni  to  the  mind : 

2l2 


616  MOTBS  TO  THB  PIR8T  VOLUMK. 


And  their  inihMBce  am  Ump&n^  whidi  are  thoii§^itf«l,  gemtie, 
and  «odgffalt>»  BMy  be  oooeiderabie.  Bvk  wbat  is  liieir  inflii- 
flMeyymiwiUn9E,  if  iIm  temper  be  Mteoedently  dkpoeed  after 
dw  tnaeBMnner  m  that  to  wkidi  theypietaid  to  formh? 
Hmjt  wmy,  at  leaat,  iartaSy  that  temper,  and  fonuah  it  with 
▼iewiy  by  wfaidi  it  may  entertain  and  nonridi  itselt  Here  are 
a  km  eampieB  of  such  pfailoaophical  reflocdoas. 

Lit  it  not  certain,  ^lat.ereryeonditioii  baa  concealed  ilk  ? 
llien  why  enry  any  body  ? 

9.  Every  one  has  known  ilk ;  and  there  is  a  compenealion 
Am^^MMt.    Why  not  be  contented  widi  the  present? 

•  S.  Coslem  deadem  the  sense  bodiof  dw  good  and  the  ill, 
and  hnh  ensrj  dnng. . 

4.  Health  and  hnmomr  alL  The  rest  of  little  consequence, 
eicept  diese  be  aftcted. 

5.  How  many  other  good  dm^  have  I?  Tlien  why  be  tbol- 
odferoaeiH? 

6.  How  many  are  happy  in  the  csaditiop  of  wfaidi  I  oom- 
piainP  How  many  cBvy  me  ? 

7.  Brerygoodmnstbe  paidlbr:  Fertone  by  laboar,  faroor 
byiattery.  Would  I  keep  die  pricey  yet  hare  the  commodity  ? 

a  Ei^iect  not  too  great  happiness  in  life.  Hmsan  natore 
admhaitnot. 

9.  Ptopose  not  a  hapinnem  too  conqpficated.  But  does  ibat 
d^wndonme?  Yes:  The  tet  dioioe  does.  Ltfeislflcea 
game :  One  may  choose  the  game :  And  passion,  by  degrees, 
aeiMs  the  proper  object. 

10«  Anticipate  by  yoor  hopes  and  fancy  ftitnrB  consdation, 
wUA  time  in&Sibly  brings  to  e?ery  affliction. 

11. 1  desve  to  be  rich.  Why  ?  That  I  may  possess  many 
fine  objects ;  booses,  gsffdens,  e^pdpage,  te.  How  many  fine 
algeds  does  aatara  ofier  to  every  one  without  expense  ?  Ifen- 
joyed,  sofficisnt.  If  not :  See  Ae  effwt  of  cnstom  or  of  tem- 
per, whidi  would  soon  take  off  the  rsiish  of  the  ridies. 

19.Idesii)eliRme.  Let  this  occar :  If  I  act  well,  I  shall  hwre 
dtt  esteem  of  all  my  acqoaintance.  And  what  is  all  the  rest 
tome? 


MOTES  TO  THE  FIRST  VOLUME.  517 

These  reflections  are  so  obvionsy  that  it  is  a  wonder  they  oc- 
cur not  to  every  man.  So  convincing,  that  it  is  a  wonder  they 
persuade  not  every  man.  Bat  perhi^  they  do  occor  to  and 
persuade  most  men,  when  they  consider  human  life  by  a  general 
and  cahn  survey :  But  where  any  real,  affecting  incident  hap- 
pens ;  when  passion  is  awakened,  fancy  agitated,  example  draws, 
and  counsel  urges ;  the  philosopher  is  lost  in  the  man,  and  he 
seeks  in  vain  for  that  persuasion  which  before  seemed  so  firm 
and  unshdcen.  What  remedy  for  this  inconvenience  ?  Assist 
yourself  by  a  frequent  perusal  of  the  entertaining  moralistB: 
Have  recourse  to  the  learning  of  Plutarch,  the  imagination  of 
Lucian,  the  ek>quence  of  Cicero,  die  wit  of  Seneca,  the  gaiety 
of  Montaigne,  the  sublimity  of  Shafitesbury.  Moral  precepts,  so 
couched,  strike  deep,  and  fortify  the  mind  against  the  iQusions 
of  passion.  But  trust  not  altogether  to  external  aid :  By  habit 
and  study  acqure  that  philosophical  temper  which  boA  gives 
force  to  reflection,  and  by  rendering  a  great  part  of  your  hi^i- 
ness  independent,  takes  off  the  edge  from  alldisorderiypassioiM, 
and  tranquilliaes  the  mind.  Despise  not  these  helps;  but  con- 
fide not  too  much  in  them  neither,  unless  nature  has  been  fitvonr- 
able  IB  the  temper  with  which  she  has  endowed  you. 


NOTE  [H.]  p.  196. 

iTisasuyingof  Menander,ICi|ii,^#j  r^mrums  mX  m  u  wXmrru 
Buf  09$tn  ynur  m.  Men.  apud  Stobnum.  It  is  not  in  the 
ptnoer  even  of  God  to  make  a  poUie  soldier.  The  contrary  obser- 
vation with  regard  to  the  manners  of  soldiers  takes  place  in  our 
days.  This  seems  to  me  a  presumption,  that  the  ancientsowed 
all  dieh-  refinement  and  civiKty  to  books  and  study ;  for  which, 
indeed,  a  soldier  s  life  is  not  so  weD  calculated.  Company  and 
the  world  is  their  sphere.  And  if  there  be  any  pditeness  to  be 
learned  from  company,  they  win  certainly  have  a  considerable 
share  of  it. 


518  KOnS  TO  THE  FIRST  VOLUMS; 


NOTE  [I.]  p.  196. 

Though  all  mankind  have  a  strong  propensity  to  rd^um  al 
certain  times  and  in  certain  dispositicHiiy  yet  are  there  few  <m- 
none  who  bare  it  to  that  degree^  and  with  that  constancy,  which 
is  recpiisite  to  support  Ae  chancter  of  thk  profeaedoii.  Itmwt» 
therefore,  happen,  that  clergymen,  being  drawn  from  ^  com- 
mon mass  of  mankind,  as  people  are  to  other  employments,  by 
the  views  of  profit,  the  greater  part,  thong^  no  athiHsts  or  free- 
thinkers^  will  find  it  necessary,  on  particolar  occasions,  to  feign 
more  devotion  than  they  are,  at  that  time,  pooseaoed  o^  and  to 
maintain  the  appearance  of  ferronr  and  seriousiMSB,  even  when 
jaded  with  the  exercises  of  their  rehgimi,  or  whim  they  h^ve 
their  minds  engaged  in  the  common  oocapatioDS  of  Ufe.  Hiey 
most  not,  like  the  rest  of  the  worki,  give  scope  to  dieir  natnxal 
movemoits  and  sentiments.  They  most  set  a  goard  over  th^ 
looks,  and  words,  and  actions :  And  in  ord^  to  support  the  ve- 
neration paid  them  by  the  mnhitade,  they  most  not  only  keep  a 
remarkable  reserve,  but  mnst  promote  tbe  apint  o£  snpavdtho^ 
by  a  continned  grimace  and  hypocrisy.  This  disamnlation  ofien 
destroys  the  candonr  and  ingennity  of  th^  temper,  and  makes 
an  irreparable  breach  in  their  character. 

If  by  chance  any  of  them  be  possessed  of  a  temper  more  i 
ceptible  of  devotion  than  nsnal,  so  that  he  has  but  little  i 
for  hypocrisy  to  support  the  character  of  his  professicm,  it  is  so 
natural  for  him  to  overrate  this  advantage,  and  to  think  that  it 
atones  for  every  violati<m  of  morality,  that  frequently  he  is  not 
ipoore  virtuous  than  the  hypocrite.  And  thou^^  few  dare  q>en- 
ly  avow  those  exploded  opinions,  ^at  every  Mng  is  lawfnl  to 
the  saintSy  and  thai  they  alone  have  property  in  their  goods  ; 
yet  may  we  observe,  that  these  principles  lurk  in  every  bosom, 
and  represent  a  zeal  for  religious  observances  as  so  great  a  mmt, 
that  it  may  compensate  for  many  vices  and  enormities.  This 
observadon  is  so  common,  that  all  prudent  men  are  on  their 
guard,  wbenthey  meet  with  any  extraordinary  appearance  of  re- 


NOTXS  TO  THB  FIRST  VOLUMB.  519 


l%ieB ;  though  at  die  an»e  tune,  thejr  cmAmy  that  thare  are 
manyexoeptioiis  totlusgeiiardniley  and  that  probity  and  nqMr- 
atitkmy  or  erea  probity  and  ftmadciflmy  are  not  ahogetfaer  andin. 
every  instance  ineompa^le. 

Most  men  are  amlntioiu;  bat  the  ambition  of  other  men  may 
commonly  be  satisfied  by  excelling  in  their  partiealar  profeenony 
and  thereby  promoting  the  interests  of  society.  The  ambition 
of  the  clergy  can  often  be  satisfied  only  by  promotiBg  ignoianoey 
and  Boperstition,  and  impticit  fioth,  and  impions  frauds.  And 
having  got  what  Archimedes  oidy  wanted^  {namdy,  anothec 
world,  on  which  he  ooidd  fix  his  engines),  nowcmderdieyHiove 
this  world  at  their  pleasore* 

Most  men  have  an  overweening  conceit  of  themsetvea;  bnt 
these  have  a  pecnUar  tempitction  to  that  vice,  who  sre  regarded 
with  snch  veneration,  and  are  even  deemed  sacred,  by  the  igno- 
rant  mnhitade. 

Most  men  are  apt  to  bear  a  particular  regard  for  members  of 
their  own  profession ;  bnt  as  a  lawyer,  or  physician,  or  merdiant, 
does  each  of  them  fi^ow  ont  his  business  apart,  the  interests  of 
men  of  these  professions  are  not  so  closely  united  as  the  inte- 
rests of  dergymen  of  tiie  same  reBgion;  Where  the  whole  body 
gains  by  the  veneration  paid  to  thdr  common  tenets,  aadby  the 
suppression  of  antagonists. 

Few  men  can  bear  contracUetion  with  patience ;  bikt  the  deigy 
too  often  proceed  even  to  a  d^;ree  of  fury  on  this  bead:  Be- 
cause an  their  credit  and  livelihood  depend  upon  Ae  belief  wUch 
their  opinions  meet  with ;  and  they  alone  pretend  to  a  divine 
and  supernatural  authority,  or  have  any  colour  for  lepiesenthig 
their  antagcmists  as  impious  and  proftme.  Hie  Odhtm  Tkeobh 
gicum^  or  Theological  Hatred,  is  noted  even  to  a  proverb,  and 
means  that  degree  of  rancour  whidi  is  ihe  most  furious  and  im- 
placable.    ' 

Revenge  is  a  natural  passion  to  mankind ;  but  seems  to  reign 
with  the  greatest  force  in  priests  and  women :  Because,  being 
deprived  of  the  immediate  exertion  of  anger,  in  violence  and 
combat,  they  are  apt  to  ftncy  themselves  despised  on  that  ac- 
count ;  and  their  pride  supports  their  vindictive  disposition. 


520  MOTB8  TO  THE  FIRST  VOLUMB. 


Tins  natty  of  die  vices  of  hnBian  natiire  aro,  by  fixed  monf 
csnses,  inibnied  in  thst  profesaon;  and  tboogh  sererai  in- 
diridoals  esofM  the  oootagioD,  yet  all  wise  govemmeBti  witt 
be  on  their  guard  against  the  attempts  of  a  society,  who  will 
for  ever  oondiiBe  into  one  fiu^on ;  and  -vHuIe  it  ads  as  a  society, 
will  for  ever  be  actuated  by  andbidon,  pride^  revoige^  and  a  per- 
secnting  ^irit. 

Tlie  temper  of  retigioD  is  grare  and  serknis ;  and  ttus  is  the 
daffacter  required  of  priesta,  which  confoies  them  to  strict  rules 
of  decency,  and  commonly  prevents  irregolarity  and  intem- 
pci  Ml  e  amongst  diem*  The  gaiety,  modi  less  the  excesses  of 
pleasmv,  is  not  permitted  in  that  body ;  and  this  virtoe  is,  per^ 
haps,  the  -oidy  one  whidi  they  owe  to  their  frofession.  In  rdi- 
gions,  indeed,  fomdedmispecalativeprind^es,  and  where  psb- 
lie  discooFMs  make  a  part  of  raligioas  service,  it  may  also  be 
supposed  that  the  clergy  will  have  a  considerable  share  in  the 
haramg  of  the  tfanea;  thongfa  it  is  'Certain  that  their  taste  in 
ekqnenee  will  always  be  greater  than  their  proficiency  in  rear 
soning  and  philosophy.  But  whoever  possesses  the  oUier  nobk 
lirtnes  of  hamanity,  medoiess  and  modenition»as  very  many  of 
thenii  no  doubt,  do^  is  beholden  for  them  to  natore  or  reflectku^ 
not  to  tlie  gouns  of  his  calling. 

It  was  no  bad  expedient  in  the  old  Roiiians,  for  preventing 
the  strmig  eflbct  of  the  priestly  character,  to  make  it  a  law, 
that  no  one  shoold  be  received  into  the  sacerdotal  office  till  he 
was  past  fifty  years  of  age.  Dion.  HaL  lib.  L  The  living  a 
layman  tiU  that  a^,  it  is  presumed,  would  be  able  to  fix  the 
chaiacter. 


NOTE  tK.]  p.  197. 

Cjesar  (deBeOo  GaUicOy  lib.  1.)  says,  that  the  Gallic  h<»Bea 
were  very  good,  the  German  very  bad.  We  find  in  lib.  viL 
that  he  was  obliged  to  mount  some  German  cavahy  with  Gallic 
hones.  At  present  no  part  of  Europe  has  so  bad  hones  of  all 
kinds  as  Fiance ;  but  Gormany  abounds  with  ezceDent  war     ^ 


NOTES  TO  THE  FIRST  VOLUME*  521 

bones.  This  may  beget  a  little  smpicioiiy  that  even  animala 
depend  not  on.  the  cUmate,  bat  on  the  different  breedsy  and  on 
the  skill  and  care  in  rearing  them.  The  north  of  England 
abomids  in  the  best  horses  of  aU  kinds  windk  are  peihaps  in  the 
wcM.  In  the  neighbooriag  oonntiesy  north  side  of  the  Tweed, 
no  good  horses  of  any  kind  are  to  be  met  with.  Str^H!,  lib.  ii. 
rejects,  in  a  great  measure,  the  influence  of  climates  upon  men* 
AU  is  costom  and  edocation,  says  he.  It  is  not  from  natare 
that  the  Athenians  flfe  learned,  the  Lacedemonians  ignonMiit, 
and  the  Thebans  too,  who  are  still  nearer  neighbours  to  the  for- 
mer. Even  the  difference  of  animals,  he  adds,  depends  not  on 
climate. 


NOTE  [L.]  p.  200. 

A  SMALL  sect  or  society  amidst  a  greater,  are  conunonly 
most  regular  in  their  morals ;  becaase  they  are  more  remarked, 
and  the  faults  of  individuals  draw  didmnour  on  the  whole.  The 
only  exception  to  this  rule  is,  when  the  stqierstitioii  and  preju- 
dices of  the  laige  society  are  so  strong  as  to  dvow  an  infinny 
on  the  smaller  society,  independent  of  their  morals.  For  in 
that  case,  having  no  character  either  to  save  or  gain,  they  be- 
come  careless  of  their  behaviour,  except  anumg  themselves. 


NOTE  [M.]  p.  203. 

I  AM  apt  to  suspect  the  Negroes  to  be  natundly  infinior  to 
the  Whites.  There  scarcely  ever  was  a  oiviMaed  nation  of  that 
oomplezion^  nor  ev^i  any  indiiadual,  eminent  either  in  action 
or  speculation.  No  ingenious  manu&ctures  amongst  them,  no 
arts,  no  sciences.  On  the  other  hand,  the  most  rude  and  bar- 
barous of  the  Whites,  su^  as  the  ancient  Germans,  the  present 
Tartars,  have  stUl  something  eminent  about  them,  in  their  va- 
lour, form  of  government,  or  some  Gtber  particular.  Such  a 
uniform  and  constant  difierence  could  not  happ^  in  so  many 


522  NOTIS  TO  THS  riRST  VOLVMX. 


coaBtriM  tad  agMy  if  natore  had  not  made  an  original  dittmo- 
tuo  botipaca  diaae  breeda  of  man.  Not  to  mentioa  our  colo- 
mea,  there  are  Negro  akrea  diapened  all  ofer  £nrope>  of  whom 
none  ever  diaooTwed  any  aymptoma  of  ingendty;  though  knr 
people,  withottt  edncatiooy  will  atart  up  amoogat  va,  and  diatin- 
gvidh  themadrea  in  erery  pofeaakm.  In  Jamaica,  indeed,  they 
talk  of  one  Negro  aa  a  man  of  porta  and  Jeaniiog ;  but  it  is  like- 
ly he  ia  admired  for  alender  aocoBi|diahmentay  like  a  parrot  who 
apeaka  a  few  wofda  pkinly. 


NOTE  [N.]  p.  215. 

Paimtsrs  make  no  acmple  of  lepreaenting  diatreaa  and  aor- 
row  aa  well  aa  any  odiar  paaaion :  Bnt  they  aeem  not  to  dwell 
ao  much  on  theae  mehmdioly  affectiona  aa  the  poets,  who 
though  they  copy  every  aaotion  of  the  hmnan  breast,  yet  pass 
qoickly  orer  the  agreeable  aentinienta>  A  painter  repreaenta 
only  one  inatant ;  and  if  that  be  paasionate  nunigfa,  it  is  sore  to 
afieetand  delight  the  ipectator:  Bat  nothing  can  fhmish  to  the 
poet  a  Tariety  of  acenea,  and  incidents,  and  sentiments,  except 
jdiatreaa,  terror,  or  anxiety.  Complete  joy  and  aatis&ctiwi  is  at- 
tended with  aecniily,  and  leaTea  no  fiviher  room  for  action. 


NOTE  [O.]  p.  255. 

Thb  more  ancient  Romana  lired  in  perpetual  war  with  all 
their  neighbonrs :  and  in  old  Latin,  the  term  kottiSf  oxpieoBod 
both  a  stranger  and  an  enemy.  This  is  remarked  by  Cicero ; 
hot  by  him  is  aacribed  to  the  humanity  of  his  antestors,  who 
aoftened,  as  much  aa  possible,  the  denomination  of  an  enemy, 
by  calling  him  by  the  same  a(^>eOation  whidi  signified  a  stran- 
ger. De  Off*  lib.  iL  It  is  however  much  more  probable,  from 
the  manners  of  the  timea,  that  the  ferocity  of  dioae  people  waa 
so  great  as  to  make  them  regard  all  atrangera  as  enemies,  and 
call  them  by  the  same  name.    It  is  not,  besides,  eonsistrat  with 


NOTES  TO  THE  FIRST  VOLUME.  523 

the  most  common  maxims  of  policy  or  of  iiatiire>  tbat  any  state 
should  regard  its  public  oiemies  with  a  friendly  eye,  or  preserve 
any  such  sentiments  for  them  as  the  Roman  orator  would 
ascribe  to  Ms  ancestors.  Not  to  mention,  that  the  early  Romans 
reidly  exercised  piracy,  as  we  learn  from  their  first  treaties  widi 
Carriage,  preserved  by  Polybins,  lib.  iii.,  and  consequently,  like 
the  Sallee  and  Algerine  rorers,  were  actiuJly  at  war  with  most 
nations,  and  a  stranger  and  an  enemy  were  with  them  almost 
synonymous. 


NOTE  [P.]  p.  280. 

A  PRIVATE  soldier  in  the  Roman  infrmtry  had  a  denarius 
a-day,  somewhat  less  than  eightpence.  The  Roman  emperors 
had  commonly  25  legions  in  pay,  which,  allowing  5000  men  to 
a  legion,  makes  125,000.  TaeiL  Ann.  lib.  it.  It  is  true,  there 
were  also  auxiliaries  to  the  legions ;  but  their  numbers  are  un- 
certain as  well  as  their  pay.  To  consider  only  Ae  legionaries, 
the  pay  of  the  private  men  could  not  exceed  1,600,000  pounds. 
Now,  the  parliament  in  the  last  war  commonly  allowed  for  the 
fleet  2,500,000.  We  have  therefore  900,000  over  for  the  of- 
ficers and  other  expenses  of  the  Roman  legions.  There  seem 
to  have  been  but  few  officers  in  the  Roman  armies  in  compari- 
son of  what  are  mnployed  in  all  our  modem  troops,  except  some 
Swiss  corps.  And  these  officers  had  very  small  pay :  A  cen- 
turion, for  instance,  only  double  a  common  soldier.  And  as 
die  soldiers  from  their  pay  ( TaciL  Ann.  fib.  L)  boug^  their 
own  clothes,  arms,  tents,  and  baggage ;  this  must  also  JlnmSmaAk 
considerably  the  other  charges  of  the  army.  So  little  expensive 
was  that  mighty  government,  and  so  easy  was  its  yoke  over  the 
worid.  And,  indeed,  this  is  the  more  natural  conclusion  from 
the  foregoing  calculations.  For  money,  after  the  conquest  of 
Egypt,  seems  to  have  been  neariy  in  as  great  plenty  at  Rome  as 
it  is  at  present  in  the  richest  of  the  European  kingdoms. 


524  NOTES  TO  THl  PI RST  VOLUMB« 


NOTE  [a]  ^  285. 

Thbss  fiieto  I  gm  iqpoo  the  aatfaority  of  M.  do  Tot,  in  Ui 
B/^Uetiinu  PokHques^  an  author  of  rapntation.  Though  I  nmst 
confefli,  that  the  fiMSta  which  he  advances  on  other  occasions^ 
are  oliten  so  snspidoasy  as  to  make  his  anthority  less  in  this 
HMSter.  Howerer,  the  general  obserratkm,  that  the  angm^it- 
ing  of  the  money  in  Fhmce,  does  not  at  firat  proportionably  aug- 
ment the  prices,  is  certainly  just. 

By  the  bye,  this  seems  to  be  <me  of  the  best  reasons  which 
can  be  giren  for  a  gradual  and  univenal  increase  of  the  deno- 
mination of  money,  though  it  has  been  entb^y  orerlooked  in 
aU  those  Tohmies  which  hare  been  written  on  that  question  by 
Melon  du  Tot,  and  Puis  de  Vecney.  Were  all  our  money,  for 
instance,  raomned,  and  a  penny's  worth  of  siher  taken  from 
every  shilling,  the  new  dnffing  would  probably  purchase  every 
thing  that  conhl  have  been  bought  by  the  old ;  the  prices  of 
every  thing  would  thereby  be  insensiUy  diminished ;  foreign 
trade  enlivened ;  and  domestic  indwtry,  by  the  drculatioD  of  a 
great  number  of  pounds  and  shillingB,  waald  rec^re  Bome  in- 
crease and  encouragement.  In  executing  such  a  project,  it 
would  be  bettor  to  make  the  new  slnlling  pass  for  24  halfpence, 
in  order  to  pioseifo  the  illusion,  and  to  make  it  be  taken  for  the 
same.  And  as  «  reeoinage  of  our  silver  begins  to  be  requisite^ 
by  the  contmual  wearing  of  our  shillings  and  sixpences,  it  may 
be  doubtful,  wfaedier  we  ought  to  imitate  the  example  in  King 
WiBiam's  reign,  when  the  dipt  money  was  raised  to  the  old 
standard. 


NOTE  [R.]  p.  3S1. 

It  must  carefully  be  remarked,  that  throughout  this  dis- 
course, wherever  I  speak  of  the  level  of  money,  I  mean  always 
its  proportional  level  to  the  commodities,  labour,  industry  and 
skill,  which  is  in  the  several  states.     And  I  assert,  that  where 


KOTIS  TO  THE  PIRST  VOLUME.  525 

time  adyiaiitageft  are  donUe,  triple,  quadruple,  to  wbat  they  are 
in  the  neighbonring  states,  the  money  infailibly  will  also  be 
doable,  triple,  and  qnadmple.  The  only  circmnstance  that 
can  obstmct  the  exactness  of  these  proportions,  is  the  escpense 
of  transporting  the  commodities  from  one  place  to  another; 
and  this  e3q)ense  is  sometimes  unequal.  Thus  the  com,  cat- 
tle, cheese,  butter  of  Derbydiire,  cannot  draw  the  money  of 
London,  so  much  as  the  manufJEusturers  of  London  draw  the 
money  of  Derbyshire.  But  this  objection  is  only  a  seeming 
one ;  for  so  far  as  the  transport  of  commodities  is  expensive, 
flo  fo  is  the  comnranication  between  ~the  places  obstructed  and 
imperfect. 


NOTE  [S.]  p.  361. 

I  RAVE  heard  it  has  been  computed,  that  all  the  creditors 
of  the  public,  natires  and  foreigners,  amount  only  to  17,00(h 
These  make  a  figure  at  present  on  their  income ;  but  in  case 
of  a  pQbHc  bankruptcy,  would,  in  an  instant,  become  the  low- 
est, as  well  as  the  most  wretched  of  the  people.  The  dignity 
and  authority  of  the  landed  gentry  and  nobiKty  is  much  better 
rooted ;  and  would  render  the  contention  yery  imequal,  if  ever 
we  come  to  that  extremity.  One  would  indine  to  assign  to  this 
event  a  very  near  period,  such  as  half  a  century,  had  not  our 
ftther's  prophecies  of  this  kind  been  already  found  fiUladous,  by 
the  duistion  of  our  public  credit  so  much  beyond  all  reasonaUe 
expectation.  When  the  astrologers  in  France  were  erery  year 
foretdhng  the  deaA  of  Henry  IV.,  ^  These  Mows,"  says  he, 
**  must  be  rig^  at  last."  We  rinO,  therefore,  be  more  cantiotts 
than  to  assign  any  precise  date ;  and  shall  content  ourselves 
tritfa  pointnig  out  the  event  in  general. 


NOTE  [T.]  p.  874. 

CoLtTM ELLA  says,  lib.  in.  cap;  8,  that  in  Egypt  and  Afrka 
At  bearmg  of  twins  was  iieqnent  and  even  customary;  ^vml- 


&26  MOTlfi  TO  THB  VIA8T  VOLVUE. 

mpartu$fnmttliare$y  oepcmeMdenneitynL  If  this  was  tnie» 
thore  i»  a  phyaiaJ  differenoe  both  in  coantnes  and  ages ;  fiu- 
trareUen  make  no  soeh  femaiks  on  these  ooontriea  at  preaent. 
On  the  contmy^  we  are  i^t  to  auppoae  the  northern  natioDa 
more  {Kolific.  As  those  two  coimtries  were  proTinoes  of  the 
Roman  empire»  it  is  difficnlt,  though  not  altogether  absurd,  to 
suppose  that  snch  a  man  as  C<^ameOa  m^t  be  mistaken  with 
regard  to  them. 


NOTE  [U.]  p.  380. 

Epist.  122.  The  inhnman  q>ortB  exhibited  at  Rome  may 
jostly  be  considered  too  as  an  effect  of  ^  people's  contempt 
for  daTes,  and  was  also  a  great  cause  of  the  general  inhumanity 
of  their  princes  and  rulers*  Who  can  read  ^  accounts  of  the 
anqihitheatncal  entertainmenta  without  horror  ?  Or  who  is  sur- 
prised that  the  empercMv  should  treat  that  people  in  the  same 
way  the  people  treated  their  inferiore  ?  One's  humanity  is  apt 
to  renew  the  barbarous  wish  of  r4iligula,  that  the  people  had 
but  one  neck :  A  man  could  almost  be  pleased^  by  a  siaglf^ 
bk>W|  to  put  an  end  to  such  a  race  of  monsters.  You  may 
thank  God,  says  the  author  above  cited,  (qnsL  1.)  addresang 
himself  to  die  Roman  people,  that  you  have  a  mast^,  (to  wit, 
the  mild  and  merciful  Nero,)  who  is  incapable  of  learning  cruel- 
ty firom  your  example.  This  waa  spoke  in  the  b^inning  of  his 
reign ;  but  he  fitted  them  very  well  afterwards ;  and,  no  doub^ 
waa  considerably  improved  by  the  si^^oC  the  barbarous  djecte, 
to  which  he  bad,  fimn  his  infincy,  been  accostiiwed. 


NOTE  [X.]  p.  888. 

As  9ervu$  was  the  name  of  the  genus,  and  vema  of  the  qie- 
cies  without  any  conrebitiye,  this  forms  a  strong  presumption, 
that  thalattsv  were  by  for  the  least  numerons*    Itisan  miivar- 


fi.£jftS^u.2aH 


J 


MOTBS  TO  THB  FIRST  VOLUME.  527 

ttl  obsorvatioii  which  we  may  fbrm  upon  k&giiage,  that  where 
two  related  parts  of  a  whde  hear  any  prqxNrtion  to  each  other, 
in  numbers,  rank,  or  consideration,  there  are  always  correlative 
terms  invented,  which  answer  to  both  the  parts,  and  express 
their  mntoal  relation.  If  they  bearno  proportion  to  each  other, 
the  t^m  is  only  invented  for  the  less,  and  marks  its  distinctioa 
from  the  whole.  Thns  man  and  womany  master  and  servantf 
father  Biidsafh  prince  BODidwlifecif  sfron^^  and  ct^uen,  are  cor- 
relative terms.  But  the  words  seamofi^  carpefUerf  smithy  taUoTy 
kc*  have  no  correspondent  terms,  which  express  ^lose  who  are 
no  seamen,  no  carpenters,  &c.  Langoages  di£fer  very  mnch 
with  regard  to  the  particular  words  where  this  distincticm  ob<> 
tains ;  and  may  thence  afford  very  strong  inferences  oonceming 
the  manners  and  customs  of  different  natuma.  The  military  go- 
vernment of  the  Roman  emperors  had  exalted  the  s<ddiery  so 
hig^  that  they  balanced  all  the  other  orders  of  the  state. 
Hence  miks  and  paganns  became  rdative  tenhs;  a  thing,  tiH 
then,  unknown  to  aadent,  and  still  so  to  modem  languages. 
Modem  stq^erstition  exalted  the  clergy  so  hig^  that  they  over- 
balanced the  whole  state  f  Hence  eUrgy  and  laity  are  terms 
opposed  in  all  modem  languages,  and  in  diese  akme.  And 
from  the  same  principles  I  infer,  that  if  the  number  of  slaves 
bought  by  the  Romans  from  foreign  countries  had  not  extreme- 
ly exceeded  those  which  were  bred  at  home,  vema  would  have 
had  a  correlative,  which  would  have  expressed  the  former  spe- 
cies of  sbves.  But  these,  it  would  seem,  composed  the  main 
body  of  the  ancient  slaves,  and  the  latter  were  but  a  few  excep- 
tions. 


NOTE  [Y.]  p.  886. 

^  NoN  temere  andUs  ejus  rei  cansa  comparantur  ut  parik 
<<ant.*'  Digest.  Ub.v.  Hi.  S.deksered.  petit  lex  27.  Thefol^ 
lowing  texts  are  to  the  same  puipose :  *^  fi^adimem  moriiosum 
<<  non  esse,  neque  Titiosum,  verios  mihi  videtur;  sed  sanum 
'^  esse,  secuti  ilium  qui  unum  testiculum  habet,  qui  etiam  ge- 


526  NOTES  TO  THE  FIRST  VOLUMS. 

**  nerve  potest.**  BigeiL  lib.  iLtk.l.de  adUUio  e^Ucio,  lac  B. 
^  §  2.  Sin  entem  qnis  its  spwlo  nt,  ut  tun  necessaria  pn 
^  corporig  penitns  absit,  morbos  est.**  IcL  lex  7.  His  impo- 
tence, it  seems,  was  only  regarded,  so  for  as  his  health  or  fife 
might  be  afiected  by  H.  In  other  respects,  he  was  full  as  th- 
hiahle.  The  same  reasoning  is  employed  with  regard  to  female 
slaves.  ^  Qanritiir  de  ea  mnliere  qnse  semper  mortuos  parity 
**  an  mofbosa  sit?  et  ait  Sabinns,  si  vnlve  Titio  hoc  oontangiV 
**  merboaam  esse.**  Id,  ler  14.  It  has  even  been  doehted, 
whether  a  woman  pregnant  was  moibid  or  litiated ;  and  it  is 
deleimined  that  she  is  soond,  not  on  aceomit  of  the  vahie  of  her 
oflbpring,  bat  because  it  is  ihe  natural  part  or  office  of  women  to 
bear  chikhen.  **  Si  raulier  pnegnans  Tenerit,  inter  omnes  cob- 
^  Tenit  saaan  earn  esse.  Manmum  enim  ac  prsedpnnm  mn- 
^  nos  ioBminanim  accipeare  ac  tneri  conceptmn.  Pnearpenm 
**  qnoqae  sanam  esse ;  si  modo  nSnl  extrinsecns  accedit,  quod 
**  cofpos  ejus  in  aliqoam  yaletndiBem  innnitteret.  De  sterifi 
^<  Coriias  distinguere  TVebathmi  dictt,  ut  si  natnra  sterilis  sit, 
^saiia^;  siyitioeorponi,contnu**    Id. 


NOTE  [Z.]  p.SW. 

The  practice  of  leaving  great  sums  of  money  to  fnends, 
though  one  had  near  relations,  was  common  in  Greece  as  well 
as  Rome,  as  we  may  gather  from  Lucian.  This  practice  pre- 
vails much  less  in  modem  times ;  and  Ben  Johnson  s  Volpone 
is  therefore  almost  entirely  extracted  from  ancient  authors,  and 
suits  better  the  manners  of  those  times. 

It  mayjustly  be  thought,  that  the  liberty  of  divorces  in  Rome 
was  another  discouragement  to  mairiage^  Such  a  piactioe  pre- 
yents  not  quarre1^  from  humour^  but  rathw  increases  them ;  and 
occasions  abo  those  from  tiU^raii;  which  are  mudh  more  danger- 
ous and  dsstmcdve.  See  fivther  on  this  head,  Bart  I.  Essay 
XVIIL  Perhaps  too  the  unnatural  lusts  of  the  ancients  ongfat 
to  be  taken  into  consideratien  as  of  smne  moment. 

1 


VOTia  TO  TH8  FIB8T  VOLUME*^  689 


NOTE  [AAO  p.  396. 

Plin.  Itti.  xyiii.  cap.  S.  Hie  mme  mntiiQr,  in  cap.  6.  8a.y% 
VerumqueJbte$Uiht$hUiJfmdiapetdidereItai^^ 
pnmneias.  *Sex  domi  semiemn  AfrJMt poiMAamt ;  ctonffK 
teffsciieosNeropHncepi*  IndiisviewvthelMrteoiwbiUd^My 
committed  by  the  fint  Roman  emperors^  waa  iu»t»  p«liapa»  aa 
deatroctiTe  to  tlie  puUic  aa  we  may  imagine.  These  never 
ceased  till  they  had  extinguished  all  the  iUiistrioiia  fiuiiilie% 
which  had  eigoyed  the  {bonder  of  the  world  during  the  latter 
agea  of  die  republic^  The  new  nobles  who  roae  in  their  place 
were  leas  spleodidy  as  we  learn  from  Tacitiis.  i4im«  likiii«cap« 
55. 


NOTE  [BB.]  p.  402. 

We  shall  mention  from  Diod<Mii8  Siculus  alone  a  few  mas- 
sacresy  which  passed  in  the  coarse  of  sixty  years,  daring  the 
most  shining  age  of  Greece.  There  were  banished  from  Sy- 
baria  500  of  the  noUee  and  their  partisans ;  lib.  xii.  p.  77.  ex 
MLRhodomamtL  Of  Chiansy  600  dtiaens banished ;  lib.  xiiu 
p.  180.  At  Rhesus,  340  killed,  1000  banished;  lOi.  xiiL  p* 
223.  Of  CyieniaiMi,  500  nobles  killed,  all  the  rest  baaisbed ; 
Hb.  xir.  p.  263.  The  Corinthiaiia  killed  120,  banished  500  ; 
fib.  xir.  p.  304.  FhslMdM  the  Spartan  banished  300  BceotiaiM ; 
lib.  XT.  p.  342.  Upon  the  M  of  the  Lacedemonians,  deuKH- 
craciea  were  restored  in  many  citiea,  and  severe  vengeance  ta- . 
ken  of  the  nobles,  after  the  Greek  manner.  But  mattens  did 
not  end  there.  For  the  banished  nobles,  retaraiog  in  many 
pkcqa,  butchered  their  adrenariea  at  Fhiake,  in  Corinth^  in 
Megara,  in  Fhliasia.  In  this  hMt  i^aoe  they  killed  300  of  the 
people ;  but  these  again  rerdting,  failed  above  600  of  the  no^ 
bles,  and  bankhed  the  rest ;  fib.  xv.  p.  357.  In  Arcadia  1400 
baniahed,  besides  many  lolled.  The  baniidied  retnred  to  Spar- 
ta and  to  FsDantium :  The  latter  were  delivered  up  to  their 

VOL.  I.  2  m 


Md  noties  TO  TffB  rr&st  ▼o4i;Mr#> 

coiintiymen,  aad  all  killed ;  lib.  xr.  p.  373.  Of  th»  biDkfaed 
from  Aiigos  and  Thebes,  dMta  we«e  500  fai  the  Spartan  anny  ; 
id,  p.  374.  Here  is  a  detaO  of  the  most  remarkable  of  Aga- 
Aacfes's  cneltits  fraia  Ae  same  author.  The  paopb  before  hi» 
toiu|iatiaa  had  bnkhed  eOdnoMsa;  Mk  six.  p.  655.  Aftav 
mrda  that  iPfvant,  in  coocameiiee  witk  the  poo^  kflod  4080 
voUea,  Itfd  fawidiedeaCM);  tdp^647.  He  IdUedf  4000  pea* 
pie  01  Oik;  Ml  p.  Ml*  Bf  AgiMtahiA'slnoiinreOOOhaMi^ 
odfhttnSyraciMt  ttb.ix.p.7$9.  The  WiabhantH  of  JBgeata^ 
to  the  ftMUHber  of  4O,O0O,  weM  ktta^  ttan^  n^om^  9mA  dMi 
and  with  tortttfOB,  for  the  sake  of  dnif  Inonefs  i^  p<  ^OSi 
Afi  the  relattons,  to  idt,  lirtheri  htwtneky  chUdi«ii,  gfandMwiv 
oChisLibyaaatmy.kiled;  tdLp.teB.  He  hattsd  7006  ozilw 
afier  capittdation ;  id,  p.  816.  It  is  to  be  remariLod,  that  Ag^ 
thodes  was  a  man  of  great  sense  and  courage,  and  is  not  to 
he  saiq>ected  of  wanton  cmekjr,  contrary  to  the  mazinis  of  bio 


iiOtE  tCC]  Jfc  406* 

In  oNfer  to  i«comBMiid  his  dlnlt  ts  thi^  fiiivte  nf  lie  pmM 
(ilev  ho  uiUmkaMOB  lA  tii^  snms  ha  hid  iiniaiiiluiL  What 
;Di^«y«f  SOmittaa;  Upon  achomsof  men  MmfaiBi;  •rxt>^^;(i«^ 
tii^,  6  minas;  «yl|^«««  ;^^^^i»f ,  50  ndiias ;  mmnm*  x/k^  3  mi* 
tmht  Seventtmestrievard^  whttt  ha  speat  6  tIdeAto;  l\Be% 
cum  80  minas )  anodier  time  40 ;  fm^ttmhm^x^f  ^^  minas ; 
X^f*^  »'**^*  IC^'h  ^^  mvm  1  ittfut^  x>*fnyti»y  12  minas  ;i 
sn^iX«<mi^  A^rtiiif,  7iaktti;  tjiyt  s|<i<aAi(aliifi  i5  .minis ; 
^ie^en^k^^)  SOndnas:  In  the  iriiole  ton  tJanta  OS  mMm  An 
ittttMAso  dwn  fbir  on  AAMiim  iortahcv  «Kid  ^bat  w^M  wonhl. 
be  e^toetned  great  riches^  Omti,  90.  It  li  tiUHS  ^^  ^y^  ^^ 
hkw  ^  ^toi  obfige  tdm  abosliltely  t^  bo  at  «er  UMich  e^poBsa> 
not  abore-ft  fomi^*  Bvt  wilhmt  the  la^o«ol  tto  pe^p^  P»- 
bbdyi^^  «<»  mndi  aft  safe;  and  thk  was  tbo  oidy  way  w  gain 
it;  (^  fbtthef)  Ohm.  Ii4.  4^  /i^  sirtfw.  In  anotfae;^  phwa^ 
ho  IfitrOdifti^  0  spfoieiv  '^^  Mijhs  tkki4  he  had  spent  his  tsimlo. 


MTtS  to  tHt  YlllST  VOLUME*  4ftt 

tottmiey  and  an  immense  one,  eighty  talents,  for  tho  people ; 
OraU  25.  de  Prob,  Evandri.  The  untKty  or  strangers,  find, 
says  he,  if  they  do  not  eofttribute  laiigely  enon^^  to  the  people's 
iancy,  that  they  have  reason  to  repent  it ;  Orat  SO.  contra 
Pkil  Tdn  hiay  see  #to  what  ^nre  Demosthenes  diflptoys  his 
expensefir  df  ite  n^ttnue,  wheil  he  frfeads  for  hiiAs6lf  decaroHa) 
and  htrw  he  eia^rate^  tfDdtim'n  sdi^fhiess  in  this  partienW,  itf 
hfe  accttsatbn  of  that  ciHminaL  All  this,  hy  the  bye,  is  a  mark 
ofarery  hdqilholttjitdicatilre:  And  yet  the  Athenians  raltted 
th^ifafctches  on  hafitig  the  ihost  legal  and  regidar  admii^Btratiott 
of  ttny  people  in  Oreeceu 

NOTE  IDD.^i  p.  40& 

Th£  a«tW>nliaft  above  cited  are  all  historiaoa,  orators,  anc[ 
phi]o8q>hers,  whose  testimony  is  unquestioned.  It  is  danger- 
ous to  rely  upon  writers  who  deal  in  ridicule  and  satire.  What 
will  posterity,  for  instance,  infer  ficom  this  passage  of  Dr  Swift  ? 
''  I  told  him,  that  in  the  kingdom  of  Tribnia  (Britain),  by  tlie 
<<  natires  called  Lai^on  (London),  tHiere  I  had  scjourned 
'^  some  time  in  my  travels,  the  bulk  of  the  people  consist,  in  a 
«<  manner^  wholly  of  discoverers,  witnesses,  informers,  accusers, 
*^  prosecutors,  evidences,  swearers,  together  with  their  several 
*^  subservient  and  subaltern  instruments,  all  under  the  colours, 
*\  the  conduct^  and  pay  of  ministers  of  state  and  their  deputies. 
'<  Th^  plots  in  that  kingdom  are  usually  the  workmanship  of 
<<  those  persons,^  kc  CfulUvere  TraveUk  Sadi  a  represen*' 
tation  might  suit  the  government  of  Athens ;  not  that  of  Bug-* 
hmd,  whidi  is  remarkable,  even  in  modem  times,  for  htmittnlty^ 
justice,  and  liberty.  Vet  Ifi  the  Dooto^^s  satire^  though  teried 
to  extremes,  as  is  usual  with  him,  even  beyond  other  satirical 
(dUlMfCaksl^BdMir want  ail  et|)act«  The l^h^ of  Ro- 
,  who  «a»  bit  hmsA,  and  of  the  same  partyi  had  been . 
iMiiilbMl  a  Kttia  before  hy  a  bill  of  «tiaijider»  wilib  gieai  justice, 
but.widionft  aaeh  prOaf  as  was*  hlsA%  or  aoeerding  to  the  strict 
fauna  ofsotiloii  law. 

2m2 


532  NOTtS  TO  THE  FIBBT  VQLUMK^ 


NOTE  [EE.3  p.  418, 

In  gj^enly  thflrokmorecandovfiiidimoentyinaiident^^ 
tori|UM^  batlcMexacUieMandcare,  dianiodieiiiodania^  Our 
•pecnlalire  hcdom^  etpedtlXiY  those  of  leligioa,  throw  gu€h  an 
ittumon  oirer  imr  mindi,  tbat  nien  teem  to  regard  impartiaiB^ 
their  tdTemriM  and  to  keredcs  as  a  Tioe  or  weakneaa.  But 
the  coBimoimaaa  of  booksy  by  meana  of  printings  hae  o^ 
dem  hiatorianB  to  be  more  careAil  m  aroiding  contradictaona  and 
incongnuties.  Diodoma  Sicohia  is  a  good  writer;  but  it  is  with 
pain  I  see  his  Darration  contradict,  in  so  many  particalarB»  the 
two  moat  authentic  pieces  of  all  Greek  history,  to  wit,  Xeno- 
phon  s  expedition,  and  Demoathenea*s  oratioiis.  Flntarch  ami 
Appian  seem  scarce  ever  to  have  read  Ckeio'a  epiatks. 


NOTE  CFF.]  p.  415. 

Pliny,  lib.  vii.  cap.  25.  says,  that  Caesar  med  to  boast,  that 
there  had  fallen  in  battle  agauist  him  one  miOion  one  hnncbed 
and  ninety-two  thousand  men,  besides  those  who  perished  m  tlie 
civil  wars.  It  is  not  probable  that  that  conqueror  could  ever 
pretend  to  be  so  exact  in  his  computation.  But  allowing  the 
6Bu;t,  it  is  likely  that  the  Helvetii,  Germans,  and  Britons,  whom 
he  slaughtered,  would  amount  to  near  a  half  of  the  number. 


NOTE  CGG-]  p;  419. 

We  are  to  observe^  thai  when  Diottysitts  Hali^ 
says,  that  if  we  r^ard  the  ancient  walls  of  Rome,  ^  exteat 
of  that  city  will  not  appear  greater  than  thai  of  Adiena ;  her 
must  mean  the  Acn^lis  and  high  town  ctAy.  No  ancienl  va^ 
thor  erer  speaks  of  the  Pyrsenm,  I^alerus,  and  Munydiia,  aa 


MOTBS  TO  THE  FIRST  VOLCMS.  638 

4lie  aune  with  Athens.  Much  less  can  it  be  sappdsed,  that 
Dicmysins  would  consider  the  nwtter  in  that  light,  after  the  walln 
of  Cimon  and  Peridee  were  destroyed,  and  Athens  was  entirely 
aepaimted  from  these  other  towns*  This  obserration  destroys 
all  Vossins's  ceasonings,  and  intiodnces  common  sense  into  these 
caknbttoBs* 


NOTE  [HH.]  p-  422, 

Dkmost.  eenira  Lbpt.  The  A^nians  brought  yearly  from 
PontM  400,000  nmiiinint  or  bushels  of  com,  as  appeared  from 
the  custom-house  books.  And  this  was  the  greater  part  of  thehr 
importation  af  com.  Timy  by  the  bye,  is  a  strong  proof  that 
there  is  some  great  mistake  in  the  foregoing  passage  of  Athe- 
nnos.  For  Attica  itself  was  so  barren  of  com,  that  it  produced 
not  enough  even  to  maintain  the  peasants ;  Tit.  Liv.  lib.  xliii. 
cap.  6.  And  400,000  mediami  would  scarcely  feed  100,000 
men  during  a  twelvemonth.  Lucian  in  his  natigium  nve  votUy 
sayS)  thaS  aslnp,  whidi,  by  the  dimensions  he  gives,  seems  to  have 
been  aboul  the  siae  of  our  third  rates,  carried  as  much  com  as 
would  maintain  Attica  for  a  twelvem<mth.  But  perhi^  Athens 
waa  decayed  at  that  time;  and, besides,  it  is  not  safe  to  trustto 
auch  loose  ilietorical  calcubtioos. 


NOTE  [II.]  p.  422. 

DiOD*  Sic.  hk  zriL  When  Alexander  attacked  Thebes,  we 
may  safely  condade  that  almost  all  the  inhabitants  were  present. 
Whoerer  is  acquainted  with  the  spirit  of  the  Greeks,  espedaliy 
of  the  Thebans,  will  never  suspect  that  any  of  them  would  de- 
sert then:  country  when  it  was  reduced  to  such  extreme  peril 
and  distress.  As  Alexander  took  the  town  by  storm,  all  those 
who  bore  arms  were  put  to  the  sword  without  mercy ;  and  they 
amounted  only  to  6000  men.  Among  these  were  some  stran- 
gers and  manumitted  slaves.     The  captives,  consisting  of  old 


5S4  KOTis  TO  THi  PiitsT  roLxnou 

mm,  woMMiHj  ebildmi  and  thv^i,  were  mU,  ani  tkey  ( 
ed  to  90,000.  We  m$j  thcwfcre  condude,  tlisl  iIm  Ins  chi- 
aem  in  Tbebea,  of  both  sflGics  and  aB  agia»  were  aaar  84,000  ; 
the  stiwg€i«  and  diVMaboat  18,000.  Theae  latl,  uRamayob- 
aerre,  wtH  aomewlMl  Umvt  in  prapartioB  llwa  at  Ath«» ;  mm 
m  reaaooaUe  to  imagine  from  thkdrcam8tance,tiiatAdMBaivn» 
a  town  of  more  trade  to  support  alares,  tad  of  more  eotertaia- 
ment  to  alhnre  strangen.  It  isalao  tobeicmaiked,  tliat  36,00Q 
waa  the  whole  number  of  peef^  both  in  Ae  city  of  Hiebeaand 
the  neighbonring  teiritoiy.  A  Teiy  moderate  number,  it  must 
be  conieaied;  and  tUa  coipnUirion,  being  fennded  en  ftcte 
wUcb  af^iear  iodippntabia,  aanal  hacrt  grant  wnig^t  in  tfaa  pn« 
aent  conirorefay.  Tkt  abovn-mentioned  nnmhar  of  Rhodbna, 
too,  were  all  the  inhalnlanta  of  the  iiland,  who  were  feae^  and 
•bk  to  bear  MKM. 


NOTE  [KKO  p.  48ft. 

STnABo,  lib.  V.  eayi,  thai  the  Emperor  Angnatna  prdiiMM 
the  aairing  hnmm  higher  than  aareniy  feet.  In  another  pnM^iB^ 
lib.xn.heq»eaki  of  the  howea  ef  Home  aa  i  iidiilly  hi|^ 
See  also  to  the  aame  pvpeaa  VitniviaB,  Hb.  iL  nap.  8. 
dea  the  sof^vt,  in  his  oradon  tn  fmimf  aayn,  ifanRonnf 
ed  of  dtiee  mi  the  top  of  cttiea;  and  dwt  if  one  were  to  apread 
it  out,  and  unfold  it,  it  would  corer  ^  uHbole  auifiude  of  Italy. 
Where  an  author  indulges  himaelf  in  auch  extniragant  deckmaT 
tions,  and  gives  so  much  into  the  fayperbdical  style,  one  knows 
nothof^&rhemuatberadacedr  But  tbis  reaaening  aeems  na- 
tural: IfRome  wasbuiltinaaaenttnredanManerasDioByMS 
aaya,  and  ran  so  much  into  the  country,  there  inwt  have  been 
rery  few  streets  where  the  booses  were  raised  BO  high.  Itison- 
ly  ftnr  want  of  room  that  any  body  builds  in  that  inconvenleot 


XOTJKS  TO  THE  TIRST  VO|.UMB#  5M 

NOTE  [LL.]  p.  425. 

Lib.  ii.  episu  16.  lib.  v.  epist.  6«  It  is  trae,  Pliay  there  <k« 
f^cribes  a  counUy-Juntse  ;  bat  since  that  was  the  idea  which 
tiie  ancients  finrned  of  a  magnificent  and  convenient  building* 
the  gfeat  men  would  certainly  build  the  same  way  in  town* 
'<  In  laxitatem  runs  excurrunt,'*  says  Seneca  of  the  rich  and 
Toluptuous,  ^Mst.  1 14*  Valerius  Maximus,  lib.  iv.  cap.  4.  speaki- 
ng of  Cincinpatas*s  field  of  foor  acres,  says,  **  Augoste  se  ba« 
**  l^lare  puno  pvtat,  ciyus  domus  tsntom  patet  quantom  Cinr 
'f  ^im¥>^  num  patuerant*''  To  the  same  purpose^  aee  li))»  xjpcvi. 
iriip,  1;^.;  ^  lib*  xviiif  cfip.  2. 


NOTE  [MM.]  p,4^ 

'<  McBKtA  epis  (Romae)  colbgere  ambitu.  imperatonbw> 
<<  ceosoribiwivi^  yespmiaw^  A.  U.  C.  838.  pass.  xiiL  MCC 
^  eomplasa  IneHtM  ««pleH»,  ifttt  dividitur  in  ^egMMnes  qiiMii^ 
<<  dMrim  eonqjta  m^um  a»5.  fjusdem  ^atii  uansor^  om- 
^^icnleamilliarioineipiteRom*  Fm  sti^uto,  ad  singidaa  poiir 
^<  tttiy  (pus  Mttt  hodae  nttmeio  9^,  ite  nt  duodecim  portss  semel 
^»  immBmdaXt  prsetareaatarqae  e%  teteribus  a^tem^  qnar  esse 
<'  dnitnait,  effich  pwsuiim  per  dwec^wn  3(^775*.  Ad  cqunMna 
««  rm>  tectomm  c«m  caaltis  fntftom  at  eodsm  Millianoi  per 
«^  vieoa  ooumim  vianaiii  mansufa  c<^kgit  paido  MBpUns  seplw- 
*^  ginta  niBk  pasBttmn.  Quo  si  ipsua  akitudinem  teetoram  ad- 
'<dat,  dignam  profecto,  estimalMiiatt  Oo»cipiat»  fate^tufque 
**  iftJSku  mlm  magaitBdiiiem  in  toto  ocbe  potitiflsa  ei  i^ompara- 
^  ri."     Plm.  Mb.  iH.  oap.  & 

Att  the  best  manustn^  of  Pliny  naad  the  passagea  as  hefe 
eked,  and  fix  the  cmspaw  of  the  waUa  of  Home  to  be  ihifUm 
miles.  The  ^iiestkm  is,  What  PHny  mbds  by  8ft775  pacas, 
and  how  that  number  wba  foiMMd  ?  The  mBQnar  in  wUdi  I 
conceive  it  is  this.  Rome  was  a  sMHMiiwskv  araa  of  thklaBit 
miW  circumference.     The  F^Twn,  and  cdnae^nentlf  ^  Mil-* 


6Sd  KOTM  TO  THE  FIllST  VOLtTME. 

liariun,  we  know,  wm  tttuated  on  the  bsnkB  of  the  Tyber,  and 
near  the  centre  of  the  circle,  or  npon  the  diameter  of  the  aemi- 
circnlar  area.  Though  there  were  thirty-«even  gates  to  Rome, 
yet  only  twelve  of  them  had  straight  streets,  leading  from  them 
to  the  Milliariimi.  Fliny,  therefore,  haring  assigned  the  cir- 
cnmlerence  of  Rome,  and  knowing  thai  that  akme  was  not  suf- 
ficient to  gire  OS  a  jnst  notion  of  its  svr&ce,  uses  tbia  &rUier 
method.  He  supposes  all  the  streets,  teaidting  from  the  Mil- 
liarium  to  the  twehre  gates,  to  be  laid  together  into  one  straigfat 
line,  and  supposes  we  run  along  that  line,  so  as  to  count  each 
gate  once ;  b  which  case,  he  says,  that  ^  whole  line  is  36,775 
paces ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  each  street  or  radius  of  the  se- 
midrcnlar  area  is  upon  an  average  two  miles  and  ahalf ;  and  the 
whole  length  of  Rome  is  fire  milee,  and  its  Ineadth  about  half 
as  much,  besides  the  scattered  suburbs. 

Pere  Hardouin  understands  this  paassge  in  die  same  man- 
ner, with  regard  to  the  laying  together  the  sereral  streets  of 
Rome  into  one  line,  in  order  to  oompeae  90,775  paces ;  but 
then  he  supposes  that  streets  led  from  the  BfilHBnum  to  every 
gate,  and  that  no  street  exceeded  800  paces  in  lei^tfc.  But, 
1st,  A  semicircular  area,  whose  radios  was  only  800  pmcee, 
tx>uld  never  have  a  drcumfovnoe  near  thirteen  mi&eB,  ^  com- 
pass of  Rome  as  assigned  by  PKny.  A  ra^ua  of  two  nukes  and 
a  half  forms  very  nearty  that  circumference.  2d,  There  is  an 
absurdity  in  supposing  a  city  so  built  as  to  have  streets  running 
to  its  centre  from  every  gate  in  its  circumferenoe ;  these  streets 
must  interfere  as  they  apjHtmch.  Sd,  This  diminishes  too  much 
from  the  greatness  of  ancient  Rome,  and  reduces  that  city  be- 
low even  Bristol  or  Rotterdam. 

The  sense  which  Vossius,  in  his  ObservaHan^  varitBy  puts 
on  this  passage  of  Pliny,  errs  widely  in  the  other  extreme. 
One  manuscript  of  no  authority,  instead  of  thirteen  miles,  has 
assigned  thirty  miles  for  the  compaas  of  the  walls  of  Rome. 
And  Vossius  undentaads  this  only  of  the  cnrviliiiear  part  of  the 
cireumferenee ;  supposing  that,  as  the  Tyber  fbimed  the  dia- 
.meter,  there  were  no  walls  built  on  that  side.  But,  lst»  Tlis 
-refding  is  aUoifed  to  be  contrary  to  almost  all  the  manuscripts* 


VOTK8  TO  THE  FIRST  VOLUME.  SS7 

2cl,  Why  ahoiikl  Pliny,  a  canaae  writer,  repeat  the  compass  d 
the  walls  of  Rome  m  two  suoceasiveseDteiioes?  Sd^Whyrepeat 
it  with  so  sensible  a  variation  ?  4Ui,  What  is  the  meaning  of 
Pliny's  mentioning  twice  the  Milliarimn,  if  a  line  was  measured 
that  had  no  dependence  on  the  Milliarinm  ?  5th,  Anrelian's 
waU  is  said  hy  Yopiscos  to  have  been  drawn  laxiare  ambUu^ 
and  to  have  oomprehended  all  the  bnildmgs  and  soborbs  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Tyber ;  yet  its  compass  was  only  Miy  miles ; 
and  even  here  critics  suspect  some  mistake  or  cormptioii  in 
the  text,  since  the  walls  whidi  remain,  and  which  are  sup- 
posed to  be  the  same  with  Aurelian's,  exceeds  not  twelve 
miles.  It  is  not  probable  that  Rome  would  diminish  from  Au- 
gustus to  Aurehan.  It  remained  still  the  capital  of  the  sane 
emph« ;  and  none  of  the  civil  wars  in  that  long  period,  except 
the  tumults  on  the  death  of  Maximus  and  Balbtnus,  ever  a^ 
fDCted  the  city.  Caracalla  is  said  by  Aurefius  Victor  to  have 
-increased  Rome.  6U1,  There  are  no  remains  of  ancient  buUd'^ 
mga  which  mark  any  such  greatness  of  Rome*  Vossius's  re- 
ply to  this  objection  seems  absurd ;  that  the  rubbish  would  sink 
sixty  or  seventy  feet  under  ground.  It  a]^>ean  from  Spartian 
(in  vUa  SevetiJ  that  the  five  mile  stoae  tit  vim  Lamtama  was 
out  of  the  city.  7th,  Olympiodorus  and  Publius  Victor  fix 
the  number  of  houses  in  Rome  to  be  betwixt  forty  and  fifty  thou- 
sand. 8th,  The  very  extravagances  of  the  consequences  drawn 
by  this  critic,  as  well  as  Lipsias,  if  they  be  neceonry,  destroy 
the  foundatimi  on  which  they  are  grounded ;  that  Rome  con- 
tained fourteen  m]Ui<ms  of  inhabitants,  while  the  whole  king- 
dom of  France  contama  only  five»  aeoording  to  his  computa^ 
tion,  &C. 

The  only  objection  to  the  sense  wUdi  we  have  affixed  above 
to  the  passage  of  Pliny,  seems  to  Ke  in  this,  that  Pliny,  after 
mentioning  the  thirty-seven  gates  of  Rome,  assigns  only  a  rea- 
son for  suppressing  the  seven  old  ones,  and  soys  nothing  of 
the  eighteen  gates ;  the  streets  leading  from  which  terminated, 
accordmg  to  my  opinion,  before  they  reoched  the  Forum. 
But  as  Pliny  waa  writing  to  the  Romans,  who  perfectly  knew 
the  disposition  of  the  streets,  it  is  not  strange  he  shoukl  taka 


5S8  V9TK8  TO  TUB  FIRST  VOLUMC 

a  cttcuMtance  lor  gnnted  whkk  vas  so  fiuoilkr  to  evciy  ho^ 
dy.  Perliape,  too,  numy  of  thew  gates  led  to  wfaarfe  apoB  tiie 
riFor. 

NOTE  [NN.]  p.  427. 

QuiHTus  CuRTJUS  «iy%  ito  waUs  wei«  ten  miies  in  cin;iuii« 
farenoe,  when  fowMied  by  Alexander,  lib.  it.  cap.  B.  Suabo» 
adio  travdled  to  Alestandria  a«  well  m  Diodonift  Skqlus,  aays 
it  was  scarce  ibur  miles  long,  and  in  most  places  about  a  mila 
broad,  lib.  x?ii*  Pliny  said  it  vesainblad  a  Macedonian  cas« 
sock,  stretching  oat  in  the  comers  lib.  r.  capw  10.  Notwttl)* 
standing  ^mb  bulk  of  Alexandria!  wbidi  seems  but  moderate, 
Diodorns  Sicnlns,  spealqng  of  its  circait  as  drawn  by  AleX)* 
ander,  (which  it  nei^^  exceeded,  as  we  learn  from  Amwianas 
MaxcaUinnsy  lib.  xxii.  cap.  16.)  says  it  was  ft^r^  ii^p^^mr^ 
fQdtnmd^  greats  ^d.  Tbe  reason  which  be  ass^^  far  its  sur- 
passing all  cities  in  tbe  world  (for  he  excepts  not  Hoipe)  i^ 
that  it  coataiaed  300,000  free  inhabitants.  He  also  a»entioiv 
the  rerennes  of  the  kings,  to  wit,  6000  talents,  as  aaothtt' 
ciicomstance  to  the  same  pmpose.  No  stich  mighty  sara  in 
ear  eyas,  effen  though  we  mdb^  sBowanoa  for  tha-d^i^rant  y9r 
iae  of  money*  What  Stidbo  says  af  the  nf^s^dHxariag  country, 
means  only  the*  i*  was  laeU  peopled,  iiu9imm  uMkmt.  Mi^ 
•atone  affins,  without  any  greaskyperbole,  that  the  whole  banliB 
of  the  lirar,  finom  Grsvasand  to  Wiodsoiv  are  one  city  ?  This 
is  even  more  than  Stiabo  says  of  the  badks  of  the  hdce  Mseiotis, 
-and  of  the  oanal  to  Caaapna.  It  is  a  Tidgar  saying  k  Italy, 
that  the  king  of  Sardinia  has  but  one  town  in  Redmont,  fmr  k 
is  aU  a  town.  Agrqipa,  m  Jcmpkm  de  hdloJudak.  Bb.  ii. 
cap.  16.,  to  flttke  Iw  an^cose  coB9pi«bend  the  exeessiye  greal- 
Mss  of  Atexaadria,  which  he  andeanrovn  to  magnify,  describes 
only  the  conipaBS  el  the  ^ty  as  drawn  by  Alexsadw;^  a  clear 
proof  that  the  bnlk  of  the  inhabitamis  Unere  lodged  there,  and 
that  the  veighbaarnig  country  wa4  no  mere  than  what  aught  be 
expected  about  all  great  towns,  vary  well  c^tirated,  tmd  well 
•peopled. 


KOTES  TO  THE  FIRST  VOLUME.  680 


NOTE  [00.]  p.  488. 

Hb  says  (in  Nerone,  cap.  30.)  that  a  portico  or  piazia  of  it 
was  3000  feet  long ;  <<  tanta  laxitas  nt  portieas  tnplices  miUiar 
^*  rias  haberet."  He  cannot  mean  diree  nules  ;  for  the  whole 
extent  of  the  house  from  the  Paktine  to  the  Esqniline  was  not 
near  so  great.  So  ii^ien  Yopisc^  in  Anreliano  mentions  a  por^ 
tico  in  Salhist's  gardens,  which  he  calls  portietis  mi&iariemi^ 
it  most  be  understood  of  a  thousand  feet.     So  also  Horace : 

''  Nulla  decempedi^ 
'*  Metata  priTatls  opacam 
"<  Fbrticus  exdpiebat  Arcton."     Lib.  ii.  ode  15. 

So  also  in  lib.  L  satyr  8. 

<'  BfiUe  pedes  in  fronte,  trecentos  cippus  in  agrum 
«  BBc  dabftt." 


NOTE  [PP.]  p.  438. 

It  appears  from  Casar  s  acoount,  that  the  Gauls  had  no  do- 
mestic shKveS)  who  formed  a  dMIfiuvnt  order  from  the  Plebei, 
The  whole  comm<m  pe<^  were  indeed  a  kind  of  slaves  to  the 
nobility,  m  the  peopfo  of  Poland  are  at  dns  day;  and  a  noble- 
jnan  of  Gaol  had  sometiniee  ten  thoosaad  dependeMs  of  diis 
kmd  Nor  can  we  doubt  that  the  armies  were  composed  of  the 
|)eopleaswella8ofthe9obflity.  An  amy  of  100,000  noblemen, 
irom  a  rery  email  state,  is  mcred94e.  Tlie  fightingmen  among 
the  Helretii  were  the  fourdi  part  of  the  inhabitants ;  a  dea^ 
proof  that  all  the  mal^a  of  ndUtary  age  bore  arms.  See  Ctesar 
4e  heUo  GaU.  lib.  L 

We  may  remark,  that  the  numbers  in  G«sar*e  Commentari^ 
can  be  more  depended  on  than  those  of  any  other  ancient  flf«- 
thor,  because  of  the  Greek  translation,  which  still  remaini?,  and 
which  checks  the  Latin  original 


540  NOTES  TO  THE  FIRST  VOLUME. 


NOTE  [Oa]  p.  441. 

The  i^habitaiitB  of  Mtneilles  lost  not  their  snperiority  over 
the  Gttuls  in  commerce  and  the  medumic  artB,  till  the  Roman 
dominion  tamed  the  latter  fixm  anns  to  agricnhore  and  dril 
life,  see  Strabo,  lib*  ir.  That  aod!iar»  in  aerenl  phcea,  re- 
peats the  otiaervation  conceniing  the  improvement  arknig  from 
the  Roman  arts  and  dvifity ;  and  he  lived  at  the  time  when  the 
change  was  new,  and  would  be  aoore  sensible.  So  also  Riny : 
**  Qois  enim  non  commnnicato  orbe  terrarom,  majestate  Roma- 
<<  ni  imperii,  profecisse  vitam  pntet,  commerdo  renun  ac  sode- 
"  tate  feats  pads,  omniaqoe  etiam,  qtue  occulta  anteafiierant,  in 
**  {Momiscno  nsn  fecta.  Lib.  xir.  pnxem.  Nnmine  deum  elec- 
*<  ta  (speaking  of  Italy)  que  coehim  ipsnm  darins  feceret,  sparaa 
<*  congregaret  imperia,  ritosqae  molliret,  et  tot  popnlonmi  dis- 
**  cordes,  ferasqife  lingoas  sermonis  conmerdo  contraheret  ad 
**  coDocpiia,  et  hnmanitatem  homini  daiet ;  breviterqne,  uia 
**  cnnctaram  gentium  in  toto  orbe  patria  fieret  ;**  lib.  iL  cap.  5. 
Nothing  can  be  stronger  to  this  purpose  than  the  foDowing  pas- 
aage  from  Tertullian,  who  lived  abont  the  age  of  Sererus.  **  Cer^ 
^  tk  qnidem  ipae  orbis  impromptu  est,  coltior  de  die  et  instruc- 
"  tior  pristino*  Omnia  jam  pervia,  omnia  nota,  omiua  negotio- 
'<  sa*  S^tndines  femosas  retro  fundi  anMsnissimi  obfiterave- 
*^  rant,  sihas  arva  dOmueront,  fecas  pecora  fugaverunt ;  arense 
^  seruntnr,  saza  panguntnr,  paludes  eliqaantur,  tantse  urbes, 
*'  quanta  non  cas«  quondam.  Jam  nee  insula  horrent,  nee 
*^  scopuE  terrent ;  ubique  domus,  ulnque  populus,  ubiqne  res- 
<'  publica,  ubique  vita.  Summum  testimonium  frequenti»  hu- 
''  auiQfB,  onerod  sumus  nmndo,  vix  nobis  elements  suffidunt ; 
<<  $L  necessitates  arctiores,  et  querela  spud  omnes,  dum  jam 
*^  nos  natura  non  sustinet."  De  Anima,  cap.  SO.  The  air  of 
rfaftoric  and  decboiaticm  which  i^^iears  in  this  passage  dimi- 
nishes some^diat  from  its  authority,  but  does  not  aoitirely  de- 
<»troy  it.  The  same  remark  may  be  extended  to  the  following 
passage  of  Aristides  the  sophist,  who  lived  in  the  age  of  Adrian. 


XOTES  TO  THE  FIRST  VOLUME.  54*1 

**  The  whole  world,**  says  he»  addressing  himself  to  the  Ro- 
mans, <<  seems  to  keep  one  bdiday ;  and  mankind,  laying  aside 
'^  the  sword  which  they  formerly  wOTe,  now  betake  themselves 
«<  to  feasting  and  to  joy.  The  cities,  forgettiBg  their  ancient 
**  animosities,  pfeserro  only  one  emnlation,  which  shall  embel- 
**  htih  itself  most  by  erery  art  and  oniament ;  Theatres  every 
^  where  aiise^  amphitheatres,  portioos,  aqueducts,  temples, 
^  adiools,  academies ;  and  one  may  safely  pronounce,  that  the 
^  sinking  world  has  been  again  raised  by  your  an^idous  em« 
**  pire.  NcnrhaTo  Okies  akme  jeceived  an  increase  of  ornament 
**  and  beauty;  but  the  whude  earth,  like  a  garden  or  paradise^ 
**  m  cuKhvted  and  adotned ;  Inaonndi,  that  such  of  mankind 
^<  as  are  placed  out  of  the  limits  of  your  empire  (who  aro  bu| 
*^  few)  seem  to  merit  our  sympathy  and  compassicm." 

Jt  is  remarkable,  that  though  Diodorus  Siculus  makes  the 
inhabitants  of  Egypt,  when  conquered  by  the  Romans,  amount 
only  to  three  millions ;  yet  Ja$q)h.  de  beUo  JudL  lib.  ii.  cap.  16. 
says,  that  its  inhabitants,  excluding  those  of  Alexandria,  were 
seven  millions  and  a  half  in  the  reign  of  Nero :  And  he  ex^ 
pre8dy^sayB,''tl^  he  drew  this  account  from  the  books  of  the 
Roman  Publicans,  who  levied  die  pdH-tax.  Strabo,  lib.  xviL 
praises  the  superior  police  of  the  Romans  with  regard  to  the 
finances  of  Egypt,  above  that  of  its  former  monarchs :  And  no 
part  of  administration  is  more  essentnl  to  the  hsq^piness  of  a 
people.  Yet  we  read  in  Adiensus,  (1&.  i.  ctef.  25.)  who  flou- 
rished during  the  reign  of  the  Antonines,  tlwt  the  town  Ma- 
reia,  near  Alexandria,  which  was  formerly  a  large  city,  had 
dwindled  into  a  village.  Tliis  is  not,  properly  speaking,  a  con- 
tradiction. Suidas  (August.)  says,  that  the  Emperor  August 
tus,  having  numbered  the  whole  Roman  empire,  found  it  con- 
tamed  mily  4,101,019  men  («v^.)  Thoe  is  here  surely 
some  great  mistake,  either  in  the  author  or  transcriber.  But 
this  authmty,  feeble  as  it  is,  may  be  sufficient  to  counteiiba- 
lance  the  exaggerated  accounts  of  Herodotus  and  Diodorus  Si* 
cuius,  with  regard  to  more  eaify  times. 


W2  yOTES  TO  Tftt  FIRST  VOLVUt* 


NOTE  [HR*]  ^  441. 

Lis*  ii.  cap*  6t.  It  «M]r  perbops  he  uttgiiiM^  thsi  Pot^^ 
bhtt,  being  dep^fldtfiit  m  Rohm,  wvold  Mtarajiy  eatol  ^ 
HmttUk  dMikiiom  But,  ia  the  Jhsi  pboe^  Pi^insy  tlio^li 
one  MA  sometiaMi  lniirilM<H  af  Inrt  canrtbn,  dncanren  no 
tynfiKMltMr  <ir  flmtii'j.  JSAcoiiifl^Thk  flpunon  is  eidy  debyewA 
b  c  riftgle  Mmtaciy  by  Am  bfi^  nUe  he  it  intettt  19011  nwOitf 
giAjMI  $  sad  k  Ift  iUmred,  if  ^Mm  be  asf  an^icioa  of  an  an-* 
tbor'»  tefaic«tit7,  thai  them  ofoH^M  pri(>^ti£oi»  dkdoveged 
hk  rMl  opldbtt  better  thtta  Mft  laara  fbnaal  «id  direei  SBatr' 


NOTE  CSSw}  p.  448. 

I  MUST  coo£mb  that  that  discoiuise  of  Plvtareb,  conoerning 
the  sileace  of  tba  aradea,  -k  in  general  of  so  odd  a,t6xture  and 
80  nalike  bia  other  pgylnctionBy  that  one  is  at  a  lees  what  judg-' 
nieot  to  fonn  of  iu  It  is  wntten  in  dialegne,  which  is  a  me- 
thod oi  compoflitian  that  PlntPEch  conMiwrn/y  but  Uttle  affects* 
The  personages  he  introdacea  advance  Tory  wild,  ahsord,  and 
contradictory  apinionsy  more  lijte  the  visionary  systems  or  ra-^ 
vingi  pf  Plato  than  the  jfkin  senae  of  Plutarch.  There  runs  al- 
so throng  tbs  whole  an  air  of  snpen^tion  and  credufity,  which 
resamhlea  very  little  the  ^irit  that  appearsr  in  other  philoso- 
phic^ .compositions  of  that  authon  ^  For  it  is  remarkable,  that 
thopgbP^uUKh  be  an  fa^stor^tt  fA  supen^tiaw  as  ^erodotns 
or  I^vy,  yat  thert  is  .s^arc^yy  V  ^  ^f^^fV4^}  ^  .philosopher 
less  snpeistitioits^.axtfqptin;  CJDsrp  faid^LaeieB,  I  must  there^ 
fore  coD^MSy  that  a,pasaige  of  pf^tarolv^  ci^  ^^  ^  ^~. 
cpune^  has  n^nefa  less  autbority  with  me>  ihaa  if  it  had  beeiik 
foond  jn  ^M  of  )iia  4^her  CGonil^ 

There  is  only  one  other  discaittse  of  Plutarch  lial^le  to  like 
objections,  to  wit,  that  concerning  those  whose  punishment  is  de^ 


HDTCS  ra  THE  FIRST-  VOLUME.  &ii 

layed  hj^tie  ZhUj^.  It  is  also  wtit  in  diologve,  cMitams  lik« 
Mpevstitiovuy  wild  yMom^  mA  MenA  to  lutve  been  chiefly 
e^uipoM  in  rivakhip  td  t^lat<s  ptutkntety  his  last  book  De 

And  here  I  cannot  but  obeerve,  that  Mons.  Fontenelle^  a  wa- 
ter eminent  for  candour,  seems  to  have  departed  a  little  from 
his  nsnal  character,  when  he  endeavours  to  throw  a  ridicule 
upon  Plutarch  on  account  of  passages  to  be  met  with  in  this 
dialogue  concerning  oracles.  The  absurdities  here  put  into  the 
mouths  of  the  several  personages  are  not  to  be  ascribed  to  Plu- 
tardi.  He  makes  them  refute  each  other  ;  and,  in  general,  he 
seems  to  intend  the  ridiculing  of  those  very  opinions  which 
Fontenelle  would  ridicule  him  for  maintaining.  See  Histairt 
dei' Oracles* 


NOTE  [TT.]  p.  465. 

It  is  remarkable,  that  in  the  remonstrance  of  the  Duke  of 
Bourbon  and  the  legitimate  princes,  against  this  destination  of 
Louis  XIV.  the  doctrine  of  the  original  contraet  is  insisted  on, 
even  in  that  absolute  government.  The  French  nation,  say 
they,  choosing  Hugh  Capet  and  his  posterity  to  rule  over  them 
and  their  posterity,  when  the  former  Hoe  fails,  there  is  a  tacit 
right  reserved  to  choose  a  new  royal  family ;  and  this  right  is 
invaded  by  calling  the  bastard  princes  to  the  throne,  without  the 
consent  of  the  nation.  But  the  Comte  de  Boulainvilliers,  who 
wrote  in  defence  of  the  bastard  prini^es,  ridicules  this  notion  of 
an  original  contract,  especially  when  applied  to  Hugh  Capet ; 
who  mounted  the  throne,  says  he,  by  the  same  arts  which  have 
ever  been  employed  by  all  conquerors  and  usurpers.  He  got 
his  title,  indeed,  recognised  by  the  states  after  he  had  put  him- 
self in  possession :  But  is  this  a  choice  or  a  contract  ?  The 
Comte  de  Boulainvilliers,  we  may  observe,  was  a  noted  repub-  ' 
lican ;  but  being  a  man  of  learning,  and  y«ry  ceoyersant  inhis**  : 


544  XOTBS  TO  THK  FIRST  VOLUME. 

lory,  be  kaew  that  the  people  w««  neyer  dnuMt  cenadted  ia 
theee  revohitioiit  uid  new  etabKehmenta,  and  that  time  akna 
beatowed  right  and  aathority  on  what  was  coaunoBlf  at  fiiat 
fonnded  on  faroe  and  yiolenoe.   See  Etai  de  la  Prameey  Td.  uL 


XN»  or  THB  FIRST  VOLUMK. 


fiDmBURGA : 
FHnted  by  Jamss  Walker. 


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