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The Emperor Charlemagne.

Durer's painting (1510), showing the insignia of later Emperors. Contempo-
rary portraits all show Charlemagne without a beard.

ESSENTIALS IN HISTORY

ESSENTIALS

MEDIEVAL AND MODERN
HISTORY

(FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO THE PRESENT DAY)

SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING, Ph.D.

PR0FES80E OF BtJBOPBAN HISTORY, INDIANA UNIVERSITY

IN CONSULTATION WITH
ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D.

PBOFK880B OF HISTORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY

NEW YORK.:. CINCINNATI. I.CHICAGO

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

ESSENTIALS IN HISTORY

A SERIES PREPARED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OP

ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D.

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY

ESSENTIALS IN ANCIENT HISTORY

By ARTHUR MAYER WOLFSON, Ph.D.

ESSENTIALS IN MEDIEVAL AND MODERN
HISTORY

By SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING, Ph.D.

ESSENTIALS IN ENGLISH HISTORY

By ALBERT PERRY WALKER, A.M.

ESSENTIALS IN AMERICAN HISTORY

By ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D.

Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.

E8BBN. MED. & MOD, HIST.

w. P. 7

\<^0b

GENEKAL INTRODUCTION

The advantage of a study of general European history is too obvi-
ous for discussion. The Committee of Seven, in its programme,
strongly recommends that a year be given to mediaeval and modern
European history; and a large number of schools have for years
provided such a course. Nowadays, when the United States of Amer-
ica has distinctly taken a place as one of the factors which are to
shape the future of mankind, it is more than ever important that
Americans should understand the development and meaning of Euro-
pean history.

Following the suggestion of the Committee of Seven, Professor
Harding has begun his work with a survey of the world as it was in
the year 800, thus closely relating the book to the last chapter of
Wolf son's Essentials in Ancient History. In the first few chapters,
Professor Harding attacks and surmounts what are for young people
the three most difficult problems in mediaeval history, — the feudal
state, the church, and the rivalry between the empire and the church.
He addresses himself to the underlying ideas in the minds of medi-
aeval man, especially to the need of combination and union which
gave rise to the feudal system, and to the need of a religious center
and of an organized and powerful church to protect it.

As in the other volumes of this series, "the essentials " have been
sought, leaving out details, however interesting and graphic in them-
selves, which do not contribute to a knowledge of the great move-
ments of the world's history, or do not significantly illustrate them.
The effort is constantly to describe the events and characterize the
persons that really made history.

Professor Harding's plan has been to take Italy, France, Germany,
and England in turn, as each becomes the central figure on the world's
stage. Furthermore, he has seized upon the idea that the nations of
the nineteenth century are not less important than those of the twelfth
or the sixteenth ; and he discusses the greatness of England, and the
unification of Italy and Germany, and the present organization of

6 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Europe under control of the concert of powers, on the same plane as
the Crusades, or the Thirty Years' War, or the age of Louis XIV.

As in the preceding volume on the Essentials in Ancient History
and the two succeeding volumes on Essentials in English History and
Essentials in American History, this book contains little pedagogic
apparatus, and the teacher is left free to use the devices here sug-
gested or any others that he n.ay approve. A brief appendix shows
a list of books costing about twenty -five dollars which may well be
on the teacher's desk and accessible to all pupils, besides a more
comprehensive list suitable for a school or town library.

The bibliographical references are thrown into convenient form at
the end of each chapter, where will be found specific references of
three kinds: first, to secondary authorities; second, to sources, espe-
cially reprints and selections in English which can actually be used
by schools ; third, to illustrative works, such as tales and stories con-
nected with the period. These references, which have been carefully
selected out of a large body of material, will be found convenient by
teachers in making their own preparation and by pupils in collateral
reading and in written work.

The work of the pupil outside of the class room and the study of
the text are aided by two kinds of subjects for topics. The Sugges-
tive Topics can be answered from ordinary histories and books of
reference, such as cyclopedias, biographical dictionaries, and the like ;
and they are closely connected with the text of the preceding chapter.
The Search Topics expect a wider range of material, including sources,
for which the accompanying references will be available. They are
adapted for written leports and library exercises.

It is to be supposed that every teacher who uses this book will
possess the three little handbooks. The Study of History in Schools,
prepared by the Committee of Seven, and the Historical Sources in
Schools and the History Syllabus for Secondary Schools, both prepared
by special committees of the New England History Teachers' Asso-
ciation. All of these books are intended to enable the teacher to use
the time of preparation to the best advantage.

The maps and pictures, specially prepared or selected for this vol-
ume, are intended to illustrate actual things, to make the text more
clear and understandable, but in this respect, as in all others, the
teacher is left free to apply the helps printed in the book according
to his own knowledge and preference.

ALBERT BUSHNELL HART.

THE AUTHOR TO THE TEACHER

The problem of history is to understand the past, — of each event
or institution we want to know, as Ranke says, " How that really
was " ( Wie es eigentlich gewesen) ; and the function of the teacher
is to direct and assist the pupil to the gaining of this understand-
ing. There is no royal road to its attainment; the means used
must be thorough preparation on the part of the teacher, a constant
striving to find the pupil's point of view, unwearying patience, and
ceaseless drill. The author ventures, however, to suggest a few^ evi-
dent aids from his own experience as a teacher.

1. Make sure, he would urge, that the pupil understands what he
reads and recites, and lead him to penetrate back of the narrative to
the things themselves, — to realize, visualize history. The simplest
words and expressions sometimes prove difficult; it is always desir-
able to lead the pupil away from the language of the book to his own
expression.

2. Require the keeping of note-books for class notes and dictations,
collateral reading, and analyses by the pupil of chapters in the text.

3. Use should be made of text- and wall-maps in the preparation
and recitation of lessons ; and from time to time the teacher should
require the filling in of outline maps, for different epochs, showing
physical features, towns, battles, boundaries, etc. Unlocalized knowl-
edge in history is nebulous knowledge ; and in map work the prin-
ciple of " learning by doing " is indispensable. Excellent outline
maps are published by the McKinley Publishing Co., Philadelphia;
and the " Ivanhoe " note-books (Atkinson & Mentzer, Chicago) may
be found useful.

4. The memorizing of a mass of unrelated dates is not advised,
though a sufficient numbei- of dates must be mastered to serve as
landmarks : rather exercise pupils in grasping the sequence and other
time relations of events, — drilling thenj, for example, in estimating
the distance in time between events in the same and in different
series. A useful device is the preparation by pupils of a chart (on
paper strips about eight inches wide, or on tlie blackboard), divided

THE AUTHOR TO THE TEACHER

into centuries and decades, as below ; it is improved by the use of
difEerent colored inks or crayons : —

5. Pictures of historical places, things, and persons greatly aid
instruction. Collections of these may easily be made from old maga-
zines and similar sources, and should be mounted on uniform sheets
of cardboard and classified. Older pupils can usually assist in the
making and keeping of such a collection.

All this is presented merely as suggestion, not dogmatically. If
the teacher is really a teacher, knows his subject and loves to teach
it, like Sentimental Tommy he will surely "find a way." The only
fair test, for teacher and book alike, is the test by results.

In conclusion the author must acknowledge his indebtedness to his
colleague, Professor Amos S. Hershey, who read the greater part of
the manuscript and offered many helpful suggestions; and to his
former pupils, Mr. Frederic A. Ogg and Mr. Charles E. Payne, for
assistance in preparing the references.

SAMUEL BANNISTER HARDING.

CONTENTS

L Introduction : the World in the Year 800

PAGE
11

II.
III.

IV.

VI.

VII.

VIII.
IX.

XI.

XII.
XIII.
XIV.

XV.

XVI.

XVII.
XVIII.

XIX.

XX.

XXI.

XXII.

XXIII.

EMPIRE AND PAPACY

The Empire of Charlemagne (768-814) . ... 32
The Later Carolingian Empire (814-911) and the Feudal

System 45

Successors of the Carolingians in Germany and France . 63

The Church in the Middle Ages 77

The Franconian Emperors, Hildebrand, and the Investi-
ture Conflict (1024-1125) 98

AGE OF THE CRUSADES

The Christian and Mohammedan East, and the First

Crusade (1096-1099) 114

TheLater Crusades (1099-1291) 129

The Hohenstaufen Empire and the Italian Communes

(1125-1190) 145

Endof the Hohenstaufen Empire (1190-1268) . . 162

Life in the Mediaeval Castle, Village, and Town . . 171

RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

England in the Middle Ages (449-1377) . . . .191

The Rise of France (987-1337) 211

The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) .... 229
Development of Modern States (1254-1500) . . .246

RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

The Great Church Councils and the Renaissance (1300-

1517) 264

The Reformation in Germany (1517-1 r,55) . . .286

The Reformation in Other Lands, and the Counter Refor-
mation (1518-1610) 301

The United Netherlands and the Thirty Years' War

(1568-1648) . ■ 323

THE OLD REGIME

The Age of Louis XIV. (1643-1715) . . . .347

Constitutional Monarchy in England (1603-1760) . . 368

Northern and Eastern Europe (1(589-1748) . . . 392

The Age of Frederick the Great (1748-1786) . . .411
9

CONTENTS

REVOLUTION AND REACTION

PAGE

XXIV. The French Revolution (1789-1795) . . . .434
XXV. The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte (1795-1804) ... 460
XXVI. The Napoleonic Empire (1804-1815) . . . .474
XXVI I. Industrial Development, Political Reaction, and Revolu-
tion (1815-1830) 495

XXV^III. The Orleans Monarchy and the Upheaval of Europe

(1830-1848) 513

DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

XXIX. Napoleon III. and the Unification of Italy and Germany

(1851-1871) 629

XXX. Great Britain in the Nineteenth Century . . . . 553
XXXI. National Rivalries and the New Concert of the Powers

(1871-1900) ?77

XXXII. The Awakening of the East, and the Twentieth Century 599

Bibliography i, iii

Index xiii

REFERENCE MAPS

Physical Map of Europe . 14, 15
Europe in the Time of Charle-
magne (768-814) . 30, 31
Partition of Verdun (843) . 47
Mohammedans, Christians, and
Pagans about 600-814 and
about 1100 ... 62
Holy Roman Empire in the

10th and 11th Centuries . 64
Mediaeval Monasteries, Bishop-
rics, and Archbishoprics . 82
Europe about the Time of the

First Crusade (1097) 112, 113
Crusaders' States in Syria . 129
Saladin's Empire, and Results

of the Fourth Crusade . 138
Lombard and Tuscan Leagues 1 54
Mediaival Commerce and Tex-
tile Industries . .184, 185
England in 878 .. . 192
English Possessions in France,

1180-1429 . . . 228

Growth of tlie Swiss Confed-
eration .... 249

States of the Empire in 1477 252, 253
Europe in 1556 . .284, 285
The Netherlands . . . 324
Territorial Gains in the Peace

of Westphalia . . . 339
France : Acquisitions of Louis

XIV 350

Russia : Conquests of Peter the

Great .... 393
Growth of Prussia . .401, 426
Partitions of Poland . . 424
War Districts, 1740-1763 . 410
Europe in 1789 . . 432, 433
War Districts, 1788-1815 . 459
Europe in 1815 . . 488,489
Races of Austria- Hungary . 523
! Growth of the Italian Kingdom 534
j The Modern CJerman Empire . .547
Products of the British Isles . 554
The British Empire . 566, 567

Europe in 1900 . . .676
Balkan States (1878-1881) . 678
Africa in 1900 . . .585

Asia in 1905 . . . 600, 601

ESSENTIALS IN MEDIAEVAL AND
MODERN HISTORY

CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION: THE WORLD IN THE YEAR 800

The division of history into periods is difficult, for two
reasons : (1) Changes in history, like changes of the seasons,
are gradual, each period merging into the next as imper- i. periods
ceptibly as winter into spring. (2) Progress does not of history
take place with equal rapidity in all fields : now artistic activ-
ity, now scientific thought, now industrial development, now
political organization, forges ahead, while other activities lag
behind ; now one nation leads, now another. It is difficult to
find dates as division points which mark important changes in
all these various fields, just as it is difficult to divide a man's
life into periods of childhood, youth, manhood, and old age;
yet the divisions are real and important.

The term "Middle Ages" is often used to cover the whole
period from the beginning of the barbarian invasions about
375 A.D., or the fall of the Eoman Empire in the West 2. Scope of
in 476 A.D., to the discovery of America in 1492, or the *^is ^ool^
beginning of the Protestant Reformation. In reality three
distinct epochs are comprised in this period: (1) The period
from about 375 to about 800 was an epoch of transition, to
which the term " the Dark Age " may perhaps be applied ; it
is the time when the invading Germans and the subjects of
the Roman Empire were being fused into one people, and when
the remains of classical civilization, the institutions of the
Germanic barbarians, and Christianity were combining to form

12 INTRODUCTION

the culture of mediaeval Europe. (2) The typical Middle Age
begins with the revival of the Western Empire by Charle-
magne (800) and lasts till about 1300 ; it is the age of feudal-
ism, of the might of a church organization ruling every form
of human activity, of great struggles between Popes and Em-
perors. (3) The third division is an epoch of transition, from
about 1300 to about 1500 ; it is thetime of the Eenaissance, or
" rebirth," when men's minds were made more free, and when
state, church, art, literature, industry, and society took on new
forms. The first of these divisions (375-800) is included in
the scope of the first volume of this series (see p. 5) ; the sec-
ond and third, together with the whole period of Modern
history, since 1500, are dealt with in this book.

For us, history is the study of the achievements of European
peoples and of their relations with other peoples. India, China,
and Japan have civilizations and histories of their own, which
bear little on European history. In the Middle Ages, America
and Australia were unknown to Europe ; of Africa the Mediter-
ranean regions alone were known ; and the more distant parts
of Asia were revealed only through indirect trade, through
westward raids of Asiatic hordes, and through vague reports
brought back by a few adventurous missionaries and traders.
It is only since the maritime discoveries of the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries, and the accompanying expansion of trade
and settlement, that Western civilization has passed beyond
the limits of Europe and of Mediterranean Africa and Asia.

Europe is the smallest of the grand divisions of the earth

save Australia, but historically it is the most important. It

o n«««.^„ extends from about 3G° to 71° north latitude, or from about
3. Geogra- '

phy of the latitude of Cape Hatteras on the Atlantic coast of

urope ^^^ United States to that of northernmost Alaska; its

climate is much milder than that of the eastern parts of North

America and Asia in corresponding latitudes. Its coast line

is much broken ; its surface is diversified by mountain and

THE WORLD IN THE YEAR 800 Ih

plain ; its rainfall is generally plentiful, and there are no
deserts except in the extreme southeast. The Mediterranean
Sea, with its easily navigable waters, unites it to as well as
separates it from neighboring lands. The position, configura-
tion, and climate of Europe have admirably fitted it to receive,
develop, and spread to other parts of the globe the ancient
civilization which arose in Egypt and Mesopotamia.

Geographically Europe is a peninsula of Asia; this has
made it possible for great bodies of people at various times
to pass from Asia into Europe. In prehistoric times there
occurred the migrations of the Aryan peoples, conquering and
absorbing the pre- Aryan races : in the south of Europe settled
the Greeks and Latins ; in the west were established the Celts
(Irish, Scots, Britons, Gauls) ; into the east came the Slavs
(Kussians, Polfes, Bohemians, Servians, etc.) ; and between were
located the Germans, with their near kin the Dutch and the
Scandinavians. Whether the original seat of the Aryans was
in central Asia or in northern Europe is disputed ; it should
also be noted that the classification into Aryan and non-Aryan
peoples is based upon language, and does not necessarily imply
actual kinship of blood. Nevertheless the Aryan peoples
constitute a real historic group, with many ideas, institutions,
and customs in common, and must be marked off from the
Semitic races (Jews, Arabs, Phoenicians), as well as from the
so-called Turanian peoples who inhabit central and eastern
Asia.

Structurally " the characteristic of Europe is to be more full
of peninsulas and islands and inland seas than the rest of the
Old World." It consists of three distinct parts : (1) a Freeman
southern portion comprising the great peninsulas of Historical
Greece, Italy, and Spain, and cut off from the central of Europe,
mass by an almost unbroken mountain chain (the Pyre- ^' *

nees, and the Alps with their eastern continuations); (2) a
broad central land mass stretching east and west across Eu-

16 INTRODUCTION

rope; and (3) a northern peninsular portion, separated from
the central portion by the Baltic Sea, which forms "a kind
of secondary Mediterranean." The northern and central por-
tions, especially toward the east, are relatively low, and con-
sist principally of " naked plains and large lakes, exposed to
the freezing influences of Asia and the Arctic Ocean." The
Lavall^e southern portion, on the other hand, " presents a series
Physical, of very elevated lands, covered with natural obstacles,
and^Mut ' varied with cuttings and declivities, bristling with peaks,
tary Geog- scalloped with gulfs, furrowed by numerous rivers, cut
up into peninsulas, arresting the northern winds, opening
up to the winds of Africa freshened by the Mediterranean. . .
The natural accidents of the south, besides being favorable to
agriculture and commerce, assure the independence and civili-
zation of their inhabitants; whilst the vast frozen plains of
the north have only miserable and savage populations, brutal-
ized under a single government."

The central mountain system of Europe is the Alps, con-
sisting of from 30 to 50 distinct masses, which may be grouped

, „, under the two heads of Western Alps and Eastern Alps.

4. The ^ ^

mountain (1) The Western Alps or Great Alps (the Alps proper)

systems jie in the form of an arc of a circle stretching a distance
of 848 miles from the Gulf of Genoa to Mt. St. Gothard; they
comprise three series of parallel ridges, with altitudes of from
3000 to 5000 in the western ridge, 9000 to 15,000 in the central,
and 5000 to 8000 in the eastern ridge; the highest peak is
Mont Blanc (15,781 feet), the highest mountain in Europe.
They are more easily passable by an army coming from Erance
into Italy than from Italy into France. The chief passes are
the Simplon (6500 feet), over which Napoleon Bonaparte con-
structed an admirable road at the beginning of the nineteenth
century ; the Great St. Bernard (7900 feet), which in spite of
its difficulties was used successively by Charlemagne, the
Emperor Frederick I., and Napoleon ; the Little St. Bernard

THE WORLD IN THE YEAR 800 17

(7100 feet) ; and the Mont Cenis (6700 feet).^ (2) The Eastern
Alps stretch from Mt. St. Gothard to the Adriatic Sea and con-
tinue (the Dinaric Alps) along its eastern coast ; their altitudes
are lower than the Western Alps, and decline as they approach
the Adriatic j their chief pass is the Brenner, with an altitude
of 4700 feet.

In almost every direction radiate offshoots from this central
mountain mass. To the south extend the Apennines, forming
the Italian peninsula ; to the west are the Cevennes of south-
ern France ; to the north appear the Jura, the Vosges, the Black
Forest, and other mountains of upper Germany ; to the north-
east lie the mountains inclosing Bohemia — the Bohmerwald
(Bohemian Forest), the Erzgebirge (Ore Mountains), and the
Eiesengebirge (Giant Mountains) — and the sweeping arc, 700
miles long, of the Carpathians; and to the southeast are the
wild and precipitous heights of the Balkans, and the mountains
forming the Grecian peninsula.

Only a few groups of mountains in Europe are disassociated
from the central mass of the Alps : the Pyrenees, with an aver-
age elevation of about 8000 feet, constituting a solid rampart
between France and the Spanish peninsula, passable for armies
at the eastern and western ends only ; and the Scandinavian
Mountains, the Scottish Highlands, the Urals, and the lofty
Caucasus ridge, of little historical importance.

Three important rivers rise in the neighborhood of Mt. St.
Gothard, and flowing in different directions empty into differ-
ent seas: (1) the Bhine, after receiving as tributaries 5. The river
the Moselle from the west and the Main from the east, systems
and traversing a course of 850 miles, empties into the North
Sea (the Meuse, which flows into its delta, is practically a

1 In recent years railway tunnels have been driven through the Alps : the
Mont Cenis, 7h miles long, completed in 1871; the St. Gothard, 9^ miles,
completed in 1881 ; the Arlberg, 6| miles, completed in 1884; and the Simplon,
12^ miles, completed in 1905.

18 INTHODUCTION

tributary of the Ehine) ; (2) the Rhone, with the Saone as
tributary, flows into the western Mediterranean; (3) the Po,
which drains the northern plain of Italy, empties into the
Adriatic Sea. The Volga, with its length of 2100 miles, is
geographically the most important i-iver of Europe, but his-
torically it counts for little because of its location in the vast
plains of eastern Russia. The Danube, Europe's second river
in size, with a length of 1600 miles, ranks historically with the
Rhine in importance, near whose source it rises, and with
which it forms an almost continuous land and water route
stretching clear across Europe from the Black Sea to the
North Sea. Additional streams of importance are the Ga-
ronne, Loire, and Seine, in France; and the Elbe, Oder,
and Vistula, in Germany.

The tendency of mountains is to separate, of rivers to unite,

adjacent peoples. Physical geography would divide Europe

6. Geo- into the following sections: Spain; France (or Gaul) to

grap ca ^|^^ Cevennes Mountains; the British Isles; the Rhone-
units in ' '

Europe land; the Rhine-land; Italy; the Balkan-land; the Danube-

land ; North Germany ; Bohemia ; Russia ; Scandinavia. Each
of these twelve regions has had its separate history ; and modern
political divisions follow this grouping with sufficient close-
ness to show the abiding influence, in history, of geographical
factors.

All our knowledge of history is based at last upon (1) mate-
rial remains, such as ruins, monuments, coins, old weapons,
armor, household utensils, etc. ; (2) official documents,

rials for and contemporary descriptions (including pictorial repre-
° ^ sentations) by eye- and ear-witnesses ; and (3) oral (or

written) traditions, which come to us from persons not in a
position to know the facts at first hand. No matter how im-
portant an event may have been, if no trace of it has been left
in one or another of these ways, we can have no knowledge
of it. For the Middle Ages our source materials consist

THE WORLD IN THE YEAR 800 19

(3liiefly of "annals'' and "chronicles'' in which men (usually
monks) wrote down brief accounts of the events of their
own times ; " capitularies " (decrees of Charlemagne and his
successors) and other collections of laws ; charters conveying
grants of lands and privileges ; a few letters of kings, popes,
and other eminent men; lives of saints and other persons;
and account books and other records of governments, mon-
asteries, and individual landlords. For Modern history there
is an ever increasing flood of parliamentary and congres-
sional debates, statutes, memoirs and letters of statesmen
and other persons, diaries, daily newspapers, etc. From
these materials historians gather the facts of history by a
slow and careful process of sifting and comparison, designed
to separate the true from the false; and it is not surprising
that — as new materials are discovered and made available,
and more careful study is given to the old — many views
formerly held are shown to be unfounded, and new ones take
their place.

The historian must deal with many different systems of
reckoning time, used by different peoples and in different ages.
The Komans started from the founding of Rome ; the g « ^ ^
Mohammedans count from the flight of Mohammed from reckoning
Mecca (the " Hegira," in 622 a.d.) ; ^ the Christians from *"^®

the birth of Christ (the year 1 a.d.), which by a miscalculation
was x^laced four years too late ; in addition, the years of the
reigns of kings, emperors, and popes have been used.

The determination of the length of the year presents many
difficulties. The " Julian " calendar, arranged by Julius Caesar,
making every fourth year a leap year, was used until the end
of the Middle Ages ; but this made the year eleven minutes
fourteen seconds too long, and by the sixteenth century the

1 Also, the Mohammedan year is a lunar year, nearly eleven days shorter
than ours ; so that 34 Mohammedan years are about equal to 33 years of our
reckoning.

20 INTRODUCTION

difference accmnulated since the year of the Council of Nicaea
(325 A.D.) amounted to nearly ten days. The reformed or
" Gregorian " calendar was proclaimed by Pope Gregory XIII.
in 1582 ; this not merely struck out ten days from the calendar
of that year (the day after October 4 becoming October 15),
but by directing the omission of three leap-year days in every
four centuries thereafter, it provided for keeping the calendar
year for the future in harmony with the solar year. England
did not accept the reformed calendar until 1752; Russia has
not yet accepted it, and is now thirteen days behind the other
nations in its reckoning of dates. The two calendars are dis-
tinguished as "old style" (0. S.) and "new style" (KS.);
and to avoid doubt, dates after 1582 are sometimes given in
both systems : in this book such dates are all given according
to the " new style." About the time that the Gregorian calen-
dar was adopted in the various countries, the beginning of the
year was definitely fixed at the first of January; in other
usages it began with the feast of the Annunciation (March 25)
and with various other dates, — so that up to 1752 in England,
for instance, there was confusion as to whether a given date be-
tween January 1 and March 25 belonged to the expiring or the
beginning year. Within the year, dates were frequently fixed
with reference to great church festivals — such as Christmas
and Easter — or by the days of the different saints, of which
more than two thousand were thus used.

For two hundred years after the overthrow of the Roman

Republic by Julius Caesar and Augustus, the Roman Empire

9. Decay of prospered, giving unity of government, law, language,

pirT?l80^' ^^^^ culture to the whole Mediterranean world. Then

375 A.D.) followed a period of civil war and decay, from the

death of Marcus Aurelius to the accession of Diocletian

(180-284 A.D.). This decline was temporarily checked by the

reorganization of the empire carried out by Diocletian and by

Constantine the Great (died 337), whereby the empire was

THE WORLD IN THE YEAR 800 21

divided into an eastern and a western half (regularly after
395), was made entirely despotic, and the capital was removed
to Constantinople. With Constantino also came the end of
the persecutions of the Christians, and the recognition of
Christianity as the official religion of the state.

But these changes could not long check the decay, which
was due (1) to a great decrease in population, caused by
famines, wars, and pestilence ; (2) to unwise laws about taxes,
by which men became fixed in their stations and occupations,
as in hereditary castes, and free peasants became serfs, bound
to the soil, while slaves rose in the social scale and blended
with the depressed freemen; (3) to widespread luxury and
immorality; and (4) .to a lack of national feeling, resulting
from despotism in the government and the general employ-
ment in the army of Germanic barbarians, who also were
settled by the government in large numbers on waste lands
within the empire.

At the end of the fourth century came a more rapid decline,
due to the entrance into the Roman Empire of whole nations
of German barbarians. The Visigoths, attacked in the 10. Inva-
rear by Huns from Asia, crossed the Danube frontier, "**2eraians
overthrew and slew the Emperor Valens at Adrianople (376-476)
in 378, and under their young king Alaric ravaged Greece,
overran Italy, and sacked Rome (410) ; under Alaric's suc-
cessors they established a Germanic kingdom in Spain and
southern Gaul, which lasted for three centuries (to 711). The
example set by the Visigoths was speedily followed by other
nations. The Vandals overran Gaul and Spain ; and upon the
coming of the Visigoths to the latter land, they passed over
into Africa (429), there to rule for a hundred and five years.
The Franks, who were settled about the lower Rhine, gradu-
ally occupied northern Gaul; the Burgundians, passing from
the middle Rhine to the Rhone valley, established there a
kingdom which lasted until 634 ; the Angles and Saxons, in-

HARDING's M. & M. HIST. 2

22 INTRODUCTION

vading Britain in their piratical vessels (about 449), estab-
lished kingdoms which later consolidated into the kingdom
of England. In 451 the savage Huns extended their raids into
the heart of Gaul, but were turned back by the united efforts
of Konians and Visigoths; and the death two years later of
their leader Attila, "the Scourge of God," released Europe
from the dread of Asiatic dominion.

At Rome the last of a line of weak and foolish Emperors of
the West came to an end in the year 476, when Odoacer, the
leader of the German mercenaries in the E-oman army, deposed
young Romulus Augustulus, himself assumed the title of
"king," and sent ambassadors to lay at the feet of the East-
ern Emperor at Constantinople the imperial crown and purple
robe, professing that one Emperor was enough for both East
and West.

For some years Odoacer enjoyed his "kingdom" over the

mercenaries in peace ; but in 493 he was defeated and mur-

11. Ostro- dered by the king of the Ostrogoths, Theodoric the

gothsand Great, who had come into Italy with his people, com-

East . .

Romans missioned by the Eastern Emperor to overthrow the

(476-555) usurper. Theodoric (493-526) had been brought up as a
youth at Constantinople, and entertained wise and beneficent
plans for the union of his Ostrogoths with the Italian provin-
cials into one nation; but in spite of his efforts the attempt
failed, mainly through religious differences, the Ostrogoths
(in common with most of the German barbarians) being Arian
Christians (an heretical sect), while the orthodox Catholic
religion prevailed in the Roman Empire.

The reign of the Emperor Justinian (527-565) greatly
strengthened the Eastern Empire, and also profoundly influ-
enced the West. Justinian was a great builder and civilizer,
and codified the Roman law into the Code, Digest, and Insti-
tutes, which preserved it to influence the world to the present
day. He was also a great conqueror, and his generals Beli-

THE WORLD IN THE YEAK 800

Moham-
medanism
(622-732)

sarins and Narses overthrew not only the Vandal kingdom in
Africa (533), but also the weakened Ostrogothic kingdom in
Italy (553). For a few brief years the Eoman Empire once
more ruled Italy, northern Africa, the islands of the western
Mediterranean, and even southern Spain ; never again was its

power to touch so
high a point.

The beginning of
the seventh century
saw the rise of 12. Rise of
a new religion
and a new polit-
ical power, through
the teachings of Mo-
hammed (571-632),
who united the Arabs,
rescued them from
the worship of sticks
and stones, and taught
them there was but
one true God (Allah),
of whom Mohammed
was the Prophet. The
teaching of Moham-
med was embodied in
the Koran ; it con-
tains Jewish, Chris-
tian, and Persian elements, and along with many good and
noble ideas are mixed baser elements tainted by the ignorance,
cruelty, and sensuality of seventh-century Arabs.

By the year 631 all Arabia had accepted Mohammed's
teaching, and fanatical zeal and lust of rule urged on a
movement of foreign conquest such as the world had never
seen. In eighty years Mohammedanism conquered more terri-

Interior of Mosque of Cordova, Spain.

Present condition. Built by Mohammedans in
the 8th and 10th centuries.

INTRODUCTION

tory than Rome conquered in four centuries: Syria, Persia,
Egypt, northern Africa, and Spain passed under the rule of
the caliphs, successors of Mohammed; but in Ganl, in 732,
the Mohammedans were checked by the Franks under Charles

f^s,

^P Ocean \

Conquests of the Mohammedans.

Martel in the battle of Tours ; and this defeat, oombined with
internal dissensions, saved Europe from a further advance of
their power in this direction.

Within fifteen years after the overthrow of the Ostrogoths,
a new Germanic people, the Lombards, appeared in Italy to
13. Loin- take their place. In a short time the Lombards con-
the papacy ^^^red the greater part of northern Italy, to which their
(668-774) name (Lombardy) is still given ; and soon they possessed
the greater part, but not all, of the peninsula : officers of the
Eastern Emperors still ruled a considerable district about the
mouth of the river Po (Exarchate of Ravenna), together with
the district about Rome (Ducatus Romanus), and the southern
points of the peninsula. The main result of the incomplete-
ness of the Lombard conquest was the rise of a new temporal
power vested in the Pope, who was bishop of Rome and head
of the Christian church.

The Lombards were among the most barbarous of the Ger-
manic nations, and they were long viewed by the Romans with
the fiercest hatred and loathing, even after they put aside
their Arianism and accepted Catholic Christianity. Owing
to the distance and weakness of the Eastern Emperors, power

THE WORLD IN THE YEAR 800 25

in' the city of Rome gradually passed into the hands of its
bishops or Popes, among whom Leo I. (440-461) and Gregory
I. the Great (590-604) were most noteworthy ; and in 729 the
Pope threw off his allegiance to the Emperor as a result of
the Emperor's decree against the use of images in worship
(the Iconoclastic Controversy). At about the same time the
Lombards conquered the Exarchate of Ravenna (727) ; it then
seemed as if the Pope would escape from the rule of the
Emperor only to fall under that of the hated Lombards ; but
from this danger the papacy was saved by an appeal to an-
other Germanic people, the most notable of all — the Franks.

Of all the Germanic peoples who pressed into the Continental
provinces of Rome, only the Franks in Gaul established an
enduring kingdom ; hence for centuries the history of ^^ -g,^^^ of
the Prankish power makes the largest part of the history the Franks
of Europe. Their king Clovis (481-511) laid its basis ^*^ ' ^
by his consolidation of the Franks under one rule, and his
conquests of neighboring peoples. Within fifty years after
his death, most of Gaul and the Rhine valley were under
Prankish sway. Many of the descendants of Clovis proved
weak rulers ; and the broils and feuds of the nobles, the tur-
bulence and lawlessness of the freemen, produced great disorder.
In spite of these evils, and in spite of frequent divisions of the
territory among the sons of deceased kings, the power of the
Franks as a people did not decline. Alongside of the "do-
nothing " (faineant) Merovingian kings, descendants of Clovis,
arose strong "mayors of the palace," who exercised the real
power. In Austrasia (the kingdom of the East Franks) the
mayors of the palace became especially strong, for the ofiice
was practically hereditary in the powerful family of the PepinI
(Carolingians), who possessed wide estates and numerous fol-
lowers. Under chiefs of this house the East and West Franks
were reunited, with one king and one mayor of the palace, and
the Mohammedans were beaten back.

INTHODUCTION

Growth of the Fraxkish Kix(iDOM.

To Charles Martel, the victorious mayor of the palace in the

battle of Tours, the Pope appealed in vain for aid against the

Lombards. In 751, however, Pope Zacharias enabled Charles's

Einhard, son, Pepin the Short, to seize the throne, by declaring

Charle- u ^i^^X the man who held power in the kingdom should

magnet

ch. 1 be called king and be king, rather than he who falsely

bore that name " : with this warrant the last of the Mero-
vingian kings of the Franks was " deposed, shorn, and thrust
into a cloister," and Pepin was raised upon a shield in old
Teutonic (Germanic) fashion and hailed as king in his stead
(751-768). Pepin twice njarched into Italy against the Lom-
bards, at the Pope's request ; the second time (756) he forced
the Lombard king to give hostages, pay tribute, and surrender
the Exarchate, which Pepin thereupon granted to the Pope.
Thus the Pope became an important secular prince, by secur-

THE WORLD IN THE YEAR 800

ing the old imperial dominions in central Italy ; and thus too
was laid the basis of a close connection between the papacy
and the Prankish monarchy, which to each was to prove of
the utmost importance.

About 800, the time with which this book begins, the bar-
barian invasions were practically over, the church was rising
to a position of supreme power, feudalism was giving i^ 3^m_

a new organization to society, and a new Empire was mary: Eu-
rope about
about to be founded in the West, to last (in name at the year

least) for a thousand years. The old doctrinal disputes ^^^

about the fundamental beliefs of Christianity were settled;
but a church schism or separation was arising between East
and West, involving differences- of worship and discipline,
and ultimately leading to the entire rejection of the papal
authority in the East. The Byzantine or Eastern Eoman
Empire still ruled
Asia Minor, Thrace,
portions of ancient
Greece and southern
Italy, and the islands
of Crete, Sicily, and
Sardinia; but the Bul-
garians (an Asiatic
people) had cut off
the lower valley of
the Danube, and bar-
barian Slavs formed
an alien wedge run-
ning completely through the interior of the Balkan peninsula
and into the Peloponnesus. North of the Danube dwelt Asiatiq
and Slavic peoples ; and to the north of these, Finnish tribes :
these peoples were still heathen, and the slow progress of
Christianity among them was one of the features of the Mid-

The Known World in 800.

INTRODUCTION

die Ages. Scandinavia was taking on its threefold form of
Norway, Denmark, and Sweden ; but the worship there of the
old Teutonic gods was as yet unshaken. In the British Isles,
the Teutonic English had settled, been Christianized, and were
about to unite into a single kingdom ; but Scotland, Ireland,
and Wales, though Christian, were independent Celtic lands.
In northern Spain there existed petty Christian states which
in the next seven centuries were to grow into a powerful
monarchy and cast out the Mohammedans. But the central
political fact in the West was the existence of the Prankish
kingdom, ruled over by Charlemagne, the grandson of Charles
Martel.

Sugrgrestive
topics

Search
topics

TOPICS

(1) Why do we not steady the history of China in the Middle
Ages? (2) "Why should the term "Middle Ages" be plural?
(3) Why is our knowledge of history less certain than our knowl-
edge of the physical sciences ? (4) What geographical advantages
has Europe over Asia ? over Africa ? (5) Why was Europe not
so well fitted to originate as to develop and spread civilization ?
(6) In what ways would its history have been different if Europe
were entirely suiTounded by water ? (7) What did Greece con-
tribute to the civilization of the world? (8) What did Rome
contribute ? (9) What did the Germans add ? (10) Summarize
the causes of the fall of the Roman Empire. (11) Has Moham-
medanism done more harm or good in the world ? (12) Compare
the area of Mohammedanism in 800 with its area to-day. (13)
Compare the area of Christianity in 800 with its area to-day.

(14) Ways in which geography influences history. (15) The
passes of the Alps. (16) Geographical factors in the development
of some European towns. (17) Influence of the Roman law.
(18) Rise of the mayors of the palace. (19) Alliance between the
Franks and the papacy. (20) The life of Mohammed. (21) His
teachings. (22) The farthest extent of Mohammedan conquests.
(23) Battle of Tours. (24) The old Teutonic mythology. (25)
The wanderings and settlements of the Visigoths. (26) The
wanderings and settlements of the Ostrogoths. (27) Character
and work of Theodor^c the Great. (28) Settlement of the Bur-
gundians. (29) Settlement of the Lombards. (30) The Anglo-
Saxon conquest of Britain.

THE WORLD IN THE YEAR 800

REFERENCES

Maps, pp. 14, 15, 24, 26, 30, 31 ; Putzger, Historischer Schul-
Atlas, maps 13, 13 a ; Dow, Atlas of European History, v. vi. ;
Poole, Historical Atlas of Modern Europe^ map iv. ; Freeman,
Historical Geography of Europe, I. chs. i. iv. ; George, Belations
of Geography and History, chs. i. ii. iv. ix. ; Lavallee, Physical,
Historical, and Military Geography, bk. iv.

Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 1-64 ; B^mont and
Monod, Medieval Europe, 30-32, 37-44, 54-08, 116-118, 125-128,
135-166 ; Church, Beginning of the Middle Ages, 14-44, 62-72,
82-83 ; Emerton, Introduction to the Middle Ages, 27-34, 52-59,
98-102, 111-113, 122-129; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the
Middle Age, ch. i. ; Diiruy, History of the 3Iiddle Ages, 17-21,
34-42, 71-105 ; Hassall, French People, chs. i. ii. ; Hume, Spanish
People, chs. ii. iii. ; Oman, Dark Ages, 1-32, 180-198, 213-220,
291-295 ; Stills, Studies in Medieval History, 98-126 ; Munro and
Sellery, Medieval Civilization, 60-80 ; Mombert, Charles the Great^
21-26 ; Oilman, Saracens, 50-207 ; Freeman, History and Con-
quests of the Saracens, 31-60, 132-166; Bury, History of the Later
Boman Empire, II. bk. v. ch. i. ; Milman, Latin Christianity, II.
bk. iv. ch. i. ; Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Boman Empire
(Bury's ed.). III. 240^-256, 285-333, 446-475, IV. 76-92, 100-169,
461-470, V. 96-106, 3il-395, 471-479, 491-494.

Ogg, Source Book of Medioival History, chs. ii. iii. iv. viii.;
Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book for Mediaeval History, nos.
1-6, 43-45 ; Jones, Civilization in the Middle Ages, No. 3 ; Lane-
Poole, Mohammed^ s Speeches and Table-Talk.

F. Dahn, Felicitas, — The Struggle for Borne ; G. P. R. James,
Attila ; Charles Kingsley, Hypatia ; W. Ware, Julian ; Cardinal
Wiseman, Fabiola ; De Genlis, Belisarius.

Geography

Secondary
authorities

Sources

Illustrative
works

CHAPTER II.

THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE (768-814)

Upon the death of Pepin the Short in 768, his sons Car-

loman and Charles the Great (Charlemagne) succeeded him,

i'^^l^"S j^^^tly; but in 771 Carloman died, and thenceforth
16. Clia,rle-
magne's Charlemagne ruled alone. Charlemagne's reign saw a

conquests ^QYig series of wars, undertaken to extend the limits of
the Prankish territory, or to ward off attacks from without.
During the forty-six years that he ruled (708-814) he sent out
more than fifty military expeditions, at least half of which he
commanded in person. They were directed against the Aqui-
tanians and l^retons of France (3 expeditions) ; the Lombards
of northern Italy (5) ; the Saracens, or Mohammedans, of
Spain and southern Italy (12) ; the German Thuringians and
Bavarians (2) ; the Avars and Slavs (8) ; the Danes (2) ; the
Greeks (2), and, most of all, against the Saxons (18), descend-
ants of the tribes from which, three hundred years earlier, had
come the Teutonic conquerors of Britain.

For more than two centuries the Franks had waged inter-
mittent warfare with the heathen and barbarous Saxons, who
dwelt in the trackless forests, swamps, and plains bordering
on the North Sea, between the rivers Ems and Elbe. Charle-
magne resolved to end the struggle by Christianizing as well
as subjugating these troublesome neighbors; but the task re-
quired thirty years for its completion (772-804), it was attended
by nine successive rebellions, and was stained by the one great
act of cruelty of Charlemagne's reign — the massacre of 4500
prisoners (782). The most troublesome tribes were transported

THE EMPIRE OF CHABLEMAGM: (768-814) 33

to other parts of the empire, throughout Saxony fortresses
were established and bishoprics founded (around which grew
up the first towns), and Christianity was forced upon the
population at the point of the sword ; so strict were the laws
that converts who ate meat in Lent were condemned to death,
unless absolved by a Christian priest. Political and religious
opposition was at last crushed, and within a few generations
the Saxons became the most powerful nation in the Prankish
realm.

Even more important than the Saxon wars were those with
the Lombards. In spite' of the two expeditions of Pepin the
Short (§ 14), the power of the Lombards continued to be a
menace to the papacy ; also the Lombard king harbored pre-
tenders to a share in Charlemagne's kingdom. When, there-
fore, the Pope appealed to Charlemagne in 773 against King
Desiderius, the Prankish king marched to his assistance. In
774-776 he completely conquered the Lombard kingdom and
assumed the famous "iron crown," with its narrow circlet re-
puted to have been made from one of the nails of the Cru-
cifixion. He then renewed his father Pepin's gift to the Pope
of the temporal dominion of Ravenna and other parts of Italy.
The conquest of Lombardy and the donation of the papal
states were two of the most important acts of Charlemagne's
reign: they brought the king of the Franks into closer relar
tions with the papacy, and prepared the way for the revival
of the Western Empire on a Germanic basis.

The lands over which Charlemagne ruled in 800 included
what are now Prance, Switzerland, Belgium, Holland, more
than half of Germany and Italy, and parts of Austria 17. Revival
and Spain (maps, pp. 26, 30) ; and over the "eternal city" p-^.^ f^ ^^
of Rome itself he exercised supreme authority by virtue West

of the title " Patricius," given him by the Pope. The extent of
Charlemagne's power made him already in fact, though not
in name, the Emperor of the West. The ruler at Constan-

34 EMPIRE AND PAPACY

tinople in the year 800 was a woman, the Empress Irene, who
had just deposed her son, put out his eyes, and seized the
power for herself ; the West refused to recognize her rule and
looked on the throne of the empire as vacant. What was
more natural than that it should be given to the king of the
Franks, the real ruler of the West ? Charlemagne was quite
prepared for this step, but by whom should the imperial crown
be conferred ? By the Pope, who had authorized Pepin's as-
sumption of the royal crown ? By the people of Rome, as in
the ancient days when Roman Senate and people were still
sovereign ? Or should it be accounted something which be-
longed to Charlemagne by virtue of his conquests ?

Whatever solution Cliarlemagne had in mind, the circum-
stances of the coronation were not of his arranging. The

18. Corona- close of the year 800 found him in the city of Rome.

tionofChar- Yg Charlemagne prayed at the solemn celebration of

(800) ('hristmas, kneeling by the altar in the old church

of St. Peter's, Pope Leo III. placed a crown upon his head,
while the people cried, "To Carolus Augustus, crowned by
God, mighty and pacific Emperor, be life and victory." Ac-

Einhard, cording to Einhard, his secretary and biographer, Charle-

Charle- mac^ne declared tliat " he would not have set foot in the

tnagne, ch. '-

28 cliurch, . . . although it was a great feast day, if he

could have foreseen the design of the Pope."

The coronation of Charlemagne, in the language of an Eng-
lish writer, " is not only the central event of the Middle Ages,

Bryce, Holy it is also One of those very few events of which, taking

ed.), 50 pened, the history of tlie world Avould have been differ-

ent." Of all the mediaeval rulers, Charlemagne was the only
one in whom the Empire of the West coidd have been restored.
Only he, by his genius and tlie splendor of his victories, was
able to make the principle of unity of government triumph
over the tendency towards separation, disorder, and anarchy.

THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE (7G8-814)

CloKOXATlON OF Ch ARLKM A(;NP:.

Fresco (19th century) in Hotel de Ville, Aix-la-Chapelle.

Following the principle adopted by the Germanic conquerors,
Charlemagne left to each race — Franks, Burgundians, Romans,
Lombards, Goths, Bavarians, Saxons — its own law, ^g charle-
making only such changes by his decrees, or "capitu- magne's
laries," as the good of the state and society demanded.
For in the early Middle Ages there was little attempt at what
we should call legislation; the "law" of each individual was
an* inheritance from the past of his race, and as much a part
of him as the breath which he drew. Taxes paid to the state
also disappeared with the fall of the Roman Empire ; and
Charlemagne's needs were supplied, like those of most mediae-
val rulers, chiefly from the proceeds of his own estates (villce),
for which elaborate regulations were made ; the king usually

3G EMPIRE AND l^APACY

traveled from vill to vill with his suite, to consume the produce
arising on each estate. On the other hand, public offices, mili-
tary service, and the like, were unpaid, and the financial needs
of the state were less than now.

Under the Merovingians the kingdom had been divided into
local districts, ruled by officers called "counts," appointed by
the king. These were ke[)t by Charlemagne as the chief
officers of local government; in their hands was placed the
military leadership, and the administration of justice. To
supervise their work, royal commissioners {rnissi dominid)
were sent out each year to inspect the national militia, hear
com})laints against the counts, enforce justice, and guard the
interests of the king. Usually the commissioners were sent
out two and two — a layman and an ecclesiastic.

The counts were often guilty of great oppression; a capitu-
lary dated 80.'^ reads : " We hear that the officers of the counts
Hodakin "^^^^^ some of their more powerful vassals are collecting
Italy and rents and insisting on forced labors, harvesting, plovv-

her lavad- . . ... , it t ,

ers, VI ri. i"rtj sowing, stubbing up trees, loading wagons and the
-'^ like, not only from the church's servants, but from the

rest of the peoj^le ; all which practices must, if you please, be
put a stop to by us and by all the people, because in .some
places the people have been in these ways so grievously op-
pressed that many, unable to bear their lot, have escaped by
flight from their masters or patrons, and the lands are relaps-
ing into wilderness." Such oppressions led the king to grant
''immunities," by which lands and men, especially of bishops
and abbots, were removed from the jurisdiction of the counts.
These immunities formed one of the important bases of later
feudalism.

Twice a year, in early summer and in the fall or winter,

20. TheMay Charlemagne summoned the principal men to consult

Field ^^j^l^ ]-^j^j^ concerning the affairs of the empire. To the

summer meeting, called the " Field of May," came all free men

THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE (768-814) 37

capable of bearing arms, and often the meeting was at once
followed by a military expedition. A general assembly in his
reign is pictured by a modern writer as follows : "An immense
multitude is gathered together in a plain, under tents; it is
divided into distinct groups. The chiefs of the groups ^
assemble about the king, and deliberate with him : then Coukmges,
each of these makes known to his own people what has " ^^^

been decided, consults them perhaps, at any rate obtains their
assent with as little difficulty as the king has obtained his own,
for these men are dependent on him just as he is dependent on
the king. The general assembly is a composite of a thousand
little assemblies which, through their chiefs alone, are united
about the prince." The king's will decided everything, the
nobles only advised.

In these assemblies Charlemagne dealt with matters con-
cerning church and state alike; whenever he believed that
priests or bishops were not performing their duties properly,
he did not hesitate to correct them. Charlemagne's govern-
ment was far from being as free and orderly as the governments
under which most European nations live to-day; yet when we
consider the difficulties of the time, and compare his govern-
ment with that of his successors, we find him an able adminis-
trator as well as a great warrior.

The literatures of Greece and Rome had disappeared from
use when Charlemagne came to the throne, and even the
writings of the church scarcely survived. The only g^ Educa
" books " were costly parchment rolls written by hand, tion and the
The two centuries from 600 to 800 produced only a few
credulous lives of saints, and some barren "annals," or dry
monastic histories. Charlemagne himself learned to speak and
read Latin, in addition to his native German, and to under-
stand Greek, though not to speak it. He never mastered the
art of writing as then used, though he kept waxed tablets
always by him to practice it.

KMriRE AND PAPACY

The Palace School — a kind of learned academy composed of
the chief scholars and courtiers about the Emperor — played
an important part in a revival of learning and literature. An
Englishman named Alcuin was invited to the Emperor's court
from York, which was then the most learned center in western
Europe, and he became the chief scholar of the new circle.
Others came from Italy, Spain, and other lands ; some were

KOYAL PalACK of f'AliOLlNGIAN TiMES.

From Vi(»llet-le-Duc.

grammarians, some poets, some theologians, Charlemagne dis-
cussed with them astronomy, shipbuilding, history, the text of
the Scriptures, theology, and moral philosophy. For the
younger members of the royal family and court, there was more
formal instruction, so that the Palace School may be regarded
as a high school, as well as a literary and debating club.

Charlemagne's care for education did not stop with his own
court, since we read in the capitularies such commands as
these: "Let schools be established in which boys may learn

THE i:MriRE OF CHARLEMAGNE (768-814)

Readings,
1.146

to read. Correct carefully the Psalms, the signs in writing,
the songs, the calendar, the grammar, in each monastery r h- so
or bishopric, and the Catholic books ; because often men
desire to pray to God properly, but they pray badly be-
cause of the incorrect books. And do not permit mere boys
to corrupt them in
reading or writing.
If there is need of
writing the Gospel,
Psalter, and Missal,
let men of mature age
do the writing with
all diligence,"

Charlemagne was
also a builder, plan-
ning canals, building
bridges, and restoring
churches which were
crumbling into ruin.
But his work in this
direction did little to
check the artistic de-
cay of the times.
From the old resi-
dence of the emperors
at Ravenna, a hun-
dred marble columns

were taken for Charlemagne's palace at Aachen (Aix-la-
Chapelle) ; thither also were transported pictures, mosaics, and
precious sculptures. Charlemagne thus set a bad example to
the ages which followed, and contributed to a robbery of the
ancient monuments which, in the Middle Ages, caused more
destruction among them than was caused by all the ravages
of time and war.

m^m

Cathedral at Aix-la-Chapelle.

The octagon at center of the picture was huilt
by Charlemagne ; it is an example of the
Byzantine style.

40 EMPIRE AND TAPACY

The ten years following Charlemagne's coronation as Empe-
ror were mainly spent at his capital Aachen. The only serious

22. Charle- danger of the time came from the Scandinavian "Vik-
magne's old -^gg „ (^creek men), whose piratical raids, beginning in
death (814) this reign, foreshadowed the greater troubles of a century

later. Charlemagne's prestige abroad was at its height ; and
to his court came envoys from the renowned Haroun-al-Rashid,
caliph of Bagdad, whose present of an enormous elephant ex-
cited the liveliest interest at the Frankish court.

The last years of the great Emperor's life were clouded by
family sorrows. He had been married five times and had
many children. In arranging for the succession Charlemagne
followed the old Teutonic practice of dividing the kingdom
among his three sons, whom he established as sub-kings in his
lifetime over portions of his realm. One of the chief differ-
ences in the position of the monarch, as conceived by the
Roman emperors and by the barbarian kings, was that the
Eoman emperors in theory held their power as a trust in
the name and interest of the state, — that is, of all, — while
the barbarian kings regarded the royal power as private prop-
erty, to which ordinary rules of inheritance could be applied.
Charlemagne's arrangement, however, broke down, owing to the
fact that his two older sons died before him ; then Charle-
magne placed the imperial crown on the head of his third
son, Louis, and recognized him as his successor. Four months
later, in January, S14, the old Emperor died of a fever, being
upward of seventy years of age.

Few men have left a deeper impression on their times, and
around few have clustered so many legends. His personality

23. Char- and habits are thus described by his secretary, Einhard : —
Charle- "Charles was large and strong, and of lofty stature,
magne though not disproportionately tall. The upper part of

his head was round, his eyes very large and animated, nose
a little long, hair fair, and face laughing and merry. Thus,

THE EMPIRK OF CHAHLEMAGNE (768-814)

his' appearance was always stately and dignified, whether he
was standing or sitting. He took frequent exercise on horse-
back and in the chase. He enjoyed natural warm Einhard
springs, and often practiced swimming, in which he was Charle-

such an adept that none could surpass him; and thence 22-24\con-
it was that he built his palace at Aix-la-Chapelle, and densed)

lived there constantly during his latter years until his death.

" He used to wear the national, that is to say, the Frank,
dress, — next his skin a linen shirt and linen breeches, and
above these a tunic fringed with silk ; while hose fastened by
bands covered his legs, and shoes his feet, and he protected
his shoulders and chest in winter by a close-fitting coat
of otter or marten
skins. Over all he
flung a blue cloak,
and he always had
a sword girt about
him.

" Charlemagne
was temperate in
eating and particu-
larly so in drinking,

for he abominated drunkenness in anybody, much more in
himself and those of his household; but he could not easily
abstain from food, and often complained that fast days injured
his health. His meals ordinarily consisted of four courses,
not counting the roast, which his huntsmen used to bring in
on the spit ; he was more fond of this than of any other dish.
While at table he listened to reading or music. The subjects
of the readings were the stories and deeds of olden time ; he
was fond, too, of St. Augustine's books, and especially of the
one entitled The City of God.

"While he was dressing and putting on his shoes, he not only
gave audience to his friends, but if the Count of the Palace [the
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 3

Roasting on a Spit.
From a MS. in the Bodleian Library, Oxford.

42 EMPIRE AND PAPACY

chief judge of the Court] told him of any suit in which his
judgment was necessary, he had the parties brought before
him forthwith, took cognizance of the case, and gave his deci-
sion, just as if he were sitting on the judgment-seat."

.uliarlmmi pj-

Signature of Charlemagne (700).

Charlemagne made only the central part of the monogram KAROLVS
(= Charles) ; the scribe wrote the rest, together with the words to the
left and to the right, which are Latin for " Signature of Charles, the
most glorious King."

Pepin the Short (751-768) deposed the last Merovingian
" do-nothing " king of the Franks, and became the first king of
24. Sum- the Carolingian line. His son, Charlemagne, began his
°^^^ sole rule in 771 and reigned until 814. He was the cen-

tral figure of his time, and was one of the most remarkable
men produced by the Middle Ages. He greatly extended his
kingdom through successful wars, ruled well in church and
state, revived the Empire of the West in 800, and checked the
decline of learning. With his coronation as Emperor a new
age begins ; force alone no longer rules ; and great ideas, such
as those which gave strength to the Papacy and the Empire,
begin to play a part amid the strife of nations.

TOPICS

Suggestive (1) What did Clovis contribute to the development of the

topics Frankish power ? What did Charles Martel contribute ? What did

Pepin the Short contribute ? What did Charlemagne contribute ?

(2) In what consisted the greatness of Charlemagne ? (3) Why

was the papacy more friendly to the Franks than to the other

THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE (768-814)

barbarians ? (4) Compare the German ideas of law with modem
ideas. (0) Was it better for the Saxons to receive civilization
from the Franks by force, or to work out a civilization of their
own ? (6) Compare the extent of territory ruled over by Charle-
magne with that ruled by the Eastern Emperor.

(7) Contemporary accounts of the coronation of Charlemagne. Search
(8) Alcuin. (9) Make a list of the other scholars of Charle- *°P^°*
magne's court, with tlie countries of their birth and the things
for which they are remembered. (10) The home life of the
Franks in the time of Charlemagne. (11) The wars against the
Saxons. (12) The wars against the Lombards. (13) Charle-
magne's visit to Rome in 774. (14) The massacre of the Saxons.
(15) Einhard's Life of Charlemagne.

Secondary-
authorities

REFERENCES

Map, pp. 30, 31 ; Dow, Atlas^ vii. ; Freeman, Historical Geog- Geography
raphy, I. ch. v. ; Gardiner, School Atlas of English History, map 6 ;
Poole, Historical Atlas, map iv.

Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 137-169 ; B^mont
and Monod, Medieval Europe, 66-72, 167-210 ; Emerton, Mediaeval
Europe, 3-14 ; Bryce, Holy Boman Empire, chs. iv. v. ; Henderson,
Short History of Germany, I. 22-38 ; Duruy, History of France, chs.
xii. xiii. ; Emerton, Introduction to the Middle Ages, 151-235 ;
Church, Beginning of the Middle Ages, 37-39, 88-98, 117-147 )
Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, ch. v. ; Duruy,
Middle Ages, 29-32, 61-66, 105-137 ; Stills, Studies in Medieval
History, 58-97 ; Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, 49-81 ;
Mombert, Charles the Great, 58-66, 86-153, 241-280, 354-368,
394-407 ; West, Alcuin, 40-64 ; Hodgkin, Charles the Great, chs. v.
vi. xi.-xiii. ; Oman, History of the Art of War, 47-62, 76-85 ;
Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, VIII. 122-164, 190-205, 287-302 ;
Bury, Later Boman Empire, II. bk. vi. ch. xi. ; Kitchin, History
of France, I. 67-149 ; Historians' History of the World, VII. 466-
556.

Ogg, Source Book, ch. ix.; Robinson, Beadings, I. ch. vii.;
Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, nos. 7-14, 46-49; Einhard,
Life of Charlemagne; University of Pennsylvania, Translations
and Beprints, vol. III. No. 2, pp. 2-4, vol, VI. No. 5 ; Henderson,
Documents of the Middle Ages, 189-201 ; Colby, Selections from
the Sources of English History, 16-19.

G. Griffin, The Invasion ; Longfellow, Wayside Inn (The Poet's
Tale, and The Student's Tale).

Sources

Illustrative
works

EMPIRE AND PAPACY

THE DESCENDANTS OF CHARLEMAGNE

(1) CllAKI.KMAGNE
(T68-S14)

In Italy and the
Middle Strip)

I'epin
(d. 810)

I
Bernard
(d. 818)

(2) J.oins L, THE
(814-840)

(In Germany)

(In France)

(3) LOTIIAIK I .

(843-855)

I
Pepin
(d. 838)

Louis tiik (Jkkma.-
(843-STti)

(5) ClIAIiLES TIIK BaI.I>

(848-877)

(4) Louis II .

(855-875)

LOTHAIR II.
(K.Of

Lotharingia,
855-869)

CHAKLES

(K.of
Provence,
S55-8fi;^)

I 1 I I

Cariximan Louis ((>) Chari.es Louts II.

(K.of THE „.„.. p,™ THE

Bavaria, YouN(;Eii — Sta.mmekeb

876-880) (K.of (K. of Swabia, (877-b79)

I Saxony, 876-887,

I 876-882) Kuler of all

I Carolingian lands,

I 8.S4-S87,

deposed 887. d. 888)

RIVAL LINE IN FRANCE OF
THE "ROBERTIANS"

Kobert the Stroii<r,
Duke of the French (d. 866)

Louis III. Caki.o.man Chaui.es
(879-882) (879-884) the Simple
(posthumous)
(899-922)
(d. 929)

Louis IV.

(D'Outremer)

(936-954)

Odo, Count of Paris
(King, 888-898)

UoitKitT. T)uko of the French

(King, 922-923)

I
Charles, Duke of
Lower Lorraine
(d. 994)

Hugh the; Great,

Duke of the PYench

(d.956)

I
Einnia= TlunoT.pii,

Duke of Burgundy
(King. 923-936)

IIu(;ii Cai'et (King. 987-996),
founder of the Capetian Hne
which ruled France for eight
hundred years (to 1792)

Fir plan aiioTi

Names underscored thus are those of members of the Carolingian house who bore
the title of Emperor. The seventh and eiglitli emperors, beginning to count
with Charlemagne, were obscure Italian jdinces, not of the Carolingian house.

Indicates extinction of the male line.

indicates illegitimate descent.

CHAPTER IIT.

THE LATER CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE (814-911) AND THE
FEUDAL SYSTEM

The power whicli Charlemagne built up declined rapidly-
after his death. His son Louis was well-meaning and con-
scientious, but without a spark of 05 t •
the genius of his father ; his care the Pious
for religion, however, won for him ^ ~ •'
the surname of "the Pious." The chief
troubles of Louis's reign arose from his
desire to set apart a portion of his king-
dom for his youngest son Charles (after-
wards called Charles the Bald), as he
had done for the older sons; but the
latter resented and three times resisted
in arms the attempt to deprive them
of territories for their young half-
brother.

The death of Louis the Pious, in 840,
did not end the struggle; and two
brothers, Charles the Bald and „ _ .
Louis the German, were soon ar- ofFontenay
rayed against their elder brother, ^®*^^

Lothair. All parts of the empire were
represented in the decisive battle, which occurred in 841, at
Pontenay, in eastern France. Never had so terrible a struggle
been seen since Charles Martel fought the Saracens at Tours.
One of the officers of Lothair's army describes the battle in a

Carolingtan Warrior

From Musee d'Artillerie
Paris.

46 EMPIRE AND PAPACY

rude Latin chant. : '^ May that day be accursed ! " he cries ;

"may it no more be counted in the return of the year, but

. .,, , let it be effaced from all remembrance ! . . . Never was
Angiloert,

quoted in there worse slaughter ! Christians fell in seas of blood ;

France' I. • • • the linen vestments of the dead whitened all the

^•5* field like birds of autumn."

The battle resulted in a complete victory for the two younger
brothers, who then bound themselves by oaths at Strassburg to
mutual aid. The language of these oaths shows the tongues
used in the two armies. On the one side the oath began, " In
Godes minna ind in thes christianes folches ind unser bedhero
gealtnissi. ..." On the other it read, " Pro Deo amur et
pro christian poblo et nostro commun salvament. . . ." In
English this clause woukl be, "For the love of God and for
the common safety of the Christian people and ourselves. ..."
The first can be recognized as in the language from which the
German of to-day is derived ; the second is midway between
Latin and modern French.

After long negotiations a treaty was concluded by the three
brothers at Verdun in 843. Louis received the eastern third

27 P t' ^^ ^^^ empire, beyond the rivers Aar and Rhine ; Charles

tion of Ver- the western third, lying west of the Rhone and Scheldt ;
' and Lothair the strip between, with Italy and the im-
perial title. This sweeping partition is the first step in the
rise in western Europe of territories corresponding to na-
tional states. We must not, however, press this point too

-. . far. "These three countries were not states, for a

Lavisse, _ ^

General state is an organized political entity; there were no
^^^' "^ states, properly speaking (at least no great states), before

the close of the Middle Ages. Nor were they nations ; a nation
is a definitely formed, conscious, and responsible person."
Territories, however, were marked out by this treaty in which
national states were in time to arise. Charles's portion cor-
responds roughly to modern France, and Louis's to Germany;

THE LATER CAROLINGIAN EMPIRE (814-911)

Partition of Verdun (843).

the middle strip contained no elements of nationality, and its
parts, together with Italy, were for ten centuries the object of
conquests and the seat of European wars.

The history of the later descendants of Charlemagne makes
a confused and uninteresting story. The stock itself was
enfeebled, and the quarrels and incompetence of rival
rulers are not more noteworthy than the speed with later Caro-
which all three lines became extinct. (1) In Italy, /843587^
Lothair died in 855, and his kingdom was divided
among his three sons ; the eldest, though ruling only a small
fraction of the territory of Charlemagne, was nevertheless
styled Emperor. None of the sons of Lothair left male heirs^

48 EMPIRE AND PAPACY

SO their territories passed upon their deaths to their cousins

of France and Germany. (2) In Germany we see the same

subdivision among three sons, followed by extinction of the

male line, the last of the legitimate descendants of the

eastern house being Charles the Fat. (3) In France, Charles

the Bald upon his death in 877 left but one son, to whom

descended the whole of his kingdom. This king ruled for

but two years, and his two sons, who ruled jointly,^ died

within five years thereafter. The nobles then chose as

ruler Charles the Fat (884-887), the last of the three sons

of Louis the German, in whose hands for a few brief years

nearly the whole of Charlemagne's empire was reunited.

The rule of Charles the Fat was as weak as it was short.

Since the days of Charlemagne, the danger from the North-

«/v « .3 - iii6n had become more pressiucj. From their homes in
29. Raids of ^ ^

the North- Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, these heathen sea-
°^®^ rovers came each year, in fl.eets of from a hundred to

three hundred vessels, to plunder and destroy. Their inva-
sions may be looked upon as the last wave of the Germanic
migrations. The scantiness of their harvests (due to the
rigorous climate of the north), a lust for booty, the love
of warfare and adventure, and political changes then taking
place at home — all impelled these hardy seamen to set forth.
England, Scotland, Ireland, and even Italy suffered from
their attacks, as Avell as France and Germany. In their
light ships they Avould ascend the rivers far into the heart
of the land, and then seize horses to carry them swiftly to
more distant scenes of plunder. In the latter part of the
ninth century their invasions took on a new character, and
became an emigration and colonization. In England half
the kingdom passed into their hands, and was known as
the Danelaw (878). In France monasteries and cities were

1 A third son, Cliarles the Simple, wivs born in 870, u few months after the
death of his father,

THE LATER CAROLINGIAN EMt'lKE (814-911) 49

pillaged and burned, great stretches of country fell out of
cultivation, and a large part of the population perished
through massacre and starvation. Twice Paris itself was
sacked. In 885-886 it was again besieged ; and in spite of the
heroic defense conducted by its count and bishop, the " cow-
ardly, unwieldy, incompetent" king, Charles the Fat, bought
oif the besiegers by the payment of a large sum of money.

The weakness of Charles the Fat led to his deposition in
887, and the division of the empire among many "little
kings." In Italy two rival families struggled in vain 30. Last of
to found an Italian kingdom. In Provence, or Lower ungians
Burgundy, and in Upper Burgundy, kingdoms were (887-987)
founded which soon united to form the kingdom of Bur-
gundy, or Aries. In all these regions the rule passed from
the hands of the Carolingians.

In Germany the power passed into the hands of an
illegitimate branch of the Carolingian house. Arnulf, nephew
of Charles the Fat, began the revolt that overthrew the
latter, and for twelve years ruled there as king. In him
something of the old Carolingian vigor and courage revived;
but his son, Louis the Child, who succeeded him, died in
911, leaving no son, brother, or uncle; and the rule of the
descendants of Charlemagne in Germany came permanently
to an end.

In France only there existed, after 888, a legitimate repre-
sentative (Charles the Simple) of the great house founded by
the heroic mayors of the palace, and here the Carolingian
rule continued, with many vicissitudes, for another century.
Count Odo — the count who so bravely conducted the defense
of Paris — was chosen king in France in 888, though he was
not of the Carolingian house ; but in Aquitaine the desire of
the nobles for a separate government led them to support
the Carolingian prince, Charles the Simple, and refuse to
recognize Odo; and after Odo's death (in 898) Charles was

50 EMPIRE AND PAPACY

received as king by the whole realm. But the downfall of
the Carolingians here was only postponed. In the end (987),
the family of Odo triumphed over the last representative
of the house of Charlemagne, and in France as elsewhere
rulers not of the Carolingian house sat on the throne.

Chief of the forces which broke up the unity of the Caro-
lingian empire was feudalism. In its nature this was both a

31. Rise of system of land tenure and a form of military, political,
feudalism ^^^^ social organization. In its origin it was a result of

the persistent and growing state of anarchy which the Ger-
manic invasions began, and which Charlemagne's rule only
temporarily checked. The growing weakness of the gov-
ernment obliged men everywhere to take upon themselves
the burden of their own defense. Every lofty hilltop, every
river-island and stronghold, became the site of a tower or
castle, whose lord ruled the surrounding population. Later
these castles were looked upon by the lower classes as
centers of oppression, but at first they were often viewed
with different sentiments : they were then " the sure places of
„ , deposit for their harvests and their goods : in case of

Covlanges, incursions they gave shelter to their wives, their chil-
• <?*^ dren, themselves ; each strong castle constituted the

safety of a district."

Three elements are found in the fully developed feudal sys-
tem, each with a separate history. These are: (1) the personal
element — vassalage; (2) the landed element — the benefice,
or fief; (.3) the political element — the rights of sovereignty
exercised by the great seigneurs.

(1) The personal element is that of which the roots go
deepest into the past. Under the Roman Empire, when

32. Vassal- oppressive government and barbarian raids made diffi-
S'g© cult the position of the poorer freemen, many became

the df'])eiidents of rich men, and rendered services in return
for maintenance and protection. Among the Germans of the

THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 51

time of Tacitus, free-born warriors considered it an lionor to
enter the comitatus, or military following, of a successful chief.
In the Frankish kingdom such relationships multiplied, and
the Carolingian government sought to use the institution of
personal dependence as a means to enforce military and other
duties. A capitulary of Charles the Bald, in 847, went so far
as to order " that each freeman in our kingdom choose the
lord that he wishes." About the year 900, the system of
independent freemen had practically disappeared in western
Europe, and society had become ''a chain of vassals, in which
subjection had its degrees, and mounted from man to man
up to the king."

The process by which a freeman became the vassal of
another was called " commendation." Kneeling before the
seigneur, or lord, the prospective vassal placed his hands in
the hands of the other, and " commended himself " to him,
promising to serve him honorably in such ways as a freeman
should, so long as he should live. There were three purposes
especially for which men went into vassalage : to escape the
exactions of unrighteous lords ; to avoid the military and judi-
cial services due the government; and to secure protection
against invading Saracens, Northmen, and Hungarians. The
tie established by commendation was at first purely personal,
without reference to landholding, and was not hereditary ; but
in course of time vassalage united with, and became subordi-
nate to, the second or landed element of feudalism. (

(2) The benefice, or fief, was an estate in land or other prop-
erty, the use of which was granted in return for stipulated
payments or services. Such "usufructuary" tenures gg ^^
were known under the later Roman Empire, and after benefice,
the Germanic conquest they were greatly multiplied.
The church especially was instrumental in establishing them.
Through gifts of pious individuals the clergy had come into
possession of vast estates, the surplus produce of which could

52 EMPIllE AND PAPACY

not be sold because of the almost total lack of roads and
markets; it was an economic advantage, therefore, to grant
away portions of this land in return for rents and services.
The example set by the clergy was followed by great lay pro-
prietors. Often, too, small "allodial" landowners (as those
were called who owned their land in full proprietorship) sur-
rendered their lands to the church, or to some powerful lay-
man, and received them back again as a benefice. Thus the
number of allodial estates constantly decreased, whereas that
of benefices increased.

The use made of tlie benefice by the government converted it
from a mere economic device into a political one ; this change
began in the time of Charles ]\lartel, and was connected with
a reorganization of the Prankish army. To meet the attacks
of the Saracens a cavalry force was necessary, and the rule
that each freeman should supply himself with weapons and
serve at his own expense could no longer be applied, for the cost
of })rovi(ling a horse and heavy arms was too great. Charles
IVfartel, therefore, granted land to his chief military fol-
lowers on condition that they equip and maintain bands of
cavalry for his service; and since the lands in his control
were not sufficient, lands of the church were appropriated and
used for this purpose. In these grants the personal and
landed elements of feudalism were always united; for the
lands granted by jVIartel and his successors were given only
to tliose who already were, or were willing to become, the
vassals of the grantor. These, in turn, exacted the same con-
dition from those to whom they subgranted portions, and from
tliis lime the tendenc^y was to unite vassalage and benefice
holding. By the end of the ninth century the union became
complete, and the benefice holder normally was a vassal, and
the vassal normally was a benefice holder. Benefices thus
ecretan, became "a sort of money with which the kings and the
Feodall(e,<j8 magnates paid for the services of which they had need."

THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 63

At first, benefices were granted for life only ; but gradually
it became customary, upon the death of a tenant, for the lord
to regrant the estate to the tenant's heir. Thus most benefices,
in the eighth and ninth centuries, were in practice hereditary ;
and the custom, without positive enactment, hardened into
law. The earlier term '' benefice " then gave place to the term
" fief," which designates the fully hereditary estate held by a
vassal on condition of mounted military service.

(3) Political sovereignty, which formed the third element

in feudalism, was not present in all fiefs, but was an integral

part of the system. It consisted of the right possessed 34. Seigno-

by the greater lords to do in their territories most of the ^^l "S^^ts

, , of sover-

acts which ordinarily are performed by the state — to eignty

hold courts and try causes, to raise money, levy troops, wage
war, and even coin money. Different lords ^jossessed these
rights in different degrees, but all the greater lords, both
lay and ecclesiastical, possessed some of them.

Such rights were acquired either through a grant of " immu-
nity" by the crown, or through usurpation without royal
grant. In the preceding chapter (§ 19) it has been seen that,
to check the oppressions of the counts, immunities were
granted, particularly to the clergy, exempting the estates of
the holders from the visitation and jurisdiction of royal officers.
Thenceforth the count would have no control over such
lands, and the functions which he formerly discharged there
passed to the immunity holder, and were exercised, not as
powers delegated by the state, but in his own right and for his
own profit. In a similar manner, the counts made their offices
and functions hereditary, along with the benefices which they
held. Many lords who were neither royal officers nor pos-
sessed of grants of immunity exercised similar rights by usur-
pation. Thus in various ways sovereignty, which should have
been possessed entire by the state, was split up into many
bits, and each great seigneur seized such portions as he could.

54 EMPIRE AND PAPACY

Prom the union of these three elements (vassalage, fief-
holding, and the lord's rights of sovereignty), in the eighth and

, ninth centuries, the feudal system arose. France was the
35. Spread ' -^

of the feu- land of its earliest and most complete development, but

dal system ^^ some form it was found in all countries of western
Europe. In England after the Norman conquest, and in
Palestine and the East at the time of the Crusades, the system
was introduced from France, with some important modifica-
tions : in England, in the direction of greater power for the
crown ; in the East, in the way of more complete control by
the feudal lords. In Spain, and in the Scandinavian countries,
the system was of native growth, but never reached the com-
pleteness which it gained in France and Germany. Until the
end of the thirteenth century, the system flourished with such
vigor that this epoch may be styled preeminently the Feudal
Age. In the fourteenth century a transformation set in, lasting
to the close of the Middle Ages, by which feudalism ceased to
be a political force, and became a mere social and economic
survival.

The theory of the feudal system was comparatively simple,
but its practice was infinitely complex and confused. The
g - y same man often held fiefs from several different lords,
cations of of different rank, and had vassals under him on each
eu a ism ^^^ Thus the count of Champagne in the thirteenth
century held fiefs divided into twenty-six districts, each cen-
tering in a castle ; his lords included the Emperor in Germany,
the king of France, the duke of Burgundy, the archbishops of
Rheims and Sens, the bishops of Autun, Auxerre, and Langres,
and the abbot of St Denis, to each of whom he did "hom-
age '' and owed " service " ; portions of his lands and rights
he '^ subinfeudated," on varying terms, to more than two
thousand vassal knights, some of whom were also vassals for
other fiefs from his own overlords. Monasteries frequently
appear, under feudal conditions, both as lords and as tenants

THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 56

of fiefs ; and bisliops owed feudal service for the lands an-
nexed to their offices.

The administration of justice usually went with the land ;
and since there were lordships above lordships, it miglit happen
that in a given place the " high justice," or right to punish the
most serious crimes (murder, robbery, arson, etc.) belonged to
one lord, the " middle justice " to another, and the " low
justice" to a third. The right to exercise jurisdiction was a
profitable right, because of the fines and confiscations which it
brought ; hence the right to administer one or another kind of
justice was often made the subject of an express grant. Offices
— even those of cook and miller — were granted as fiefs ; the
right to half the bees found in a certain wood was granted in
fief ; in the thirteenth century money fiefs, or annual pensions
in return for vassal service, became common. Behind all
these grants lay a military reason — the desire of the lord to
increase the number of his mounted and heavily armed follow-
ers serving at their own expense.

To the end of the Middle Ages there existed some allodial or
non-feudal estates, scattered here and there amid feudalized
lands; but the maxim, "No land without a lord, no lord 37. Lord
without land," expressed the rule. In the fully devel- and vassal
oped feudal theory, God was the ultimate lord of all land.
Family names derived from estates become common from the
eleventh century. Military service, and the tenure of land on
this condition, became the ground of a new nobility, descending
from the king through the various grades of marquis, duke,
count, viscount, to the lord of a single knight's fee. Each of
these, save the last, had vassals and subvassals below him,
created by the process of subinfeudation. Below them all
were the peasants, styled " serfs " and " villeins," whose
little plots of land were held of their lord on condition of .
manual services and regular payments, both of which were
regarded as " ignoble." Possession of at least a few families

EMPIRE AND PAPACY

Af"T*<)K Homage.
Heal ol the I'Jtli century-

of villeins was almost a iioocssity to the feudal lord, for it was
mainly from their lal)oi' that he was fed and clothed, and
enabled to equip himself with his steeds and costly armor.
The tie which bound the feudal hierarchy together was one
of ])ers()nal contract, based on the grant and receipt of land,

and witnessed by the " homage "
done and " fealty " sworn by each
vassal to his " suzerain," or lord.
By this contract the vassal was
pledged to render " service " to
his lord ; the latter was bound to
" protect " his vassal. The service
was preeminently military — forty
days a year, on horseback, at the
vassal's expense, being the custom-
ary limit. The vassal had to
attend his lord's court when sum-
moned, to aid with counsel and advice; he was obliged also
when accused to stand trial by his fellow-vassals in this court.
In addition, the lord might require })ayment of "aids" in
money, on certain exceptional occasions : (1) when the lord
knighted his eldest son ; (2) on the first marriage of his eldest
daughter ; (/>) to ransom his person from captivity ; and (4) to
aid him in setting forth on a crusade.

Primogeniture, or the succession of the eldest son, was the

rule of feudal inheritance, as opposed to the equal division

38. Feudal among all the children recognized by the Koman and

inheritance Teutonic law. Personal property might be disposed

of by Avill, but feudal land could not; in default of a recognized

heir it " escheated " to the lord of the fief. On entering upon*

his inheritance, the heir of full age paid a " relief " in money

• (consisting usually of one year's revenue of the fief), did

homage and fealty, and was then put in possession of his,

estate. If he was a minor, the lord often had the custody of

THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 57

his person and of the fief, with the right to take the profits,
until the heir became of age. Finally, the vassal could
not sell or otherwise alienate his fief without the lord's con-
sent ; and over the marriage of the vassal's heir the lord
possessed a measure of control.

In case a vassal failed in the discharge of his obligations, he
might be convicted of " felony," and his fief confiscated. In
case the lord failed to protect, or otherwise wronged his 39. Feudal
vassal, the latter might appeal to his lord's suzerain. warfare
But ordinarily disputes were settled by force ; and the clash of

/"^^f^U

vW^'i t>Vl

^ I^BH^'i^^'^^Jr

K m^

S'*^'

l^^SKm'^*

'^^ifc^^w^M^WPB

TOURNAMKNT OF THE TWELFTH CeNTURY.

From a 12th century MS.

ill-defined interests, the hatred borne to neighbor and stranger,
and the military habits of the time, made private warfare
almost the normal condition of the Middle Ages. And since
war was the chief occupation of the feudal class, mimic war-
fare — the "joust" and "tournament" — was their favorite
amusement.

Down to the eleventh century, the armor consisted of a

leather or cloth tunic covered with metal scales or rings, with

an iron cap to protect the head. From the beginning of the

twelfth century, the hauberk was usually worn ; this was a

Harding's m. & m. hist. — 4

58 EMPIRE AND PAPACY

coat of link or chain mail, often reaching to the feet, and pos-
sessing a hood to protect the neck and, back of the head.
Plate armor and the visored helmet first appear in the
fourteenth century. A shield or buckler of wood and leather,
bound with iron and emblazoned with the knight's coat of
arms, was carried on the left arm. The weapons were chiefly
the lance and the straight sword. The weight of the armor
made necessary a strong, heavy horse (the dextrarius) to
carry the warrior in battle ; when on a journey he rode a
lighter horse (the '' palfrey "), while a squire or valet led the
dextrarius, laden with his armor. No number of foot soldiers
of the ancient sort could stand before warriors mounted and
thus ecpiipped, and it is in this military preeminence that we
find one of the chief reasons for the long continuance of the
feudal power.

From the close of the tenth century the church exerted it-
self to check the incessant fighting ; and two institutions thus
40 Restric- ^^'^^^^ called respectively " the Peace " and " the Truce
tions of feu- of God." By the Peace, warfare upon the church and
the weak — including peasants, merchants, women, and
pilgrims — was perpetually forbidden in those districts where
the Peace was adopted. By the Truce of God, a cessation of
warfare was established for all classes during the period from
Wednesday night to Monday morning of each week, and in all
holy seasons (Lent, Advent, Whitsuntide, etc.) ; thus the
number of days a year on wliich warfare could be carried on
was greatly restricted. Violation of the Peace, or of the Truce,
was punished with excommunication (§ 58) : in some districts,
sworn associations of the laity and clergy, with special courts,
treasuries, and armies, were instituted to punish violations ; but
even thus the Peace and Truce were but imperfectly observed.
As governments grew stronger, dukes, kings, and emperors
exerted themselves to put down the abuse of private warfare.
In Normandy, and in England after the Norman conquest, the

THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 59

crown enforced peace with a strong hand. In France also, by
the beginning of th« fourteenth century, the crown became
strong enough to make progress in this direction. In Germany
the Emperors early proclaimed the public peace (Landfrieden) j
but " robber barons " continued to exist, " fist-right " prevailed
for long periods, and it was only at the very close of the
fifteenth century that effectual steps were taken to enforce a
permanent peace.

In considering the feudal system as a whole, the following
points should be borne in mind : (1) Practice often conflicted
with theory, many vassals, for instance, becoming strong 41. General
enough to throw off all dependence on their suzerains. of feudal^
(2) Customs varied greatly in different regions and at ism

different times. (3) The hereditary principle gradually grew
stronger, so that in many fiefs female inheritance, and the
succession of collateral heirs, in default of heirs of the direct
line, came to be recognized. (4) The principle of monarchy
(which implies "sovereignty" over subjects) was in its nature
opposed to feudalism (which gave only " suzerainty " over
vassals), and monarchs, wherever strong enough, undermined
feudalism both by direct limitations of feudal prerogatives,
and by drawing to themselves, or " mediatizing," the vassals of
their own tenants. (5) The rise of the cities as political
organizations, from the eleventh century to the thirteenth,
also weakened feudalism; for their interests were opposed to
those of the feudal lords, and they were enabled to combat
them by the wealth which they acquired through industry and
trade. (6) With all its defects feudalism served a useful
purpose : it supplied a possible form of government at a time
when complete anarchy was threatened; it kept alive the
theory of a king and the state, standing above all feudal mag-
nates, and thus furnished a basis on which subsequent genera-
tions could erect centralized and efficient governments.

EMPIRE AND PAPACY

The century which followed the death of Charlemagne saw
the complete decline of the empire he had founded. Feudal-
42. Sum- ism, new barbarian invasions, civil wars, and division of
^^^ the empire sapped the central authority. After a fleeting

reunion of the parts under Charles the Fat (884-887), there
came a hnal separation of the Carolingian lands into a number of
different kingdoms. In each of these the tendency was toward
further separation and a further diminution of the powers of
the crown. Society was in danger of being reduced to anarchy,
and how to check this tendency was one of the problems of
the immediate future. The gradual rise of the feudal system
furnished a rude yet elastic bond, in which personal service,
landholding, and political allegiance were intertwined ; the
result was a new society, ruled by the heavily armed, mounted
knight, intrenched in his almost impregnable castle.

Suggestive
topics

Search
topics

TOPICS

(1) Was Louis the Pious a good man? Was he a good niler?
(2) Compare the later Carolingian kings with the later Merovin-
gians. (3) How did the weakness of Charlemagne's descendants
aid the growth of feudalism ? (4) What other factors cooperated ?
(5) Compare the ninth century Northmen with the fifth century
Franks. (6) How does a feudal society differ from a modern state as
regards taxation, coining money, administration of justice, main-
tenance of an army, etc. ? (7) Why are such institutions as the
Peace and Truce of God no longer necessary ?

(8) Reformatory measures of Louis the Pious. (0) The treaty
of Verdun and its significance. (10) Raids of the Northmen in
the ninth century. (11) The lord's obligations. (12) The vas-
sal's obligations. (13) Description of a battle in the Middle
Ages. (14) Arms and armor of the knight. (15) Jousts and
tournaments. (10) The Peace and Truce of God. (17) Forces
hostile to feudalism. (18) The advantages and disadvantages of
feudalism. (19) Non-European feudalism (Japan).

REFERENCES

Geography Maps. pp. 47, 30, 31 ; Freeman, Historical (re(yjra))hy, I. oh. vi. j

Poole, Historical Atlas, map xxxiii. ; Dow, Atlas, vii.

THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 61

Duruy, History of France^ ch. xviii.; Adams, Civilization during Secondary
the Middle Ages, chs. viii. ix. ; Bemont and Monod, Medieval authorities
Europe, chs. xiv.-xvi. ; Emerton, Medioeval Europe, 21-40 ; Hen-
derson, Short History of Germany, 38-48 ; Church, Beginning
of the Middle Ages, ch. viii.; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the
Middle Age, chs. vi.xi.; Oman, Dark Ages, chs. xxiii.-xxv.; Dumy,
Middle Ages, chs. x. xi.; Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages,
chs. vi. vii.; Stills, Studies in Medieval History, 130-145 ; Oman,
History of the Art of War, bk. iii. chs. ii. iii.; Kitchin, France, I.
150-159; Keary, Vikings in Western Christendom, chs. v. ix. xv.;
Boyesen, Norway, 1-44 ; Jewett, Normans, chs. i.-iv.; Emerton,
Introduction to the Middle Ages, ch. xiv. ; Baldwin, Scutage and
Knight Service in England, Introduction ; Seignobos, Feudal
Begime ; Munro and Sellery, Medieval Civilization, 18-33, 159-
211 ; Boutell, Arms and Armour, chs. vii.-ix. ; Historians' History
of the World, VII. 557-594, VIII. 481-501.

Ogg, Source Book, 149-171, ch. xiii.; Robinson, Headings, I. Soiirces
chs. viii.-ix.; Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, nos. 15-23, 180-
230, 234-239; University of Pennsylvania, Translations and He-
prints, vol, IV. No. 3 ; Henderson, Documents of the Middle Ages,
bk. ii. no. v. ; Jones, Civilization in the Middle Ages, Nos. 4, 5.

The Song of Boland ; Bulfinch, Charlemagne, or Bomance of
the Middle Ages ; Gautier, Chivalry.

MOIIAflnEUANS, C1IKISTIAN8,
AM) PAG ASS

XEAR END OF IITH CENTURY
SCALE OF MILES

CHAPTEE, IV.

SUCCESSORS OF THE CAROLINGIANS IN GERMANY AND
FRANCE (911-1024)

The dissolution of the Carolingian empire, the rise of feudal-
ism, and new barbarian invasions made the end of the ninth
century a time of confusion and disorder. The Viking 43. Begin-

raids of the Northmen still continued. The Saracens ^^?£.i * ®

tentu cen-

held Sicily securely, again and again fastened themselves tury

upon southern and central Italy, and long held a post on the
coast of Provence. The Slavs beyond the lower Elbe, and in
Bohemia and Moravia, proved troublesome. From out of far-
distant Asia came the Magyars, or Hungarians, another of those
terrible swarms which, like the Huns, the Avars, and later the
Turks, threatened to destroy civilization ; settling in the rich
plains of the middle Danube and the Theiss (896), they
extended their raids into Italy, Germany, and France. Europe
seemed relapsing into barbarism and chaos; disorder, weak-
ness, and ignorance increased; and not until the middle of
the tenth century did improvement come.

The worst part of J^he Hungarian attack fell upon Germany,
where the weakness of the central power after the fall of the
Carolingians threw the burden of defense on local counts ^^ Disinte
and dukes. These officers used the opportunity to build gration of
up a number of powerful, semi-national duchies. Thence-
forth, though nominally a monarchy, the German government
took on the character of a confederation, governed by the
hereditary princes who ruled the great duchies.

There were four of these German duchies in the tenth and

NOR

THE HOLY R03IAN EMPIRE

IN THE

TENTH AND ELEVENTH CENTURIES

SCALE OF MILES

I,ou|r

SUCCESSORS OF THE CAROLINGIANS (911-1024) 65

eleventh centuries, not counting Lotharingia (Lorraine), which
was sometimes German and sometimes French. (1) In the
valley of the Danube, and its tributary the Inn, lay the duchy
of Bavaria, with Ratisbon (Regensburg) as its principal city.
(2) To the west, embracing the head w^aters of the Rhine and
Danube and taking in what is now eastern Switzerland, was
the duchy of Swabia. (3) North of this, including the middle
course of the Rhine, the valley of the Main, and the lower
course of the river Neck-ar, was the duchy of Franconia.
(4) North of this again, in the low plains drained by the Ems,
the Weser, and the lower Elbe, lay the duchy of Saxony.
Thuringia was loosely connected with Saxony, as Friesland was
with Lotharingia. Each of the duchies was subdivided into
counties ; and over the border counties (styled 7narks, or
"marches") the counts acquired such large powers that they
became practically independent of their dukes. Thus the
Ostmark (East March) of Bavaria, established as a defense
against the Hungarians, developed into Oeaterrekli (Austria) ;
and the North March of Saxony, into Brandenburg, a nucleus
of the present kingdom of Prussia.

On the death of Louis the Child (§ 30), Conrad I., duke of
Franconia, was elected king (911-918). The Saxon duke,
however, proved stronger than King Conrad ; and on his 45. Early
deathbed Conrad sent the insignia of royalty to Henry, of^ermany
"the Fowler," head of the Saxon house, who was there- (919-973)
upon elected king ; and for five successive reigns the crown
remained in this family.^ During a nine-years' truce with the
Hungarians Henry I. (919-936) gave a great impulse to town
life in Saxony by building numerous fortified places, in which
one out of every nine free peasants should dwell, to receive
and store up a third of the harvests of the other eight; he also
transformed the Saxon infantry into cavalry, and was thus
enabled to repulse the next Hungarian attack (933).
1. See table at foot of p. 98.

66 EMPIRE AND PAPACY

The greatest of the Saxon kings was Henry's son, Otto I.
(936-973). He ably warred against the Hungarians, and in-
flicted upon them a decisive defeat (955) on the river Lech,
near Augsburg ; after this they gradually settled down to agri-
cultural and pastoral life. Under their king, Saint Stephen
(979-1038), they were converted to Christianity; and in the
year 1000 they were received into the family of European
nations by the gift of a royal crown from the Pope. By their
settlement in Europe and acceptance of Roman Christianity,
the boundary of Western Christendom was shifted far east-
ward.

Otto's reign saw the beginning of an important German ex-
pansion northeastward, at the expense of the Slavs, which won
for modern Germany some of its most
important territory. The king of the
Bohemians was forced to recognize Otto
as his overlord, and his people were
brought within the circle of German
influence. Step by step with the exten-
sion of German rule, went the progress
of Christianity : an archbishopric was

„ „ ^ . established at Magdeburg (in 967), and

Ring Seal of Otto I. & & v y?

a number of bishoprics dependent on it
were erected; and from these centers civilization and Chris-
tianity slowly radiated among the neighboring Slavs. The
duke of the Poles had accepted Christianity in 966, and his
successor established a powerful but unstable kingdom.

The way, meanwhile, was prepared for the extension of
German influence in Italy. Since the downfall of Charles the

46. Italy Fat (887) Italy had suffered many ills. Saracen and

and the -ry

papacy Hungarian raids had devastated the land, and whole cities

(887-950) were ruined. Feudalism, which in other countries was a

defense to the people, here encountered strong opposition from

the artisan and merchant classes ; and municipal governments,

SUCCESSORS OF THE CAROLINGIANS (911-1024) 67

centering about the bishops of the towns, came into existence
to combat the seigneurs. A series of shadowy kings and em-
perors arose, seeking to lay the foundations of a national
monarchy ; but, as a writer of the time said, " The Italians
always wish to have two masters, in order to keep the Liutprand
one in check by the other"; thus no ruler won nndis- of Cremona
puted recognition, and disunited Italy, for nine hundred years,
endured the rule of strangers.

Why was not the Pope the head and defender of Italy ?
The reason was that the papacy was suffering from the same
anarchy that attacked the empire. Deprived of the protection
of a strong imperial power, it became a prey to corrupt and
greedy local nobles ; and violence, bloodshed, and scandal pre-
vailed through the greater part of the first half of the tenth
century.

The disorders in Italy finally forced Otto I. to intervene
in 951 ; and ten years later he led an army a second time into
Italy. At Milan he now assumed the iron crown of 47. Revival
Lombardy; and at Eome, on February 2, 962, he was ° ph-eby
crowned Emperor by the Pope. A few days later he Otto I. (962)
confirmed all the grants that had been made to the Popes by
Pepin and Charlemagne, and decreed that the papal elections
should thereafter be conducted with the fullest liberty.

The coronation of Otto revived the imperial title and
refounded the empire of Charlemagne, to last (at least in
name) for about eight centuries and a half longer. The new
empire differed in some important respects from the former
one. France no longer made part of it, and imperial inter-
ests were confined almost entirely to Germany and Italy.
The very title used, that of "the Holy Eoman Empire of the
German nation," indicates its Teutonic nature. The close
connection between Germany and Italy, which the empire
brought about, proved hurtful to both : to Italy it brought the
ruin of all hopes of nationality and of a native government ;

68 EMPIRfe AND PAPACY

for Germany it meant the sacrifice of the substance of power
at home for the shadow of dominion beyond the Alps. To
the papacy alone the connection was of immediate value, for
the imperial power protected it against the greed and corrup-
tion of local nobles.

It was largely the personal qualities of Otto I. — his energy,
courage , and military skill — that made his reign so success-
48. The ful. His son, Otto II. (973-983), struggled with fair
'EmveroTs^ success against forces which fear of Otto I. had kept
(973-1002) in check; but his death at the early age of twenty-
eight left the throne to his three-year-old son, Otto III.
(983-1002). In the minority of Otto III., first his mother
Tlieopliano (a Uyzantine princess), and then his grandmother
Adelaide, watched over the empire as regeuts. Again there
were rebellions, aud Slav and Danish invasious, and the royal
authority declined. In 996 Otto was declared of age, visited
Kouie with an army, and was crowned Emperor. His char-
acter was a strange mixture of religious enthusiasm, exalted
imperial dreams, aud practical weakness. His closest friend
and teaclier was a French monk named Gerbert, who had
studied in Spain, and whose rare mathematical knowledge
made him seem a magician to after ages; in 999 Gerbert be-
came l*()pe, with the name Sylvester II. — the first French
Pope. In ])nvsuit of his imperial dreams, Otto abandoned
Germany and made Rome his capital, where he surrounded
himself with high-sounding officials and an elaborate ceremo-
nial in imitation of the Byzantine court. Soon the fickle
Romans revolted; and hurt at their ingratitude. Otto wan-
dered about Italy, until his death in January of the next
year (1002). The German nobles, meanwhile, multiplied
their castles aud independent jurisdictions, and ruined the
land witli violence and warfare.

With the death of Otto HI. the male line of Otto the Great
came to an end, and there was again opportunity for a free

SUCCESSORS OF THE CAUOLINGIANS (011-1024) 69

election. The choice fell upon the duke of Bavaria (a great
grandson of Henry I. ; p. 98), who reigned as Henry II.
(1002-1024). Abandoning the romantic dreams of Otto III.,
he concerned himself with defending and reorganizing Ger-
many ; in Italy he seldom appeared. The name Henry "the
Saint," given him by mediaeval historians, was merited by the
conscientiousness with which he performed his religious duties,
and the gifts and favors he showered upon the church; but
he ruled the clergy, not they him.

From Germany and Italy we must turn to France. There
the chief events of the tenth century were (1) the establish-
ment of the Northmen on French soil, and (2) the final 49. Duchy
overthrow of the Carolingian dynasty. ^ founded

The repulse of the Northmen from Paris, in 886, did (911)

not prevent them from settling in increasing numbers in the
lands about the lower Seine. In 911 their leader was Rolf
(or Rollo), called " the Ganger " or " the Walker," because his
gigantic size prevented his finding a horse to carry him.
Under his leadership, says an old writer, " the pagans, William of
like wolves of the night, fell upon the sheepfolds of Jumieges
Christ ; the churches were burned, women dragged off captive,
the people slain." Many times the invaders had been bought
off with gifts of money ; it was now resolved to follow the
example of England and buy them off with a grant of land.
At a meeting between the French king and Rolf, in 911, it
was agreed that Rolf should have tlie lands about the lower
Seine as the vassal of the king of France, that he should
cease his attacks, and that he and his followers should become
Christians. The name Normandy (Northmen's land) was
soon given this region, and the Northmen ceased to trouble
the kingdom.

Rolf and the Norman dukes after him were men of ability,
and the race itself was of the sturdiest Teutonic stock. With
remarkable rapidity the Normans took on their neighbors'

70 EMPIRE AND PAPACY

religion, language, and customs. Normandy became a feudal
principality, differing from the other fiefs of northern France
only in the ability with which it was governed, and the hardy
and adventurous character of its inhabitants. ^'0 France,"

^ , „. exclaims a historian of the eleventh century, " thou wast
Dudo, His- -"

tory of the bowed down, crushed to earth. . . . Behold, there comes
Normans ^^ ^-^^^ ^^^^ Denmark a new race. . . . That race shall
raise thy name and thy empire, even unto the heavens ! '^ In
the Norman conquest of England and of southern Italy (here-
after to be related), in the leading part which the Normans
played in the Crusades, and in the hardy character of their
seamen to the end of the Middle Ages, evidences of their
superior vigor and daring were abundantly given.

The final overthrow of the Carolingian house in France was
effected by a member of the family of that Count Odo who
50. Rival won fame in the defense of Paris in 886. The power of
inFrance *^^^ family (called Eobertians, after an ancestor, Eobert
(888-987) the Strong) rested (1) on the ability of its heads as war-
riors and statesmen ; (2) on the possession of great estates in
northern France, more extensive even than those possessed by
the Carolingian kings ; and (3) on the office of " Duke of the
French," which gave the holder the military supremacy in north-
ern France. The hundred years following the siege of Paris
was one long contest for the throne between the Carolingians
and the Robertians. The successive kings of this period are
shown in the table on p. 44. The reign of the Carolingian
Charles the Simple (§ 30) was followed by a period of Rober-
tian rule (922-936), and this in turn by the reigns of three
Carolingian kings : Louis IV. (936-954), called Louis " D'Outre-
mer " from his residence " beyond the sea " in England at the
time of his accession ; Lothair (954-986) ; and Louis Y. (986-
987), who died of a fall from a horse, leaving no child.

These last ('arolingians saw their power grow steadily less.
The head of the Kobertian house at the close of the period

. SUCCESSORS OF THE CAilOLlNGtANS (911-1024) 71

was Hugh Capet, so called from the cape or hood which he wore;

of his power it was said by one of his chief supporters, "Lothair

is king in name only ; Hugh does not bear the title, but he is

king in fact." When Lothair's son and successor died without

children, the way was clear for Hugh to secure the throne.

For the past hundred years the throne of France had really

been elective, the great nobles choosing the king now from one

family and now from the other. In the assembly called 5^^ q^

in 987 to settle the succession, it was possible for the petian

dynasty
archbishop of Rheims, the leading clergyman of the estabUshed

kingdom, to use this language : " We are not ignorant ^^^"^^

that Charles of Lorraine [brother of Lothair] has partisans

who pretend that the throne belongs to him by right of

birth. But if the question is put in that fashion, we jncher, bk.

will say that the crown is not acquired by hereditary ^"- ^A. xL

right, and that he alone should be raised to the throne who is

distinguished by elevation of character as well as by blood."

His arguments won the day, and Hugh was chosen king " of

the Gauls, Bretons, Normans, Aquitanians, Goths, Spaniards,

and Basques," — that is, king of all France. The mention of

these different peoples shows how far they were from being

welded as yet into a single nation.

The change of dynasty in France is to be looked upon as
entirely the result of a combination of persons and circum-
stances, due to no difference of principles. Yet it was an
event of prime importance, for it gave to France a line of
rulers (lasting to the end of the eighteenth century) who
transformed the elective monarchy into an hereditary one, and
built up, on the foundations laid by the Carolingians, the first
strong, centralized, modern state.

The energy and daring which produced the Northmen's settle-
ments in England and France manifested itself in 52. The
other exploits. Viking bands from the mother lands g^^thera
of the north discovered and settled Iceland (861-875) Italy

EMl'TRE AND PAPACY

and Groenland (98-)), and even visited

■ Vinland " or America
(about the year 1000).
In Ivussia (about 862)
Swedish Vikings es-
tablished a dynasty
which ruled that land
for seven hundred
years. The Normans,
or descendants of the
Northmen on French
soil, were also to make
further conquests: the
circumstances which
established their duke
as king of England
are related in another
chax)ter (§ 158) ; sec-
ond in importance
only to this was their
establishment in
southern Italy.

Since the days of
Charlemagne, the
East-Iioman (Byzan-
tine) or Greek Empire
had preserved an un-
certain foothold in
southern Italy, threat-
ened by the growth
of feudal lordships, by
the pretensions of Ger-
man kings, and by
Saracen invasions. Sicily since 878 had been almost wholly
Saracen, and Sardinia, after 900, was also in Mohammedan

NoKSE Art.

Carved door from an old church in Iceland ; now
in Copenhagen Museum. From l)u Chaillu's
The Viking Age.

SUCCfiSSOKS OF THE CAROLINGIANS (911-1024) 73

hands. In the first half of the ninth century, Saracens had
gained a footing in southern Italy, and though they were
temporarily dislodged, no permanent relief could be hoped
for while the neighboring lands were theirs. Early in the
eleventh century (1017) a new factor entered when a revolted
noble enlisted Norman adventurers against the Greek governor.
Soon other Normans flocked thither, to take service under
different princes and nobles, selling their swords to the highest
bidders. Presently they began to establish a power of their
own ; and in 1071 they took Bari, the last possession of the
Greek governors in Italy.

In these conquests live of the twelve sons of a poor Norman
noble played principal parts. The eldest, William of the Iron
Arm, began the work of expelling both the Greeks from
Apulia and the Saracens from Sicily ; his brothers assisted and
continued the task. The fourth brother, Kobert Guiscard
(which means " the cunning "), made the greatest name for
himself. The daughter of the Greek Emperor describes him
as he appeared to his enemies : " His high stature excelled
that of the most mighty warriors. His complexion was ruddy,
his hair fair, his shoulders broad, his eyes flashed fire. It is
said that his voice was like the voice of a whole multitude, and
could put to flight an army of sixty thousand men." Like all
the Normans, he was a cruel conqueror, and to this day ruined
cities bear witness to his ferocity. Before he died (in 1085) all
southern Italy acknowledged him as lord, save only the lands
about the Bay of Naples, and the papal duchy of Benevento.

The conquests of Koger, the youngest of the family, were
equally remarkable. On the invitation of discontented Chris-
tians, he landed in Sicily in the year 1060, and after thirty
years of untiring warfare, he succeeded in conquering the last
of that island from its Saracen rulers.

In Italy and Sicily the Norman princes showed the same
tolerance for the language, laws, customs, and beliefs of the

74 EMPIRE AND PAPACY

conquered, and the same adaptability to new conditions, that
they displayed elsewhere. The result was that on the ruins
of Greek, Lombard, and Saracen power they erected a strong
feudal state which, with some inevitable changes, lasted until
the establishment of the present kingdom of Italy in the nine-
teenth century.

Reviewing the developments of the tenth and eleventh
centuries, we see that one of the problems presented by the

53. Sum- dissolution of the Carolingian empire had been solved;

^^^y the centrifugal tendency had been brought under control,

and political disintegration checked. Feudalism, with its
organization of society on the basis of private contract devel-
oping into hereditary right, proved a uniting as well as a dis-
integrating force ; it served to bind together, however loosely,
the fragments of society until other and stronger ties could
operate. Monarchical government proved another political tie.
Germany under the Saxon kings seemed nearer to attaining
national monarchical union than any other Carolingian land ;
but this result the tendencies of the next three centuries were
to defeat. In France and England the foundations of strong
monarchies were laid, in the one by the accession of Hugh
Capet, in the other by the Norman Conquest. These countries,
therefore, earlier than any others in the West, were to attain
unity and strength. The revival of the Holy Roman Empire
by Otto the Great (962) gave a fictitious unity to Western
Christendom by its claims to theoretical subordination of all
kingdoms to itself ; but the imperial supremacy was seldom
recognized in fact, and the persistence of the Empire was more
important for its bearing on men's aspirations and ideals than
for its influence on practical policies.

With the checking of political disintegration went on a
widening of tlie area of Western civilization. Hungarians,
Bohemians, and Poles were formed into Christian kingdoms,

SUCCESSORS OF THE CAROLINGIANS (911-1024) 75

while other Slavonic tribes were absorbed into Germany. The
Christian kingdoms of Scandinavia — Norway, Denmark, and
Sweden — arose, and offshoots of the Northmen's race estab-
lished themselves in France, Italy, and England. In Spain,
Christian principalities slowly gained ground at the expense of
the Mohammedans ; in Eussia, civilization and Christianity
made their way from Constantinople among the native Slavs
and their Swedish rulers. The Eastern Empire held its own
against the Bulgarians, Hungarians, and Servians (a Slavonic
people) who beset it on the north, and against the Mohamme-
dans who attacked it from the east. Christianity and civiliza-
tion, in short, maintained themselves, and slowly spread from
the Mediterranean, countries towards the farthest confines of
Europe.

TOPICS

(1) Compare the weakness of the Carolingian empire in the Suggestive
ninth and tenth centuries with that of Rome in the fourth and °^^°*
fifth. (2) Was the decline due primarily to the increase of dan-
gers from without or to decay within ? (3) Why did Germany
suffer most from the Hungarians ? (4) Why were the Northmen
the chief enemies of France ? (5) Why should the border counts
gain larger powers than the counts in other regions ? (6) How
lortg had the Saxons been Christians when their duke became king ?
(7) With what movements in our own history may the German
expansion eastward be compared ? (8) Compare the empire of
Otto I. with that of Charlemagne. (9) Show on an outline map
the extent of the empire under the Saxon emperors, marking the
German duchies.* (10) Was the grant of Normandy to Rolf a wise
or an unwise step on the part of the French king? (11) Did it
benefit or injure France? (12) How does the Norman conquest of
southern Italy differ from the Northmen's settlement in France ?

(13) The coming of the Hungarians. (14) Henry I.'s. fortresses Search
and army reorganization. (15) Victory over the Huns on the ^oP^cs
Lech. (16) Character of Otto I. (17) His first expedition to
Italy and marriage to Adelaide. (18) Gerbert as scholar and
teacher. (19) Decline of the Carolingians in France. (20) Hugh .
Capet. (21) The Northmen in Russia. (22) The discovery and
settlement of Iceland. (23) The Normans in Italy. (24) Robert
Guiscard.

EMPIRE AND PAPACY

REFERENCES

Geography

Secondary-
authorities

Sources

Illustrative
works

Maps, pp. 62, 64, 30, 81 ; Freeman, Historical Geography^ II.

(Atlas), map 21; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xxxiv. liv. ; Gar-
diner, School Atlas, map 8; J)ow, Atlas, viii.

Emerton, Mediceval Eiirope, chs. iii.-v.; B^mont and Monod,
Medieval Europe, ch. xvii. ; Bryce, Holy Boman Empire (revised
ed.), chs, vii.-ix. ; Tout, Empire and Papacy, 12-51; Henderson,
Germany in the Middle Ages, chs. viii.-x.; Church, Beginning of
the Middle Ages, ch. x.; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the
Middle Age, ch. viii.; Milman, History of Latin Christianity, III.
bk. V. chs. xi.-xiii.; Fisher, Medieval Empire, I. 94-102; Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Boman Empire (Bury's ed.), VI. chs. Iv,
Ivi. ; Gregorovius, Borne in the Middle Ages, III. bk. vi. chs. v. vi.;
Kitchin, France, I. bk, ii. ch. v.; Historians'' History of the World,
VII. 000-645.

Ogg, Source Book, 171-180 ; Robinson, Beadings, I. 194-196,
245-200; Thatcher and McNeal, Soiirce Book, nos. 24-29, 53-50 ;
Henderson, Documents of the Middle Ages, Appendix, 442.

C. M. Yonge, 77ie Little Duke; Scheft'el, Ekkehard ; G. W.
Daseut, "The Vikings of the Baltic.

CHAPTER V.
THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES

The unbroken rule of the church over the lives, and spirits
of mankind, down to the time of the Reformation, is the most
striking feature of mediaeval history. Through the organ- ^^ influ-
ized church, the barbarians who had overwhelmed the ence of the
Roman Empire were brought into the Christian fold ;
and it afterwards exerted a powerful force among the Western
nations toward establishing political unity and promoting uni-
formity of manners, of usages, of law, and of religion. Despite
the ignorance, ambition, and corruption which crept into it,
the cliurch persistently held aloft a higher standard of morals
than that of the laity, and championed the cause of the poor
and oppressed in an age of violence and sensuality. Of walker
its head a Protestant historian says, " The papacy as a Reforma-
whole showed more of enlightenment, moral purpose, and '

political wisdom than any succession of kings or emperors
that mediaeval Europe knew."

Very early there arose a legal setting off of the clergy from

the laity. To the clergy alone were committed the conduct of

worship, the administration of the sacraments, and the gg ^^

government and discipline of the Christian community. clergy as

As time passed, the distinctions between the two classes

became deeper, the one being likened to the soul, the other to

the body. Gradually a hierarchy of orders and offices was

formed among the clergy. Says the twelfth-century author

of a popular text-book: "Seven are the ecclesiastical Peter Lom-

^ ^ , hard, Sen-

ranks, to wit: doorkeepers, readers, exorcists, acolytes, tentim

Harding's M. & M. HIST. — 5 77

EMPIRE AND PAPACY

but all are called
' clerks ' " {i.e. clergy). The ceremony of " tonsure "
marked the entrance of the candidate into minor
orders : in the Eastern Church this meant the clip-
ping of the hair over
the whole head; in
the Roman or Latin
Church, the top only
was shaved, leaving a
narrow strip all around.
The clergy wore gar-
ments of peculiar cut,
to distinguish them
from the laity and one
order from another.
That they might serve
The Tonsure. God with more single-

Froni a 14th century MS. neSS of purpose, it was

,jf«j,j,^|| ordered in the West, from the fourth century on,
/^iil^l that priests and the higher clergy should be "celi-
bate," that is, should not marry. In the Eastern
or Greek Church the practice of celibacy was
generally confined to the monks, and even in the
Latin Church several centuries passed before it
became universal. To secure independence in
administering religious rites, the clergy claimed
" immunity " from the secular law and the secular courts, so
that a clergyman might be tried only before ecclesiastical
courts, and by church or " canon " law. This privilege, known
as " benefit of clergy," crept sooner or later into the laws of
every nation of Europe ; and the evils in it were seen when
persons who had no intention of becoming priests became
clerics, or clerks, merely that they might secure protection in
their misdeeds.

THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES

The power of the clergy rested upon the position of the priest
as mediator between God and man, and as the authoritative
teacher in matters of faith and morals. In the teaching 5g jj^^
of the church, the " sacraments ^^ were recognized as the sacraments
ordinary channels of divine grace, aiid these (with the excep-
tion of baptism and matrimony) the clergy only could validly
administer. The sac-
raments were seven
in number: (1) In
the sacrament of Bap-
tism the child (or
adult) was made a
member of the Chris-
tian community.
(2) Confirmation ad-
mitted him into full
fellowship. (3) The
Holy Eucharist (or
Lord's Supper), ad-
ministered in the
Mass, was the central
feature of mediaeval
worship, for in this rite
the spirit of the par-
ticipant was strength-
ened by the reception
of the body and blood
of the Savior. The
term "tran substantia-
tion" was introduced
in the thirteenth cen-
tury to designate Three Sacraments: Ordination, Marriage,

Extreme Unction.
precisely that the sub- ,^ , _,

^ 111 ^^^^ ^^ ^ triptych painted in the 14th century ;

stance of the bread Antwerp Museum.

80 EMriKE AND PAPACY

and the substance of the wine were changed into the substance
of the body and blood of Christ, only the appearances or
" accidents " (such as color, taste, etc.) of bread and wine
. remaining. (4) renance included confession to the priest at
least once a year, the performance of various acts to test
the reality of repentance, and absolution by the priest from
the guilt of sin. (5) Extreme Unction was the anointing
with oil of those about to die ; it strengthened the soul for its
dark journey and cleansed from the remainder of venial sins.
(6) Ordination was the rite whereby one was made a member
of the various grades of the clergy. (7) Matrimony was the
sacrament by which a Christian nuin and woman were joined
in lawful wedlock.

The theory underlying the whole system was that the sac-
raments derived tlu'ir force from the power which Christ gave
the Apostles and which they transmitted to their successors.
Any priest might administer most sacraments, but only
bishops could ordain.

To carry on the work of the chundi, officers of various ranks

were necessary. At the bottom of the structure were the

67. Eccle- parish Priests. The first Christian churches were natu-

hierarchy; I'^^^J i^^ pojjulous cities; l)ut subordinate churches were

Priests soon erected, and offshoots arose in country districts.

Eventually the whole of Westein Christendom was divided

into " parishes," each with its parish church and parish priest.

The priest was appointed by the bishop, but laymen who gave

lands to found the churches usually reserved to themselves

and their successors the riglit of " })atronage," that is, of

nominating to it some ordained clerk.

The parishes, in turn, were grouped into " dioceses," each
diocese under the Bishop of that " see " (bishopric). The word

ir« «. ^ "bisho))" (e/)isroj)us) means " overseer " and aptly charac-
58. Bishops . ^ - . ^ "^

terized his functions. He watched over the work of

the diocese, visiting and disciplining the clergy, consecrating

THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 81

churches, and administering the sacraments of confirmation
and ordination. The "tithe," or church due of one tenth of
all the produce of the soil, was paid to his agents, and by him
apportioned among the parishes. He presided in person (or
through his "archdeacon") over the ecclesiastical court of
the diocese ; to this all the clergy, and also laymen in many
kinds of cases, were amenable. In his " synods," or diocesan
councils, ecclesiastical legislation was passed. He enforced
his judgments and decrees by "excommunication," that is, by
cutting off the culprit from Christian fellowship : the greater
excommunication, or "anathema" (accomplished "by bell,
book, and candle "), not only cut off the person from the rites
of the church and thus endangered his soul, but also cut him
off from his fellows so that none might buy, sell, eat, or
transact business with him. The power of the bishops over
both the clergy and the laity was very great; certain in-
fluences, however, tended to lessen their authority. Among
these were conflicts with the "chapter" of the "cathedral" (as
the clergy were called who had charge of the worship in the
bishop's church) ; for the fact that the members of the chapter
(called "canons") came to enjoy the right — at least in theory
— of electing the bishop, greatly strengthened their position.
The "archdeacon" also sought to make his authority inde-
pendent of the bishop.

The dioceses were grouped together into " provinces," over
each of which was an Archbishop. In addition to his powers
and duties as bishop of one of the dioceses, the arch- 59 Arch-
bishop supervised the work of the church throughout bishops
his province. His special mark of distinction was the "pal-
lium," a narrow band of white wool worn loosely around the
neck; this could be conferred only by the Pope. The arch-
bishop's cathedral was usually in the most important city of
the province, so he was spoken of as the " metropolitan." In
each country there was a tendency for some one archbishop

THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 83

to gain preeminence over the others, anxl be recognized as
" primate '' ; thus the Archbishop of Canterbury \va« primate
of all England, while the Archbishops of Kheims and Mainz
claimed preeminence respectively in France and Germany. A
few archbishops (especially those of Constantinople, Alexan-
dria, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Eome) were styled " patriarchs,"
and held positions of exceptional power and dignity.

Great estates — usually the gift of pious individuals or of
repentant sinners — came to be attached to the episcopal and
archiepiscopal " sees." Such estates were often held by feudal
tenure ; and thus the clergy tended to become feudalized
equally with the laity, and the spiritually minded were scan-
dalized by seeing bishops, clad in coats of mail, lead their vas-
, sals to battle. High political offices (especially in Germany
and England) were conferred upon the clergy ; and this fact
further complicated the relations of church and state. On
the one side the higher clergy found their independence threat-
ened by the temporal powers ; on the other their influence was
subordinated to that of Eome.

At the head of the whole system stood the Papacy. Many
causes contributed to make the Bishop of Eome the " universal
overseer," or head of the whole Western Church. The g^ p
political importance of Eome, the wealth of the church and

there, the singular ability and moderation which its bish- °^^ "^* ^
ops showed in doctrinal disputes, the martyrdom and burial
at Eome of Saint Peter and Saint Paul — all were factors
in, the Eoman headship. Most important of all, that headship
rested upon the belief that Peter had been made by Christ the
chief of the Apostles and given "the power of the keys," i.e. the
power to bind and to loose (Matthew, xvi. 18-19). Peter was re-
garded as the founder of the bishopric of Eome, and the power
given him by Christ he was held to have transmitted to his
successors.

To assist the Pope in his work, a clerical council was grad-

EMPIRE AND PAPACY

ually formed, co.lled the. College of Cardinals. This was at first
coiriposed of the higher clergy of Eome ; later other Italians,
and gradually some foreign clergymen, were admitted. The
importance of the cardinals as an organized body dates from
1059, when the chief
part in papal elections
was confided to them.
Besides provincial
and diocesan synods,

61. General (General or

councils a Ecumenical "
Councils of the whole
church were called
from time to time.
The first general
council was that held
at Mc3ea in the year
325 to condemn the
Arian heresy. The
first eight councils
were recognized by
tlie Greek and Latin
churches alike; but beginning with the ninth, in 1123, they
were really concerned only with the affairs of those who
recognized the supremacy of the See of Rome. The council
held at the Lateran Church in Rome in 1215 is reckoned the
twelfth, and Avas one of the most imposing assemblages pf
the true Middle Ages: 412 bishops and 71 archbishops were
present, with more than 2000 clerics in all. In the fifteenth
century, troubles in the church revived the use of councils ; it
then became a burning question whether the Pope was above
such assemblies, or they above the papacy ; that is, whether
the Pope, or the council of higher clergy representing the
church as a whole, finally revealed the will of God.

■&J

^\\

/ v«^^^

=^..

^^S=

fmi^^^^^^

If ^\X

s ft

=^s,.fi,.r. \

1 St.Sebastian's^\

SCALE OF MILES

KoME IN THE Middle Ages.

THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 85

By tlie eleventh century the papacy presented three distinct
aspects, for the Pope was (1) the bishop in charge of the
diocese comprising Rome; (2) the head of the whole 62. Three-
Latin Church; and (3) a temporal prince ruling "the ^ q°^^J
States of the Church" in Italy. The formation of his papacy

temporal power took place chiefly after the downfall, in the
eighth century, of the Byzantine and Lombard rule in central
Italy, and was based in part upon grants of secular rulers
(§§"14, 16).

To understand this subject, we must here touch briefly on
the relations of the papal power to the empire, which were
a subject of perpetual controversy in the Middle Ages. In the
time of Charlemagne, as in the time of Constantine the Great
and his successors, the head of the state acted also, in a sense,
as head of the church. From the time of Louis the Pious this
relation was gradually reversed: the imperial authorization
was no longer awaited for papal elections, as was earlier the
case ; on the other hand, the right of the Pope to confer the
imperial crown steadily gained recognition. Louis the Pious,
not satisfied with coronation by his father, received recorona-
tion at the hands of the Pope, and permitted his son Lothair
to be crowned in the same way. Gradually the custom of
coronation by the Pope hardened into a right, and Popes
claimed to confer or withhold the imperial crown at pleasure.

In the eighth and ninth centuries appeared the forged Dona-
tion of Constantine and the False Decretals. The former
represents Constantine the Great as '''cleansed from 53 Dona-
all the squalor of leprosy" by the prayers of Pope tionof
^ 1 P 1 1 Constantine
Sylvester I. ; in gratitude therefor, on the fourth day and False

after his baptism, he is said to have resolved to forsake Decretals
the ancient city for a new capital on the Bosphorus, and to
have conferred upon the Pope "the city of Rome, and Henderson,

7~}Of*7If71PT) t^

all the provinces, districts, and cities of Italy or of the 322-32^

Western regions." The False Decretals were a collection,

86 EMPIRE AND PAPACY

claimed to have been found in Spain, of thitherto unknown
letters and decrees of early Popes and councils, from the time
of Saint Peter to the close of the fourth century ; these showed
the Popes acting from the first as supreme rulers in the
church, judging causes in the last resort and issuing instruc-
tions to the clergy of all grades.

The general tendency of the Donation of Constantine and
the False Decretals was : (1) to elevate the spiritual power,
especially the papacy, above the secular ; (2) to make the
papacy the supreme authority in the church ; and (3) to supply
an additional basis for the Pope's temporal rule. Both
])onation and Decretals are now recognized, by Catholics and
Protestants alike, to have been forgeries of the clumsiest
sort; but the ignorance and lack of critical inquiry of the
Middle Ages caused them to be a(!cepted without question for
six hundred years. l*rotestants and Catholics differ as to the
part which these forged documents played in the development
Alzog, of the pajml power ; but a Catholic historian admits that

Church u |-|-^g compilers of the Decretals, by stating as facts what

274 were only the opinions or the tendencies of the age, by

giving as ancient and authentic documents such as were sup-
posititious and modern, and by putting forward as established
rights and legal precedents claims entirely destitute of such
warrant, did, in matter of fact, hasten the development and
insure the triumph of the very ideas and principles they
advocate."

Parish priests, bisho})s, archbishops, and Pope usually be-
longed to the '* secular " clergy, that is, clergy who lived in
64 Bene ^^^ "world" (seadwn)', there was also an enormous body
dictine of so-called " regulars " who might, under proper circum-

stances, fill any of these offices. The "regular" clergy
were those who lived under a "rule" (re(//da), such as those of
tlie different monastJc orders. In the West the rule of Saint
P>enedict (died r)4.')) was the most important monastic ordi-

THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES

Benedictink
Monk.

From a 13th cen-
tury MS.

nance. It breathed an essentially mild and
practical spirit, as opposed to the wild extrava-
gances of Eastern zealots, like Simeon Stylites,
who dwelt for thirty years on the narrow top
of a lofty column. Benedict's rule enjoined
upon the brethren the three vows of Poverty,
Chastity, and Obedience to their abbot, or
head. They were to labor with their hands,
especially at agriculture ; were to join in pub-
lic worship once during the night (about two
o'clock), and at seven stated " hours " during
the day; and were encouraged to copy and
read books. They ate together in a "refec-
tory," at which time one of their number was
appointed to read aloud; and they slept to-
gether in a common dormitory. Each monas-
tery was a settlement
complete in itself, sur-
rounded by a wall ; and
the monks were not al-
lowed to wander forth
at will. New monaster-
ies Avere often located
on waste ground, in
swamps, and in dense
forests; and by reclaim-
ing such lands and
teaching better meth-
ods of agriculture the
monks rendered a
great service to society.
Schools also were main-

MONASTERY OF St. GalL. tailicd iu COUUeCtioU

From a plan made in 15«K). with the monasteries.

88 EMPIRE AND PAPACY

The house of St. Gall in Switzerland is a type of the great
monasteries of the Middle Ages. In the tenth century its
estates amounted to one hundred and sixty thousand " plow-
lands " ; and a populous community dwelt about its walls, made
up of the laborers, shepherds, and workmen of various trades
employed by the monastery, together with the serfs settled on
the monastery estates, who were bound to work three days a
week for the monastery. The convent itself numbered more
than five hundred monks.

The Benedictine monasteries were entirely independent of

one another. Theoretically, the bishop had the right of visita-

65. Monas- tion -and correction over the monasteries in his diocese ;

tic reform: ^^^ frequently the monks secured papal grants of "im-

Cluny(910-) munity" which freed them from episcopal control. The

monasteries often became very wealthy through gifts of lands

and goods. Then luxury and corruption crept in, and great

nobles sought to secure control of monastic estates, often by

the appointment of " lay " abbots who drew the monastery

revenues without taking monastic vows. Such periods of

decay were followed by times of revival, and these in turn by

new decline — and so on to the end of the Middle Ages.

The monastery of Cluny, in eastern France (founded 910),
was the center of the reform movement in the tenth and elev-
enth centuries ; and the reformed monasteries, unlike the Bene-
dictine, were brought into permanent dependence on the abbot
• of the head monastery, their " priors " being appointed by him.
The name "congregation" was given to such a union of mon-
asteries under a single head; and the congregation of Cluny
grew until in the twelfth century it numbered more than two
thousand monasteries. The strict self-denial of these monks,
the splendor of the worship in their churches, their zeal for
learning and education, and a succession of distinguished
abbots, account for the great spread, throughout Europe, of
the Oluniac movement.

THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 89

Other monastic orders, zealous for reform, arose in the
eleventh century. The Carthusians, founded (in 1084) at
Grande Chartreuse in the kingdom of Burgundy, intro- 66. Other
duced something of hermit life into the monastery, each ™°o?ers
monk being provided with a separate cell in which he (1084-)

lived a life of meditation, study, and silence. The Cistercian
order was founded at Citeaux, in eastern France (in 1098) ; its
rule rejected all luxury and splendor, even in the appointments
for worship, and required of its members a rigidly simple life,
with an abundance of agricultural labor, in which sheep raising
had the predominant part. Its most famous member was Saint
Bernard (1091-1153), abbot of Clairvaux ; and within a hundred
years after his death the order numbered eight hundred houses,
scattered aH over Europe. In the thirteenth century arose
orders of a new sort, the mendicant or begging "friars," of
which the chief were the Franciscans and the Dominicans (see
§ 181). It was not until the sixteenth century that the Jesuits
arose.

These various orders were distinguished by differences in
the color and cut of their garments, as well as in their mode
of life ; thus the Benedictines and Cluniacs wore black gowns,
the Cistercians and Carthusians white.

In addition to the organizations for men there were also
many for women. The " nunneries," or houses of these organi-
zations, were numerous, widespread, and crowded ; they offered
a safe refuge to defenseless women in an age of violence ; and
nuns who possessed talent, high birth, or sanctity might rise
as abbesses to positions of honor and influence.

With the growth of the church in riches, external influence,
and power, came increasing splendor of buildings and ceremo-
nial. The East developed its type of church architec- g^ church
ture, called the Byzantine, in which the round or buildings
polygonal form of building of Eoman days was enlarged and
enriched with side galleries, alcoves, and porches ; its most

EMPIRE AND PAPACY

famous example is tlic ('liurcli of St. Sophia at, Constantinople
■ — now a iMohammedan mosque (p. 261 ; see another on p. 39).
Jn the AVest, the lioman munieipal basiliea — an oblong build-
ing with the interior divided longitudinally by parallel rows of
Ijillai's into two "aisles" and a central "nave" — was at first
taken as the model. This developed into the Romanesque
type of architecture, characterized by the round arch and a
general massiveness
of effect. Stone super-
seded brick as the
building material,
and, to decrease the
danger of fire, stone
vaulting replaced the
timbered roof. The
best examples of this
type were produced
in the eleventh and
early twelfth centu-
ries in France.

The final form as-
sumed by median^al

68. Gothic architecture was

architec- the SO - called

ture (1150-) ., ,. .

Gothic or point-
ed style, which origi-
nated in northern
France about the mid-
dle of the twelfth
century. In this the walls are less massive, the windows
lai'ge and numerous, and the vaulted roof raised to prodi-
gious heights on slender, clustered columns. The secret of
this construction consists in the strong external columns and
arched or "flying" buttresses which take the concentrated

^ ^ i

^pi'!^~~t^5fe%i '''t '"^^^^r^BWH

i i — 1

^^^S^

^ ^' 1

Amiens Cathedral.

Built in 1.3th century; one of the greatest
examples of (4othic architecture.

THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 91

lateral thrusts of the vast pointed arches and relieve the
interior columns of all stress except the vertical pressure
from the roof. The ground plan of the Gothic cathedral was
the Latin cross; the two arms constituted the "transepts,"
the "choir" corresponded to the short upright, and the
"nave" and "aisles" to the lower main part of the cross.

The window openings were tilled with pictures in stained
glass, whose rich and varied colors added indescribably to the
splendor of the interior. Everywhere, within and without, the
sculptor's art scattered figures of men, animals, and plants
— all emblematical of the aspirations, the hopes, and the
fears of mediaeval religion. Artists and sculptors vied with
one another in representing the history of humanity and of
Christianity ; along with scenes from the Bible, figures of
the saints, and allegorical representations of the virtues and
vices, were seen fantastic grinning beasts and demons, the
retinue of the devil. Taken as a whole, such scenes " made
up a kind of layman's Bible that appealed to the eye and
was understood by all." \

With the growth of ecclesiastical organization, the worship \

of the church assumed definite form. Latin was the language

of the West at the time that Christianity was introduced, 69. Church

and it became the language of the Roman Church ; but in services

° ^ ' andwor-

many regions portions of the service, as well as sermons, ship

were given in the language of the people. The order of service
included the reading of selected Scripture lessons, the sing-
ing of Latin hymns, and the repetition of the creed. Music
was improved by the introduction of harmony, and by a
system of notation from which grew our modern musical
notes and staffs; but church singing was by the choir only.
The chief place in the service was given to the celebration
of the mass, or Lord's Supper; this was viewed as a perpetual
sacrifice of Christ, the benefits of which were available not only
for those on earth, but for departed souls undergoing purifica-

92 EMPIRE AND PAPACY

tion for sins in Purgatory. From the honors shown to
martyrs arose the veneration of the saints, especially of the
Virgin Mary, whose intercession was asked both for the
living and for the dead. Bones of martyrs, pieces of the cross
on which Christ was crucified, and similar relics were cher-
ished and venerated, and made to work miracles of healing.
Christmas, Easter, and a host of other church festivals were
celebrated with processions and a pomp and splendor of cere-
monial which appealed powerfully to the imagination. Rude
dramatizations of the Incarnation and Redemption were pre-
sented ; from these, and from " miracle plays " and " morali-
ties" the modern drama was developed. Preaching played
a less prominent part in mediseval religion than it does to-day,
though from time to time great preachers arose — like Pope
Urban II., Bernard of Clairvaux, and others — to preach a
Crusade or a moral reformation. The parish priests, because
of the great cost of hand-written books and the lack of schools,
were usually poorly educated, and refrained from preaching.

To educate the clergy there was need of better organized
instruction, and to supply this need universities arose. At
Salerno, in Italy, there was early a school devoted to
universities the study of medicine ; at Bologna arose famous teachers
(12 -) q£ ^^^q ^^^^ canon law; at Paris were schools famed for

the teaching of philosophy and theology ; at other points also,
about cathedrals and monasteries, schools were in existence.
The thirteenth century saw a growth in definiteness of or-
ganization in church, in state, and in city communities; and,
touched by the same movement, these early schools were
transformed into the universities of the Middle Ages, under
papal or royal charter. Abelard (1079-1142), one of the most
famous scholars of the early Middle Ages, shed a luster over
the schools of Paris by his intellectual acuteness, rhetorical
skill, and romantic history, which even his condemnation for
heresy did not dim; and the preeminence of the University

THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES

Salamanca .Alcali
124a • I4.JU
X

Chief Universities of the Middle Ages.

of Paris lasted unimpaired to the end of the Middle Ages.
Instruction everywhere was by lectures, owing to the scarcity
of books. The course of study included the Trivium (Latin
grammar, rhetoric, and logic), and the Quadrivium (arithmetic,
geometry, astronomy, and music), after which came the higher
studies of theology, law, philosophy, and medicine.

The students were a disorderly, turbulent class, many of
them mere boys of ten or twelve years, who lodged where
they could, lived largely on alms, and being " clerks " were
punishable only by their university. Latin was the univer-
sal language of learning; this made it easy to wander from
country to country and to study in different universities. The
student songs, in rhymed Latin, frequently breathed a most
unclerical spirit.

After the days of Abelard, learning was brought entirely

94 EMPIRE AND PAPACY

into the service of the church, and " scholastic philosophy ^'
prevailed. This may be defined as an attempt to extract
knowledge from consciousness, by formal reasoning, instead
of by investigation, observation, and experiment. The great
authority in philosophy was Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), whose
works were known, not in the original Greek, but in Latin
translations of imperfect Arabic versions obtained from
Spain. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) was the greatest of the
mediaeval schoolmen, and his application of the Aristotelian
logic to the problems of theology profoundly influenced all later
teaching. In the mediaeval universities men were trained for
the service of the church, and their minds were sharpened to a
hair-splitting keenness on theological subjects;^ but the physi-
cal and historical sciences were little advanced.

The reform movement whicli s])read from Cluny as a center
did not stop with the purification of the monasteries ; it ex-
71. Need of tended as well to the secular clergy, whose condition in
the secular ^'^^^ tenth and eleventh centuries was deplorable. The
clergy three great evils complained of were simony, lay inves-

titure, and clerical marriage. (1) Simony was the purchase
in any way of ecclesiastical office, the word being derived from
Simon Magus, who sought to buy the gift of the Holy Ghost
(see Acts, viii. 17-19). (2) (Uosely connected with this evil was
the right exercised by Emperors and princes of " investing "
newly elected bishops with the ring and staff, which were the
symbols of their office, and requiring from them homage and
fealty for the lands which they held. Accompanying the con-
trol thus secured were encroachments upon the freedom of

^ The folloM'ing questions were debated with great logical subtlety:
" Wliether an juigel can l)e in more than one place at one and tlie same time;
whether more an.i^els than one can be in one and the same place at the same
time ; whether angels have local motion ; and whether, if they have, they
pass through intermediate space." (Thomas Aquinas, Sununa Theologias, I.,
(luest. 52, 53.) For examples of scholastic method, see University of Pennsyl-
vania, Translations and Reprints, vol. III., No. 6.

THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 95

election, so that the higher clergy almost everywhere became
the appointees of the temporal power. Says a Catholic writer,
in speaking of this period : " Kings could dispose, absolutely
and without control, of all ecclesiastical dignities. . . . Montalem-
All was venal, from the episcopate, and sometimes even ^i\]^^ ^^IJ
the papacy, down to the smallest rural benefice." (3) The //• soy

whole clergy, with the exception only of the monks and of
some bishop's and priests who were quoted as marvels, openly
and freely entered into the marriage relation. To free the
church from these evils, and reinvigorate it, became the special
mission of the Cluniac order.

While decentralizing forces prevailed in the state, the church
grew steadily in unity and in strength. The papal headship
was advanced as the imperial power declined. Recurrent 72. Sum-
waves of monastic reform resulted in the formation of mary
new orders of monks, and these produced new efforts to revive
and spiritualize the church. Education began to spread among
the clergy, though confined within the narrow limits of schol-
asticism, and famous universities arose. Gothic architecture
was developed, and impressive church services were devised.

The chief problem of the church was how to secure the clergy
from local and monarchical oppression. Before the eleventh
century, men's minds were too much engrossed with the practi-
cal problems presented by the invasions of the Northmen and
Hungarians, and the decay of civil government, to permit of
much speculation on the relations of the spiritual and temporal
powers. The church also had too much need of the strong arm
of temporal rulers (such as Otto I.) to rescue and protect it
from danger, to permit it to quarrel with its champions. By
the eleventh century these dangers were past, and men's minds
began to turn to questions of principles and theory. It was
inevitable that the two great powers, the temporal and the
spiritual, should come into conflict in their representatives, the

IIARDING's M. & M. HIST. 6

EMPIRE AND PAPACY

Empire and the Papacy. It is this conflict which constitutes
the chief feature of the history of the next two centuries.

Suggestive
topics

Search
topics

TOPICS

(1) Why were there just seven clerical ranks, seven sacraments,
etc. ? (2) Would the Pope have acquired temporal power if Rome
had continued to be the residence of an Emperor ? (3) Was mo-
nasticism a good or a bad thing for religion ? For society ? For the
state ? Give your reasons. (4) Why are there not so many
monks to-day as there were in the Middle Ages ? (5) Why does
the church play a less prominent part in modern life than it did
in niedijeval times?

(0) Contributions of Pope Leo I. (440-4G1) to the growth of the
papacy. (7) Contributions of Gregory I. (590-604). (8) Con-
tributions of Nicholas I. (858-807). (9) Life of Saint Benedict.
(10) The Benedictine rule. (11) The monastery of Cluny.
(12) Monastic orders for women. (13) Romanesque architecture.
(14) Gothic art. (15) Music in the Middle Ages. (16) The'
origin of the drama. (17) Church festivals and pageants.
(18) Parish priests of the Middle Ages. (19) Church councils to
the close of 1215. (20) Rise of the universities. (21) The uni-
versity of Paris. (22) Abelard, (23) Student life in the Middle
Ages.

Geography-

Secondary
authorities

REFERENCES

Maps, pp. 62, 82 ; Freeman, Historical Geograph\j, L ch. vii. ;
Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xix. xx. Ivii. Ixi. Ixix.

Emerton, MedicBval Europe, 465-476, 541-592; Adams, Civili-
zation during the Middle Ages, ch. vi.; Emerton, Introduction to
the Middle Ages, chs. xiii. xvi. ; Church, Beginning of the Middle
Ages, 133-139 ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age^
chs. xii. xvi. xxii. ; Tout, Empire and Papacy, 96-100, 198-220,
428-449 ; Munro and Sellery, Medieval Civilization, 129-158 ;
Stills, Studies in Medieval History, ch. xiii.; Lea, Studies in
Church History, 46-59, 112-123, 288-298 ; Jessopp, Coming of the
Friars, chs. iii.-vi. ; McCabe, Abelard, chs, iii. iv. vi. vii. xiv. xv. ;
Compayr^, Abelard, pts. i. ii. iv. ; Cutts, Turning Points of
General Church History, ch. xxx. ; Trench, Medieval Church
History, Lecture viii.; Fisher, History of the Christian Church,
I'eriod V. ch. ii.. Period VI. ch. i. ; Milman, History of Latin
Christianity, II. bk. iii. ch. vi.; Alzog, Manual of Church History,

THE CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES 97

I. §§82-87, 125-131, 133-142, U. §§ 161-165, 167-169, 192-199;
Dollinger, Fables respecting the Popes in the Middle Ages, 104-182 ;
Addis and Arnold, Catholic Dictionary ; Schaff-Herzog, Beligious
Encyclopedia, 4 vols. ; Cutts, Scenes and Characters of the Middle . '
Ages, chs. 11. v.-vU. ; Montalembert, Monks of the West, Introduc-
tion, chs. 11. iv. ; Cardinal Gibbons, The Faith of our Fathers ;
Desmond, Mooted Questions of History, chs. ill. iv. ; Smith, Archi-
tecture, Gothic and Renaissance, chs. 1. 11. Ix.

Ogg, Source Book, ch. vi. xv. xxl. ; Eoblnson, Headings, I. chs. li. Sources
iv. xvi.; Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, nos. 33-42, 251-260;
Jones, Civilization in the Middle Ages, No. 6 ; Henderson, Docu-
ments of the Middle Ages, bk. ill. nos. l.-iv. ; University of Pennsyl-
vania, Translations and Reprints, vol. II. Nos. 3, 4, 7, vol. III.
No. 5, pp. 24-30, No. 4, pp. 1-10, vol. IV. Nos. 2, 4, pp. 23-32.

^Goit, Abbot, — Monastery; Potter, Uncnnonized ; W. W. New- Illustrative
ton. Priest and Man, or Abelard and Helo'isa ; Reade, Cloister ^°^^^
and the Hearth.

Lacroix, Religious and Military Institutions of the Middle Pictures
Ages ; Cutts, Parish Priests and their People in the Middle Ages;
Parmentier, Album Historique, I. ; Perry pictures (Cathedrals).

CHAPTER YI.

THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS, HILDEBRAND, AND THE
INVESTITURE CONFLICT (1024-1125)

To rescue the church from the evil condition into which it

had fallen, something more was needed than the zeal of Cluny;

73. Reform namely, the support of temporal and ecclesiastical rulers.

Saxon Em- ^ beginning was made in this direction under the Saxon

perors Emperors, when Otto I., Otto II., and Otto III. protected

the papacy against local Roman factions. Under Henry II.

the Cluniac monks secured a hold on Germany, and the first

energetic action against the married clergy was taken by a

Pope in the synod of Pavia (1022). It remained, however, for

the Franconian or Salian Emperors,^ who succeeded the Saxons

in 1024, to Avitness the triumph of the principles of celibacy

and no simony, and to see the storm clouds raised by the

outcry against lay investiture gather about their own heads.

iTHE SAXON AND FRANCONIAN (OR SALIAN) KINGS OF GERMANY
(1) IlENKY I., THE SAXON (ai9-936)

(2) Otto I., tiik Great (936-973)
Refoundcd Holy Roman Empire, 962

Liutfrardc

(3) Otto II. (973-983)
(4) Otto III. (983-1002)

Otto
]

Henrv
I ■
(6) Conrad II., tiie SALIAN (1024-1039)
I
(7) Henky III. (1039-1056)

I
(s) Ueniiv IV. (105G-110C)

\
(9) Henky V. (1106-1125)

Ileury, Duke of Bavaria

Henry

(5) Henry II., tiik Saint
(1002-1024)

Frederick of Hohenstaufen
(see table, p. 146)

THE FRANCONIAN EMPERORS 99

Under Conrad II. (1024-1039), the first of the Franconian
or Salian house, little progress was made with church reform,
but a basis was laid for a closer connection with Clunj by 74. Conrad
the incorporation into the empire (in 1032) of the king- ^^ ^^^

dom of Burgundy, where the reform movement was strong. (1024-1056)

Under Conrad's son, Henry III. (1039-1056), the mediaeval
empire reached its highest point, and the work of reform was
zealously taken np. When he first interfered in Koman
affairs, in 1046, he found three rivals claiming to be Pope,
and each in possession of a portion of the city. At a synod
called near Eome, all three claim-
ants were deposed for simony ; and
a German bishop of unblemished
life and piety was chosen — the
first of a series of German Popes.
Of those who had filled the papal
chair in the three preceding centu-
ries, only four had not been born "^^S- -I /^ , ^^^
in Rome or the papal states ; with
these German Popes the papacy Seal of Henry iii.

took on a more international char- " Heimicus Dei Gratia Roman-

orum Imperator Augustus."

acter. The Popes now led m at-
tacking clerical marriage and simony. Leo IX. (1048-1054)
was the most vigorous of the series, traveling about from coun-
try to country, holding synods in Italy, Germany, and France
— everywhere condemning the married and simoniacal clergy.
The greatest service which Leo rendered the reform move-
ment was by bringing the monk Hildebrand to Rome as the
adviser and chief officer of the papacy. Of lowly German 75^ ^jge ©f
origin, but born in Tuscany, Hildebrand received his Hildebrand
education and training in a Roman monastery of which his
uncle was abbot. Gregory YI., one of the three papal contest-
ants in 1046, made him his chaplain, and after Gregory's fall
Hildebrand followed him into Germany. For a time Hilde-

100

EMPIRE AND PAPACY

brand was an inmate of the monastery at Cluny, where he was
filled with reformatory zeal ; and there Leo IX. found him and
took him to Kome.

Until his own election to the papacy in 1073, as Gregory
VII.jHildebrand was the real power behind the papal throne,
under five different Popes, covering a period of nearly a
(quarter of a century.
Physically he was far
from imposing: he
was of small stature
and ungainly figure,
witli a feeble voice;
but he possessed a
mind of restless ac-
tivity, uncommon
penetration, and an
inflexible will. The
principles upon which
Hildebrand wished to

„ , guide the papal

Henderson, ^ ^ ^

Documents, policy are indi-
cated in a mem-
orandum found among
his papers, containing
the following proposi-
tions : (1) The Roman
pontiff (Pope) alone

may rightly be called " universal." (2) He only can depose and
reinstate bishops. (3) He only can establish new laws for
the church, and unite or divide dioceses. (4) No council or
synod, without his approval, can be called general. (5) No
earthly person may call the Pope to trial or pronounce judg-
ment on him. (6) No one who appeals to the papacy may
have sentence passed against him by any other tribunal.

36(>-3()7

HiLDKBRAND (GREGORY VII.).

From an old print.

HILDEBKAND 101

(7) The Roman Churcli has never erred, and never shall err.

(8) The Roman Pontiff has the right to depose Emperors. (9) He
may absolve the subjects of unjust princes from their allegiance.

In these propositions the supremacy of the Pope over the
church and over temporal princes is the underlying thought,
and Hildebrand's whole conduct was but the development and
application of these maxims. In carrying out liis policy he
avoided all appearance of revolution, and gave his acts the air
of a return to ancient traditions, the evidence for which was
found in the False Decretals. Hefele, a famous Catholic his-
torian, sums up Hildebrand's policy in these words : " Seeing
the world sunk in wickedness and threatened with impending
ruin, and believing that the Pope alone could save it, Gregory
conceived the vast design of forming a universal theoc- Alzog,

racy, which should embrace every kingdom of Christen- History ^II
dom, and of whose policy the Decalogue [Ten Command- ^^9

ments] should be the fundamental principle. Over this
commonwealth of nations the Pope was to preside. The
spiritual power was to stand related to the temporal as the sun
to the moon, imparting light and strength, without, however,
destroying it or depriving princes of their sovereignty."

While Henry III. lived, Hildebrand did not dare shake off
the Emperor's control ; but when Henry died, he left an infant
of six years, Henry IV. (1056-1106), to rule under the 76. Papacy
regency of his mother. " The princes," says a chronicler, ^^^p^n^ence
" chafed at being governed by a woman or a child ; they (1056-1073)
demanded their ancient freedom; then they disputed among
themselves the chief place ; at last they plotted the deposition
of their lord and king." With little now to fear from beyond
the Alps, Hildebrand set about organizing new safeguards for
papal independence. Everywhere he could count upon the
reform party as favorable to his plans. The Countess Matilda
of Tuscany gave him protection and resources, and finally do-
nated to the papacy her vast estates, stretching almost to the

102

EMPIRE AND PAPACY

Gulf of Genoa. New treaties, also, were concluded with the Nor-
mans, by which Kobert Guiscard, in return for a confirmation

of his conquests, became the Pope's
vassal, thus beginning a papal
suzerainty over southern Italy
which was to last for centuries.

Finally, in 1059, the attempt was
made to emancipate the papacy
from imperial control, by a decree
concerning papal elections. In the
early church the l*ope had been
chosen, like any bishop, by " the
clergy and people " of his diocese ;
but under Charlemagne, the three
Ottos, and their successors, the
Emperor practically appointed to
that office. The decree of 1059
changed the papal constitution, in
effect, by providing that the real
selection should be in the hands of the College of Cardinals
— that is, the Pope's own clerical council. Direful penalties
were invoked against all who disobeyed the decree, and
the text was characteristic of the times. " Eternal anath-
ema and excommunication,'' it read, "be upon the foolhardy
Matthews, person who takes no account of our decree, and attempts
in his presumption to disturb and trouble the Roman
Church ! May he endure in this life and in the next the
wrath of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, and that of tlie
Apostles Peter and Paul, whose church he presumes to molest !
Let his house be desolate, and no one dwell in his tents ! Let
his children be orphans, and his wife a widow ! Let him and
his sons be outcasts and beg their bread, driven away from
their habitations ! JVlay the usurer consume his goods, and the
stranger reap the fruit of his labors ! May all the world war

Territories of thk Count-
ess Matilda.

Mediseval

Documents

IIILDEBRAND

103

against him and all the elements be hostile, and the merits of
all the saints, who sleep in the Lord, confound and inflict visi-
ble vengeance in this life upon him ! "

The time at last came when Hildebrand himself had to don
the papal crown. The election was irregular and not according
to the decree of 1059. The people, assembled in the church 77 Hilde-

for the funeral services of the late Pope, raised the cry, brand as

. Pope Greg-

" Let Hildebrand be our bishop ! " One of the cardinals ory VII.

turned to the crowd and recalled how much, since the (1073-1085)

days of Leo IX., Hildebrand had done for the church and for

Rome. On all sides the cry was then raised, "Saint Peter

crowns Hildebrand as Pope ! " In spite of his resistance,

Hildebrand was forthwith arrayed in the scarlet robe,

crowned with the papal tiara, and seated in the chair of

Saint Peter. As Pope he took the name Gregory VII., in

memory of his early patron.

n^ H

3f '^E?*--^'-'^'^

1 ^^wh^^-^ -k-sj

s ., -■,

^^-— ^

^^^^«.:r«'

GosLAR, Birthplace of Henry IV.
Present condition.

The claims of Gregory to treat the temporal power as sub-
ordinate to the papacy made a struggle with the empire 78. Ger-
inevitable. The imperial power, at this time, was far °^Henry IV^
from strong. The minority of Henry IV. was distracted (1056-1106)
by quarrels for control, in which his mother Agnes and

10-1: EMPIRE AND PAPACY

the archbishops of Bremen and Cologne played the chief parts.
Although intelligent and high-spirited, Henry IV. was allowed
to grow up with alternations of stern repression and careless
indulgence ; he thus arrived at manhood without training to
rule, with an undisciplined temper, and with a heedlessness of
moral restraint which led him into many excesses. Finally his
rule was weakened by the disaffection of the Saxons, who had
been the cliief support of the throne under the Ottos. In 1073
the discontent ripened into revolt ; and although Henry, after
one humiliating defeat, put down the rebellion, there continued
to exist in Germany a disaffected party with which Gregory
formed alliance.

In 1075 Gregory brought the question of investiture into
a position of chief importance, declaring investiture by laymen,

79. Investi- even by kings and Emperors, to be void, and causing

ture conflict • • -j. j. i • 4. i m i.

bee-un persons giving it to be excommunicated. lo a report

(1075-1076) that Henry was summoned to appear at Eome to justify

his actions, the Emperor replied : " Henry, king not by usurpa-

Matthews "^^'^^^j ^^^^ ^^7 ^^^^ ^^'^^^ ^^ God, to Hildebraiid, no longer

Medixrai Pope, but false monk. . . . Thou hast attacked me, who

Documents,

42 {con- am consecrated king and who, according to the tradition

densed) ^j ^^^ fathers, can be judged by God alone and can be

deposed for no crime save the abandonment of the faith. . . .
Condemned by the judgment of our bishops, and by our own,
descend ! Quit the place which thou hast usurped ! Let
another take the seat of Saint Peter, who seeks not to cover
violence with the cloak of religion, and who teaches the sound
doctrine of Saint Peter ! '' To this Gregory replied in February,

Matthews, 1076, by sentence of excommunication. "Blessed Peter,

Medieval prince of the Ai)ostles," he wrote, "be thou my witness
Documents, ^ '^^

44 {con- that the Holy Eoman Church called me against my will

densed) ^q govern it ! . . . As thy representative I have received

from God the power to bind and loose in heaven and upon

earth. Full of this conviction, for the honor and defense of

THE INVESTITURE CONFLICT

105

thy church, ... I deny to King Henry, who with unheard-of
pride has risen against thy church, the government of Germany
and of Italy. I absolve all Christians from the oaths of fidelity
they have taken or may take to him ; and I forbid that any
person shall serve him as king."

The most powerful of the German princes were already op-
posed to Henry, and declared that unless the excommunication

were removed 80. Pope's
by a certain day, ^tCarssa
he should be (1077)

treated as deposedand
a new king elected.
His only hope was to
break the alliance be-
tween the Pope and
his enemies at home ;
and to accomplish
this he set off secretly
across the Alps, in the
dead of winter, accom-
panied only by his
wife, his young son,
and one attendant.
At Canossa he found
the Pope, already on
his way to Germany
to arrange the govern-
ment in consultation
with the princes. The
Pope at first refused
to see him, and for three days Henry was obliged to stand
as a suppliant — fasting and barefooted — without the castle
gates. At last Gregory yielded to the entreaties of the Countess
Matilda and admitted him to reconciliation. The excommunica-

PoPE Gregory VII., Hknry IV., and Count-
ess Matilda at Canossa.

From a 12th century MS. in the Vatican
Library.

106 EMPIRE AND PAPACY

tioii was raised, but only on condition that Henry should make
his peace with his German subjects before a day fixed by the
Pope, and on terms which he should lay down (January,
1077).

The humiliation of the Emperor at Canossa was the most
brilliant victory that the papacy ever won over the temporal

81. Re- power ; but it was merely an incident in a long struggle.

newed con- Henry's German enemies were displeased that the Pope
flictover ^ ^ "^ ^ ^ . / ^ . -, .

investiture had removed the excommunication, and persisted in

(1077-1081) electing a new king. Civil war followed, and as Henry
continued to grant lay investiture, the Pope renewed his excom-
munication. A strong party now rallied to Henry's support,
and he caused an assembly of German and Italian bishops to
declare Gregory deposed and set up an anti-pope. In 1081
Henry mastered his German enemies sufficiently to come to
Italy with an army. After three years' campaigning all Eome,
save the strong fortress of St. Angelo, was in his hands : his
anti-pope was enthroned, and Henry himself was crowned with
the imperial crown.

The dauntless Gregory meanwhile had sent for aid to the
Norman Eobert Guiscard. Henry hastily quitted Rome,

82. Death Avhich was taken and sacked by the iSTormans ; but when
of Gregory

VII. (1085) these retired, the Pope was forced to accompany them

H^nr^lV "^^^ southern Italy. There in JVIay, 1085, Gregory YII.

(1106) died ; in his last hours he said, " I have loved justice, and

hated iniquity; and therefore I die in exile." He had done
much to clear the church of 'the scandals which clung to it,
and he had raised the papal power to a higher pitch than ever
before; but he had embroiled the papacy not only with the
empire, but with most of the kings of Europe. Had his ideas
triumphed, Europe would have been left practically under the
sovereignty of the papacy, distant and disassociated from royal
families or national feeling — a single monarchical rule sup-
ported by all the terrors of religious authority.

thp: investiture conflict 107

After two years, a worthy successor to Gregory came to the
papal throne, iu the person of Urban II., a zealous reformer of
French birth. The struggle between papacy and empire con-
tinued as fiercely as ever in his pontificate, in spite of the call
for the First Crusade which Urban issued in 1095 (see § 93).
The Emperor's oldest sou, Conrad, was stirred up to rebel
against his father; and after Conrad's death another son,
Henry, was induced to revolt, and was recognized as king by
the Pope. This time the old Emperor's enemies were com- •
pletely successful : he was imprisoned, was forced to abdicate,
escaped, and sought to renew the struggle ; but died in August,
1106, in the midst of his efforts.

Henry IV. made many mistakes and committed many faults,
but these were in large part the results of his unfortunate
training. His cause was not wholly just, but he was fighting
against ecclesiastical absolutism and feudal anarchy. The
lower classes of the people, particularly the townsmen of the
Rhine valley, mourned him, for he was to them a generous and
devoted master. Perhaps the hatred which the nobility bore
him was due to this fact, for they fought as much for their
own interests as for the cause of religion and papal power.

The Emperor's undutiful son, Henry Y., when once on the

throne, proved as stanch an upholder of the imperial claims

as his father. The trouble about investiture grew out of 33 settle-

the fact that the bishops and archbishops, especially in °^®^* 0^ *^6

investiture
Germany, were not merely officers of the church, but by question

virtue of the lands attached to their offices they were (1106-1122)

great feudal princes as well, exercising high influence in the

state. It was just as impossible for the Emperor to give up

all means of keeping out undesirable men from those positions,

as it was for the Pope to permit him, by "investing" bishops,

to give the sanction for their religious functions. There was

room for a real compromise, and negotiations at last were

begun with that purpose.

108 EMPIRE AND PAPACY

At first the Pope (Paschal II.) consented that the great
clergy of Germany should surrender their fiefs and political
influence, and become merely church officers; but to this the
clergy would by no means agree. Finally, in 1122, an agree-
ment was embodied in what is called, from the city where it
was concluded, the Concordat of Worms. The Emperor gave
up "all investiture by the ring and the staff," and promised
that there should be " freedom of election and of consecra-
tion " ; in return, the Pope (now Calixtus II.) granted that
the election of bishops and abbots should take place in the
presence of the Emperor or of his representative (so that
objection might be made to persons unsatisfactory to him) ;
and that the person so elected should receive from the
Emperor "the property and the immunities of his office,"
and didy fulfill the obligations, such as homage, arising
therefrom.

In this settlement the papacy gained the abolition of lay
investiture, and so secured greater freedom for the church ;
but some solid advantages remained to the empire, and the
compromise was one which (h-egory VII. would have been
loath to approve. It gave, indeed, only a breathing spell in
the struggle between the world-church and the world-state,
and new occasions for controversy were not slow to arise ;
for the two ideas were mutually exclusive. In the world-
empire of Charlemagne or Otto I. there was no room for an
independent church; in the world-papacy of Hildebrand
there was no room for an independent empire or kingdom.
The conflict had to continue until one or the other, or both,
were destroyed.

The beginning of Hildebrand's influence in the papacy coin-
cides with the ending of the last connection between the
churches of the East and of the West. The separation of
the Roman Empire, in the fourth century, into an eastern
and a western half, paved the way for a similar " schism " in«

THE INVESTITURE CONFLICT 109

the church. As the two halves of the empire drifted apart,
the churches also drifted away from each other. Latin re-
mained the language of the West, while Greek became g^ Final
the official tongue of the East. In the eighth century separation
broke out a strife about the use of images (the Icon- ^^^^ Latin
oclastic Controversy), which the Latin Church favored, churches
and the Greek Church, for a time, opposed (§ 13). At
the close of the same century, the West formally accepted an
addition made — without due authority, it seemed to the East

— in the Nicene creed (adopted 325 a.d.) so that it read, "I
believe ... in the Holy Ghost . . . which proceedeth from
the Eather and the Son {Jilioque) . . ." The insertion of the
word Jtlioque in this passage on the "procession of the Holy
Ghost " (as it was called) was one of the hardest things for
the West to justify to their Eastern brethren. Other differ-
ences concerned the cut of the tonsure and the bread used in
celebrating the Eucharist — the East maintaining the use of
leavened bread, and the West of unleavened.

Above all, there was the supremacy claimed by the papacy
over the whole church, which the East would not admit.
In the ninth century, the attempt of Pope Nicholas I. to
interfere as of right in the Eastern Church and settle a
dispute over the office of Patriarch of Constantinople, brought
the two churches into open conflict. Finally, in the year 1054,

— at the very time when the papacy was gathering its strength
for its great conflict with the empire, and the shadow of the
Turkish peril was coming upon the East, — the heads of the
two churches mutually excommunicated each other, and Chris-
tians of the East and of the West were thenceforth mortal
enemies. Many efforts were made to heal the schism, but in
vain : the differences as to ceremonies and the creed might
have been patched up ; but there remained the fatal obstacle
of the dispute over the papal headship.

110 EMPIRE AND PAPACY

The middle of the eleventh century saw the papacy feeble
and the em])ire all-powerful ; the middle of the twelfth found
86. Sum- tli6 papacy in the most brilliant period of its history,
mary while the empire was sunk in decline. This was the

result of the policy so unflinchingly pursued by Gregory VII.
(1073-1085). With Leo I. (440-461), Gregory I. (590-G04),
and Nicholas I. (858-8G7), he is to be reckoned one of the
founders of the papal power. In place of control of the
church by the temporal authorities, which had existed in
the days of Constantine, of Charlemagne, and of Otto the
Great, Gregory put forward the claim of the spiritual power
to control the temporal. A partial success was won at Ca-
nossa, and a compromise was arranged in the Concordat of
AVorms; but the struggle was not ended. Among the results
of Gregory's policy should be noted the seeds of that fear
and hatred felt by the German peo])le for the Roman court
down to the Reformation ; and the alienation of the Emperor
from the church, and of the Eastern and Western churches
from each other, at the most important moment of all — the
beginning of the period of the Crusades.

TOPICS

Suggestive (1) Was Hildebrand more of a theologian or an ecclesiastical

topics statesman ? (2) To what extent did desire for power influence

him ? (o) Was his policy a good one for the world ? (4) Make
a list of the forces supporting Gregory VII. and those supporting
Henry IV. (;")) Why did the Saxons revolt against Henry IV,?
(0) Was the interview at Canossa a victory for the Pope or for the
Emperor ? (7) Why was the settlement agreed to by Paschal II.
rejected ? (8) Why are conflicts between church and state less
frequent to-day than in the Middle Ages ?

Search (9) The empire under Henry III. (10) The College of Cardinals.

topics ^^-^^ Character and aims of Hildebrand. (12) Character and

aims of Henry IV. (13) The Saxon revolt. (14) Henry IV. at
Canossa. (15) Countess Matilda and the addition of her territory
to the Papal States. (16) Excommunication as a papal weapon.
(17) Present extent and organization of the Greek Church.

THE INVESTITURE CONFLICT

111

(18) The Nicene creed in the West. (19) Celebrated concordats.
(20). Routes across the Alps used by Emperors.

REFERENCES

Map, p. 64 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xxxiv. Ixv. ; Dow, Geography
Atlas, xiii.

Bemont and Monod, Medieval Europe, 119-124, 286-300 ; Adams, Secondary
Civilization during the Middle Ages, 238-247 ; Henderson, Short authorities
History of Germany, I. 54-75 ; Bryce, Holy Boman Empire, ch. x. ;
Emerton, Mediaeval Europe, chs. vi.-viii. ; Tout, Empire and Papacy,
ch. vi. ; Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, chs. xii.-xiv. ;
Still6, Studies in Medieval History, 277-296 ; Lea, Studies in Church
History, 355-371 ; Cutts, Turning Points of General Church His-
tory, ch. XXXV. ; Stephens, Hildebrand and his Times ; Trench,
Medieval Church History, lecture ix. ; Fisher, Medieval Empire,
I. 106-134 ; Milman, History of Latin Christianity, bk. vii. chs.
i.-iii., bk. viii. chs. i.-iii. ; Montalembert, Monks of the West, bk.
xix. ; Alzog, Church History, II. 481-536 ; Gregorovius, Borne in
the Middle Ages, IV. pt. i. 47-300 ; Historians'' History of the
World, VII. 630-659.

Robinson, Beadings, I. ch. xiii. ; Thatcher and McNeal, Source Sources
Book, nos. 57-86 ; Henderson, Documents of the Middle Ages,
350-409.

G. H. Miles, Tlie Truce of God; W. B. Macabe, Bertha; J. E. C. Illustrative
Bischoff, Bertha.

works

CHAPTER VII.

THE CHRISTIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN EAST, AND
THE FIRST CRUSADE (1096-1099)

At the beginning of the eighth century, the Byzantine or
Greek Empire seemed brought to the verge of ruin through
^ attacks by Slavs, Bulgarians, and Arabs. When, however,
tine Empire Italy, Egypt, and Africa were lost, the remainder proved
^ ~ ^ easier to defend and to govern, so that under the Isaurian
Emperors (717-802) an improvement began, and under the Mace-
donian line (867-1057) came a period of conquest and military
glory, lasting from the middle of the tenth to the first quarter
of the eleventh century. Crete, Cyprus, northern Syria and
Antioch, and even Bulgaria, were for a time recovered. Fol-
lowing the death of the last of the Macedonian rulers came
a period of anarchy lasting for a quarter of a century. Then
the Emperor Alexius Comnenus (1081-1118) brought in a new
period under a new dynasty, when the empire — more Greek
and less cosmopolitan, its territory decreased and its civili-
zation stereotyped — stood upon the defensive. But for two
hundred years it nevertheless offered a brave and constant
resistance to Mohammedan attacks.

Among the causes of weakness in the Byzantine Empire
were the endless disputes on theological questions carried on
by idle monks, and the riots of the fanatical populace to which
these frequently led. Another cause of weakness was the lack
of a regular succession to the imperial power : out of one hun-
dred and seven persons who ruled as Emperors or associates,
from the time of the separation of the Eastern Empire to its

114

THE CHRISTIAN EAST 115

fall (395-1453), only thirty-four died a natural death in office ;
the remainder were assassinated, were mutilated, died in prison
or convent, or abdicated the throne.

The prosperity of the empire was nevertheless real and sub-
stantial. The coinage was sound, taxation just, manufactures
flourishing, and trade widespread. The old legislative 87. Its

power of the Senate was suppressed, and the last barriers prosperity
to the autocracy of the Emperor removed ; but the administra-
tion was well devised, and not oppressive. By its orphan
asylums, hospitals, and like institutions, the Byzantine Em-
pire anticipated much that we regard as modern. Learning of
an encyclopedic sort flourished ; and there, up to the eleventh
century, the only truly original Christian art was to be found.
Diplomacy, with its deceits and intrigues, was developed to a
high degree before it was taken up by the Venetians and intro-
duced into .the Western world. The language of the laws and
the law courts was now Greek, and Latin ceased to be of prac-
tical use.

War was studied as an art, while in the West it remained a
mere matter of hard fighting. Native recruits largely replaced
the Slavic, Teutonic, and Asiatic mercenaries of Justinian's
day ; but the famous " Varangian " bodyguard of the Emperors,
composed of Danes and English, was cherished because of its
loyalty and bravery. From the eighth to the twelfth century
only the Byzantines possessed the secret of the " Greek
fire '' (composed of saltpeter, sulphur, charcoal, and bitumen)
whose fierce flames, black smoke, and loud explosions de-
stroyed hostile fleets and carried terror to the hearts of their
enemies.

To impress the common people an elaborate ceremonial was
devised, regulating every act of the Emperor ; and to impress
foreign envoys golden lions roared and lashed their tails at the
foot of the throne, while golden birds sang in a golden tree
near by. But despite such follies, it is not too much to say
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 7

116

AGE OF THE CRUSADES

Munro and

Sellery,

Medieval

Civilization

223

that "in the history of mcdiitval civilization before the elev-
enth century, ]^yzantium [Constantinople] played a role
analogous to that of Athens and Rome in antiquity, or
Paris in modern times ; its influence extended over the
whole world ; it was preeminently ' the city.' ''
Meantime, a new power made its appearance in the world,
that of the Mohammedan Arabs, whose achievements almost
justify the remark that " from the eighth to the twelfth
hainmedaii' century the ancient world knew but two civilizations,

world (732- that of Byzantium, and that of the Arabs.'' Mohammedan
1096)

civilization displayed much the greater expansive force,

spreading over large parts of Asia, northern Africa, and south-
western Europe ; " from the river Indus to the Pillars of

Hercules the same religion
was professed, the same
tongue spoken, the same
laws obeyed." Its four
chief centers were Damas-
cus, in Syria ; Bagdad, on
the river Tigris (founded
about 760) ; Cairo, on the
lower Nile (founded about
970) ; and Cordova, in
Spain. Greek, Persian,
Syrian, Egyptian, Span-
ish, and Hindu elements
entered into this civiliza-
tion along with the Ara-
bic : but the Arabic was
the chief element, for the
Arabian genius combined
all into one living crea-
tion bearing the stamp of its own nature.

In agriculture, manufactures, commerce, science, and art

Damascus: Fountain of Ablution in
THR (tRAnd Mosque,

Present condition.

THE MOHAMMEDAN EAST

117

the Mohammedan world compared favorably with Christian
Europe. Agriculture was not despised, as it was among the
feudal nobles of Europe; and rich Mohammedans reveled
in gardens of roses, jasmines, and camellias. Irrigation was
extensively practiced, and grafting became a science. Among
new plants introduced into Europe by the Arabs were rice,
sugar cane, hemp, artichokes, asparagus, the mulberry, orange,
lemon, and apricot.

In manufactures Mohammedans excelled : the sword blades
of Toledo and Damascus make were world-renowned; and
equal skill was shown in the manufacture
of coats of mail at once supple and strong ;
of vases, lamps, and like articles in copper,
bronze, and silver; of carpets and rugs
which are still unexcelled ; and of vessels
of fine glass and pottery. Sugars, syrups,
sweetmeats, essences, and perfumes were
of Mohammedan production; paper came
to Europe through the Mohammedans ; and
Cordova was long famous for its manufac-
tures of skins and fine leather.

Commerce was widely followed, and no
one looked down upon this occupation, to
which Mohammed had been bred. In each
city was a " bazaar," or merchants' quarter.
The Arab sailor ruled the Mediterranean, the Indian Ocean,
and the Caspian Sea. Caravans threaded their way, from
oasis to oasis, to the heart of Africa, and across the wilds of
Asia to China and to India. The compass, first discovered by
the Chinese, was known to the Arabs long before its intro-
duction into Europe.

In literature (especially poetry) and in science the Arabs
attained a high degree of develo]3ment. The University of
Cairo at one time had 12,000 students ; in Spain, in the tenth

Old Arabian
Money.

118 AGE OF THE CRUSADES

century, a library of 400,000 manuscript volumes (each prob-
ably a mere part of a complete work) is said to have been

gathered. The Arabian philosophers were well versed
89 Ars.'bism
literature in the writings of Aristotle and the Neoplatonists of

and science Alexandria, whose works they read in Arabic translations.
In mathematics, Mohammedan scholars led the world : trigo-
nometry was much improved, and algebra was practically their
creation, though its elements were derived from the Greeks
and Hindus. The introduction of the "Arabic" system of
notation, in place of the clumsy Roman numerals, is ascribed
to them ; and the use of the cipher, placed to the right of
the digit to give " value of position," seems clearly to have
been their invention. In optics and astronomy the Arabs made
considerable advance. In chemistry many of our common
terms, such as "elixir," "alcohol," "alkali," are of Arabic
derivation and record our indebtedness to Arabic researches.
In medicine the Arabs were skilled practitioners, far in ad-
vance of Christian Europe ; and they seem even to have known
something of anaesthetics. Pharmacy was practically created
by them, and many of their preparations are still in use.

In the eleventh century the religious and political unity of

the Mohammedan world was broken, and the real power had

90. The passed from the hands of the Arabs into those of their

Turks ^^^ mercenary soldiers, the Seljukian Turks, so-called from

(1068-1076) the chief, Seljuk, who first united them into one people.

They were of Asiatic stock, like the Huns, Magyars, and

Bulgarians, but unlike the Magyars and Bulgarians, they

embraced Mohammedanism instead of Christianity. The

whole of Asia at this time seemed about to pass into Turkish

hands : in northern China was established the Manchurian

kingdom, from which come the present rulers of China (1004) ;

in Afghanistan and India, in the same year, a great Turkish

state was erected ; in the middle of the century (1058) the

leader of the Seljukian Turks occupied Bagdad, and became

THE MOHAMMEDAN EAST

119

sades

the champion of the orthodox caliph, with the title "Sultan
of the East and West " ; in 1076 the Turks captured the holy
city of Jerusalem. After 1058 the caliph was merely the reli-
gious head of the Mohammedan state, and Turkish princes —
of whom, at the end of the century, there were a number, rival
and independent — were the veritable sovereigns. The military
prowess of the Turks spread Mohammedanism over new areas ;
but they cared little for Arabian civilization, and brought a
new element into the strife of East and West.

That strife was suddenly intensified by the breaking out of
the great movement known as the Crusades, for which there
were several causes. (1) Throughout the Middle Ages g-
the terror of the hereafter weighed with more awful of the Cru-
f orce upon mankind than it does to-day : in exceptional
occurrences a supernatural agency was generally seen, and the
writings of the times are full of encounters with devils and
demons. With this temper of mind went a
belief in the power of penitential acts to avert
divine wrath, and in the miracle-working vir-
tue of relics of the saints, especially objects
connected with the life and death of Christ;
hence, after the fourth century, pilgrimages
to the holy places of Palestine were common.
In the year 1064 seven thousand pilgrims,
under the leadership of the Archbishop of
Mainz, went in a single company. This out-
burst of zeal for pilgrimages, it is to be noted,
came just at a time when the tolerant rule
of the Arabs in the East was replaced by the
bigotry and fierce contempt of the Turks; it
was a chief cause of the Crusades.

(2) The time,, too, had now come when the peoples of western
Europe might look about for wider fields of adventure. The
Hungarian and Viking raids were over. Europe was settling

Pilgrim.

From a 13th cen-
tury MS.

120 AGE OF THE CRUSADES

down to comparative peace and quiet under its feudal govern-
ments ; the modern nations, with their problems, had not yet
arisen; commerce and city life were still in their infancy.
Thus there was no sufficient outlet at home for the spirit of
adventure, which in the Middle Ages always ran high.

(3) The East was regarded as a land of fabulous riches,
where not only fame but fortune might be won. The hope of
gain — of Avinning lands and principalities — was a powerful
factor in the minds of manj^, and must be reckoned among the
causes of the Crusades. In this respect the movement may be
looked upon as merely a part of the movement of expansion
which caused the Norman conquests of southern Italy and
England, and the German advance eastward beyond the Elbe.

The chief object of the Crusades was the rescue of Jerusalem
from the hands of the infidels ; but the first call grew out of

92. Ad- the danger which threatened the Eastern Empire. In
Turks 1071, at Manzikert in Armenia, the Turks defeated the
(1071-1092) forces of the Eastern Roman Empire, and the emperor

(Romanus IV.) was taken prisoner. Almost the whole of
Asia Minor passed into Turkish hands ; and one of their
chieftains, establishing himself at Nicaea, almost within sight
of Constantinople, took the title " Sultan of Roum" — that is,
of Rome. Several years passed before an Emperor, Alexius
Comnenus, found himself free to give Asia his attention; then
he sent an embassy to the Pope, as the head of Latin Christen-
dom, in an effort to enlist western knights for the Turkish
war : the result was the call to the First Crusade.

At Clermont, in France, Pope Urban II. held a council
in November, 1095, to consider investiture and to punish the

ft« « •, French king, Philip L, for divorcing his wife. When

93. Council . .

of Clermont this business v/as finished the Pope, with burning elo-

^ ' quence, addressed an open-air assembly of thousands of

French prelates and nobles in their own tongue; and is re-
ported to have spoken thus : " Christ himself will be your

THE FIRST CRUSADE

121

leader when you fight for Jerusalem. Let not love of any-
earthly possession detain you. You dwell in a land narrow
and unfertile. Your numbers overflow, and hence you Archer and

devour one another in wars. Let these home discords Kmgsford,

Crusades,
cease. Start upon the way to the Holy Sepulcher ; wrest 30-31

the land from the accursed race, and subdue it to yourselves.
Thus shall you spoil your foes of their wealth, and return
home victorious, or purpled with your own
blood receive an everlasting reward." Hear-
ing these words from the head of the church,
the people cried : " God wills it ! God
wills it ! " " When you go forth to meet
the enemy," said Urban, "this shall in-
deed be your watchword, ' God wills
it!'"

Many pledged themselves forth-
with to undertake the work,
and to these a cross of red
cloth — the sign of pil-
grims to the Holy Land
— was given, to be worn
on the breast going and on
the back returning. The
crusader (from crux, a
cross) was thus given the
protection attaching to
pilgrims; during his ab-
sence no one might trouble
him for debt, and who-
ever took his goods was

excommunicated. On their Crusader.

part the crusaders were From a 18th century MS.

considered to have taken a vow to fight the infidels, and not
to return until they had beheld the Holy Sepulcher,

122 AGE OF THE CRUSADES

August 15, 1096, was fixed as the date for departure, but
impatient zeal was aroused during the winter by popular

94. The preachers, of whom the most noted was Peter the Her-

crusadeof ^^u ^^ whom for centuries was wrongly ascribed the

the people ' ° ''

(1096) original idea of the crusade. In the spring, bands of

peasants and townsmen, for many of whom any change was a
gain, began to assemble ; they were without arms or provisions,
and were incumbered with women and children. At Cologne
and elsewhere the Jews were massacred in a frenzy of reli-
gious zeal. Under the leadership of a knight called Walter the
Penniless, of Peter the Hermit, and others, several successive
companies took the road down the valley of the Danube, which
since the conversion of the Hungarians was the ordinary pil-
grim route. Without adequate leadership or preparations, the
misguided multitudes perished miserably on the way, or left
their bones to whiten the plains of Asia Minor. Walter and
most of his followers were slaughtered by the Sultan of Eoum,
but Peter escaped to await the coming of the main crusade.

In the summer and fall of 1096 the lords and knights set
out, armed with coats of mail, swords, and lances ; they were

95. The provided with sums of money, often obtained by the sale
knights ^^ their belongings at ruinous prices; and they were
(1096-1097) accompanied by attendants on foot and by carts laden

with provisions. The Pope had been asked to lead the cru-
sade in person ; he declined the perilous office, but commis-
sioned a bishop as his legate. There was no general leader-
ship ; each crusader went at his own cost, and obeyed only his
own will. The crusaders naturally grouped themselves about
the better known nobles, such as Raymond, count of Toulouse ;
Bohemond, son of Eobert Guiscard; Godfrey of Bouillon; and
Robert of Normandy, brother of the English king William II.
Tlie crusaders assembled at different places, and departed as
they were ready, in four different companies. The Germans
and those from the north of France followed the valley of

THE FIRST CRUSADE

123

the Danube ; others traversed Italy, crossed the Adriatic, and

proceeded thence by land to Constantinople. "How 96. Crusa-

great a city it is: how noble and comely!" wrote one dersatCon-
- , . , stantinople

of their number, of that capital. "What wondrously

wrought monasteries and palaces are therein! What Kingsf^M,
marvels everywhere in street and square ! Tedious Crusades, 50
would it be to recite its wealth in all precious things, in gold
and silver, in divers shaped cloaks, and saintly relics. For
thither do ships bring
at all times all things
that man requires."

The Emperor Alex-
ius had expected a
few thousand men in
response to his call,
where scores of thou-
sands came. Mutual
hatreds quickly
sprang up, and the
Emperor was glad, in
the spring of 1097, to
speed the "Eranks,"
as the crusaders were
called, out of the city
and across into Asia

Minor. After several weeks' siege, Niciea surrendered; but
it passed, not to the crusaders, but to the Greeks. Suffer-
ing from thirst and attacked by the Turks, the crusaders
made their way through Asia Minor, with the loss of most
of their horses. To add to the difficulties of their situation,
quarrels arose between rival leaders. - In front of Antioch,
which they reached in October, 1097, they were checked for
more than a year, by its strong walls and their lack of skill in
the construction and operation of siege engines.

XLiC^-^

Capture of Nicjsa (1097).

From a church window in the ahbey of St. Denis,
as pictured in a 12th century MS.

124 AGE OF THE CRUSADES

The events of this period, and the sentiments of the crusad-
ers, ai-e indicated in the following letter, which Stephen of
97. Letter Blois, a powerful French noble, brother-in-law of the Eng-
er (1098) lish king, wrote from before Antioch in March, 1098 ; —

''' Count Stephen to Adele, his sweetest and most amiable wife,

to his dear children, and to all his vassals of all ranks, — his

greeting and blessing: —

'< You may be very sure, dearest, that the messenger whom

I sent left me before Antioch safe and unharmed, and through

_ God's grace in the greatest prosperity. Already at that

of Pennsyl- time we had been continuously advancing for twenty-

^rmmiations ^^^'^^ weeks toward the home of our Lord Jesus, You

/. No. 4 (con- may know for certain, my beloved, that of gold, silver,

and many other kinds of riches I now have twice as

much as your love had assigned to me when I left you.

" You have certainly heard that, after the capture of the city
of Nicsea, we fought a great battle with the perfidious Turks,
and by God's aid conquered them. Next we conquered for
the Lord all Romania [i.e. the sultanate of Roum], and after-
wards Cappadocia. Thence, continually following the wicked
Turks, we drove them through Armenia, as far as the great
river Euphrates. Having left all their baggage and beasts of
burden on the bank, they fled across the river into Arabia.

" The bolder of the Turkish soldiers, indeed, entering Syria,
hastened by forced marches, night and day, in order to be able
to enter the royal city of Antioch before our approach. The
whole army of God, learning this, gave due praise and thanks
to the omnipotent Lord. Hastening with great joy to Antioch,
we besieged it, and very often had many conflicts with the
Turks ; and seven times with the citizens of Antioch, and with
the innumerable troops coming to its aid, we fought with the
fiercest courage, under the leadership of Christ. And in all
these seven battles, by the aid of the Lord God, we conquered

THE FIRST CRUSADE 125

and most assuredly killed an innumerable host of them. In
those battles, indeed, and in very many attacks made upon the
city, many of our brethren and followers were killed, and their
souls were borne to the joys of Paradise.

"In fighting against these enemies of God, and our own,
we have by God's grace endured many sufferings and innumer-
able evils up to the present time. Many have already ex-
hausted all their resources in this very holy passion. Very
many of our Franks, indeed, would have met a temporal death
from starvation, if the clemency of God, and our money, had
not succored them. Before the above mentioned city of
Antioch, indeed, throughout the whole winter, we suffered for
our Lord Christ from excessive cold and from enormous tor-
rents of rain. What some say about the impossibility of bear-
ing the heat of the sun throughout Syria is untrue, for the
winter there is very similar to our winter in the West.

" When the emir of Antioch — that is, prince and lord — per-
ceived that he was hard pressed by us, he sent his son to the
prince who holds Jerusalem, and to the prince of Damascus,
aM to three other princes. These five emirs, with twelve
tjibusand picked Turkish horsemen, suddenly came to aid the
inhabitants of Antioch. We, indeed, ignorant of all this, had
sent many of our soldiers away to the cities and fortresses.
For there are one hundred and sixty-five cities and fortresses
throughout Syria which are in our power. But a little before
they reached the city, we attacked them at three leagues' dis-
tance with seven hundred soldiers. God fought for us. His
faithful, against them. For on that day we conquered them
and killed an innumerable multitude ; and we also carried back
to the army more than two hundred of their heads, in order
that the people might rejoice on that account.

" These which I write you are only a few things, dearest, of
the many which we have done. And because I am not able to
tell you, dearest, what is in my mind, I charge you to do right.

126

AGE OF THE CRUSADES

to carefully watch over your land, to do your duty as you
ought to your cliildren aud your vassals. You will certainly
see me just as soon as I can possibly return to you. Farewell."

Antioch fell in June, 1098, betrayed to the crusaders by one
of its inhabitants. Three days later an immense army sent
98. Capture by theSeljukian

of Jerusa-
lem (1099)

sultan arrived
for its relief, and
the crusaders them-
selves were forced to
stand siege. Through
the aid of a vision
thrice repeated, the
Holy Lance, which
pierced the side of
Christ, was discovered
buried in the soil:
many disbelieved, but
others were fired to
prodigies of valor by
the sacred relic. The
Turks were beaten
off, and the crusaders
proceeded southward
along the coast.

Church of the Holy Sepulcheb.
Present condition.

Owing to quarrels and delays on the road, it was June, 1099,
before they came in sight of Jerusalem. A few months before,
the caliph of Egypt had wrested the city from the Turks ; and
he now offered free access to the Holy Sepulcher for unarmed
pilgrims in small numbers. These terms were refused. After
several weeks, the city was taken by assault (July 15, 1099).
Then followed scenes which showed how little the teachings
of Christ had sunk into the crusaders' hearts. " When our

THE FIRST CRUSADE 127

men had taken the city, with its walls and towers," says an
eyewitness, "there were things wondrous to be seen. For
some of the enemy (and this is a small matter) were
reft of their heads, while others, riddled through with Kings/ord,
arrows, were forced to leap down from the towers; /^''"««^««' ^^
others, after long torture, were burned in the flames. In all
the streets and squares there were to be seen piles of heads,
and hands, and feet ; and along the public ways foot and horse
alike made passage over the bodies of the dead."

The vow of the crusaders was fulfilled : but at what a cost
of lives, both Christian and Mohammedan ; of agonies of battle
and sufferings on the way; of women made widows, and
children left fatherless!

At the beginning of the eleventh century, the Eastern Empire
was prosperous and highly civilized. The Mohammedan world,
under Arabian rule, was cultured and tolerant. The rise 99 g^^.
of the Seljukian Turks (1058) changed political and reli- mary

gious conditions, for Mohammedanism became intolerant and
aggressive. The Eastern Empire soon lost most of its Asiatic
possessions. To resist the Turks, Alexius Comnenus sought to
enlist mercenary soldiers in the West, which was now in a con-
dition to undertake distant enterprises. Religious zeal, the
spirit of adventure, and greed for booty enabled Pope Urban
II. to convert the aid sent to Alexius into the First Cru-
sade. The impractical character of the times showed itself
in the popular movement under Peter the Hermit and Wal-
ter the Penniless (1096). The crusade of the knights was
better managed, and resulted in the capture of Jerusalem
(1099). But cruelty, jealousy, and self-seeking were as marked
traits of the leaders as was devotion to religious ideals. In
spite of flashes of lofty idealism, the crusader in Palestine
was little different from the rude, superstitious, selfish baron
at home.

128

AGE OF THE CRUSADES

Suggestive
topics

Search
topics

TOPICS

(1) Which was the more exposed to barbarian attack, the East
or the West? (2) What advantages were possessed in the Mid-
dle Ages by a settled hereditary succession over a line of elec-
tive rulers? Why are there not the same advantages to-day?
(3) Compare the coming of the Turks into the East with that
of the Germans into the West. (4) Were the causes of the
Crusades more in external events or in the prevalence of a par-
ticular state of mind ? (5) What motive besides the religious one
led Stephen of Blois to the Crusade ? (6) Why do men not go on
crusades to-day ? (7) Why did the crusaders slay the Mohamme-
dans at Jerusalem ?

(8) Life in Constantinople on the eve of the Crusades. (9) The
debt of civilization to the Saracens. (10) The Mohammedan
heretical sect of the Shiites. (11) The First Crusade as seen by a
participant. (12) Peter the Hermit in myth and in history.
(18) Relations of the crusaders with the Eastern Emperor.
(14) Bagdad in the Arabian Nights. (15) Works of art in Con-
stantinople. (16) Arabian merchants in the Far East.

Geography

Secondary-
authorities

Illustrative
works

REFERENCES

Map, pp. 112, 113 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, mapslxxi. Ixxii. Ixxvi.
Ixxviii.; Dow, Atlas, ix.

Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 258-268 ; Emerton,
MedicBval Europe, 358-366 ; Bemont and Monod, Medieval Europe,
159-166, 339-355 ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age,
ch. XV. ; Tout, Empire and Papacy, 151-184 ; Cornish, Chivalry,
109-124 ; Stills, Studies in Medieval History, 353-358 ; Munro and
Sellery, Medieval Civilization, 212-239 ; Archer and Kingsford,
Crusades, 13-92 ; Mombert, Short History of the Crusades, chs.
i.-iii. ; Cutis, Scenes of the Middle Ages, ch. i. ; Cox, Crusades,
chs. i.-iv. ; Munro, Essays on the Crusades ; Gibbon, Decline and
Fall of the Boman Empire (Bury's ed.), ch. Iviii. ; Milman, His-
tory of Latin Christianity, bk. vii. ch. vi. ; Finlay, History of Greece,
II. 198-226, III. 87-113 ; Historians' History of the World, VIII.
320-357.

Ogg, Source Book, ch. xvii. ; Thatcher and McNeal, Source
Book, nos. 274-283 ; University of Pennsylvania, Translations and
lieprints, vol. I. Nos. 2, 4.

Scott, Cou7it Bohert of Paris \ W. S. Davis, God Wills It.

CHAPTEE yill.

THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291)

After the successful termination of the First Crusade, the
next task was to organize and safeguard the Christian con-
quests.

Jerusalem was made an independent kingdom, 100. Organ-
and the rest was organ- eonquests
ized into three auxiliary in Asia

states — the principality of
Antioch, and the counties
of Edessa and Tripoli. God-
frey of Bouillon was chosen
to rule at Jerusalem ; and he
took the title "Defender of
the Holy Sepulcher^' instead
of king, being unwilling, it is
said, " to wear a crown of gold
where Christ had worn a crown
of thorns." Most of the cru-
saders departed as soon as
their vows were fulfilled ; but
others came to take their
places, and gradually the power
of the " Franks " was fixed in
the regions about the four
capital cities. The peasants
— who were already, for the
most part. Christians of vari-
129

Km. of Jeiusalem,
1229.

SCALE OF MILES
25 50 75 100

Crusaders' States in Syria after
THE First Crusade.

130

AGE OF THE CRUSADES

101. The

military
orders

ous Eastern faiths — kept their lands, paying tribute to their
I Latin masters, as they had formerly done to the Moham-
medans. Above them were placed crusading lords, who held
their lands as fiefs, and whose castles helped to keep the land
in obedience. Feudalism was transplanted full-grown into
Palestine, and in the course of the twelfth century the feudal
usages were drawn up into a code called the " Assizes of
tlerusalem." The lords were almost all French, and French
became the language of the Latin East ; but Italian merchants
came in large numbers (from Venice, Genoa, and Pisa espe-
cially) to profit by the new facilities for trade.

Besides the constant reenforcements from the West, the
Franks depended on three orders of knighthood which sprang
up especially to defend

the Holy Land : (1) the
Knights Hospitaler of
St. John, formed originally
to care for sick pilgrims;
(2) the Knights Templar, so
called from their
headquarters in the
inclosure of the an- ('^
cient temple of Je- ' '
rusalem ; and (3) the
Order of Teutonic
Knights, which was
composed of Ger-
mans, Avhereas the

Knioht Templar.
From a 13th century MS.

members of the others were mostly French. The Hospitalers
wore a white cross on a black mantle, the Templars a red one
on white, and the Teutonic Knights a black cross on a white
ground. The members of these orders were monks, vowed to
poverty, chastity, and obedience, and living under a rule ; but
they were also knights, of noble birth, trained to arms, and

THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1201) 131

bound to perpetual warfare against the infidel. They consti-
tuted a permanent force of military monks, resident in the
Holy Land, with their own grand masters, fortresses, domains,
and treasuries. In course of time they acquired immense
possessions in Europe also. After the end of the crusading
epoch, the Templars were forcibly dissolved and their goods
confiscated; the Teutonic Knights transferred themselves to
the shores of the Baltic Sea, and there continued to wage
war against the heathen ; and the Knights Hospitaler, taking
refuge in Cyprus, in Ehodes, and finally in Malta, preserved an
independent existence until the close of the eighteenth century.

The Crusades continued throughout the twelfth and the
greater part of the thirteenth century. It is customary to
describe them as " First," " Second," and so on ; but this
usage obscures the fact that the warfare was almost continu-
ous, and that there was a constant movement of crusaders
to and from the Holy Land. At times some exceptional occur-
rence produced an increase of zeal, and it is to the exceptional
expeditions that the conventional numbers apply, though other
movements of almost equal importance must be passed by
without notice.

The so-called Second Crusade took place a half century after
the first. It was caused by the consolidation of the petty
Mohammedan states of Syria under one powerful ruler, 102. The
the Atabek (viceroy) of Mosul. The Latin states were ®°°^ ^^^J
weakened by quarrels of the Templars with the Hospi- (1147-1149)
talers, of the French with other nationalities, of the Genoese
with the Pisans and Venetians, and of newcomers from the
West with the older settlers, whom they accused of too great
favor toward the infidels. These divisions made it easy for
the atabek, in 1144, to conquer Edessa and massacre its garri-
son ; and news of this disaster caused Saint Bernard, abbot of
the Cistercian monastery of Clairvaux, to make himself the
preacher of another crusade. Bernard was a man of rare ability,
Harding's m, & m. hist. — 8

132 AGE OF THE CRUSADES

education, and devotion, and was the most important figure
of the twelfth century; in some respects he is the most
typical man of the Middle Ages. His influence induced two
sovereigns, Louis VII. of France and Conrad III. of Germany,
to take the cross and lead the crusading forces.

The route of the Second Crusade was the old one, down the
Danube valley and across Bulgaria to Constantinople. Most
of the Germans, under Conrad III., perished in Asia Minor,
through the attacks of the Turks and the hardships of the
way. Of the army under Louis VII., those without money to
pay for their passage aboard ship continued by land and were
almost all destroyed. Only a few troops of the two great
armies which set out from Europe reached Palestine. The
whole expedition was a lamentable failure — a result ascribed
by some to their sins, by others to treachery of the Greeks,
but really due to the miserable mismanagement of the leaders.
The power of the atabeks of Mosul grew to yet greater
heights. The emir of Damascus was conquered ; then Egypt
103 Sala- ^^^ taken, and the caliphate there was suppressed (1171)
din. and the ^y the famous Saladin (Salah-ed-Din), nephew of the
salem reigning atabek, who secured all of his uncle's domin-

(1187) JQjjs^ ^^^^ took the title of sultan. The Christians in

Syria now found themselves exposed to attacks from one
who was wise in counsel, brave in battle, and as chival-
rous in conduct and sincere in his faith as the best of his
Christian foes. In July, 1187, Saladin won a great victory
over the Franks, taking captive the king of Jerusalem and the
University gi'^nd master of the Templars. " So great is the multi-
of Fennsyl- tude of the Saracens and Turks," wrote a Hospitaler,
Translations appealing to Europe for aid, "that from Tyre, which
/. No. 4 they are besieging, they cover the face of the earth as
far as Jerusalem, like an innumerable army of ants." In Octo-
ber Jerusalem itself fell, and the Latin states were reduced to
a few strongly fortified towns near the coast.

THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291) 133

The loss of Jerusalem caused another great outburst of
crusading zeal in Europe. Public fasts and prayers were en-
joined in the Western Church, and the fullest privileges 104. Third

and spiritual benefits were promised those who should so Crusade

^ ° organized

to the relief of the Holy Land. The three greatest kings (1189-1190)

of western Europe — Richard I. the Lion-Hearted (Coeur de
Lion), of England; Philip IL, surnamed Augustus, of France;
and Frederick I. of Germany, called Barbarossa (Redbeard) —
took the cross, and assumed the lead of the Third Crusade.
The Emperor Frederick, who had gone in his youth on the
Second Crusade, was the first to start on the Third. Thorough
organization and strict discipline enabled Frederick to lead his
army by the Danube route without the customary losses ; but
while crossing a mountain torrent in Asia Minor the old
Emperor was drowned (June, 1190), and thereupon the Ger-
man expedition went to pieces.

The preparations of Richard and Philip were delayed by
their mutual hostilities, and it was not until after the death of
Frederick that they actually started, both expeditions going by
water. The measures taken against lawlessness and violence
are shown by the following regulations, drawn up by Richard
for the English fleet: "Whoever on board ship shall slay
another is himself to be cast into the sea lashed to the dead
man ; if he have slain him ashore, he is to be buried in the
same way. . . . Let a convicted thief be shorn like a Archer,
prize fighter; after which let boiling pitch be poured S^^*"*??^
on his head and a feather pillow be shaken over it so 9-10

as to make him a laughing stock. Then let him be put ashore
at the first land where the ships touch."

At Messina, in Sicily, the two expeditions met and spent the
winter. For the combined armies these regulations were Archer,

issued: "Let no one in the whole army play at any Richard I,
game for a stake — saving only knights and clerks, who, 37-39

however, are not to lose more than twenty solidi [_solidus = a

134

AGE OF THE CRUSADES

silver coin] in the twenty-four hours. . . . The kings, how-
ever, may play at their good pleasure. ... If, after starting
on the journey, any pilgrim has borrowed from another man,
he shall pay the debt ; but so long as he is on the pilgrimage
he shall not be liable for a debt contracted before starting. . . .
No merchant of any kind may buy bread or flour in the army
to sell it again. . . . Merchants, no matter of what calling,
shall only make a profit of one penny in ten."

In Sicily the two kings wrangled; and Richard, following

up a quarrel with the Sicilian ruler, took Messina and sacked

105. Third it. Philip at last departed without Richard, and reached

carrTed^ out ^^^'® ^^ ^^"^ ^^^ ^P^^^' ^^^^' '^^^ English, following
(1191-1192) later, again turned aside — this time to conquer Cyprus,

whose king had permitted the plunder of pilgrim vessels on

his coast.

Present View of Acre.

In June, Eichard joined Philip before Acre, the siege of

which had already dragged on for more than twenty months.

Archer and "The Lord is not in the camp," wrote one of the be-

Crumdes, ' siegers before this date ; " there is none that doeth good.

3S3 The leaders strive with one another, while the lesser folk

starve and have none to help. The Turks are persistent in

THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291) 185

.attack, while our knights skulk within their tents/' The
arrival of Richard infused new energy into the operations.
He was an undutiful son, an oppressive king, and (in spite of
his superficial chivalry and courtesy) a violent and cruel man ;
but he was a warrior of splendid strength and skill, and one of
the best military engineers of the Middle Ages. In July, Acre
capitulated; when the ransom agreed upon was not forth-
coming, Eichard massacred 2000 hostages left in his hands.

After the fall of Acre, Philip returned to France, taking an
oath not to attack Eichard's territories in his absence — an
oath which he straightway broke. In the subsequent opera-
tions in Syria, motives of selfish interest were more prominent
than in the First Crusade. In January, 1192, Eichard advanced
almost to within sight of Jerusalem, but was forced to retreat.
Finally, news came from England that his brother John had
rebelled against him, in alliance with Philip of France.

Eecalled by this news, Eichard set out in October for home.
He landed at the head of the Adriatic Sea, and sought to
make his way in disguise through Germany; but was recog-
nized, and was thrown into prison by the duke of Austria,
whom he had grievously offended on the crusade. He had
made an enemy of the Emperor also by allying himself with
German rebels ; so he obtained his liberty only after two years
of captivity, and on the payment of a ruinous ransom. The
remainder of his life (he died in 1199) was spent in warfare
with Philip of France. Saladin, who had done so much to
revive the Mohammedan power, died in 1193.

The enthusiasm which produced the Crusades was slowly
dying out, but the exhortations of the papacy could still call it
forth to momentary activity. Innocent III., who became ^^g pourth
Pope in 1198, appealed to the princes of Europe, as Crusade
vassals of Christ, to reconquer for Him the Holy Land. ^ - ^ )
No king responded to this call, but a number of knights and
nobles (mostly French) gathered at Venice for the Fourth

136

AGE OF THE CRUSADES

Crusade in 1201. It was intended at first to strike at the
Mohammedan power in Egypt, as the likeliest way to secure
the permanent recovery of Palestine; but circumstances led
the crusaders to turn their arms against Constantinople, and
waste their strength in fighting Christian foes.

Six years earlier the Greek emperor, Isaac Angelus, had been
overthrown, blinded, and imprisoned through a revolution ; and

his son came to the West to beg
for aid. The Venetians, who had
contracted to carry the crusaders
to the East for a large sum of
money, cared little for the cru-
sade, but a great deal for their con-
tract. When the crusaders found
that they were not able to pay the
full amount they had agreed upon,
the Venetian " doge " (duke) Dan-
dolo — a man ninety years of age
and blind, but possessed of the
highest courage and ambition for
his city — induced their chiefs to
turn their arms against Constanti-
nople. Pope Innocent III. had
Costume before the iGth century, already excommunicated the cru-
From Cesare Veceiiio. ^^^^^^ ^^^ attacking a Christian

town in Dalmatia to aid the Venetians; but it was rightly
believed that the prospect of extending the papal power over
the Greek Church would cause him to forget his anger.

After a short siege, Constantinople fell in July, 1203 — the

first time it was ever taken by a foreign foe. Isaac Angelus

107 Sa k ^^^^ restored to his throne, but he and his son soon per-

of Constan- ished in a rebellion of the fanatical populace, and the

inop e. crusaders were forced to capture the city a second

time. Terrible punishment was now meted out to the van-

DoGE OF Venice.

THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291)

137

quished. In three great fires the most populous parts of
the city were destroyed. Violence and indignity were the
lot of the survivors; and Pope Innocent III. accused the
crusaders of respecting neither age, nor sex, nor religious
profession. The city was systematically pillaged; even the
churches were profaned, and stripped of their rich hangings
and of their gold and silver vessels. Precious works of art —

IW^

■1

rp ■

Ik:

1 U

1 ^^aaiMiP'W^aK ^!tai<MHH

St. Mark's Church, Venice.
Facade remodeled in fifteenth century.

the accumulation of a thousand years — were destroyed;
statues of brass and bronze were broken up and melted for the
metal which they contained ; and the Venetians carried to
Venice the four bronze horses which still adorn the front of
their Church of St. Mark. The more pious gave themselves to
the search for holy relics — a venerable and profitable booty.
As a result of this sack, Constantinople lost forever that
unique splendor which had made it the wonder of the world,

138

AGE OF THE CRUSADES

In the division of the conquered territory the Venetians got
the lion's share, receiving practically a monopoly of the trade
108 Latin ^^ ^^^ empire, together with the possession of most of
Empire of the islands and coast lands of the ^gean and Ionian
nople seas. The remainder of the empire (so far as it was in

(1204-1261) the possession of the crusaders) was divided among their
chiefs, and a feudal state was erected : of this '^ Latin Empire "

Saladin's Empire, and the Results of the Fourth Crusade.

of Constantinople, Count Baldwin of Flanders was chosen em-
peror, while a Venetian priest was set as Patriarch over the
Greek Church.

" No feudal state was ever strong, but no feudal state was

ever so weak as the Latin Empire in the East ; " this was

Erapire and chiefly due to the hostility of the Greeks to their new

apacy, 349 j^jg^gte^g^ j^ Asia Minor there was from the beginning a

rival government which afforded a rallying point for the

Greek nationality; and when Constantinople was recaptured

by the Greeks, in 12G1, the Latin Empire was overthrown,

after half a century of uncertain existence. In certain localities

THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291) 139

" Frank " feudatories were enabled to hold out longer, and
the remains of their castles still dot the landscape of Greece.
The Venetians kept much of their conquests for centuries, and
long after the Middle Ages they retained something of the
power in the eastern Mediterranean which Dandolo, their
blind old doge, gained for them in the Fourth Crusade.

Throughout the thirteenth century there was much talk of
crusades, and Europe was systematically and regularly taxed
for them, but with very little positive results. In 1218 109. Om-
an expedition composed mainly of Germans, who made ^.^^®
the long voyage around by Gibraltar in three hundred Egypt
ships, was directed against Egypt. The city of Damietta, (1218-1221)
in the delta of the Nile, was taken, and the sultan offered in
exchange the kingdom of Jerusalem. The offer was rejected ;
then the crusaders were defeated, and were glad to give up
Damietta in return merely for a free retreat (1221).

In 1228-1229 occurred a crusade under the Emperor
Frederick II. which resulted in restoring Jerusalem for a time
to the Christians, although the crusade was hampered by hq (Jj^_
Frederick's quarrel with the Pope, who excommunicated sade

him (§ 132) both before and after he sailed. Frederick, erick II.
who was in advance of his age, treated with the sultan (1228-1229)
instead of fighting him ; and by skillful negotiation he secured
a truce for ten years, and the restoration of Bethlehem, Nazareth,
and Jerusalem to the Christians (map, p. 129).

After Frederick's departure, the kingdom of Jerusalem was
for fifteen years filled with the wars and brigandage of Chris-
tians ; and the only thing that saved it thus long from recap-
ture was the fact that the Mohammedan world also was torn
by dissensions. In 1244 Jerusalem was finally lost to a new
Turkish race (the Charismians) fresh from the interior of Asia.
This calamity produced no great outburst of crusading zeal ;
the Popes were engaged in the last desperate struggle with
the Hohenstaufen Emperors (see ch. x.), and the peoples and

140 AGE OF THE CRUSADES

princes of western Europe were beginning to be occupied with

problems nearer home.

However, in 1248, Louis IX. of France (later canonized as a

saint) set out for Egypt with a French army. He succeeded

only in duplicating the failure of 1218 : again Damietta
111. Ija,st
crusades was taken ; then the army was defeated. King Louis and

(1248-1291) j-j^Qg^ Qf i^is iiien were captured, and he was forced to
ransom himself by the surrender of Damietta and the payment
of a large sum of money. After his release the king remained
for four years (until 1254) in Syria, strengthening the few
Christian posts that were left.

In 1270 Louis IX. again undertook a crusade, but was di-
verted this time to Tunis. There he died of the plague, and
the army returned to France. Prince Edward of England had
taken the cross at the same tin^e, and spent two years in Syria,
but returned in 1272 to take the English crown as Edward I.
Acre, the last Christian stronghold in Syria, fell in 1291.
Thereafter no armies went to Syria or Egypt to attempt the
recovery of the holy places. Thenceforth the Latin power in
the East was represented only by the islands of Cyprus and
Rhodes. Soon Christendom had to tax its energies to defend
Europe itself against the Ottoman Turks, the latest and most
formidable champions of Mohammedanism. The period of the
Crusades was at an end.

The tendency has been to exaggerate the influence of the
Crusades and to minimize the importance of other factors

112 R ^^^ changing the institutions and customs of Europe.

suits of the Nevertheless, the migration, year by year, of thousands
rusa es ^^ persons to and from the Mohammedan East, during a
period of nearly two centuries, could not but have important
results for the, Christian West.

(1) In respect to military usages, Europe owed to the Cru-
sades the (Iruiii, trumpet, tents, quilted armor for the protection
of the common soldier, the surcoat worn over the knightly coat

THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291) 141

of mail, the whole system of armorial "bearings" (heraldic
devices on shields, etc.) by which knights proclaimed their
family and lineage, and many improvements in the art of build-
ing and taking fortified places : " the siege of great fenced Oman, His-

cities like Nicaea, Antioch, or Jerusalem was almost an ^^^^ ^/ !^i

' ' _ Art of

education in itself to the engineers of the West." Among War, 526
social effects were the increased use of baths, the increased use of
pepper and other spices in foods, and the wearing of the beard.
(2) On the development of commerce, the Crusades exerted
a great influence. Italian cities like Venice, Pisa, and Genoa

State Barge of Venice.

grew rich through the transportation of pilgrims and cru-
saders and their supplies, and through the importation into
Europe of the products of the East. In the north, such cities
as Eatisbon, Nuremberg, and the market towns of northern
France developed as distributing centers for the importations
of Italy, and regular routes of inland commerce were estab-
lished. Money became increasingly necessary; banks were
established, and means of exchange devised. " It was . . . not
simply during the Crusades," says the German historian Prutz,
" but as a result of them, and of the commerce which they had
called into being, that money became a power, — we might
almost say a world power."

142 AGE OF THE CRUSADES

(3) A multitude of new natural products and manufactures
— such as sugar cane, buckwheat, rice, garlic, hemp; the
orange, watermelon, lemon, lime, and apricot ; dyestuffs, cot-
tons, muslins, damask, satin, and velvet — were introduced
from the East in the Middle Ages ; but it is difficult to say
which of these came as a result of the Crusades, and which
from peaceful intercourse with Constantinople, Syria, northern
Africa, and Spain.

(4) The political and social organization of Europe was
already undergoing profound modification, and the Crusades
helped on the change. Crusaders often freed their serfs to
get money, or for the good of their souls. The wealth gained
by townsmen in commerce enabled them to buy or wrest
important rights of self-government from their lords. The
feudal nobles, especially of France, were greatly weakened by the
enormous waste of their numbers and resources in the East ;
and the lower classes and the crown were correspondingly
strengthened. In Germany, where as a class the nobles would
have nothing to do with the Crusades, they were neither im-
poverished nor reduced in numbers, nor was their military
and political importance diminished; for this reason, among
others, Germany was later than France in entering upon the
path of social progress, industrial development, and real
national unity.

(5) The most important influence of all was in the world
of thought. The hundreds of thousands who made the
journey to the Orient had their minds stimulated and their
mental horizons broadened by beholding new lands, new
peoples, and new customs. "They came from their castles

Lavisse and ^^^ their villages," says a French writer, "having seen
Rambaud, nothing, more ignorant than our peasants ; they found
G^n^mle, themselves suddenly in great cities, in the midst of new
JI. 346 countries, in the presence of unfamiliar usages." Thus

the way was ])aved for the subtle change in intellectual atmos-

THE LATER CRUSADES (1099-1291) 143

phere, beginning in the fourteenth century, which we style the
Eenaissance. This we may reckon the greatest though the
most indefinite result of the whole crusading movement ; but
other factors, it must not be forgotten, were already working
in the same direction.

The conquests made by the crusaders in the Holy Land
were organized as a feudal kingdom, of which the chief
defense was the three crusading orders — the Knights ^^^ ^^^_
Hospitaler, the Knights Templar, and the Teutonic mary

Knights. The Second Crusade (1147-1149), occasioned by
the fall of Edessa, was undertaken by Conrad III. of Ger-
many and Louis VII. of France, and ended in failure. The
Third Crusade (1189-1192), caused by the capture of Jeru-
salem by Saladin in 1187, was led by the Emperor Frederick
Barbarossa, King Richard I. of England, and Philip Augustus
of France ; Acre was taken, but Jerusalem remained in the
hands of the Mohammedans. The Fourth Crusade (1201-
1204) was turned by the Venetians against Constantinople,
and resulted in the establishing of the Latin Empire of
the East, which lasted from 1204 to 1261. The Emperor
Frederick II. led a crusade (1228-1229), which regained Jeru-
salem through treaty ; but it was lost again in 1244. Ih 1248
Louis IX. of France led an unsuccessful crusade against
Egypt; and in 1270 he led a second crusade against
Tunis, equally without result. After 1291 the crusading
movement to the East was at an end. Although the Cru-
sades failed to recover permanently the Holy Land, they
profoundly influenced Europe, especially through the wider
outlook and the stimulus to thought which they supplied.

TOPICS

(1) Why were the Latin states in the East organized on a feudal Suggestive
model ? (2) To what forces was the defense of Palestine left in *°P^°®

AGE OF THE CRUSADES

Search
topics

the intervals between the Crusades? (3) Why did the Second
Crusade fail? (4) Compare the organization and leadership of
the Third Crusade with that of the First. Why did it accomplish
less? (5) Was the Fourth Crusade more of a religious or a politi-
cal war? (6) Why were the later crusades directed against
Egypt ? (7) Why did the crusading movement come to an end
when it did ? (8) Did the Crusades on the whole do more good
or more harm?

(9) The life of a Knight Templar. (10) Saint Bernard as a
preacher of the Second Crusade. (11) Relations of Christians
and Mohammedans in Palestine. (12) Saladin. (13) The sect
of the Assassins and the Old Man of the Mountain. (14) Richard
th<3 Lion-IIearted as a crusader. (15) The " Children's Crusade."
(16) The Crusade of Frederick 11. (17) The Crusade of Louis IX.
to Egypt. (18) Effect of the Crusades on home realms and
estates of crusaders.

Geography

Secondary
authorities

Sources

Illustrative
works

REFERENCES

Maps, pp. 112, 113, 129, 188 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps vi.
Ixxvi. Ixxxix. ; Dow, Atlas, ix.

Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 268-278 ; B^mont
and Monod, 3Iedieval Europe, 355-374 ; Emerton, Mediaeval Europe,
367-397 ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, ch. xv. ;
Tout, Empire and Papacy, 185-197, 295-303, 336-357, 450-463;
Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, ch. xxiii. ; Munro and
Sellery, Medieval Civilization, 248-256 ; Archer and Kingsford,
Crusades, chs. xiv. xvii.-xxii. xxiv. xxv. xxviii. ; Cornish, Chivalry,
125-153 ; Mombert, Short History of the Crusades, chs. v. vii. xiii.
xiv. xvii. ; Cox, Crusades, chs. v.-xv. ; Oman, History of the Art
of War, 229-350 ; Lacroix, Military and Beligious Life in the
Middle Ages, 104-136 ; Finlay, History of Greece, IV. ch. iii. ;
Historians' History of the World, VIII. 358-480.

Ogg, Source Book, ch. xix.; Robinson, Readings, I. 330-345;
Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, nos. 284-288 ; University of
Pennsylvania, Translations and Reprints, III. No. 1, II. Nos. 2, 4 ;
Henderson, Documents of the Middle Ages, bk. i. no. vi., bk. iii.
nos. V, vii. ; Chronicles of the Crusades (Bohn); Archer, Crusade
of Richard I.

Scott, Ivanhoe, — The Talisman ; J. G. Edgar, The Boy Cru-
saders ; C. M. Yonge, The Prince and the Page ; Marion Crawford,
Via Crucis ; L^on Cahun, The Blue Banner ; Maurice Hewlett,
Richard Yea-and-Nay.

CHAPTER IX.

THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE AND THE ITALIAN COM-
MUNES (1125-1190)

We must now turn to the history of Germany and Italy in

the period of the Crusades. The death of Henry V. — the

last of the Franconian Emperors — in 1125 without a son n^ Pj.g.

gave opportunity for a free election for the first time in l^de to

a century ; and Lothair II. of Saxony was chosen king f^n period

of Germany. "It is with good right," says a writer of (1125-1138)

that time, "that we call Lothair the father of his country,

for he upheld it strenuously and was always ready to risk

his life for justice's sake." "In his days," says another,

" the service of God increased and there was plenty Tout, Em-

in all things." In 1133 Lothair led an expedition into pireand

Papacy,
Italy to settle a disputed election to the papacy, and 225

was crowned Emperor. A second expedition to Italy three

years later was successfully directed against the Norman,

Roger II., who had united southern Italy to Sicily; but in

the moment of victory the Pope and the Emperor quarreled

over the suzerainty of the Norman territories. Lothair, who

was upward of seventy years of age, died on his way back

to Germany. Two years later, Roger made a peace with the

papacy by which his assumption of the title King of Sicily

was sanctioned, and he agreed to hold his kingdom as a

papal fief.

On the death of Lothair without a son, Conrad, nephew of

Henry V., was chosen king at an assembly in which the

magnates of Franconia and Swabia alone were present. In

145

146

AGE OF THE CRUSADES

his person, the Hohen-

staufeii house, the

most brilliant of all

the imperial houses,

mounted the throne,

and for six reigns it

guided the destinies

of Germany and Italy

(reigns 2, 3, 4, 5, 7,

and 8 in table below).^

The candidate of

the Saxons and Bava-

,,r « ,x rians in 1138
115. Guelf

and Ghibel- was the head of
^^^® the family of

Welf, Henry the
Proud, duke of Bava-
ria and Saxony and
son-in-law of Lothair ;
he made himself the

» - ' - • ■«

JtA

inwHII^^'^iM^

oil

-j, - - -. J.- ^

l^^t

^^^ ' ' "^C^^^

ifi^/^^ /.

j^^p

Ruins of Hohenstaufen. (From an old print.)

iTHE HOUSES OF WELF AND HOHENSTAUFEN IN GERMANY

Frederick
(1) LoTHAiK IT., OF Saxony Henry the Black, of

(1125-1137) Duke of Bavaria, HOHENSTAUFEN = Agnes, sister of the

head of the house Emperor Henry V.

of WELF (see table, p. 98)
I

Gertrude = Henry the Proud
Henry the Lion (d. 1195)

(6) Otto IV. (1198-1214)
(d. 1218)

William,

ancestor

of the

Electors of

Hanover

and of the

Hanoverian

sovereigns

of Great

Britain

Judith = Frederick the One-eyed,

Duke of Swabia |

(2) Conrad III.
(1138-1152)
First Hohen-
(3) Frederick I., Barbarossa staufen king
(1152-1190)

(4) Henry VI.
(1190-1197)

(7) Frederick II.
(1214-1250)

(5) Philip of Swabia
(1198-1208)

Henry (8) Conrad IV.
(d. 1242) (1250-1254)

Manfred
(illegit. ; d. 1266)

Conradin (slain, 1268)

THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 147

head of the North German opposition to the Hohenstaufen,
and for three quarters of a century the kingdom was torn by
the quarrels of these powerful families. Their rival cries,
"Hi Welfen!" and "Hi Waiblingen ! " (the latter from a
little village of Swabia near the castle of Hohenstaufen),
gave rise to new party names. Beginning as a struggle
of rival families, the contest became a warfare of contending
principles. In general, the Hohenstaufen party, or " Ghibel-
lines " (corrupted from Waiblingen), stood for the principle of
strong monarchical government and for imperial rule over
Italy ; whereas the " Guelf " (or Welf) party represented feu-
dal opposition to the monarchy, and the independence of the
Italian towns. It was impossible for the papacy to avoid
taking sides; in Germany its influence was usually, and in
Italy almost always, on the side of the Guelf s. " Broadly Fisher,

speaking, the Guelfs were papalists, the Ghibellines im- Medixvai
perialists ; the Ghibellines were the party who desired a 331

strong government, the Guelfs the party who preferred par-
ticularism ; the Ghibellines would bring in the German, the
Guelfs would cry * Italy for the Italians.' " But these larger
issues were gradually lost sight of in the feuds of factions;
and by the fifteenth century the names Guelf and Ghibelline
lingered only in Italy, where they came to mean no more than
party differences in the mode of building battlements, in wear-
ing feathers in the cap, in cutting fruit at the table, in habits
of yawning, passing in the street, throwing dice, gestures in
speaking or swearing.

A quarrel between Conrad III. and Henry the Proud began
almost immediately through Conrad's attempt to deprive
his Welf rival of his duchies. Dukedoms, like the office m.^ first
of count, though originally in the gift of the king, Avere Hohen-

fast becoming hereditary ; this attack, therefore, produced Emperor
civil war. In the midst of the struggle Henry the Proud (1138-1152)
died, leaving as his heir a ten-year-old son, later known as
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 9

148 AGE OF THE CRUSADES

Henry the Lion ; a compromise was then arranged by which
the duchy of Saxony was restored to the house of Welf, but
Bavaria was withheld.

The great event of Conrad^s reign was the German ex-
pansion to the northeast, which in spite of anarchy and civil
war went steadily on. It owed its success to the efforts of
local rulers ; especially was it indebted to a great religious
leader, Norbert, Archbishop of Magdeburg, the founder of a
new order of clergy (the Premonstratensian canons), who took
the leading part in Christianizing and civilizing the Slavs
beyond the Elbe.

Modern historians maintain that it is impossible to establish
the descent of the municipal governments of the Middle Ages
117. Italian from those of Roman times. In Italy, as elsewhere, the
communes Germanic invasions left the ancient cities dismantled and
reduced in population. Those who continued to dwell on the
ancient sites were mere serfs, like the peasants of the surround-
ing country, and were governed by counts or (as in Lombardy)
by bishops who held the powers of counts.

Nevertheless many elements of urban life, though not of
municipal institutions, were preserved ; these, with the privi-
leges and immunities granted the count-bishops, and the ad-
vantages afforded for commerce and industry, led to an earlier
revival of city life there than elsewhere. Walls were restored
or newly erected, and in time city governments followed. The
union of merchants and artisans in " guilds," for the control
of commerce and of different trades or crafts, became a prece-
dent for that larger union of the inhabitants which eventu-
ally wrested freedom and self-government from their rulers.
Thus, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries the count-bishops
of the Lombard cities lost their sovereign rights, which passed
to the citizens. At the same time war was made upon neigh- .
boring barons, whose castles threatened the newly won inde-
pendence of the towns ; and the feudal nobility were forced to

laVWt^ll/i/i

THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 149

throw in their lot with the municipalities, taking up their resi-
dence for part of every year within the city walls. Danger
from without was thus reduced, but another danger followed:
every city soon bristled with tall, battlemented towers, the
strongholds of rival clans ; and family, factional, and regional
fights, the expression of hereditary hatreds, became alarmingly
frequent.

In the communes of Lombardy there were three chief organs
of government. The executive power in war and peace was in
the hands of a board of " consuls," varying in number from
eight to twenty, chosen for short terms, and paid out of the
city treasury. As advisers and assistants to the consuls there
were secret councils, without whose consent no important
action could be taken. Behind these stood the general as-
sembly (the Parlamentum) of all the men belonging to the
commune ; but this, in most cities, was convened only on
extraordinary occasions.

These communal governments were free in the sense that
they were practically exempt from external control ; but their
citizens were far from enjoying individual liberty. The mem-
ber of a commune was bound to his town as closely as a serf
to the soil ; he belonged all his life to a certain class, to a
trade, to a guild, to a parish, to a ward ; and the details of his
private life — such as the number of trees he might plant in
his orchard, the number of priests and candles he might em-
ploy at funerals — were all precisely regulated.

With the growth of city life, and the discussions aroused by

the investiture conflict, came the revival of the study of Roman

or civil law. Until the twelfth century, the written law , , „ ^. .,

•^' 118. Civil

of Rome, though regarded with superstitious reverence, and canon

was imperfectly understood ; now men awoke to the con- ^^

sciousness that in its precepts were principles applicable to the

new conditions produced by the rise of city life. At Bologna,

the fame of Irnerius, who began to lecture on the Code and

150 AGE OF THE CRUSADES

Institutes of Justinian about the year 1110, drew together a
body of students which numbered ten thousand by the close of
Pollock and the century. " Of all the centuries," says a writer on the
Maitland, j^igtory of law, " the twelfth is the most legal. In no age
Law, I. Ill since the classical days of Roman law has so large a part
of the sum total of intellectual endeavor been devoted to juris-
prudence. . . . From every corner of western Europe students
flocked to Italy. It was as if a new gospel had been revealed.
Before the end of the century complaints were loud that the-
ology was neglected, that the liberal arts were despised, . . .
that men would learn law and nothing but law."

A powerful class of trained lawyers resulted from this study.
One of the principles of Roman jurisprudence was that "the
Institutes will of the prince has the force of law"; the lawyers,
/. a. 6 therefore, became valuable allies of Emperors and kings

in their warfare against feudal and clerical opponents, and
greatly aided in transforming the feudal sovereignties of the
Middle Ages into the absolute monarchies of the seventeenth
century.

At the same time with the revival of the study of the civil
law, the study of the church or canon law also received a
powerful impetus, in part because of such contests as that over
investiture, and in part from the preparation of a text-book
on canon law called (from its author, a monk named Gratian)
the Decretum Gratiani. The canon law was based on the
teachings of Scripture and the Fathers, the decrees of church
councils, and the decretals of Popes (not excepting the False
Decretals, § 63). It became as elaborate and comprehensive a
system as the civil law ; and canon lawyers proved as zealous
upholders of the papal claims as civil lawyers were of imperial
prerogatives.

When the princes of Germany met, in 1152, to select a
successor to (-onrad TIL, they passed by his infant son and
chose his nephew Frederick, in whose veins ran Welf as well

THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190)

151

as- Hohenstaufen blood (see genealogy on p. 146). This elec-
tion, taken with the two preceding ones, established it as " the
cardinal principle of the law of the Roman Empire," to 119- Acces-
nse the language of a contemporary chronicler, "that Frederick
the -succession depends not upon Barbarossa
hereditary right, but on the elec- ^^^^ .

tion of the princes." The German Freising
kingship was becoming definitely elect-
ive, while in France and England the
crown was becoming definitely heredi-
tary. This difference was due in large
part to the fact that the German king,
W'£"'\^' I ■'- a-fter his coronation by the Pope, was
also Emperor, and the Popes never ad-
mitted that the imperial dignity was
hereditary, or that the coronation as
Emperor was to be considered a mere
form. Papal influence, therefore, com-
bined with the interest of the princes to
keep up the custom of election.

Frederick I., surnamed Barbarossa
(Eedbeard), was in many respects the
ideal Emperor of the Middle Ages. He
combined the qualities of a skilled
statesman and good general with the
virtues of a crusader and hero of ro-
mance. His greatest ambition, as he
wrote the Pope soon after his accession,
was to restore the grandeur of the
Roman Empire in all its ancient vigor
and excellence. But unlike Otto HI.,
Frederick was no dreamer; he sought to know his rights
as Emperor, and he used practical means to enforce them:
lie has well been called an "imperialist Hildebrand." His '

Frederick I.

Twelfth century sculp-
ture on wall of a
Bavarian monastery.

152 AGE OF THE CRUSADES

first task was to settle aifairs north, of the Alps so that he

might be free to carry out his imperial ambitions in Italy.

Bavaria was restored to his cousin Henry the Lion, while

its dispossessed holder was given a new duchy, that of Austria

(Oesterreich) , formed from the old Ostmark of Bavaria.

Before these arrangements were completed, Frederick was

called into Italy, where the ambition of the Norman king was

120 First causing trouble, and the K-oman populace had rebelled

Italian ex- against the Pope and set up a commune. The leading spirit
pedition of . . i * i i p t-,

Frederick I. at Rome was a visionary reiormer named Arnold oi lires-

(1154-1155) (,|g^ — ^ man, Saint Bernard once wrote, "whose words are
Milman, as honey, but whose doctrines are poison, whom Brescia
Uanity,iv. ^ast forth, at whom Rome shuddered, whom France has
^•^* banished, whom Germany will soon hold in abomination,

whom Italy will not endure." From Lombardy also came com-
plaints of the oppressions suffered by the smaller cities from
their powerful neighbor Milan. Hastening over the Alps in
1154, Frederick taught the Italians, by the destruction of
Tortona, one of Milan's allies, that the Emperor was still to
be feared. At Pavia he assumed the iron crown of Italy, and
soon after received the imperial crown at Rome from Pope
Adrian IV., the only Englishman who ever filled the papal
office. Rome was reduced to order, and Arnold of Brescia, who
was handed over to the prefect of the city by Frederick, was
hauged and his body burned.

Soon after Frederick's return from Italy, a quarrel broke
out, which shows the difficulty of long preserving harmonious
relations between papacy and empire. A legate of Adrian IV.
delivered a letter to Frederick in which mention was made of
the "benefits" (beneficia) conferred upon the Emperor by the
Pope. When objection was made to the letter on the ground
that the language used might bear the sense of a feudal
" benefice " granted by a lord to a vassal, the legate added
fuel to the fire by asking, " Of whom, then, does he hold the

THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 153

empire but of our lord the Pope ? " In a written declaration

Frederick replied that "the empire is held by us, through the

election of the princes, from God alone. . . . Whoso- Matthews,

ever says that we received the imperial crown from the Medissval

•^ ^ Documents,

lord Pope as a benefice, goes against the divine com- 83

mandment and the teaching of Peter, and is guilty of false-
hood." Subsequently the Pope explained that the word hene-
Jicia in his letter meant benefits and not fiefs ; but the distrust
aroused could not be allayed.

From 1158 to 1162 Frederick was again in Italy, called
thither by the ambitions of the Milanese. After a brief resist-
ance, their city submitted. A great "diet," or meeting 121. Second
of imperial vassals and communes, was held in the plain Italian ex-
of Roncaglia; and in order that the Emperor's preroga- Frederick I.
tives might be known for the future, all holders of rights (1158-1162)
of government and the like were required to show by what
warrant they exercised them. With respect to the -Lombard
cities, it was announced that the Emperor's control was no
longer to be merely nominal, but that their magistrates would
be appointed by him with the assent of the people.

Opposition to the execution of these decrees soon manifested
itself. At Milan the attempt to set up a foreign magistrate in
place of the elective consuls led to a new revolt, in which the
citizens with heroic courage held out for three years. When at
last famine forced them to yield, Frederick, "hardening his
face like a rock," decreed the destruction of their city : the
loudest complaints against Milan had come from its Italian
enemies, and it was their hands which carried out the decree.

The successes of the Emperor in Lombardy aroused appre-
hensions at Rome. When Adrian IV. died, a majority 122. Pa-
of the cardinals chose as Pope, under the name of Alex- pacy and
ander III. (1159-1181), that legate whose bold language League

had called forth Frederick's declaration concerning the (1159-1174)
imperial office; in ability and lofty ambition he proved a

154

AGE OF THE CRUSADES

worthy successor of the great Hildebrand. The minority of
the cardinals elected an anti-pope favorable to the imperial
cause. To the demand that the disputed election should be
referred to a council of the whole church, Alexander replied,
" No one has the right to judge me, since I am the supreme

The Lombard League (1167) and the Tuscan League (1196).

judge of all the world." Frederick supported his anti-pope,
and in 1165 swore never to acknowledge Alexander III. or any
Pope elected by his party ; but by France, England, and the
rest of Western Christendom Alexander was recognized.

After four years of exile in France, Alexander returned to
Rome, in 11G5, only to be driven forth two years later by a

THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190)

155

force which Frederick led over the Alps. The Lombard com-
munes then united in a league against the Emperor; and the
very cities which had demanded the destruction of Milan now
lent aid to rebuild and refortify it. Within a few months the
chief towns of the plain of the Po, from Milan to Venice, from
Bergamo to Bologna, were formed into a confederation pledged
to mutual assistance. Alexander sent his blessing to the con-
federates, and they in turn supported his cause ; and a new city,
founded to guard the descent into Italy by the western passes,
was named Alessandria in his honor. Out of hatred to Ger-
many, Italy seemed about to arrive at a consciousness of
national unity.

For six years Italy enjoyed practical independence. In
Germany, Frederick found increasing difficulty in keeping the

clergy true to his 123. Defeat
anti-pope; while ,^'^l^^'^_
the growing power nano (1176)
of Henry the Lion in the
north threatened trouble.
Not until 1174 was the
Emperor able to lead
another expedition into
Italy. In 1176 came the
decisive battle, when the
imperial army, number-
ing six thousand, encoun-
tered the eight thousand
troops of the Lombard
League at Legnano, not
far from Milan. At first
the mail-clad German horsemen carried all before them; but
the guard about the Milanese carroccio, a war chariot bearing an
altar and the banners of the confederated towns, fought des-
perately, and the Emperor himself was at length unhorsed,

Mail-clad German Horseman.
From a 12th century MS.

156 . AGE OF THE CRUSADES

The imperial forces fled, and it was only with difficulty and
almost unattended that Frederick reached Pavia. "Glorious
has been our triumph," wrote the Milanese to Bologna, " infi-
nite the number of the killed among the enemy, the drowned,
the prisoners. We have in our hands the shield, the banner,
cross, and lance of the Emperor, and we found silver and gold
in his coffers, and booty of inestimable value 5 but we do not
consider these things ours, but the common property of the
Pope and the Italians."

Frederick was now forced to make peace with the Pope, with
the communes, and with the Norman king, who had supported

124 T t- *^^^^ cause. At Venice, in 1177, he acknowledged Alex-
ies of ander as Pope, and prostrated himself at his feet ; it was
(1177) and 3^^^ ^^® hundred years since Henry IV. humbled him-
Constance self before Gregory VII. at Canossa. The final peace with

the communes was not concluded until 1183, at Constance,
when their rights to elect their own officers, to build fortifica-
tions, to enter into leagues, to raise troops, and to coin money
were clearly recognized. Thenceforth the cities of Lombardy
were practically self-governing republics, the barest overlord-
ship remaining to the Emperor. Under these new conditions
their commerce flourished more and more ; but their political
life, under the overstimulus of freedom, broke out incessantly
into quarrels and riots. In many respects the mediaeval com-
munes fell short of our ideas of orderly liberty and political
justice ; but it was amid the busy, turbulent life within their
walls that the Renaissance spirit was developed.

While Frederick was pursuing the shadow of power in Italy,
Henry the Lion was seizing its substance in Germany. After

125 F 11 f ^^^ restoration to the duchies of Bavaria and Saxony, his
the house of calculating leadership raised the power of his family to a

^ ^ yet higher point by conquering the Slavic lands between
the Elbe and the Oder. Ltibeck, the first German town to
arise on the Baltic Sea, and Munich, the present capital of

THE IIOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190) 157

Bavaria, owe their existence largely to him. The Emperor long
pursued a conciliatory policy toward his formidable rival, and
assisted him when his Saxon vassals rebelled ; but the refusal
of Henry to aid the Emperor in Italy caused Frederick to
abandon his policy of conciliation. Henry was cited to appear
at different diets to answer charges preferred by nobles and
clergy under him ; and after his fourth citation and failure to
appear, he was condemned by default, and sentenced to banish-
ment and the forfeiture of his lands. The support given the
Emperor by the lesser nobles made the execution of this sen-
tence easy, and for some years Henry the Lion was forced to
live in exile in Normandy and England. Ultimately he regained
his allodial estates (§ 33), and these became the nucleus of the
later duchy of Brunswick and electorate of Hanover, from
which Great Britain in 1714 derived its present line of kings.

The vacant Saxon duchy (shorn of its western half) was
given to a member of the Ascanian house, and the name
" Saxony " shifted somewhat to the south and east of its old
location. Bavaria was bestowed on Otto of Wittelsbach,* in
whose house it still remains; but it, too, was weakened by the
separation of important districts. These changes marked the
end of the " stem-duchy '^ system of territorial organization, and
the beginning of that policy of division and subdivision which
by the end of the Middle Ages made Germany a chaos of
petty principalities and lordships. Actually the benefit of
the downfall of Henry the Lion went to the local nobility who
supplied the force by which it was carried out.

Frederick's reign constitutes one of the most brilliant epochs
in the history of mediaeval Germany. The rural districts ad-
vanced in prosperity; forests were cleared, land increased 126. Ger-

in value, and aerriculture was improved. The condition ™^^ cities

and civiliza-
of the peasants, both serfs and free tenants, was materi- tion

ally bettered. The turbulent life of the nobles was somewhat

softened and refined, as a result of the intimate connections

158 AGE O^ THE CRUSADES

with Italy and Burgundy, and of the Crusades. A courtly
German literature was born in the chivalric lays of the
*' Minnesingers," at the same time that the old heroic songs of
the people were consolidated into the great German epic styled
the Niehelungenlied.

A stimulus was also given at this time to the growth of city
life in Germany. At the beginning oi, the tenth century there
was little German commerce ; but gradually fairs and markets
were founded at favored places, trade arose, and centers of
population sprang up, especially in the Khine and Danube
valleys. Thus localities formerly inhabited only by peasants
were transformed into towns, with walls and ramparts, weekly
markets, guilds and other associations, and some rights and
privileges against their feudal lords. The continued struggle
of lay and ecclesiastical powers, together with the Crusades,
helped on their development. Strassburg, on the middle Rhine,
whose original constitution is considered to be the earliest
municipal code of Germany, may be taken as a type of the
most important German tow^ns of the twelfth century. The
population was probably less than ten thousand. The houses
were of timber, with thatched roofs, and without chimneys,
which were rare as yet even in castles. Here and there
churches were interspersed, but no mighty cathedral domi-
nated the landscape. The whole of this " water-bound plexus
of walls, moats, houses, streets, gardens, and plowed fields "
was under the feudal rule of the bishop, to whom the citizens
owed many services and dues. Under Frederick Barbarossa
the towns grew in population, wealth, privileges, and power;
but the time was not yet come when they, like the cities of
Italy, should be practically self-governing republics.
The last years of Frederick's reign were taken up with new
127. Last Italian plans, with renewed quarrels with the papacy, and
Frederick I. "^^^^ ^he Third Crusade. Constance, the heiress of the
(1184-1190) iSTorman kingdom of Sicily and Naples, was married to

THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1125-1190)

159

Frederick's son and successor, Henry VI. This aroused the
fierce hostility of the papacy, for the union of southern Italy
with Germany threatened the independence of the Papal
States. The final conflict to which this led was deferred
till the reign of Frederick's grandson ; but even at this time
the relations of Pope
and Emperor were
strained almost to
breaking. The fall of
Jerusalem before the
attacks of Saladin, in
1187, was the chief
factor in preventing
an open rupture. For
the second time Fred-
erick took the cross
and departed for the
East, where he died,
as has already been
related (§ 104). Later
ages, looking back to
the splendors of his
reign, feigned to be-
lieve that he was not
dead, and applied to
him the legend of another Frederick, now identified as a count
of Thuringia: the vanished ruler, it was said, was sleeping
through the ages in a rocky cavern of a German mountain;
when the ravens ceased to fly about its summit, he would
awaken and would then return to chastise evil doers and bring
back the golden age.

Chateau of Frederick Barbarossa at
Kaisbrswerth.

A restoration.

Under Frederick Barbarossa, the second of the Hohenstau-
fen line, the mediaeval empire attained its greatest glory. In

160

AGE OF THE CRUSADES

Germany the monarchy triumphed over the house of Welf
and divided its feudal territories among the lesser nobles. In
128 Sum- Italy the imperial control was for a time successfully
^is-T asserted ; but the strength of the confederated Lombard

towns, and the hostility of the Popes, at length obliged the
Emperor to renounce his rights. A marriage with the heiress
of Sicily and Naples sowed the seeds of a new quarrel between
papacy and empire. Frederick's reign closed with the Third
Crusade, in which the Emperor lost his life. Other features of
the period are the development of the civil and canon law, the
growth of Italian and German towns, the continued expansion
of Germany to the northeast, and the progress of German
civilization.

TOPICS

Suggestive
topics

Search
topics

(1) On what historical grounds might the Pope claim that tlie
Emperor was his vassal for the imperial crown ? (2) Why should
the Popes oppose the development of a strong kingdom in southern
Italy ? (.3) Was a Ghibelline or Guelf policy best for Germany ?
For Italy ? (4) Which was of more importance, the imperial
attempts to control Italy or the quiet expansion of Germany to
the northeast ? (5) Compare the Italian communes with the New
England towns. What powers did the former exercise that the
latter lack ? (6) How did the study of Roman law aid monarchi-
cal growth? Was this to be desired? (7) Had Frederick I. or
the Italian communes the more right in their struggle ?

(8) The Italian communes. (0) Revival of the Roman law.
(10) The canon law. (11) Arnold of Brescia. (12) Pope Alex-
ander III. (13) Henry the Lion. (14) Rise of the German cities.
(15) The Mebeliingenlied. (16) The Minnesingers. (17) Person-
ality of Frederick Barbarossa. (18) Home of the Hohenstaufen
in Germany. (19) Reasons for the greatness of Milan.

Geogrraphy

Secondary
authorities

REFERENCES

Maps, pp. 64, 154 ; Putzger, Atlas, map 17 ; Freeman, Historical
Geography, I. ch. viii. ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xxxv. Ixv. ;
Dow, Atlas, xiii.

Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 247-257 ; B^mont
and Monod, Medieval Europe, civ. xix. ; Henderson, Short History

THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMFIKE (1125-1190) 161

of Qermany^ I. 76-90 ; Bryce, Holy Boman Empire^ ch. xi. ; Em-
erton, Mediceval Europe, ch. ix. ; Tout, Empire and Papacy, 217-
245 ; Stills, Studies in Medieval History, 314-323 ; Henderson,
Germany in the Middle Ages, chs. xv.-xviii. ; Thatcher and Schwill,
Europe in the Middle Age, ch. xvii. ; Fisher, Medieval Europe^
I. 325-332 ; Balzani, Popes and the Hohenstaufen, 1-111 ; May,
Democracy in Europe, I. 288-315 ; Milman, History of Latin
Christianity, TV. 26G-286, 427-447 ; Testa, The War of Frederick L
against the Communes of Italy ; Alzog, Church History, 11. 547-
563; Historians' History of the World, XIV. 89-109.

Ogg, Source Book, 398-402; Robinson, Readings, I. 302-306; Sources
Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, nos. 98-110, 301-314 ; Hen-
derson, Documents of the Middle Ages, 211-219, 336-337, 410-418,
420-425.

E. Cornelia Knight, Sir Guy de Lusignan ; C. T. Brady, Hohen- Illustrative
zollern. ^°'^«

A Medleval Fair. (Depicted by Parmentier.)

CHAPTEE X.

END OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1190-1268)

Henry VI., son of Frederick I., proved as ambitious and ener-
getic as his father. He secured possession of his wife's Italian

inheritance and united it to Germany. A rising of the

129. Henry "^ *

VI. (1190- Welf faction was overcome, largely through the fortunate

^ accident which put into his power Richard I. of England,

the ally of the Welfs (§ 105). He proposed to the German
princes that they should declare the throne hereditary, in
return for concessions to them, and almost gained their con-
sent. Finally he planned a crusade which was expected to
put the whole Latin East under his control, and make him
overlord of the Greek Empire. Had he lived, he might for
a time have established a world monarchy which would have
realized the dreams of the Middle Ages ; but he died of fever
in 1197, on the eve of his departure for the East, leaving as
heir a son (Frederick of Sicily) oidy three years of age.

All Germany, after Henry's death, " was like a sea lashed
by every wind." The partisans of the Hohenstaufen chose
Henry's brother, Philip of Swabia, as king; but the opposing
party selected Otto IV. of Brunswick, a son of Henry the Lion.
Ten years of civil warfare followed, in which the advantage
rested now with one party, now with the other.

During the division within the empire the papacy grew in
power. Innocent III. (1198-1216) was in many respects the

130. Inno- ablest and most powerful Pope of the Middle Ages. He
the^miiS-e^ firmly established the Papal States in Italy ; and had as
(1198-1216) vassal kingdoms under him Sicily and Naples, Sweden,

Denmark, Portugal, Aragon, and Poland. Even the king of

162

END OF THE HOIIENSTAUFEN EMPIRE (1190-1268) 163

England (John) Avas forced to surrender his kingdom into the
hands, of the Pope's legate, and receive it back as a fief of
the papacy (§ 166). The papal suzerainty over the empire,
which Frederick Barbarossa so vigorously denied, was again
asserted, and Innocent claimed the right to decide the dispute
which had arisen over the last imperial election. His decision
was that Philip was unworthy as "an obstinate perse- Milman,
cutor of the church, and the representative of a hostile f:^^^!J CVuw-
house " ; while Otto, though chosen by a minority, was 510-514

"himself devoted to the church, of a race devoted to the church
. . . : him, therefore, we proclaim, acknowledge as king ; him
then we summon to take on himself the imperial crown."
Otto, in return, confirmed in their widest extent the posses-
sions and privileges claimed by the Roman Church.

After Philip's murder by a private enemy (1208), Otto was
for a time universally recognized, and was crowned Emperor.
Soon he laid claim to unwarranted rights in Italy, and defied
the Pope's excommunication. In Germany a diet of princes
declared him deposed; and at their invitation, and with the
aid of Innocent III., Frederick of Sicily (son of Henry VI.),
now seventeen years old, crossed the Alps to claina the German
throne as Frederick II. About him gathered all the old parti-
sans of the house of Hohenstaufen, and with them acted Philip
Augustus of France, who had his own interests to further.
Otto similarly was supported with men and money from his
uncle, John of England. The decisive battle took place at
Bouvines, in northern France, in July, 1214. The issue in-
volved not merely the possession of the imperial crown, but
the French occupation of Normandy and other English fiefs in
France, and the cause of English liberty against the tyranny
of King John (§ 166) ; thus the day of Bouvines has well been
called "the greatest single day in the history of the Middle
Ages." It ended in victory for France and the partisans of
Frederick II., to whom passed the German and imperial crowns.
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 10

164 AGE OF THE CRUSADES

Frederick II. was already beginning to sliow the qualities
which won for him the name "the wonder of the world."

131. Acces- From contact with his Greek and Saracen subjects in
^^^^ifrf^^*^" Sicily he gained a culture unknown in the North; but
(1214) he also developed a toleration, if not indifference, in

religion, and a looseness of personal morality, which gave his
enemies openings for attack. He Avas an impassioned poet, a
profound lawgiver, and a subtle politician ; the spirit which he
displayed indeed was more modern than mediseval.

Frederick was reared as a ward of Innocent III., to whom he
had been committed by his mother Constance ; but the intimate
relations thus established did not prevent a desperate strug-
gle between papacy and empire. Before his coronation by the
Pope in 1220, he solemnly swore to abolish all laws prejudicial
to the liberties of the church, to cede Sicily to his son Henry
to be held as a fief of the Holy See and not of the empire, to
restore to the papacy the inheritance of the Countess Matilda,
and to undertake a new crusade. These promises were broken
almost as soon as made.

For a time Frederick could urge the pressure of German
and Italian affairs as excuse for delaying his crusade. In

132. Fred- 1227 he assembled an army and embarked, but turned

erick II. back because (as he alles^ed) of a pestilence which broke

and the ^ & / r

papacy out on shipboard. Pope Gregory IX. refused to listen to

(,1225-1239) ]^jg excuses, and excommunicated him. In June of the
next year, Frederick again set sail, without receiving the papal
absolution, and reached the Holy Land; but there the Pope
put every obstacle in his way, on the ground that he was an
excommunicated person.

Taking advantage of a civil war which broke out among
the successors of Saladin, Frederick negotiated a treaty which
secured to the Christians a truce for ten years with the pos-
session of Jerusalem. This politic move, though bitterly
denounced by the partisans of the Pope, secured greater advan-

END OF THE H0HEN8TAUFEN EMPIRE (1190-1268) 165

tages than had been won by forty years of blind, unreasoning
warfare. But when Frederick, still excommunicated, placed
the crown of Jerusalem upon his head, the patriarch of
Jerusalem issued an interdict forbidding all religious services
in the holy places. After his return to Italy Frederick made
peace with the Pope (1230); but in 1239 the struggle was
renewed and was again extended to the Holy Land ; and the
hostility between the papal party and Frederick's agents was
partly responsible for the final loss of Jerusalem in 1244 (§ 110).

The interval between 1230 and 1239 was used by Freder-
ick II. to carry through a remarkable series of reforms which
made Sicily for a time the strongest and best governed 133. policy
kingdom in Europe. In judicial matters the king's ^^.'^tt'
courts were put above the feudal and ecclesiastical tribu- (1230-1240)
nals. The nobles and clergy, along with the townsmen, were
subjected to taxation. Unauthorized castles, the right of
private warfare, trials by ordeal, and serfdom on the royal
domains were abolished. Education was fostered by establish-
ing the University of Naples, and favor was shown to trade
and industry. Of these measures an English historian Milman,
says, "The world had seen no court so splendid, no Latin Chns-
system of laws so majestically equitable ; a new order 398

of things appeared to be arising, an epoch to be commencing
in human civilization."

For some years the crusade and these reforms kept Frederick
south of the Alps, while his eldest son Henry, who in 1220 had
been elected "king of the Romans" (i.e. German king elect),
ruled Germany in his father's name. In 1234 the young king
rebelled against his father, and Frederick went to Germany,
where the rising was easily put down; thenceforth Henry's
younger brother Conrad takes his place in the succession.

Frederick's attention throughout his reign was given more
to his Italian possessions than to the North, and the policy
which he pursued in Germany was directly opposed to that

166 AGE OF THE CRUSADES

embodied in his Sicilian reforms. In Germany, as a result

of necessity, he "threw to the winds every national and

monarchical tradition," and granted privileges to the nobles

and great churchmen by which they became truly "lords"

of their lands, possessed of all rights and jurisdictions. On

the other hand, Frederick gave large privileges to the towns,

seeking in them a support against the papacy and rebellious

nobles. The net result of his policy was the enfeeblement of

all central authority : Germany more and more ceased to be a

state, such as England and France were becoming, and grew

into a confederation of sovereign principalities.

Frederick's Sicilian reforms made him, in the eyes of the

Pope, an oppressor of the clergy ; his immoral private life

increased the friction with the church; the toleration
134. Re- . .

newed Avhich he showed his Mohammedan subjects, and his

struggle ^^gg q£ them as troops in his wars, caused him to be
with the ....

papacy suspected as a heretic ; and his retention of Sicily and

(1239-1245) ]v^j^pigs^ along with Germany and northern Italy, enabled
him to hem in the Papal States both on the north and on the
south. These causes for conflict led in 1239 to an open rupture
with the Pope; and there began the last stage of the fatal
struggle of papacy and empire, which brought political ruin
to both powers. Gregory IX. renewed his excommunication,
and absolved Frederick's subjects from their allegiance. Both
Pope and Emperor appealed to Europe in letters of impas-
sioned denunciation. Gregory called a church council to be
held at Rome, but Frederick prevented its assembling by
capturing the fleet carrying most of its members. Gregory
died in 1241, and two years later one of Frederick's friends
(Innocent IV.) was elected Pope. On heariiig the news the
Emperor is said to have exclaimed, "I have lost a good friend,
for no P()])e can be a Gliibelline." Innocent vigorously con-
tinued the policy of his predecessor. At this time came
a horde of Mongols from Asia, who overran Poland and

END OF THE HOHENSTAUFEN ExMPITlE (1190-1208) 167

Hungary, threatened Germany, and established a power in
Russia (1240) which lasted for two hundred and forty years.
In 1244 came the final downfall of the kingdom of JerusaleJii.
In spite of these disasters to Christendom, the struggle be-
tween papacy and empire continued as fiercely as ever. At a
chnrch council held at Lyons in 1245, Frederick was pro-
nounced guilty of perjury, heresy, and sacrilege ; he was de-
clared deposed, and war against the Hohenstaufen was turned
into a crusade, with the same spiritual rewards as for warring
against the Saracens.

In Germany, Frederick's enemies stirred up a revolt, and
elected an anti-king, but his son Conrad managed to hold many
of the nobles and most of the cities true to their al- 135, Defeat

lesriance. In Italy, Frederick maintained himself with ^^^ death
^ *^ ' of Fred-

success, though Guelfs and Ghibellines fought each erick II.

other with furious hate on every hand. But after a time (1241-1250)

misfortunes came upon him. His camp was captured ; then

his favorite son Enzio was taken captive and imprisoned.

Frederick's cause was even yet far from hopeless when, in

December, 1250, he was attacked by a disease from which,

after a short illness, he died. An English writer of that time

called him " the greatest prince of the world" ; but his powers

were lost on an age not ripe for them.

After Frederick's death his reforms were overthrown, and

his empire crumbled away in the hands of his successors. His

son Conrad IV. (1250-1254) was obliged to abandon Ger- 136. Fall of

many to secure his inheritance in Italy; and for twenty *^6^o^6^-

years Germany was given up to the anarchy of the (1250-1268)

Great Interregnum, during which robber barons ruled by " the

law of the fist," and no king was universally recognized.

In Italy, Conrad maintained himself until his death in 1254.

A half-brother, Manfred, then continued the struggle until he

fell in battle at Benevento in 1266. There still remained Con-

radin (" Little Conrad"), the fifteen-year-old son of Conrad IV.,

168

AGK OF THE CRUSADES

cimenzY' Qii"

about whom centered the last desperate resistance of the
Hohenstaufen party. To secure aid in the struggle, the Pope

offered the kingdom
of Sicily to an Eng-
lish prince; then, in
1265, he concluded
a treaty by which
Charles of Anjou,
brother of the French
king, was to have
the Sicilian crown.
In 1268, Charles met
and defeated the lit-
tle army which Con-
radin brought into
Italy ; and when the
young king fell into
the hands of his en-
emy, he was cruelly
beheaded. In his per-
son perished the last
member of the im-
perial house of Ho-
henstaufen.

" From whatever point we may view it," says a French

historian, "the death of Frederick II. and the fall of the

Lavisse and house of Ilohenstaufen mark the end of one epoch and

Ramhaud, j^\^q beginning of another. The Middle Age proper, in

Generate, the form which it had worn since the days of Charle-

//. 231 magne, was now at an end. This is as true in the history

of thought and the arts as it is in political history. In the

course of the long struggle between church and empire, a

new society had been formed, with different features and a

spirit that was wanting to the old. From Charlemagne to

ots^siffEMmtiaec.

Charles of Anjou invested with the Crown
OF THE Two Sicilies by a Bull given by
the Pope (Clement IV.).

Fresco pictured in VioUet-le-Duc.

END OF THE HOHENSTAUEEN EMPIRE (1190-1268) 169

Frederick II. the papaxjy and the empire occupy the first place
in the history of the time ; but now the papacy had crushed
the empire/' The old ideal of two powers divinely commis-
sioned to rule the world in conjunction — the ideal expressed
in the figures of the " two swords," and of the " two lights/'
— the sun and the moon — was now abandoned. The papacy
itself for a time sought to be the supreme head in temporal
affairs as well as in spiritual, and thi's ideal conception was
soon embodied in the person of a Pope (Boniface VIII.) who
arrayed himself in the papal tiara and the imperial robe, ^^^^^ jj^iy
and exclaimed, " I am Caesar — I am Emperor ! " But, Roman Em-
though the empire had fallen, the national monarchies ^*^*'
of Europe were just arising ; and with Philip IV. of France, the
head of the most formidable of these, the papacy soon came
into disastrous collision.

mary

The brilliancy of the Hohenstaufen Empire was continued
in the short reign of Henry VI. (1190-1197); then followed
a struggle for the crown, which ended in the triumph of 137^ gum.
his son Frederick II. (1214-1250). The first sixteen years
of his reign saw a new contest with the papacy, which centered
in Frederick's crusade. Following this came, in Sicily and
Naples, a series of important reforms which strengthened the
royal power, while in Germany concessions were made to the
princes which materially increased their power and weakened
the crown. The last ten years of the reign were occupied
with a new struggle with the papacy. After Frederick's death
the Pope refused to recognize any of the Hohenstaufen house,
and the struggle was continued by Conrad IV., Manfred, and
finally by Conradin. The aid of a French prince, Charles of
Anjou, enabled the Pope to overthrow the last of the Hohen-
staufen family. Charles of Anjou secured the kingdom of
Sicily and Naples ; but Germany, during the Great Interreg-
num (1254-1273), was practically without a king. The papacy

170

AGE OF THE CKUSADES

was left victorious over the empire, which never recovered
the importance it had possessed under the Hohenstaufen rule.

Suggestive
topics

Search
topics

TOPICS

(1) Compare the papal power under Innocent III. with that
under Gregory VII. (2) Why should Frederick's treaty with the
Moliamiiiedans in the Holy Land of itself arouse opposition ?

(8) How do his measures in Sicily show him to have been ahead
of his time ? (4) Was the enfeeblement of the central authority
in Germany good or bad for that land ? (5) Why was the opposi-
tion of the Popes to Frederick II. greater than to Frederick I. ?
(6) Was the continuance of the papal warfare against Frederick's
descendants after his death warranted? (7) State in your own
language the significance of the overthrow of the Hohenstaufen.

(8) Treatment of Richard I. of England by Henry VI.

(9) Character and aims of Innocent III. (10) Character of
Frederick II. (11) Crusade of Frederick II. (12) Reforms of
Frederick II. in Sicily. (13) Development of Germany in his
reign. (14) Account of a battle in the time of Frederick II.
(15) Frederick's use of Saracen mercenaries.

Geography

Secondary
authorities

Sources

Illustrative
works

REFERENCES

Maps, pp. 64, 112 ; Freeman, Historical Geography, I. oh. viii. ;
Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xxxv. Ixvi. ; Dow, Atlas, xiii.

Emerton, Mediceval Europe, ch. x. ; Henderson, Short History
of Germany, I. 90-101 ; B^mont and Monod, Medieval Europe,
ch. XX. ; Tout, Empire and Papacy, 305-335, 358-393, 478-492 ;
Duruy, History of the Middle Ages, 252-259 ; Henderson, Germany
in the 31iddle Ages, chs. xix.-xxvi. ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe
in the Middle Age, ch. xiii. ; Balzani, Popes and the Hohenstaufen,
113-256 ; Alzog, Church History, II. §§ 220-222 ; Freeman, His-
torical Essays, First Series, 283-313 ; Milman, History of Latin
Christianity, bk. ix. chs. i.-iii., bk. x. chs. i. iii.-v. ; Historians^
History of the World, IX. 85-98, XIV. 110-131.

Ogg, Source Book, 402-408 ; Thatcher and McNeal, Source
Book, nos. 130-145 ; Henderson, Documents, 337-344 ; University
of Pennsylvania, Translations and Beprints, IV. No. 4, III. No. 6.

Robert Barr, The Countess Tekla, — The Strong Arm ; F. von
Har(len})prG:, Henry of Ofterdingen ; G. I*. H. Adams. The Castle
of I'JJiroistt'iti ; Vj. L. Hamilton, 77ie Lord of the Dark Bed
Star.

CHAPTEE XL
LIFE IN THE MEDIAEVAL CASTLE, VILLAGE, AND TOWN

In the Middle Ages almost every defensible hilltop and river
island was occupied by the frowning castle of some feudal
lord. At first the castle was a mere inclosure defended - „g „,
by ditch and palisade, with a sort of wooden blockhouse feudal

on a natural or artificial mound at the center, reached by °^° ®

a wooden bridge over a second ditch or moat. The ease with
which such defenses could be destroyed by fire led, in the
eleventh century, to the building of castles of stone ; and the
engineering skill of the Normans, together with the experience
gained in the Crusades, made these structures intricate and
complex. The chateau of Arques, built in Normandy, about
1040, by the uncle of William the Conqueror, is a type of the
early stone castle. It was built upon a hilltop ; was defended
by a palisade, ditch, and two drawbridges with outer works ;
and was surrounded by a thick " bailey " wall, with battle-
ments, strengthened by strong towers placed at intervals.
Entrance was gained through a narrow vaulted gateway, placed
between two towers and defended by doors and " portcullises,"
or iron gratings descending from above. The inclosure was
divided into an " outer ward " and an " inner ward " ; it con-
tained separate buildings for stables, kitchen, and the like, and
was large enough to shelter the surrounding population in time
of war. At the extremity of the inner ward stood the " don-
jon," or " keep," the most important part of every castle.

The donjon was often the residence of the feudal lord,
though its gloom and cold usually led to the erection of a
separate "hall" within the inclosure for residence in time of

171

172

AGE OF THE CRUSADES

peace. The donjon of Arques was a triumph of complicated
defenses, consisting of enormous walls eight to ten feet thick,
with winding passageways and stairs concealed in them, and

cunningly devised pit-
falls to trap the unwary.
Here the last defense
was made ; and in case
of defeat the position of
the keep at one end
of the inclosure aided
escape through a pos-
tern gate directly op-
posite the entrance.

Of more elaborate
type than the chateau
of Arques was the Cha-
teau Gaillard (Saucy
Castle), erected on the
borders of Normandy
by Eichard the Lion-
Hearted as a defense
against Philip Augus-
tus of France (p. 173).
Hurling engines,
movable towers, and
battering rams were of
little avail against such
formidable castles, and until the introductiou of gunpowder
they were usually taken only by treachery, surprise, starvation,
or undermining the walls. As the power of the kings in-
creased, especially in France and England, the right of the
nobles to erect castles was rigidly restricted ; luxury, too, came
in, and gradually the castle lost its character of a fortress and
became merely a lordly dwelling place.

Chateau of Arques.
Restoration of Viollet-le-Duc.

LIFE IN THE MEDIAEVAL CASTLE

173

The training of the feudal noble, like his habitation, was all
for war; but the church gave to it a religious consecration,
and Chivalry, or the ideals and usages of knighthood, was 139,
the result. In his earlier years the young noble was left
to the care of his mother ; at about the age of seven he was sent to
the castle of his father's
lord, or to that of some
famous knight, and his
training for knighthood
began. With other lads
he served his lord and
mistress as page, waited
at table, and attended
them when they rode
forth to the chase ; from
them he learned lessons
of honor and bravery, of
love and courtesy; above
all he learned how to
ride and handle a horse.
When he was a well-
grown lad of fourteen
or fifteen, he became
squire. He now looked
after the grooming and
shoeing of his lord's
horses, and saw that his
lord's arms were kept
bright and free from rust. In war the squire accompanied the
lord, carried his shield and lance, assisted in arming him for the
battle, and stayed watchfully at hand to aid him in case of need.

When he reached the age of twenty or twenty-one, and had
proved his courage and military skill, the squire was made a
knight. The ceremony was often quite elaborate. First came

Chiv-
alry

Chateau Gaillard.
Restoration of Viollet-le-Duc.

174 AGE OF THE CRUSADES

a bath — tlic mark of purification. Then the candidate put on
garments of red, white, and black — red for the blood he must
slied in (l<;fense of the church, white to image the purity of his
mind, and black as a reminder of death. All night before the
altar of the church he watched his arms, with fasting and
prayer ; with the morning came confession, the holy mass, and
a sermon on the proud duties of a knight. The actual knight-
ing usually took place in the courtyard of the castle, in the
presence of a numerous company of knights and ladies. The
armor and sword were fastened on by friends and relatives ;
and the lord gave the " accolade " with a blow of his fist upon
the young man's neck, or by touching him with the flat of
his sword on the shoulder, saying : " In the name of God, and
Saint Michael, -and Saint George, I dub thee knight! Be
brave and loyal ! " Then followed exhibitions of skill by the
new-made knight, feasting, and presents. The details of the
ceremony varied in different times and places. It must also be
said that, in practice, chivalry was too often only a " picturesque
mimicry of high sentiment, of heroism, of love and courtesy,
Green Short before which all depth and reality of nobleness dis-
History of appeared to make room for the coarsest profligacy, the
People'! ''^ narrowest caste spirit, and a brutal indifference to
ch. iv. § 3 human suffering.^'

The thick walls and narrow windows of the feudal castle

made its apartments cold and dark in winter and close in

140 "D '1 y^^iiiii^er, and life was spent as much as possible in the

life of the open air. War, tournaments, and the chase were the

^ ®^ chief outdoor amusements. Falconry — the flying of

trained hawks at small game — became a complicated science,

with many technical terms, and was practiced with zest by ladies

and lords alike ; but the chase, with hounds, of deer, wild boars,

and bears, was the more exciting sport. Within doors the

chief amusements were chess, checkers, and backgammon.

The great hall, whether within the donjon or in a separate

LIFE IN THE MEDIEVAL CASTLE 176

building, was the center of this life. About the great fire-
place, master, mistress, children, and dependents gathered to
play games, listen to tales of travel and adventure from chance
visitors, and carry on household occupations. While the boys
were trained to be knights, the girls learned to spin, sew, and
embroider, to care for wounds, and to direct a household ; like
their brothers, they were often sent away from home for a time,
and as maids of honor to some noble lady received the finish-
ing touches of their education.

The furniture of the castles was substantial but scanty.
Embroidered tapestries hung amid the weapons on the walls,
and skins were placed underfoot for the sake of warmth.
Chairs and benches, tables, chests, and wardrobes stood
about the hall, and perhaps also the great corded bedstead
of the master and mistress, with its canopy, curtains, and
feather bed; but often these occupied a separate chamber.
The men servants and attendants slept on the floor of the great
hall.

The meals were served in the hall, on easily removable
trestle tables, and all except those actively engaged at the
time took their places at the board according to rank. -^^ _, ,
The viands were brought, in covered dishes, across the of the

court from the kitchen, which was a separate building.
Jugs and vessels of curious shapes, often in imitation of
animals, were scattered about the table. Before each person
was placed a knife and spoon, and a drinking cup, often of
wood or horn. Forks were unknown until the end of the
thirteenth century, and food was eaten from a common dish
with the fingers. Before and after each meal, pages brought
basins of water with towels for washing the hands. There
were no napkins ; and pieces of bread, or the tablecloth, were
used for cleansing the fingers during the meal. Dinner, served
at midday, was announced by the blowing of horns ; it was a
long and substantial repast, consisting often of as many as ten

176 AGE OP THE CRUSADES

or twelve courses, mostly meats and game. Dressed deer, pigs,
and other animals were roasted whole on spits before an open
fire. Koast swans, peacocks, and boars' heads are frequently
mentioned in mediaeval writings ; pasties of venison and other
game were common; and on festal occasions live birds were
sometimes placed in a pie to be released " when the pie was
opened," and hunted down with falcons in the hall at the
close of the feast. Wine was drunk in great quantities. Pep-
per, cloves, ginger, and other spices were used by the wealthy
in both food and drink, even the wines being peppered and
honeyed. Coffee, tea, and of course all the native products
of America (tobacco, Indian corn, potatoes, etc.) were unknown.
Costumes varied with time and place, as also did armor (see
§ 39). Long pointed shoes, called pignaces, were invented
142 Cos- ^y ^ count of Anjou to hide the deformity of his feet,
tumeofthe and within a short time the style spread over Europe.
Dress of the Carolingian pattern was used until the
end of the eleventh century, when it was displaced by long
garments imitated from those worn by the Byzantines ; these
were abandoned in the thirteenth century for other fashions.

The secrets of dyeing were long in the hands of the Jews ;
but in the thirteenth century the Italians learned the art,
and the dyers then formed one of the most important guilds
in Florence and other cities. Many dyestuffs were introduced
into the West at the time of the Crusades ; but cochineal, which
gives a brilliant red, was not known until the discovery of Mex-
ico, and the aniline dyes now largely used date from recent
years. It is not too much to say that the most brilliantly
tinted garments of the Middle Ages were poor and dull in hue
compared with those now within reach of the poorest person.
Writers of the Middle Ages said that God had created three
143. Life of classes — priests to pray, knights to defend society, and
the peasants peasants whose duty it was to till the soil and support
by their labor the other classes. The peasants were divided

LIFE IN THE MEDIiF.VAL VILLAGE 177

into serfs and villeins. (1) The serfs were personally unfree,
i.e. they were " bound to the soil," and owed many special obli-
gations to their lord ; but, unlike slaves, they possessed plots
of land which they tilled, and could not be sold off the estate.
(2) The villeins were personally free, and were exempt from
the most grievous burdens of the serf; but they too owed
their lords many menial services and dues for their land, which
took the form of money payments, and gifts of eggs, poultry,
and the young of their flocks. The grinding of the peasants'
meal, baking of their bread, pressing of their wine, oil, and
cider, all had to be done with the lord's mill, oven, and press ;
and for the use of these, heavy fees were charged. The ser-
vices consisted chiefly in cultivating the "demesne," or that
part of the estate which was kept in the lord's own hand, and
from which he drew the profits ; two or three days' work a
week, with extra work at harvest and other times of need, was
the usual amount exacted. In course of time the services were
precisely fixed or commuted for money payments.

The peasants dwelt in villages, often at the foot of the hill
on which stood the lord's manor house or castle. Near by was
the parish church, with an open space in front and a graveyard
attached. The peasants' houses usually consisted of but one
room, and were flimsy structures of wood, or of wattled sticks
plastered with mud, and were thatched with straw. There
were few windows, no floors, and no chimneys ; the door was
often made in two parts so that the upper portion could be
opened to permit the smoke to escape. The cattle were
housed under the same roof with the family. The streets
were unpaved, and were often impassable with filth. About
each house was a small, ill-tended garden.

The lands from which the villagers drew their living lay
about the village in several great unfenced or "open" fields,
normally three. Besides these, there were " common " lands
to which each villager sent a certain number of cattle or sheep

178

AGE OF THE CRUSADES

culture

for pasturage; and the lord's woodland and waste, to which they
went for fuel, and in which they might turn a limited number
of pigs to feed on the mast (acorns and nuts). The rights of
hunting and fishing belonged
to the lord, and were jealously
guarded.

The time not taken up with
labors on the lord's demesne was
used by the peasant in till-
aBval agri- ing his own small holding,
in the open fields about the
village. A full villein holding
usually consisted of about thirty
acres, scattered in long narrow
strips in the different fields, in-
termixed with the holdings of
other tenants. The origin of
this curious arrangement of in-
termixed holdings in open fields
has never been satisfactorily ex-
plained ; but it existed over the
greater part of western Europe,
and lasted far down into modern
times. The different strips were
separated from one another by
" balks " of unplowed turf. The

plows were clumsy wooden affairs, which penetrated little
below the surface. They were drawn by teams of from four
to eight oxen ; but the cattle of the Middle Ages were smaller
than those produced by scientific breeding to-day.

A rude rotation of crops was practiced to avoid exhausting
the soil. All the strips in a given field were planted with
a winter grain (wheat) one year, the next year with a spring
grain (oats), and the third year were plowed and lay fallow ;

Plan of a Village with
Open Fields.

From a plan of the Common Field
of Burton-Agnes, Yorkshire, Eng-
land, in Taylor's Domesday Studies.
The shaded strips, about one tenth
of the whole, were the parson's
share, or glebe.

LIFE IN THE MEDI7I^:VAL VILLAGE 179

thus one third of the land was always resting. Under this
primitive system of agriculture the yield was far less than
now : in England, at the close of the thirteenth century, wheat
yielded as low as six bushels an acre, and nine or ten bushels
was probably a full average crop.

Peasants and Plow.
From a 13tli century manuscript.

Bee keeping was more usual than in modern times, not only
for the honey, which was used instead of sugar for almost all
purposes of sweetening, but also for the wax needed to make
the tall candles in the churches and the seals used on official
documents. Every great estate, or "manor" as it was called
in England, was self-supporting to a surprising extent. Ale
was home-brewed ; wool was spun and cloth woven in the
household; and the village tanner, blacksmith, and carpenter
performed the services beyond the powers of the household
circle. For salt, and the rare articles that the village did not
itself produce, the people of the manor resorted to periodical
markets and fairs in neighboring towns.

The labor of the peasant was incessant, his food, clothing,
and habitation of the rudest and poorest. He was ignorant
and superstitious, and his oppression made him sullen. He
was the butt for the wit of the nobje classes and the courtly
poets, and the name " villain " (villein) has been handed down
by them to us as the synonym for all that is base.
Harding's m. ik m. hist. — 11

180 AGE OF THE CRUSADES

The early history of the towns of Italy and Germany has
already been traced (§§ 117, 126); those of France — which
145. Towns ^^^^J ^® taken as typical of the life of the Middle Ages —
in France arose in similar manner. There, as elsewhere, the
barbarian invasions, together with the rise of feudalism, over-
threw the old Roman municipalities and reduced the popula-
tion to serfdom. In the eleventh century movements began
which restored personal freedom to the populations of the
towns, and gave them more or less of the rights of self-govern-
ment; and in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries charters were
purchased from the feudal lords, or extorted by successful war.
The privileges set forth in these ranged from mere safeguards
against oppression at the hands of the lord's officials, who still
composed the only municipal government, to grants of adminis-
trative and judicial independence with a government chosen by
the citizens.

For example, the charter granted the little town of Lorris,in
central France, was of the former class. It provided (1) that
no townsman should pay more than a small quitrent for
his house and each acre of land, and should pay no toll on
grain and wine of his own production, nor on his purchases at
the Wednesday market ; (2) that he should not be obliged to
go to war for his lord unless he could return the same day ;
(3) that he should not be forced to go outside the town for the
trial of his lawsuits, and that various abuses connected with
the courts should be reformed ; (4) that none should be re-
quired to work for the lord of the town, except to bring wood
to his kitchen, and to take his wine twice a year to Orleans,
and then only those who had horses and carts, and after due
notice ; (5) that no charge should be made for the use of the
oven, nor for watch-rate, nor for the public crier at marriages,
and that the dead wood in the forest might be taken by the
men of Lorris for their own use ; (6) that whoever wished
might sell his property and freely depart, and that any

LIFE IN THE MEDIAEVAL TOWN 181

gtranger who remained a year and a day without being claimed
by his lord, should be free. This cliarter proved so popular
that it was copied, in whole or in part, by eighty -three other
towns ; it was profitable alike to the little towns that received
it, and to the lords who granted it.

Towns which secured the right to elect their officers and
govern themselves are called " communes " ; legally they were
"artificial persons," or corporations, and entered into the
feudal structure both as vassals and as suzerains. They mune gov-
were ruled either by a mayor and echevins (aldermen), or ernments
by a board of " consuls," like the Italian communes, without a
mayor. The outward signs of a commune were the possession
of a corporate seal ; of a belfry, which served as watch
tower, depot of archives, and magazine of arms ; and of stocks
and pillory for the punishment of offenders. Its charter was
usually the culmination of a long series of disagreements,
usurpations, and bloody insurrections ; and frequent payments
to lord and overlord were necessary to preserve its hard-won
liberties.

From the twelfth century on, the towns grew in size and J
importance ; and many enlightened lords (including the king) /
founded " new towns " to enrich their domains, offering reason-
able liberties to attract settlers. These hardy townsmen
formed the chief part of the class called the Third Estate, or
commons, which gradually took its place in the political affairs
of the kingdom alongside the " estates " of the Clergy and the
Nobles. In the rise of the Third Estate lay the seeds of a
whole series of revolutions, which were destined to shake feudal
society from top to bottom, and cause its final destruction.

Mediaeval towns were usually surrounded by walls defended \
by battlements and towers, while outside lay the settlements •'
(called faubourgs) of the unprivileged inhabitants. In ^47 Life in
the belfry, watch was kept day and night : its warning *^® towns
bell announced the approach of enemies ; sounded the alarm

182

AGE OF THE CRUSADES

of fire, the suinmons to court and to council, and the hours for
beginning and quitting work; and rang the ''curfew" (couvre
feu) at night, which was the signal to extinguish lights and cover
fires. The streets were narrow and un paved, and slops were

emptied from second-
story windows —
sometimes even on
the head of royalty
passing by. Exten-
sive gardens belong-
ing to convents and
hospitals caused the
streets to twist and
turn, and presented
rare glimpses of green
amid the wilderness
of pointed roofs.

In the thirteenth
century the wealthier
citizens began to erect
comfortable houses ;
but the ground-floor front was usually taken up by an arched
window-oi)ening in which the merchant displayed his wares,
while in the rear were carritnl on the manufactures of the shop.
The shopkeepers grouped themselves by trades : here was the
street of tanners, there that of the goldsmiths, elsewhere the
drapers, cement makers, parchment makei's, and money
changers. Churches, of wliich great nmubers were built in
the thirteenth centiiry, rose a])ove tlie sliops and houses, which
l^ressed up to their very walls; in towns wliich were the
seats of bisho})S, giant cathedrals of Gotliic architecture
towered above everything else. The business quarters, with
their open booths and stalls placed in the streets, resembled
bazaars, through which pedestrians could with difficulty

Built from 12i)l to al)Out loSH);

-.2 feet hio-l

LIFE IN THE MEDIAEVAL TOWN 183

thread their way ; horses and carts were obliged to seek less
crowded thoroughfares. At iiiealtinie, business ceased, and
booths were closed ; when curfew sounded, the streets became
silent and deserted — save for the watch, making their ap-
pointed rounds, and the adventurous few whom necessity or
pleasure led to brave the dangers of the unlighted streets.

Even in the twelfth century the chief occupation of the
citizens was still agriculture ; but industry and commerce de-
veloped rapidly under the protection afforded by town
walls and charters, and the growing power of the king. try and

Industries were carried on entirely by hand labor ; there ^^ ^

were scarcely any machines other than the tools employed by
workmen from times immemorial. Each trade was organized
into a guild, which laid down rules for carrying it on, and had
the power to inspect and to confiscate inferior products. The
guildsmen were divided into three classes: apprentices, who
served from three to thirteen years, and paid considerable
sums for their instruction; workmen ("journeymen"), who
had finished their apprenticeship and received wages; and
masters, who had risen in the trade and had become employers.

Apprentices and workmen were lodged and fed with the
master's family above the shop ; and it was easy for a frugal
workman to save enough to set up as a master in his turn :
under these conditions antagonism between capital and labor
did not exist. The guilds had religious and benevolent fea-
tures also ; each maintained a common fund, made up of fines
assessed against members, which was used for feasting, for
masses, for the relief of the sick and burial of dead members.
Guilds formed of members pursuing a trade, such as weaving
or dyeing, were called craft guilds ; older, richer, and more in-
fluential in developing the liberties of the towns, were the
merchant guilds, the members of which engaged in commerce.

After the Germanic invasions, commerce had almost ceased ;
there was little demand for foreign wares or costly articles of

186 AGE OF THE CRUSADES

luxury, and the roads were too insecure to make the trans-
portation of goods profitable. Under the early feudal regime,
where downright robbery was not practiced, the lords
sBval com- exacted ruinous tolls at every bridge, market, and high-
^^^^^ way. It was only after the Crusades had stimulated

enterprise and created new tastes that commerce played an
important part in mediaeval life. The Italian towns, from
their central position in the Mediterranean, were the first to
feel this quickening impulse; and Amalfi, Pisa, Genoa, and
Venice became important commercial centers. Venice, whose
trade was originally confined to salt and fish, the products of
its waters, developed a vast commerce in the spices, perfumes,
sugar, silks, and other goods which came from the East by way
of the Persian Gulf or E-ed Sea. In the fourteenth century it
possessed a merchant marine of three thousand vessels, and
each year sent large fleets through the Strait of Gibraltar to
Flanders and the English Channel. Land routes led over the
Brenner and Julier passes of the Alps to the upper Danube and
the Rliine, there joining the Danube route from Constantinople
and the l^lack Sea, and enriching with their trade Augsburg,
Ratisbon, Ulm, Nuremberg, and a host of towns on the
Rhine. From Genoa a much-traveled route led through
France by way of the river Rhone. The great northern mar-
ket for all this commerce was Bruges, where products of the
south and east were exchanged for the furs, amber, fish, and
woolen cloths of the north : merchants from seventeen king-
doms had settled homes there, and strangers journeyed thither
from all parts of the known Avorld. In the fifteenth century
Antwerp wrested from Bruges this preeminence, largely as a
result of the untrammeled freedom to trade which it granted.
Great fairs, held periodically in certain places, under the
160 Com li*^6nse of the king or of some great lord, who profited by
mercial or- the fees paid him, were a necessity in a time when
ganiza ion Qi-^iinaiy villages were entirely without shops, and mer-

LIFE IN THE MEDIyEV^AL TOWN 187

chants, even in cities and towns, carried only a limited vari-
ety and quantity of goods. Examples of sueli fairs were
Smithfield (just outside of London) and Stourbridge in Eng-
land ; Beaucaire and Troyes in France ; Frankfort-on-tlie-Main
and Leipzig in Germany. Thither, during the times at which
they were held, went merchants and traders from all over
Europe; and thither, too, resorted the ])eople for miles around
to lay in their yearly stock of necessaries or to sell the products
of their industry.

In the Middle Ages merchants traded, not as individuals, or
as subjects of a state which protected their interests abroad,
but as members (1) of the merchant guild of their town, which
often secured special rights and exclusive privileges in other
towns and countries ; or (2) of some commercial company, like
that of the Bardi and later the Medici of Florence ; or (8) of
some great confederacy of towns like the Hanseatic League
of northern Germany.

The Hanseatic League gradually arose from the union of
German merchants abroad and German towns at home, and was
completely formed by the thirteenth century; its objects I5i. Han-
were common defense, security of traffic by land and seatic
sea, settlement of disputes between members, and the (1200-1450)
acquisition and maintenance of trading privileges in foreign
countries. The chief articles of commerce were herring and
other salt fish, which were consumed in enormous quantities
all over Euroyje, owing to the rules of the church, which forbade
the eating of, meat on Fridays and for the forty days during
Lent ; other articles of trade were timber, pitch, furs, amber, and
grain. At its greatest extent, the league included more than
ninety cities of the Baltic and North Sea regions, both sea-
ports and inland towns. Llibeck on the Baltic was the capital
of the league, where its congresses were held and records kept.
Hamburg, Bremen, Cologne, Danzig, and Wisby (on the island
of Gothland) were important members ; and warehouses and

188 AGE OF THE CRUSADES

tradiiii,^ stations, witli extoiisivo privileges, were maintained at
Novgorod in lUissia, Bergen in Norway, Brnges in Flanders,
and London in England.

In the fourteenth century the league was drawn into a series
of wars with Denmark, and became a great political confedera-
tion, w4th frequent assemblies, a federal tax, and a federal
navy and military forces. After 1450 came a period of decay,
due to the rise of foreign competition in trade, the revival of
Denmark, the consolidation of the power of the German
princes, and an unexplained shifting of the herring " schools "
from the Baltic to more distant feeding grounds ; but its final
downfall does not come until the Thirty Years' War, in the
seventeenth century. It is difficult to overestimate the part
played in northern Europe by this civic league in promoting
trade, suppressing piracy and robbery, training the people to
orderly life and liberty, and spreading comforts and conven-
iences in half-barbarous lands.

Europe of the jNIiddle Ages differed greatly from the Europe

of to-day. In many regions there was nothing but forest,

152. Gen- swamp, and moor, wliere now are smiling fields and popu-

acter of the ^^^^^^ cities. The population on the whole was much less

Middle Ages than now: England, which in 1901 had over 30,000,000

inhabitants, had in 1086 only about 2,150,000. The great

growth of ])opTdation, however, has been chiefly in towns and

modern miinufactnring districts, and not in tlie open country,

wliicli in many })laces was as thickly settled in the Middle

Ages as in modern times.

Local o\'eri)()[)idation Avas one cause of frequent famines,
when weeds and the bark of trees were gnawed for food, and
depraved beings ate human flesh. There were no great accu-
mulations of wealth; heavy goods could be transported only
short distances by land on account of the miserable roads;
and wlien cr()i)S failed, the surplus of distant provinces could
not be brought to relieve distress.

LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 189

. The standard of comfort on the whole, even after the intro-
duction of some luxuries from the East, was surprisingly low.
The manner of living, even among the higher classes, was
filthy and unsanitary. Floors were covered with rushes,
among which bones from the table and other refuse were
dropped, to be covered with new layers of rushes ; and so on,
until at length the whole decaying mass would be cleaned out.
The death rate, especially among young children, was very
high. In spite of all the glamour of chivalry and romance, the
Middle Ages, on its material side, must have been a dreary
time in which to live.

Intellectually it was a time of ignorance and superstition.
Cemets were regarded as signs of coming disaster ; when one
appeared " refulgent, with a hairy crown," it foretold the noger of
death of a king, while one with " long locks of hair \i.e. a Hoveden,

° o I. Chronicle,

tail], which as it scintillates it spreads abroad," fore- year ii65
told the ruin of a nation. " The invisible world . . . Lea, Inqui-
with its mysterious attraction and horrible fascination MiddleAges,
was ever present and real to every one. Demons were al- -f* ^^

ways around him, to smite him with sickness, to ruin his pitiful
little cornfield [i.e. wheat field] or vineyard, or to lure his soul
to perdition; while angels and saints were similarly ready to
help him, to listen to his invocations, and to intercede for him
at the throne of mercy, which he dared not address directly.*'
It was an age of startling contrasts, when the sordidness of its
daily life might be relieved with splendid exhibitions of lofty
enthusiasm or darkened with hideous deeds of brutality. On
the one hand it was, as Bishop Stubbs says, " the age of chiv-
alry, of ideal heroism, of picturesque castles and glorious
churches and pageants, camps, and tournaments, lovely charity
and gallant self-sacrifice " ; on the other, it was clouded with
dark shadows of " dynastic faction, bloody conquest, grievous
niisgovernance, local tyrannies, plagues and famines unhelped
and unaverted, hollowness of pomp, disease, and desolation,"

•190

AGE OF THE CRUSADES

Suggestive
topics

Search
topics

S^-ondary
.„a.iiorities

Sources

Pictures

TOPICS

(1) In the picture of the chateau of Arques, point out the
drawbridges, moat, bailey wall, outer ward, inner ward, and
donjon. (2) Was the life of a knight more or less desirable than
that of a weallliy man of to-day ? (3) Compare the life of the
farmer to-day with tliat of the mediccval peasant. (4) Compare
the working-man to-day with the guild artisan. (5) Why did
towns desire a charter ?

(6) The training of a knight. (7) The life of a boy or girl in a
mediaeval village. (8) The same in a niediseval town. (9) Medi-
aeval system of agriculture. (10) Great fairs of the Middle Ages.
(11) The strugulcs of some town in France, such as Laon, Cam-
bray, or Beauvais. to secure self-government. (12) The craft
guilds. (18) The merchant guild. (11) Commerce of Venice in
the Middle Ages. (!•")) The Ilanseatic League. (16) Mediseval
hunting.

REFERENCES

d, Adams, CiviUzation during tltp Middle Ar/es^ ch. xii. ; Emerton,
Mfdioiral Europe, ch. xv. ; liemoiit and Monod, Medieval Europe,
o75-o!»0, 4S8-465 ; Henderson, Short Ilistortj etf (iermanii, I. ch. v. ;
Duruy, Middle Ar/es. ch. xxiii. ; Henderson, Germann in the Middle
( Ages, 41')-420 ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age,
chs. xvi. xxii. ; Lodge, Close of the Middle Ages, ch. xviii. ; Stills,
Studies i)i Medieval Histori), chs. xiv. xv. ; Cutts, Scenes and Char-
acters of the Middle Ages, chs. iv. vi. viii. ; Lacroix. Manners,
Customs, and Dress during the Middle Ages, 56-104, 248-;]00, —
Military and Rrligious Life. 186-172 ; Gautier, Chivalry, chs.
vi.-viii. xii. -xvi. ; Cornish, Chivalry, chs. ii.-v. ix. x. xii. -xiv. ;
Kowbotliam, Tronhadoars and. Courts of Lore. chs. i. vii. x. xi. xv.
xvi. ; Gibljins. History of Commerce, bk. ii. ; Andrews. Old English
Manor, clis. v. vi. ; Jessopp, Coming of the Friars, ch. ii.

Ogg. Source Bool:, ch. xx.; Woh'm&on, Readings, I. chs. xviii. xix, ;
Thatcher and McXea!. .Source Boi,k. iios. 289-298,320-325 ; Jonfes,
Civilia-ation in the Middle Age.'<. Xos. 8, 9 ; University of Pennsyl-
vania, Translatious <nid Reprints. TI. No. 1 ; Guizot, History of
Civilization (Holm ), HI. 812-815, 817-822, 892-474 ; Ancassin and
Nicolete (Mosher's ed.) ; Mallory, Morte d' Arthur.

Parmentier, .l/'y?n/; Histio-i(/ue. 1. TI. ; ^tacke. Deutsche (reschichte
(2 vols.') ; Uacroix. .1/7.s' i/i the Middle Ages. ^Manners, Customs,
and Dress duriitg the Middle Ages, — Milit((ry <(ud Religious Life
in tin Middle Ages. — Scieuce and Literature in the Middle Ages.

CHAPTEE XII.
ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377)

With the fall of the mediaeval empire, interest shifts to the
national states, of which England was one of the first to arise.
Britain, like all the West, formed part of the Eoman -_„ _-
Empire, and was overrun by Germanic tribes (Angles, Heptarchy
Saxons, and Jutes) after the year 449: in the course ^
of two centuries they completely conquered the eastern and
southern parts of the island, to which was given the name
England (Angle-land). The Celtic Britons were killed, en-
slaved, or driven into the mountains, and the institutions
of the German invaders were reproduced with scarcely any
mixture of British or Roman elements. Even the Christian
religion disappeared, along with the Latin tongue and the
Roman-British civilization.

Near the close of the sixth century, Christianity was re-
introduced — in the south by missionaries sent direct from
Rome (597), and in the north by Celtic (Irish) missionaries
from the island of lona (off the western coast of Scotland).
At the synod of Whitby (664), Roman Christianity, with its
recognition of the papal headship, triumphed over the loosely
organized and semi-independent Celtic Church ; and the eccle-
siastic unity thus established helped to pave the way for the
union of all England under one king.

In the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries there were at
least seven different kingdoms of the English; namely,
those of the West Saxons, South Saxons, East Saxons, East
Anglians (North Folk and South Folk), Mercians (or Middle

191

193

ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 198

Angles), Northumbrians, and the men of Kent: the names
of most of these peoples are still preserved in the county
names of the regions where they ruled (Sussex, Essex, Nor-
folk, etc.). In the seventh, century the kings of Northumbria
acquired a vague supremacy over the other kingdoms. In the
eighth this passed to the kings of Mercia. At the beginning
of the ninth century it was won by Egbert, king of Wessex
(802-839), from whom in one line the present sovereign of
England traces descent.

In the year 787 " Danes," or Northmen, began to harry Eng-
land. As on the Continent, they first came merely to plunder ;
but soon after 850 they began to form settlements. ^^^ ^^^^^^
The reign of Alfred the Great (871-901) is the most sions of the
remarkable in this period of England's history. He
came to the throne at a time when the Danes were overrun-
ning all Wessex. " Nine general battles," says a chroni- A7iglo-
cler, " were fought this year (871) south of the Thames." chronicle
After seven years of struggle Alfred defeated the Danes year 87i
and forced them to accept the treaty of Wedmore, by which
they were baptized as Christians, and received the laud north
of the Thames; the name "Danelaw" was given to this region
because there the Danish, and not the Saxon, law was in
force.

Alfred then reorganized his kingdom, remodeled the army,
and erected strong earth-walled fortresses. He was fond of
learning, and took steps to provide for the education of his
people. He himself translated a number of works from the
Latin into the Anglo-Saxon tongue, and gave orders for the
compilation of the great Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

In the latter part of Alfred's reign the war with the Danes
began anew. Under his son and his three grandsons, who
ruled one after another, the Danelaw was reconquered and
again joined with the rest of England ; but a large admixture
of Danish blood continued in the north of England, leaving

194

RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

its marks in the place names and in the rude freedom of its
inhabitants.

The most prosperous reign of the Anglo-Saxon period was
that of Edgar (959-975), who was ably assisted in the govern-
155 A 1 ^^^^* ^y Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury, the first
F a long line of ecclesiastical statesmen. Over the
shires," or counties, power was exercised by "ealdor-
men," who corresponded to the counts of the Carolingian
empire. There was the same tendency as on the Continent

Saxon of

government

King and Wit an.

From the Cotton MS.

for the local rulers to acquire independent authority and force
the free peasant into serfdom ; but the popular assemblies in
the shires and "hundreds" (as the division next smaller
than the shire was called) kept alive the practice of self-
government, and acted as a check on the power of the
"thegns," or lords. Over all was the " Witan," or council
of wise men; these chose the king from the royal family,
and assisted him in the Avork of legislation and administration.
The modes of trial in Anglo-Saxon England seem strange to

ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 195

us,- but were common to all Germanic peoples. Compurgation
was a usual form ; in this, the person accused swore to his
innocence and produced a number of compurgators (''oath
helpers "), who swore that they believed his oath to be " clean
and without guile," In serious cases the ordeal was used;
this was an appeal to the judgment of God. In the ordeal by-
hot iron the accused had to carry a piece of red-hot iron for a
certain distance in his bare hand; in the ordeal by hot water
he had to thrust his hand into a kettle of boiling water. In
either case the hand was then bandaged and sealed up for
three days; if the wound healed properly, the person was
declared innocent. In the cold water ordeal the accused was
thrown into a stream of water, with hands and feet tied to-
gether ; if he floated, he was guilty ; but if he sank he was
innocent and was to be rescued.

Edgar's son Ethelred — called the "Eedeless," or "Unready'*
(which means "lacking counsel") — ruled from 979 to 1016.
He was rash, short-sighted, and weak, and in his reign i^q Danish
there was great disorder and suffering. The invasions conquest
of the Danes were renewed, and Ethelred bought them decay-

off with money payments. At home the Northmen now (977-1042)
formed the three kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, and Den-
mark ; thenceforth the invaders came as armies for the purpose
of conquest. The Danish residents in England sympathized
with their brethren ; the great ealdormen, too, fell to treachery
and quarreling among themselves. The result was that Sweyn
(Swegen, or Svend), king of Denmark, conquered the whole of
England, and Ethelred was obliged, in 1013, to take refuge
with his brother-in-law, the duke of Normandy. The next
year Sweyn died suddenly, and Ethelred was restored, only
to die in 1016.

After a brief struggle, Canute (1016-1035), the son of Sweyn,
was accepted as king by all the English people. Already he
was king of Denmark, and in 1028 he made himself king of

19(j RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

Norway. In l*'n,L,H;in(l lie ruled as an English king. The great
ealdoiiiH'ii, wlio irom this time, are known as "earls," were
k('])t in order with a strong hand, and i)ea('e and prosperity
were enjoyed hy I-'nglish and Danes alike. While on a pil-
grimage to Kome, Canute wrote to his English subjects: "1
Florpncc o/ have vowed to Clod to lead a right life in all things, to
/V^.^'^VV' ' ^''^^^ j^i^^b' '^^'*^ piously my realms and my subjects, and
year io:u to administer just judgment to all. If heretofore I have
done auglit beyond what is just, through headiness or negli-
gence of youth, 1 am ready with God's help to amend it
utterly."'

('anut(>\s sons, Jlarold and Hardicanute, ruled after him
for seven years. U[)on the extinction of the Danish line, the

157. Ed- AVitan chose as king the son of Ethelred, who was called

ward the i.^^ward "the Confessor" (1042-1 060), on account of his

Confessor ^ ^

(1042-1066) piety. lie proved but a feeble ruler. He had been

reared at the Norman court, where ways of life were less rude

tlian in England; and the favor which he showed to Normans

and I'rcnclimen angered his English subjects. The chief

events of his reign centered in the (juarrels of the great earls,

who o])eidy rebelled, (iodwin, earl of Wessex, was the most

powerful of these; after his death his office passed to his son

Harold, wlio ])roved himself the most capable man of the

kingdom. AVhen I'.dward died without children, in 1066,

Harold was chosen king by the Witan ; but William, the

duke oi' Normandy, ])ut forth a claim to the th]*oiie and pre-

])ared an invading aiiny. -^fefc ^

\Villiam tlie ('on([ueroi-, as he is known in history, was the

sixth duke of Normandy in descent ivom Rolf. He was only

158. The seven years of age when his father died on a pilgrimage

orman ^^^ Talestine, and the minoritv of the young duke was
uonqiiest ' ^ .' o

(1066) one long struggle against his Norman barons. With

the aid of the French king, William crushed his enemies
(1047), and then built up a military power which made Nor-

ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377)

197

maiidy one of the strongest governments of Europe. Already
Norman adventurers were winning by their swords a kingdom
in Sicily and southern Italy (§ 52) ; and when Duke William
looked abroad for a similar field of conquest, he found it in
England.

He secured a promise from Edward the Confessor (his
father's cousin) that he should succeed to the throne of
England ; and circumstances enabled him to obtain from Earl

D^RF/MNTERir;L

Death of Harold.
From the Bayeux Tapestry. Harold is the second figure from the left.

Harold an oath not to dispute his claim. When Harold was
chosen king, William protested ; and bearing a banner conse-
crated by the Pope, he landed on the south coast of England in
September, 1066. Harold had been called to the north to repel
an invasion by the king of Norway, and returned too late to
prevent the landing. The earls of the northern counties treach-
erously refused him aid, and Harold was forced to meet the
Normans with only his own troops. The battle took place on
the ridge later called Senlac, near the town of Hastings.

The strength of the English consisted in their mailed foot-
men armed with the battle-ax, while that of the Normans lay
in their archers and mounted men-at-arms; two different

198 KISE OF NATIONAL STATES

modes of warfare were thus contending, as well as two peoples
and two civilizations. For a long time the issue was in doubt.
To draw the English from their strong position, William or-
dered a portion of his troops to pretend to flee ; this ruse was
partly successful, but still the " shield wall " of Harold's guard
held Arm. At last an arrow struck Harold in the eye, piercing
to the brain, and after this disaster the English were forced
from the field (October, 1066).

This battle decided the possession of the English crown, and
gave England a line of rulers which has Jasted to this day.
159. Nor- William was formally chosen king, and within a few
manorgani- j^onths was in tranquil possession of the whole kingdom.
(1066-1087) There were revolts of the native English and also of Nor-
man barons (feudal lords), who rebelled against the iron rule
of the Conqueror ; but these were put down with terrible cru-
elty. In the main, the customs and laws of the English were
respected, but the property of those who fought against Wil-
liam at Hastings was treated as forfeited, and either granted
to new holders or confirmed to the old ones on the payment of
a heavy fine.

In either event the tenure established was a feudal one, con-
ditioned on the performance of military service, with all the
" feudal incidents " of relief, aids, wardship, and marriage
rights. Feudalism as a system (§§ 31-41) was thus intro-
duced full grown into England ; but William took pains to see
that in England it should not become the menace to the crown
that it was in France. An oath of allegiance to the king,
taking precedence of all ties to feudal lords, was demanded
from all freemen (1086), and the old Anglo-Saxon national
militia, as well as the old popular assemblies, were continued
as a check on the power of the lords or barons. It also
happened that the lands granted his Norman followers, how-
ever extensive they might be, were widely scattered, and
not in compact blocks, as they were in France. Thus it was

ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 199

made more difficult than in France for a vassal to gather men
to make war upon his king.

In order that he might know the resources of the realm,
William caused an inquest of the lands, their holders, and their
value to be made throughout England, the results being set down
in what is known as Domesday Book. " So very narrowly did
he cause the survey to be made," says the Anglo-Saxon Anglo-

Chronidej "that there was not a single hide nor a rood of ^, Saxon
land, nor — it is shameful to relate that which he thought year loss
no shame to do — was there an ox, or a cow, or a pig passed
by." The value to the historian of this minute record, which
is still in existence, may easily be imagined. William was a
stern and a just king, but he was little loved.

When William died, in the year 1087, primogeniture, or the
right of the eldest son to succeed the father, w^as not an estab-
lished custom. Robert, his oldest son, secured Normandy, 160. Nor-
but England passed to William Rufus, the second son. ^^^ ^^°s*ion
This William II. proved a harsh, wicked man, and was (1087-1164)
hjated by all. After thirteen years of rule his body was found
in the New Forest (near Southampton), with an arrow piercing
the heart ; whether he was slain by accident or by design no
man can tell.

William II. left no children, and Henry I. (1100-1135), the
third son of the Conqueror, secured the throne. This was for-
tunate for England, as he was a strong ruler who knew how to
keep the turbulent barons in check. To conciliate his subjects,
he issued at his coronation a charter of liberties, which became
the model for the Great Charter of King John (§ 167). The
troubles stirred up by his brother, Robert of Normandy, ended
with Robert's defeat and capture (1106). Normandy was then
annexed once more to the English crown, with which it re-
mainM united for nearly a hundred years. The title *^Lion
of Justice," given to Henry, marks his activity in the a.S. Chron-
punishment of crime. " He made peace," says the chroni- *^^^' ^^^^

200 KI8K OF NATIONAL STATES

cler, ''for men and deer; whoso bare his burden of gold and
silver, no nmn durst say to him aught but good."

The just government established by Henry I. died with him.
His nephew, Stephen of JUois (son of the crusader, § 97), who
secured the government after him, lacked firmness and good
judgment, and the difficulties of his position were increased
by the repeated efforts of Henry's daughter, Matilda, to win
the crown, ('ivil war and anarchy followed, and lawless
Anglo- castles filled the laiul. The nobles "greatly oppressed

Saxon ^ the wretched people by making them work at their

year ii:i7 castles, and when the castles were finished they filled
them with devils and evil men. Then they took those whom
they suspected to have any goods, by night and by^ day, seizing
both men and women, and they put them in prison for their
gold and silver, and tortured them with pains unspeakable,
for never were any martyrs tormented as these were. . . .
This state of affairs lasted the nineteen years that Stephen
was king, and ever grew worse and worse. . . . Then was corn
[i.e. wheat] dear, and flesh, and cheese and butter, for there
was non(3 in the laud; — wretched iuen starved with hunger;
some lived on alms who had been erewhile rich; some fled
the country. Never was there more misery, and never acted
heatliens worse than these."

The struggle for the crown ended with a treaty by which

Stephen recognized ^Matilda's son, Henry of Anjou, as his suc-

161 Reiffn ^'^^^^^*^'- '^'^'^ ^^^^^ .Y^^^" Stephen died, and Henry II., the

of Henry II. iirst of tlie Angevin or IMantagenet kings, came to the

throne. Tlu^ early kings of this house were Henry II.

(1154-1189), Richard T. (1189-1199), John (1199-1216), Henry

ILL (I21G-127L>), Edward I. (1272-1307), Edward II. (1307-

1327), and EdAvard 111. (1327-1377).

In right of his fatlier, Henry II. was count of Anjou (in
France) ; in right of liis mother, he received Normandy and
England ; l)y marriage with Eleanor, heiress of Aquitaine, he

I:NGLAND in the middle ages (449-1577)

201

Miter, Chasuble, and Stole of
Thomas a Becket.

added that broad land to

liis dominions (map, p. 228).

He was a strong king,

tireless in the transaction

of business, with a genius

for organization. The

abuses of Stephen's reign

were speedily remedied,

and peace and good order

restored. His attempt to

bring the clergy under the

jurisdiction of royal courts

brought him into conflict

with the archbishop of P^'eserved in the Cathedral of Sens, France.

Canterbury, Thomas a Becket ; and hasty words let fall by the

king led four of his ser-
vants to murder the arch-
bishop. By the people
Becket was venerated as
a martyr; and to secure
absolution from the Pope,
Henry was obliged to
forego some rights of juris-
diction which he claimed
over " criminous clerks."

England's conquest of
Ireland began in this
reign. In metal i62. Hen-
work, in sculpture, ry'swaxs
and in the illumination of
manuscripts the Irish had

attained' a degree of cul-
Cross at Monasterbrice, Ireland. j_ ,-,

Erected In 9th or lOth century. Part of the ^"■•e then unsurpassed;
carving represents scriptural scenes. but in political develop-

HARDING's M. & M. HIST. 12

202 K1«K OF NATIONAL STATES

ment they lagged behind. Ireland was still in the tribal stage,
and tribe warred with tribe, chief with chief. In such circum-
stances it was inevitable that the Norman barons of England
should intervene. The complete subjugation of the island was
not effected until long afterward; but from this reign the
fortunes of Ireland were linked with those of its eastern
neighbor.

Henry II.'s possessions in France led him into almost con-
stant warfare with the French king. In 1173 the kings of
France and Scotland assisted the barons and the king's oldest
son (Henry) to rebel; but the rebellion was put down, and
the king of the Scots taken prisoner. News of the fall of
Jerusalem, in 1187, led Henry II. to take the cross; but
preparations for the crusade were interrupted by a new war
with the French king, Philip Augustus, who aided the rebel-
lion of Henry's son, Richard — now through the death of his
elder brother the heir to the throne. The English king was
defeated and forced to make peace ; and at the head of the
list of those allied against him, he read the name of his young-
est son, John, whom he had supposed faithful. Already sick
and worn out, Henry II. died three days later. He was a hard,
stern man, with the fierce Angevin temper, and was little
loved ; but the value of his Avork caii not be overestimated.

The most important feature of Henry II. 's reign was his
judicial, military, and financial reforms. The Exchequer, or
163. Hen- financial department of the government, was definitely
ry's reforms organized. The old English militia was revived by a
law called the Assize of Arms, and every man was obliged
to provide himself with arms according to his means. The
practice was introduced of excusing feudal tenants from
military service on payment of a sum called " scutage " : the
money thus obtained was used to hire mercenary troops, who
were better and more reliable soldiers ; at the same time the
new plan reduced the military strength of the feudal nobles.

ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 203

. The judicial reforms of Henry II. consisted chiefly in the
establishment of itinerant justices and the introduction of trial
and presentment juries. The justices itinerant went on
circuit, bringing the king's justice into different parts of
England; the settlement of many important cases was thus
made easier, speedier, and more certain. A form of jury trial
was introduced in civil causes to take the place of trial by
compurgation and trial by battle. The latter was brought into
England about the time of the Norman conquest; in it the
plaintiff and defendant fought with arms before the judges, '
and God was supposed to make manifest the just cause by
enabling its champion to triumph.

In trial by jury the decision was given in the name of the
community by those who had the best knowledge of the facts,
and the result no longer rested upon superstition, acci- i64. Trial
dent, or superior force. Centuries passed, however, l>yj«ry

before jury trial reached the developed form of to-day. Trial
by ordeal was used a little longer in criminal cases, but after
1219 trial by jury was introduced here also. Henry II. also
made an important improvement in the means provided for the
accusation of criminals. It often happened that a man was
too powerful for an individual to dare accuse him ; to remedy
this, the jury of presentment, which later became the grand
jury, was introduced to bring an accusation against suspected
persons in the name of the community as a whole.

The trial and presentment juries greatly improved the
administration of justice; but more important than this was
their indirect influence. By participating in the administra-
tion of justice, Englishmen were trained in a knowledge of the
law and in the exercise of the rights of self-government.
Jurors acted not merely in judicial, but in administrative, mat-
ters, as representatives of their communities ; and when once
the principle of representation was fixed in local government,
it became easy to introduce it into central affairs. Thus the

204 KISE OF NATIONAL STATES

juries introduced by Henry II. became, under his successors,

the taproot of parliamentary representation.

Richard I., Coeur de Lion (the Lion-Hearted), was a good

warrior, but a poor ruler. Most of his reign was devoted to

,«c -B- T. the Third Crusade and to the defense of his Continental
loo. Ricn-

ard I. possessions ; for these purposes, and for his ransom

(1189-1199) ^yj^gjj taken captive while returning from the Holy Land
(§ 105), England was oppressively taxed. Only seven months
of the ten years of his reign were passed in England ; but- the
administrative officers trained by Henry II. kept the country
orderly and i)eacef ul. Richard died of an arrow wound while
on a characteristic mission, warring to secure a treasure found
by one of his vassals in Aquitaine.

The Great Council of England chose Richard's brother John
king after him, in preference to Arthur, the son of an elder
166. John brother Geoffrey. Jolm had been an undutiful son and
(1199-1216) brother ; he now proved the worst king that England
ever had. His misconduct in Aquitaine led his barons there
to appeal to King Philip against him, and when he refused to
appear, his French hefs were declared forfeited. Soon after,
John secured possession of his young nephew, Arthur, and
basely put him to death. This made it easier for Pliilip to
enforce the sentence of forfeiture ; and by the close of 1206 all
the English possessions in France were lost, except Aquitaine.
John was next involved in a quarrel with Pope Innocent HI.,
and for nearly five years England lay under an interdict, all ordi-
nary church services being prohibited. To prevent his deposi-
tion, John at last made his peace with the Pope, agreeing to hold
his kingdom as a papal fief and pay an annual tribute. He
then hastened to France with such forces as he could raise to
regain his lost possessions; but at Bou vines, in 1214, his ally.
Otto IV. of Germany, was overwlielmingly defeated (§ 130), and
John returned discredited to England. The loss of these Con-
tinental possessions was on the whole fortunate for England ; it

ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377)

205

practically completed the process, which had long been going on,
whereby the barons ceased to be Normans and became English.
All classes were aroused by John's misgovernment ; and
during his absence a meeting was held at which it was agreed
to take up arms unless he granted a charter of liberties, -.„ _.
similar to that of Henry I. Jojan soughtnEo~evad^e the Great Char-
demand ; but the whole nation — nobles, clergy, and ®^ ^ ^
townsmen — united in it; and finally, in June, 1215, "in the
meadow called Kunnymede," on the river Thames, John put

Portion of Magna Charta.

his seal to the Great Charter (Magna Charta)., The de-
mands of the barons were no selfish exaction of privileges
for themselves; they secured the rights of all. Many of the
provisions of the charter were of a temporary nature, remedy-
ing immediate grievances, but others were permanent in their
importance. Among the latter are the following : —

" No free man shall be taken or imprisoned or dispossessed,
or outlawed, or banished, or in any way destroyed, nor
will we go upon him, nor send upon him, except by the Charta,

legal judgment of his peers or by the law of the land. ^^ ^^' ^^

" To no one will we sell, to no one will we deny, or delay,
right or justice."

When he signed the Great Charter, John had no intention of
abiding by it, and within three months he was again at open

206 KISE OF NATIONAL STATES

war with his barons. The hitter planned to accept the son of
the French king as sovereign ; but in 1216 John died, leaving
a son, Henry III., nine years of age. The Great Charter now
received the first of many confirmations, and peace was rapidly
restored.

During the first sixteen years of Henry III.'s reign, officers
trained in the methods of Henry II. directed affairs, and good

168 H oi*der and prosperity followed. For twenty-six years the

III. (1216- king was then under the influence of personal favorites,
1 272)

— greedy foreigners for the most part, — or carried on

the government without ministers. In either case, misrule
was the result; heavy taxes were laid to enrich his favorites
and carry on useless wars in France, and clergy and people
groaned under the exactions of papal legates. In 1258 the
barons rose in rebellion under Earl Simon de Montfort, and
brought this state of affairs to an end. The government was'
then under their control for seven years, until in 1265 the
king's eldest son Edward escaped from the captivity in which
he was held and raised an army. At Evesham he met and
defeated the forces of Earl Simon, the latter being among the
slain. Although himself of foreign birth, Montfort was a con-
sistent advocate of English liberty, and did much to favor the
growth of Parliament. After 1265 Henry III. was freed from
the control of the barons, but only to pass under that of his
strong and able son, Edward, till the king's death in 1272.

Edward I. is the first king since the Norman conquest of
whom it can be said that he was " every inch an Englishman."

169 Ed- -^^ ^^^ ^^^ father's personal virtues without his vices as

ward I. a ruler ; he was the greatest of the Plantagenet kings.

(1272-1307) ^ o o o

He sought to unite under one rule the whole of the British

Isles, and to accomplish this he waged war against the Welsh,

until in 1284 that country w^as annexed to England; soon

after arose the usage by which the title " Prince of Wales "

is usually borne by the heir to the English throne. Edward

ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 207

also intervened in Scotland and secured the recognition of
his overlordship ; disputes, however, followed, and Edward was
several times forced to lead an army thither; and after his
death Scotland regained its independence (formally admitted
in 1328). The chief result of Edward's aggressions was to
throw the Scots into alliance with France, and postpone until
the eighteenth century the constitutional union of the two
British kingdoms.

More important than Edward's military exploits were his
constitutional measures. Parliament assumed under him the
form which it was to bear into modern times. The roots j^o. Rise of
of this institution lay deep in the past: the idea of Parliament
representation in local affairs was older than the Norman con-
quest ; and under the Normans, especially in the juries of
Henry II., it received a wide extension. The first introduc-
tion of representatives into the Great Council (the feudalized
successor to the Anglo-Saxon Witan, § 155) was in 1213, when
" four discreet men " of each county were ordered to be chosen
to meet with the barons. In 1265 Simon de Montfort added
borough or town representatives. In 1295 Edward summoned
the Model Parliament, which contained the barons, together
with representatives of counties and towns on a larger scale
than before. After this time, elected representatives of the
people were regularly summoned, along with the nobles and
higher clergy, and the Great Council becomes the English
Parliament. In the next century the representatives of towns
and counties united to form the House of Commons, while the
barons, including the bishops and abbots, formed the House of
Lords. Parliament was thus divided into two houses, and its
external structure was complete; but the development of its
powers was only beginning.

Edward I. was also active in reforming and systematizing
the English laws. The thirteenth century was above all things
the age of the lawyer and legislator, and in this field Edward's

208

RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

work may well challenge comparison with that of Frederick II.
of Sicily, and Louis IX. and Philip IV. of France.

Edward II. proved an unworthy son of his great father ; he
was frivolous and unprincipled, and utterly incapable of carry-
ing on the work begun by Edward I. He angered the great
barons by the favor which he showed to unfit companions ;
and after many disturbances he was forced to abdicate (1327),
and was then murdered in prison.

Edward III., son of Edward II., showed the energy and

capacity of his grandfather. The beginning of the Hundred

171 Ed Years' War with France (ch. xiv.) is the most important

ward III. event of his reign ; but constitutional progress was not

(1327-1377) aj.i.gg^g(;i_ gi^^ce the days of Henry III., the English had

resented the exactions of the

papacy,

and the fact that the

Popes now resided at
Avignon (§ 187), on what
was practically French
soil, increased the ill feel-
ing. Two great statutes
were enacted against the
papacy in this reign —
the one forbidding papal
appointments to ecclesi-
astical positions in Eng-
land(Statute of Provisors),
and the other preventing
appeals to the papal court
(Statute of Praemunire).

About this time John
Wyclif, an Oxford pro-
fessor, successfully at-
tacked the Pope's claim
to English tribute based on eJohn's submission, condemned the
teiuporal lordship exercised by the church, and assailed the

Wyclif's Pulpit in LuTTKinvoKTjr
Chukch.

ENGLAND IN THE MIDDLE AGES (449-1377) 209

doctrine of transubstantiation ; with, the assistance of others,
he also translated the Bible into English, and formed a body
of "poor priests" to preach among the people. In 1382 he
was condemned for heresy ; but circumstances did not permit of
further steps being taken against him, and he died peacefully
two years later. The importance of WycliFs teaching outlived
his own time and the circumstances which called it forth ; he
was the greatest of the " reformers before the Reformation,"
and the movement which he started, both in England and in
Bohemia (whither it was transplanted), lasted in some sort
down to the days of Luther.

The conquest of Britain by the Angles and Saxons (449-600)
established there a Teutonic people who have retained their
Teutonic language and institutions to the present time. 172. Sum-
The Danish invasions made more marked their Teu- mary

tonic character; and the Norman conquest (1066), while
profoundly affecting English institutions by feudalizing and
centralizing them, left almost untouched the Anglo-Saxon
system of local self-government, and did not seriously change
the nature of the people. Under the Angevin kings (1154-
1399), Ireland and Wales were acquired and Normandy lost ;
in the same period a series of legal, financial, and judicial re-
forms improved the administration and strengthened the
crown, while the rights of the nation were secured in the
Great Charter, wrested from King John (1215). A repre-
sentative Parliament arose (1213-1295) and became a regular
part of the government ; and the growth of national conscious-
ness gave rise to a movement to restrict papal taxation, ap-
pointment, and jurisdiction in England. Long before the reign
of Edward III. began, the Normans and English in England
had become one people, and when the Hundred Years' War
with France came, they were ready to support their king with
the enthusiasm of a national spirit.

210

mSE OF NATIONAL STATES

Suggestive
topics

Search
topics

TOPICS

(1) What other lands suffered from the attacks of the Northmen
or Danes at the same time with England ? (2) Was the Norman
conquest a good or a bad thing for England ? (3) To what was due
the anarchy under Stephen ? (4) Show on an outline map the lands
ruled by Henry 11. ; show also those lost by John. (5) What ad-
vantages had trial by jury over the older forms of trial ? (6) What
issues were involved in the battle of Bouvines? (7) Did Magna
Charta grant new rights to Englishmen ? (8) How did local self-
government prepare the way for Parliament ?

(9) Character and work of Alfred. (10) William the Con-
queror. (11) Reforms of Henry II. (12) Events leading up
to Magna Charta. (13) Simon de Montfort. (14) Edward I.
(15) Life and teachings of John Wyclif. (16) The rise of Par-
liament.

REFERENCES

Geography-

Secondary
authorities

Sources

Illustrative
works

Maps, pp. 192, 228 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 3-14 ; Poole,
Historical Atlas, maps xvi.-xviii. ; Dow, Atlas, x.

Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 339-350 ; B^mont
and Monod, Medieval Europe, ch. xxvii. ; Thatcher and Schwill,
Europe in the 31iddle Age^ chs. ix. xviii. ; Duruy, Middle Ages,
40-42, 159-164, 180-186, 341-357, 385-391 ; Stilld, Studies in
Medieval History, 189-235 ; Gardiner, Students' History of Eng-
land, 26-230; Terry, History of England, 18-349; Ransome, Ad-
vanced History of England, 19-242 ; Green, History of the English
People, I. bks. i.-iii., bk. iv. chs. i.-ii. ; Historians'' History of the
IFoWc?, XVIII. 30-445 ; Freeman, William the Conqueror ; Hughes,
Alfred the Great.

Ogg, Source Book, chs. xi. xii. xiv. xviii. ; Robinson, Readings,
I. ch. xi. ; Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, nos. 234-239 ;
Henderson, Documents of the Middle Ages, bk. i.; University of
Pennsylvania, Translations and Beprints, I. No. 6, II. No. 1, III.
No. 5; Hutton, Simon de Montfort and his Cause-, Kendall, Source
Book of English History ; Colby, Selections from the Sources of
English History ; Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, 1-99.

Shakespeare, King John ; Scott, Ivanhoe ; G. A. Henty, The
Dragon and the Raven, — W7ilf the Saxon ; J. G. Edgar, Run-
nymede and Lincoln Fair.— How I Won my Spurs; Martin
Tupper, Stephen Langton ; Mrs. A. Payne, Glastonbury ; W. H.
Herbert, The Wager of Battle ; Julia Corner, TJie King and the
Troubadour.

CHAPTER XIII.
THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337)

When Hugh Capet came to the throne of France, in 987
(§ 51), feudal tendencies had overmastered the monarchy ; and
what is now France was a bundle of feudal fragments, 173. Devel-
steadily growing farther apart in language, in law, and °?^ r^yai
in political feeling. It was the work of the Capetian power

kings to reunite these fragments, to form a strong monarchy,
and to impart national enthusiasm. As means with which to
work they had extensive private estates in northern France,
the support of the church and the towns, and the moral au-
thority which attached to the office of king. The transforma-
tion was largely effected through the extension of the royal
domain, that is, of those lands which were directly under the
control of the crown.

Under the first four Capetian kings little was accomplished ;
but beginning with Louis VI. (1108-1137) rapid progress was
made. By purchase, marriage, inheritance, and forfeiture, fief
after fief was acquired, until at last the royal domain included
almost the whole of France. To keep what was gained, the
principle of hereditary succession to the crown was established
against that of election (§ 51), partly through the practice of
electing the son in the father's lifetime as his associate and
successor, but more through the fortunate fact that, unlike the
German imperial houses, the Capetians for eleven generations
(until 1316) never lacked a son to receive the scepter of the
father, and that only once was a long regency necessary.

211

212 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

Hugh Capet (987-996), the founder of the new dynasty, was
regarded by tlie barons who made him king as little more than

174. The "lirst among equals," and his reigu was occupied almost
C ^* tians wholly with the struggle to secure his right to the crown.
(987-1108) His son Kobert (996-1031) was more of a monk than a

warrior or statesman, and left the royal power little stronger
than at his accession. Under Henry I. (1031-1060) the do-
main and the authority of the Capetians were reduced to the
lowest point. His son Philip I. (1060-1108) showed active
hostility to Normandy, as a result of the Norman conquest
of England; and thenceforth French kings sought to separate
Normandy from England, and sowed dissensions in the Eng-
lish royal family. In the latter part of Philip's reign he was
hampered by a long quarrel with Pope Gregory VII. ; never-
theless he began the increase of the royal domain, and pre-
pared the way for greater extensions under his successors.

Louis VI. (1108-1137) is styled " the Fat," but he was the
embodiment of martial energy. His great task was to reduce

175. Royal to order the petty nobles of the royal domain, who were

domain re- often little better than brisjands. The conditions which

duced to . . ^ . .

order (1108- prevailed in France at this time were similar to those

1137) which existed in England under Stephen: every lord of

a castle robbed at will, and some tortured with fiendish cruelty

those who fell into their hands. Twenty years of hard fighting

was necessary before the last of these brigands was crushed;

and in order that such evils might not again occur, every

fortress taken was destroyed or intrusted to faithfvd persons.

By this policy Louis VI. greatly increased the power of the

crown : for the first time, the king became master of the royal

domain, and could go from Paris to Orleans (p. 228) without

risk of having his ])assage disputed by the lord of some petty

castle. Louis VI. also taught the barons whose fiefs lay outside

his domain that "kings have long arms," and at various times

asserted his power in Flanders, Aquitaine, and elsewhere.

THE RISE OE EKANCE (087-1337) 213

Louis VII. (1137-1180) finished the task of securing and
consolidating the domain, but in other respects the growth
of the royal power was retarded in his reign. This was ^^g l^ig.
chiefly owing to two causes : (1) his participation in the fortunes
Second Crusade (§ 102) ; and (2) the increase of the power yn (ii37_
of the counts of Anjou. 1180)

The Second Crusade both directly and indirectly was the
cause of much misfortune to France. The king's absence
was untimely, because of discord in the kingdom ; but fortu-
nately Louis left the government in the charge of Suger, abbot
of the monastery of St. Denis near Paris, who was an able man,
trained in administration under Louis VI. Suger, until his
death in 1152, was the chief minister of the crown : as abbot,
he reformed his monastery ; as scholar, he wrote the life of
Louis VI. ; as statesman, in the language of one of his y^^^j, ^^^^^^
correspondents, he " sustained alone the burden of affairs, VI. et Louis

VII X> 95

maintained the churches in peace, reformed the clergy, ■'^*

protected the kingdom with arms, caused virtue to flourish,
and the authority of the laws to rule."

Before his accession, Louis VII. had married Eleanor, heiress
of Aquitaine, thereby adding that vast territory to the lands of
the crown ; but her misconduct on the crusade determined him
to procure a divorce, which she also desired. A decree was
obtained from a council of the French clergy, declaring the
marriage void by reason of relationship within the degrees
prohibited by the church. This was followed almost immedi-
ately by Eleanor's marriage to young Henry of Anjou (§ 161),
and the great Aquitanian inheritance passed into the control*
of that house which was the deadliest rival of the Capetian
kings. From near the mouth of the river Somme to the Pyre-
nees, the coast was now in the hands of the prince who two
years later ascended the English throne as Henry II. Thence-
forth the Capetians had to flght the Plantagenets, or to give up
all hope of further growth.

214 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

For more than twenty years Louis VII. struggled with

Henry II., but the task of breaking the Angevin power was

177. Philip reserved for his son Philip II. (1180-1223). Unlike his

Augustus antagonist Richard I. of England, Philip had little of the
(1180-1223) • 1 • 1

knight-errant m his character; he was patient and per-
severing, a master of statecraft and of diplomacy ; he knew
how to dissimulate, and was unscrupulous in his choice of
Lavisse and i^^^^^s. "He was stern," says a contemporary, "toward
Rambaud, the nobles who disobeyed him ; it pleased him to stir ujo
G^n^rale discord among them, and he loved to use in his service
II. 365 i^en of lesser rank." The chronicler Rigord gave him

the name Augustus, "because he enlarged the boundaries of
the state."

Philip's part in the Third Crusade (§§ 104, 105) was a
mere episode of his reign ; his heart was not in the work, and
as soon as the sense of obligation would permit, he returned to
France. The chief principle of his policy was to stir up dis-
sensions in the English royal family and separate the Conti-
nental possessions of that house from the island kingdom.
During the first twenty years of his reign, the ability of
Richard the Lion-Hearted, and a conflict with the papacy
caused by Philip's attempt to divorce his first wife, prevented
him from accomplishing much. The weakness and wickedness
of King John, however, gave him his opportunity. In 1202
the Euglish fiefs were declared forfeited (§ 166), and castle
after castle was taken, including the famous Chateau Gail-
lard built by Richard to guard the Seine. All the Eng-
lish fiefs except Aquitaine passed into Philip's hands, and
the battle of Bouvines (1214) secured him in possession. A
vast domain, with an extensive seaboard, thus came into the
hands of the French king, lifting him far above the level
of his greatest vassals.

The development of the French towns, which was sketched
in a preceding chapter (§ 145), went on at a rapid rate

THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337)

215

towns

under Philip Augustus. His father and grandfather, Louis
VII. and Louis VL, were half hostile to the rising power of
the communes ; but Philip welcomed the towns as a use- i wo ji i
ful ally against the feudal uQbles. Communal independ- opment of
ence, however, was not part of his plan ; if with one
hand he granted charters of liberties, with the other he ex-
tended the royal supremacy.

Paris, as the chief place of the royal domain, received a
special treatment. In the time of Julius Caisar, Paris was
a little cluster of huts
on a marshy island of
the river Seine; dur-
ing the five hundred
years of Roman rule
it grew to be a pro-
vincial capital ; by
making it his ordi-
nary place of resi-
dence, Philip Augus-
tus caused it to become
the first national capi-
tal of a modern state.
His fostering care
increased its area,
erected new walls, in-
closing territory on
both banks of the river, paved its streets to do away with
their ill-smelling and unsanitary mudholes, and completed the
erection of the cathedral of x^otre-Dame, one of the noblest
examples of Grothic architecture.

In the reign of Philip Augustus was begun a movement to
stamp out heresy in the south of France, which had im- 179. Hereti-
portant results for civilization, for the church, and for ^^^ ^®^*^
the royal power. Many heretical sects had sprung up in the

Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris.

216 KISE OF NATIONAL STATES

eleventh and twelfth centuries. Some, like the Waldeiises,
founded by Peter Waldo of Lyons (about 1178), emphasized
the need of a return to the simple life and worship of
the Apostles. Others, like the Qathari (Manicheans), whose
Christianity was tinged with Persian doctrines, believed in two
coequal Clods, — one good, the other evil, — declared the mate-
rial universe to be the creation of the evil deity, and rejected
the existing order in church and state; the "perfect" mem-
bers of the sect rejected marriage, and were frankly opposed to
the whole social organization. The Cathari were most numer-
ous in southern France, where they were known as Albigenses,
from the little town of Albi, near Toulouse.

Southern France, or Languedoc, at this time was so different
from northern France in language, customs, and culture as
almost to constitute a separate nation. There flourished
the troubadours, the authors of the earliest poetical literature
in the popular tongues ; there, too, were to be found culture,
luxury, and toleration such as few other European lands could
boast. The ardent nature of the people led many to adopt
with zeal the teachings of the Albigenses, and soon all classes
were infected. Their enemies charged them with immoral
practices, but the charges seem largely unfounded.

Pope Innocent III. declared the doctrines of the heretics to

be ruinous to the church and subversive of society ; and after

two peaceful missionary efforts had failed, and a papal

gensian legate had been murdered by a knight of Raymond VI.,

Crusade count of Toulouse, the Pope issued a call for an armed cru-
(1209-1229) ^ ^ ' \ ,. , . ■ - .

sade. Philip Augustus, pleading his preoccupation with

" two great and terrible lions," John of England and Otto IV.

of Germany, refused to take part ; but a host of lesser lords

from the north, among whom Simon de Montfort, father of

the English earl (§ 168),. was preeminent, gathered at the Pope's

call. The chief direction of the crusade was given to the

papal legate Arnold, abbot of Citeaux.

THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) 217

The war was waged with frightful cruelty j "according to

his own admission Arnold raged furiously, without sparing

rank, sex, or age, with murder, pillage, and fire in Moeller,His-

Christ's name." In part this cruelty is explained toryofthe

Christian
by the violent excesses of the Albigenses, who had church, il.

waylaid and slain priests, and driven bishops and ab- ^^^

bots from their benefices; but fanaticism and lust of lands

and booty helped on the movement. Twice the count of

Toulouse made abject submission, and twice he again took

up arms. In 1226, Louis VIII., who had ascended the throne

three years before, led a great expedition against Toulouse;

but on the way back he died of fever.

• All parties were now tired of the struggle; and in 1229

a treaty was arranged between the French king, Louis IX.,

and the new count of Toulouse, son of the original count.

Heresy was to be put down, and the count was to do penance

for his support of the heretics; part of his estates were to

pass at once to the king, and the remainder to go at the death

of the count to the king's brother Alphonse, who was to marry

the count's daughter. As it turned out, Alphonse left no heirs,

and in 1271 these estates also passed into the royal domain.

By these wars the domain of the crown was much increased,

and the royal power given a firmer footing in the south ; for

southern France itself, the result was a decay of its peculiar

civilization and the extinction of the troubadour poets.

The complete rooting out of heresy in southern France took

time and was accomplished largely by new agencies — the

Mendicant Orders and the Inquisition. The older orders

181 Thfi

of monks sought to shut out the world, and gave them- mendicant
selves up to prayer and meditation; the new mendicant orders

orders were to live and labor in the world, seeking preferably
the poorest quarters of the towns. The Dominicans, or
Preaching Friars (also called Black Friars), were founded by
Saint Dominic (died 1221), a Spaniard of noble family; the
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 13

218 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES/

Franciscans, ur Friars Minor (called Gray Friars), were
founded by Saint Francis, an Italian of mystical temperament.
Lea,Inqm- "No human creature since Christ," says a modern Prot-
Middlf ^'^^ estant writer, " has more fully incarnated the ideal of
Ayes, 1. 260 Christianity than Francis. Amid the extravagance,
... of his asceticism, there shines forth the Christian love
and humility with which he devoted himself to the wretched
and neglected — the outcasts for whom, in that rude time,
there were few indeed to care." Both orders, after some hesi-
tation, were authorized by the papacy, and became its stanch
supporters. The Dominicans applied themselves especially to
preaching and teaching, while the Franciscans turned rather
to care for the poor and sick.

At first the friars were enthusiastically welcomed. " They

went out two by two," says a conteiH])oiaiy ; " they took

Jacque.t iie neither wallet, nor money, nor bread, nor shoes, for they

Vltry, in were not permitted to possess anything. They had

Zp/ler

{Philippe neither monastery, nor church, nor lands, nor beasts.

Auguste),80 They made use of neither fur nor linen, but wore only
tunics of wool, terminating in a hood, without capes or mantles
or any other garment. If they were invited to eat, they ate
what the}^ found ; if they were given anything, they kept none
of it for the morrow. Once or twice a year they gathered
together for their general chapter, after which tiieir superior
sent them, two together or more, into the different provinces.
. . . They were so increased in a little time that there was
no province in Christendom where they had not their brethren."
When open resistance ceased on the part of the heretics,
it became increasingly difficult to root them out ; the bishops'

182. Found- courts proved insufficient for the task, and gradually

ing of the another means was devised. This was the Inquisition,

Inquisition . . ^

(about composed of persons especially commissioned to track

1233) down and punish heretics, and unhampered by other

cares or by responsibility to any authority save Rome. From

THE KISE OF FRANCE (i)87-l:j;37)

219

an early day this work was largely turned over to the
Dominicans. The procedure of the Inquisition was of a kind
to tempt those blinded by passion and self-seeking to bring
accusations on slight pretexts; and so close was the connec-
tion between its branches, and so complete its records, that
neither time nor flight could insure immunity. Kames of
accusers and of witnesses were concealed, and torture (adopted
from the secular courts) was freely used to elicit confessions.
The Inquisition stamped out the last embers of the Albigensian
heresy, but it left a legacy of tyranny and oppression from
which the world was long in escaping.

Louis IX., son of Louis VIIL, grew up to be the possessor
of virtues which won for him the title of " Saint,'' and of abili-
ties which insured the steady growth of the royal power ; - g. _ .
he had all the good qualities of his age and few of its IX. (1226-
bad ones. Until he attained the age of twenty-one (in ^

1236) the government was carried on by his mother, Blanche
of Castile, a high-minded,
ambitious, capable, and pious
woman from whom Louis de-
rived his best qualities. The
nobles resented her rule be-
cause she was a woman and
a foreigner ; and they thought
the occasion favorable to
regain lost territories and
privileges. Coalitions were
formed and war begun, with
the aid of England ; but the
courage and ability of Blanche
were more than a match for

her enemies. It is not too much to say that she saved the
monarchy ; and until her death, in 1252, she exercised a pow-
erful influence on the French government.

rO^A

Coffer of the Time of vSaint Louis,
presented by his grandson to
AN Abbey.

Covered with painted designs of royal
insignia and allegorical subjects. In
the Louvre, Paris.

220

RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

The history of Louis's personal reign deals principally with
his relations with England, his administrative reforms, and
his two crusades. His wars with England ended, in 1258, with
a treaty by which he restored some lands in return for a formal
renunciation by Henry III. of all right to the territories confis-
cated by Philip Augus-
tus. The high estima-
tion in which Louis
was held, even by his
enemies, is seen in the

Saint Louis's Capture of Damietta, in Egypt (1249).
From an old print.

fact that six years later he was chosen arbitrator between
Henry and liis rebellious subjects.

The administrative reforms and legislation of Saint Louis
were very important. He reformed the judiciary and abolished
the right of private warfare ; he also took steps which led to
the separation of the central goverumeut into three branches:
(1) tht* Couucil, for })oliti('al affairs; (2) the Exchecjuer, for
finance; and (3) the Parlement of Paris, for judicial business.

THE HISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) 221

While insisting fully upon his rights as king, he nevertheless
showed respect for the just rights and privileges of the feudal
nobles.

Soon after the fall of Jerusalem in 1244, Louis IX. "took
the cross/* and was absent from France in Egypt and Palestine
for six years (§ 111). So far as any practical end was con-
cerned, his crusade was a failure ; but Louis won wide renown
for his courage and devotion. In 1270 he led another crusade,
which was directed to Tunis because Louis's brother, Charles
of Anjou, king of Sicily (§ 136), had claims against the Mo-
hammedan lord of that land. Soon after he landed, pestilence
broke out in the camp, and to it King Louis himself fell a
victim.

Philip III., who succeeded his father, was a well-meaning

king, without discernment; but he was ruled by councilors

trained under Louis IX., and the work of unitinsr the ,«, ^, .,.

. , ' ^184. Philip

realm and centralizing the government was not inter- III. (1270-

rupted. Charles of Anjou proved the evil genius of his ^^®^

nephew Philip, as he had of Louis IX. In 1282 Charles's
misgovernment of his kingdom of Naples and Sicily caused a
rising known as the " Sicilian Vespers " ; with the assistance
of the king of Aragon, the rebels established their independ-
ence, and for a century and a half Sicily was separated from
Naples. War between France and Aragon followed, and Pope
Martin IV. (a Frenchman) gave to it the character of a crusade.
With a large army, Philip III. crossed the Pyrenees to avenge
his uncle's injuries; he accomplished little, and on his return
died of the plague at Toulouse. The turbulent career of Charles
of Anjou came to an end a few months earlier.

Under Philip the Fair, as contemporaries called the son of
Philip III., wars were waged with Aragon, England, and ^gg phiiip
Flanders, but with no great results. Flanders, though a IV. (1285-
fief of the French crown, was so prosperous through its
rich agriculture, and the woolen manufactures and trade of

222 illSE OF NATIONAL STATES

its cities, as tu make its count a semi-independent prince.
His alliance with the English led Philip TV. to attempt to
annex Flanders, but in the battle of Courtrai (1302) the French
knights were routed by the Flemish tradesmen. This was the
first of a long series of battles which taught Europe that foot
soldiers, if properly armed and handled, were more than a
match for mounted men-at-arms. The only important additions
which Philip IV. made to the royal domain were the city of
Lyons, on the river lihone, and the county of Champagne, east
of Paris — both made by peaceable methods.

Philip IV. kept the administration in the hands of men of
humble origin, trained in the doctrines of the lloman law ;
and their zeal and loyalty were a constant support. In 1302
he called the first Estates-General of France — an assembfy
corresponding to the Parliament of England. Its history dif-
fers from that of the English Parliament in that the three
"estates" (the clergy, the nobility, and the commons, or Tliird
Estate) remained distinct ; class and local interests, therefore,
controlled its action, and it never attained the regularity of
session and the extensive powers which gave the English Par-
liament its great strength.

Of more importance than Philip's wars was his struggle with

Pope Boniface VIII. The question really at issue was whether

186. Con- ^^^^ papacy should rule over European states in temporal

test with as well as in spiritual matters. Gregory VII., Innocent

face VIII. III-5 '^^^^^ ii<^^\' Boniface VIII., advanced claims which

(1296-1303) ^vould have made kings and Em])er()rs mere vassals and

dependents of the papacy ; and the pai)al trium|)h over the

house of Frederick II. (§ 136) seemed firmly to establish these

principles. l>ut in France, as also in England, a national

sentiment was arising which enabled the king to maintain his

independence. In both countries the quarrel arose over a bull

issued by Boniface, called from its opening words Clpricis

Laicos, which forbade the payment of taxes by the clergy to

THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) 223

the laity. In England, Edward I. brought the clergy to terras
by withdrawing from them the protection of the law, the admin-
istration of which they refused to support. In France, Philip
answered the Pope's bnll by cutting off contributions from the
French church to the papacy. In the course of the struggle
with Philip, Boniface issued the bull called Unam Sanctam, in
which the papal claims to temporal power were stated in their
most explicit form. " There are two swords," argued Boniface,
quoting St. Luke (xx. 38), " the spiritual and the tem- Milman,

poral ; our Lord said not of these two swords, ^ it is too -^«^^^ ChHs-
^ tianity, VI,

much,' but ^ it is enough.' Both are in the power of the 326

church : the one the spiritual, to be used hy the church, the
other the material, for the church ; the former that of priests,
the latter that of kings and soldiers, to be wielded at the com-
mand and by the sufferance of the priest. One sword must be
under the other, the temporal under the spiritual. . . . The
spiritual instituted the temporal power, and judges whether
that power is well exercised. ... If the temporal power errs,
it is judged by the spiritual. To deny this, is to assert, with
the heretical Manicheans, two coequal principles. We there-
fore assert, define, and pronounce that it is necessary to salva-
tion to believe that every human being is subject to the Pontiff
of Rome."

After the issuing of this bull, preparations were made to
excommunicate and depose Philip. To prevent this, agents of
the French king, acting with the Pope's Italian enemies,
seized him at Anagni in Italy, and subjected him to great Anagni and
indignities. Boniface was now eighty-six years old, aiid vignon

the shock was such that he died within a few weeks (1303).
He was the last of the great mediaeval Popes.

The affair at Anagni is the counterpart to the humiliation
of Henry IV. at Canossa ; the papacy triumphed over the
empire, only to have its own power shattered by the resistance
of the new national monarchies. For three quarters of a cen-

224

RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

tury France now controlled the papacy as the Emperors had
once done. On the ground that Rome was unsafe, the seat of
the Pope was fixed at Avignon, on the borders of France (1305) ;
thus began the period called the " Babylonian Captivity " of
the church, which lasted until 1376.

Papal Palace, Avignon.

Built I;i3»>-1.><)4. One of the best specimens of mediaeval military architecture

in existence.

The death of Pliilip IV., in 1314, was followed by the reign,

in rapid succession, of his three sons — Louis X. (1314-131G),

188. Sue- Philip V. (1316-1322), and Charles IV. (1322-1328).

the^throne '^^^^ chief interest of these reigns lies in the question

(1314-1328) of the succession to the throne, Louis X. was the first

Capetian king to die without a son to succeed him, and the

question arose for the first time whether a woman could reign

in France. An assembly of the nobles and clergy decided

against Louis's daughter and in favor of his brother Philip;

thus a TU'w rule was established, in accordance with which no

([ueeii luis ever held sway over France in her own right.

THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) 225

When Charles IV., the last of the Capetians in the direct
line, died (in 1328) without a son, this rule received a further
extension. The councilors of young Edward III. of England
claimed the throne for him as the nearest male heir, through
his mother, who was a daughter of Philip IV. A French
assembly decided, however, that not only was a woman herself
debarred from the succession, but she could transmit no claim
to her son. This is the principle to which the name " Salic
law" was afterward given, on the supposition that it was
based on a provision of the old law of the Salian Franks. In
reality it was based on the unwillingness of the French nobles
to receive a foreigner as king, and at the time nothing was
said of the Salic law.

The choice of tjie nobles fell upon Philip of Valois, the rep-
resentative of the nearest male line of the Capetian house.
Under the name of Philip VI. he was received by France, and
in 1329, and again in 1331, Edward III. acknowledged him as
his lord for the fief of Guienne, or Aquitaine. Other causes,
however, soon led to war between England and France, and
then the claim of Edward III. to the French throne became a
factor in the contest which we call the Hundred Years' War.

From Louis VI. to Philip IV. there was a steady progress
in territorial unity and governmental efficiency. Philip IV.
gave to the government the general form which it has 139 g^j^,
continued to bear in spite of subsequent revolutions; mary

France ceased to be a mere feudal monarchy and became a
modern state, with power centering in the crown. A compari-
son of the development of France with that of Germany and
England is instructive. In Germany the disintegrating ten-
dencies of feudalism prevailed, a minute territorial division
resulted, and the Emperor was despoiled of all power, without
profit to the people. In England, the struggle between the
feudal nobles and the crown produced a constitutional mon-

226 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

arcliy under which popular rights and liberties rapidly de-
veloped. In France the powers of the crown grew at the
expense of the feudal nobles, but without gain to the people
save through greater security and better government.

After the fall of the Hohenstaufen house, France becomes
the most important country of Europe, the part which the
Emperors formerly played in Italy being now taken by the
French kings. The intellectual and artistic influence of
France was also great. -^ Her intellect," says the eminent his-
torian Lavisse, "gave expression to the whole civilization of
that period — religious, feudal, and knightly. The French
wrote heroic poems, built castles and cathedrals, and inter-
preted the texts of Aristotle and the Scriptures. Their songs,
buildings, and scholastic i)hilo8ophy verged, upon perfection.
Already independent, already mobile and sprightly, the French
mind freed itself from tradition and authority. It produced
the aerial grace of (rothic art. . . . Christian Europe copied
French cathedrals, recited French heroic and humorous songs,
and thus learned the French language. . . . Almost all the
universities of Europe were like swarms of bees from the hive
of ]\Iount St. Genevieve [University of Paris]. A proverb
said that the world Avas ruled by three powers, — the Papacy,
the Empire, and Learning; the first residing in Rome, the
second in Germany, the third in Paris."

TOPICS

Suggestive (1) Why should the ac(iuisition of England by the Norman

^ dukes change their relations to the French kings? (2) What

does the length of the struggle to reduce the domain to order show
concerning the power of the crown at this time? (8) What his-
torical intiucnces would account for the higher civilization of
southern France? (4) Was the church responsible for the cruelty
whirh :u'c<>mp:uiied the Albigensian crusade, or was it due to tlie
chai'a(t( I' ut the limes? (fj) Were tiie i)ersons who took part in
that movciiient more animated by religion or by desire for gain ?
fd) Why should the friars be more successful in combating heresy

THE RISE OF FRANCE (987-1337) 227 .

than the parish priests ? than the monks ? (7) How had Charles
of Anjou come into possession of the kingdom of Naples and
Sicily ? (8) What fundamental difference was there between the
French Parlement and the English Parliament ? (9) Why should
the lawyers prove more loyal servants of the crown than counselors
drawn from the nobles and clergy ? (10) What preliminary train-
ing of the English helped make their Parliament more effective
than the French Estates-General? (11) Distinguish priests,
monks, and friars. (12) What was Aquitaine? (13) What was
Flanders ?

(14) Character and work of Louis VI. (15) Philip Augustus Search
and the Third Crusade. (16) Increase of the royal power under ^°^^^^
Philip Augustus. (17) The Waldenses. (18) The Albigenses.
(19) The troubadours. (20) Saint Dominic. (21) Saint Francis of
Assisi. (22) Louis IX. (23) Contest of Philip IV. and Pope Boni-
face VIII. (24) Popular feeling toward the friars. (25) Early
descriptions of Paris. (26) Nature and authority of a papal bull.

REFERENCES

See maps, pp. 228, 112 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps liv.-lvi. ; Geography
Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 10-12 ; Freeman, Historical Geog-
raphij, II. (Atlas), maps 11, 12, 15; Dow, Atlas, xi.

Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, 311-332; B^mont Secondary
and Monod, Medieval Europe, chs. xxiv.-xxvi. ; Emerton, Mediaeval ^^'^^^^^^'^^^
Europe, 413-433 ; Duruy, France, chs. xvii.-xxiii., — Middle Ages,
174-180, 351-356, 359-384 ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the
Middle Age, chs. vii. xviii. ; Tout, Empire and Papacy, 70-92,
274-295, 393-428 ; Adams, Growth of the French Nation, chs. vi.-
viii. ; Hassall, French People, chs. vi. vii. ; Masson, Medieval
France, i. iii.-viii. ; Kitchin, France, I. bk. iii. ; Hutton, Philip
Augustus ; Historians'' History of the World, XI. chs. ii.-iv.

Robinson, Readings, I. ch. x. ; Thatcher and McNeal, Source Sources
Book, nos. 269-272 ; Henderson, Documents of the Middle Ages,
bk. iii. no. viii. ; University of Pennsylvania, Translations and
Beprints, III. No. 6, pp. 7, 14 ; Joinville, Life of St. Louis.

L. Valentine, The KniqhVs Ransom ; H. Conscience, The Lion illustrative
of Flanders ; G. P. R. James, Philip Augustus ; C. R. Maturin, ^o^^^s
The Albigetises; A.Dumas, The Knight of Maideon; Blisset, ITie
Most Famous Loba ; Davis, Falaise of the Blessed Voice.

1 1 80

Eni/lish Po»tet»iun»

Hi^^Al French Royal Domain
I I Other French Territory

l5%VALEsV

' SCALE OF MILES ^ X

60 lOO ISO »^

ENGLISH POSSESSIONS IN FRANCE, 1180-1429

_ AFTKR 1453 KNC.I.AXD RKTAIXED ONLY CALAIS, AS OX P. 284

L.LJ>0*TE», CNfi«'(C«^ N.r.

CHAPTEE XIV.
THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453)

Many causes combined to produce the succession of conflicts
between England and France which we call the Hundred
Years' War. The conquests of Philip Augustus left a 190. Origin
hostility which lingered in spite of the treaty of 1258 o^^^^ewar
(§ 183); and the rejection of the claims of Edward III. to the
French throne increased the tension. There was also friction
over the English possession of Guienne; and in Scotland the
French aided the young king, David Bruce, while the English,
supported a rival claimant.

The final breach resulted from troubles in Flanders, which
was a French fief, but depended for the prosperity of its towns
on the manufacture of cloth made from English wool. In
1336 the French king, Philip VI. (1328-1350), recklessly caused
the arrest of all Englishmen there ; and in retaliation Edward
III. seized Flemish merchants in his kingdom, and forbade the
exportation of English wool. The Flemish burghers there-
upon rebelled and formed an alliance with England to secure
their accustomed supplies of wool ; and to satisfy their scru-
ples against warring upon their king, Edward III. took the
title of king of France — a title which his successors did not
finally abandon until the time of George III. Previous wars"
between England and France had been feudal struggles be-
tween their kings, the people taking little part : French in-
terference with English interests in Flanders now aroused the
English Parliament to enthusiastic support of the war, and

229

230 KISE OF NATIONAL STATES

Edward's claim to the throne of France made it a life-and
death struggle for the French monarchy.

The oi)erations of the first few years were carried on by

Edward III. in the neighborhood of Flanders, and were with-

191. Open- out appreciable results. In 1340, however, he was met

ing of the qI^ Sluys, while crossing the Channel, by a fleet of French

(1337-1346) and Genoese vessels, which Avere chained together in

Froissart, order to present a more solid front. Then began " a sore

Chronicles, \y^^^iQ qj^ both parts; archers and crossbows began to

shoot, and men of arms approached and fought hand to

hand; and the better to come together they had great hooks

and grappers of iron to cast out of one slup into another, and

so tied them fast together." The battle lasted from morning

until noon, and ended in complete victory for the English.

Thenceforth, for a generation, the English were masters of the

seas, and could land their expeditions where they wished.

In 134G occurred the first pitched
battle of the war. An expedition
under the English king landed in
Normandy and advanced up the
valley of the Seine until the flames
of the villages fired by the English
could be seen from the walls of Paris.
Without attempting to attack the
capital, Edward tiirned northward
to join his forces with those of the
Flemings, while an enormous French
army under Philip followed him.
Edward crossed the river Somme by
means of a ford at the river mouth
revealed by a peasant, and took up a

(iENOESE Cross I'.owMAN. ., • ,1 •n r n '

position near the village of Crecy,
from which the subsequent battle takes its name.

The English, who consisted chiefly of infantry armed with

THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453)

231

the longbow, — the excellence of which had been demonstrated

in the wars of Edward I. against the Welsh and Scots, — were

stationed in three divisions on the ,«« Battle

slope of a little hill. The French of Cr6cy

Q346)
force outnumbered the English five

to one, and consisted chiefly of mounted
men-at-arms, with a body of hired Geno-
ese crossbowmen. The latter were first
sent forward to the attack. They were
tired with a long day's march, and their
crossbow strings were slacked with a wet-
ting received in a passing thundershower.
They were no match for the English long-
bowmen; and when the shafts of the
English began to fall "so thick that it
seemed as if it snowed," the Genoese
broke and fled. At this Philip in passion
called out, " Slay these rascals, for they

trouble us without reason." " And ^ .

t rotssart,
ever still," says Froissart, "the Englishmen shot wher- Chronicles,

ever they saw thickest press ; the sharp arrows ran into "'^^

the men of arms and into their horses ; and many fell, horse
and men, among the Genoese, and when they were down they
could not arise again, the press was so thick that one over-
threw another."

A portion of the French finally managed to. reach the
English knights under the Black Prince, son of Edward III.,
who were on foot in the rear of the archers. In haste mes-
sengers were sent to inform the king, who with the reserve
coolly watched the battle from a windmill at the top of the hill.

"Return to them that sent you," said Edward, "and ^ .

'^ ' ' Froissart,

say to them that they send no more to me as long as my Chronicles,

son is alive. And also say to them that they suffer him ^'*- ^^^

this day to win his spurs ; for if God be pleased, I will that

English Longbowman.

232 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

this day be his and the honor thereof." On the French siae
there fell the blind old king of Bohemia, who chivalrously
caused his horse to be led into the fight that he " might strike
one stroke " with his sword in the cause of his ally.

At nightfall the English lines were still unbroken, while
the French were in hopeless confusion. Philip fled wounded

193 Effect ^^^^^^ ^^'^ field, leaving behind him among the slain eleven

of Cr6cy princes of France and thousands of lesser rank. The
(1346^

English loss was inconsiderable. The victory was due

chiefly to the English archers and the tactical skill of King

Edward. Even if cannon of a small, crude sort were not (as

some writers claim) used at Crecy, the battle nevertheless

foretold, equally with that of Courtrai (§ 185), a new era in

Lodoe Close ^^^^^^^- " ^^ "^^^ ^ combat of infantry against cavalry,

of the Mid- of missile weapons against heavy armor and lances, of

- (/es, J trained professional soldiers against a combination of

foreign mercenaries with disorderly feudal levies. And the

inevitable result was made the more decisive by the utter

want of generalship on the part of the French king."

After the battle, Edward continued his retreat unmolested,
and laid siege to the city of Calais. In spite of a heroic re-
sistance the town was at last obliged to surrender. Although
Edward did not, as he at first threatened, put to death the
leading townsmen, the whole population was expelled and their
places taken by English settlers. For two hundred years,
thenceforth, Calais was an English town, an outpost of Eng-
land's power and trade ; and its possession, with that of Dover
on the other side the Channel, went far to confirm the claim of
the English king to be " lord of the narrow seas."

After the fall of (Jalais, a truce was arranged which lasted

194 The ^^^ several years. In this interval the exhaustion caused

Black Death by the war was aggravated by a teri'ible pestilence, called
(1347-1351) .^rt . I J

the '^ Hla(;k Death," which resembled the bubonic plague

of to-day. Arising in Asia, it reached Europe by way of

THE HUNDHEl) YEARS' WAR (13:)7-1453) 233

Egypt and Syria, appearing in Sicily, Tuscany, and Pro-
vence in 1847. During the winter months its x)rogress was
checked ; but the next summer it resumed its march, spreading
" from city to city, from village to village, from house to house,
from man to man." Germany and England experienced its
ravages in 1349 and 1350 ; Norway and Russia in 1351.

Everywhere the mortality was frightful ; in some of the
provinces of France, two thirds of the population perished ; dur-
ing the four years that this plague lasted, at least a third of the
inhabitants of Europe were carried off. The unsanitary arrange-
ments of the Middle Ages — the complete lack of sewerage
systems, the accumulations of filth and decaying matter in
streets and houses, and the pollution of water supplies —
sufficiently explain the widespread and great mortality.
Where conditions were better, as among the monks of Christ
Church, Canterbury, the mortality was less. The Black Death
was only the most terrible of many plagues which devastated
Europe in the Middle Ages, the recurrence of which gradually
ceased with advance in cleanliness and sanitary science.

The direct and indirect effects of the Black Death were very
great. In Germany an hysterical religious outbreak occurred,
and companies of penitents called Flagellants journeyed ^g_ _,«.
from place to place, seeking to appease the wrath of God of the

by mutual scourgings. In England the decline in the ^° ®^*
number of laborers gradually produced an abandonment of
the old manorial system of agriculture; more and more the
lands were let out to tenant farmers paying money rent instead
of services, or else they were put into pasture for sheep.
Villenage declined, especially after a rising of the peasants in
1381, under Wat Tyler ; and a system of free labor gradually
took its place. To meet conditions produced by these changes,
the government was obliged more and more to undertake,
through parliamentary statutes, the regulation of trade and in-
dustry; thus the functions of the state were enlarged, and

234 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

thereby the change from mediaeval to modern usages and ideas
was hastened.

In France the influence of the Black Death was complicated
by the devastation wrought by war and misgovernment.
1S6 Deso- '^^^^ condition of the people in the second half of the
lation of century became pitiable in the extreme. On the reduced
population the heavy taxes for the English war fell with
redoubled force. The peasants had to contribute to pay ran-
soms for the deliverance of their lords from captivity, and
for the redemption of their own goods from destruction.
Tliey were forced by both sides to labor without pay in
carrying supplies, and at siege operatious. Often they were
tortured to extort money and provisions, when they them-
selves lacked bread for their families. To escape such evils,
peasants fled in large numbers to the depths of the forests, only
to die of famine and the attacks of wolves. Many parishes
were completely depopulated. Through the joint operation of
the plague and the war, the rude })rosi)erity which character-
ized the French people at the beginning of the century was
brought to an end, and seeds of weakuess were sown from
which the land was slow to recover.

Philip VI. died in lo50, before the renewal of the war. His
son John (1350-1364) was a good knight, but without capacity
197 B ttl ^^^ government or generalship. In 1355 the war was
of Poitiers renewed by an expedition of the Black Prince into
^ ^ southern France. The next year the i)rince started to

march northward into Normandy ; but near Poitiers he was
confronted by an army many times larger than his own. So
hopeless seemed the odds, that he offered (but in vain) to sur-
render his spoil and his prisoners, and to bind himself not
to fight again for seven years, as the price of a free retreat.

As at Crecy, the English force consisted principally of
archers, while the French were mostly mounted and armored
knights. The English were stationed on a little plateau pro-

THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453) 235

tected by ii hedge and by rough and marshy ground. King
John was persuaded that the strength of the English at Crecy
had been due, not to their archers, but to the fact that their
men-at-arms were dismounted; accordingly, he ordered his
knights to advance on foot, thus throwing away his chief ad-
vantage. The first and second divisions of his army failed to
come within striking distance of the enemy; and upon their
retiring, the third division, commanded by the king himself,
was left to bear the whole weight of the English counter-
attack. " There was a sore fight," says Froissart, " and Froissart
many a great stroke given and received. . . . King John Chronicles,
with his own hands did that day marvels in arms ; he
had an ax in his hands wherewith he defended himself and
fought in the breaking of the press." Eefusing to flee, he and
his youngest son were taken captives by the English.

The whole number of prisoners was twice that of their
English captors. " That day," says Froissart, " whosoever
took any prisoner, he was clear his, and might quit Froissart
or ransom him at his pleasure. All such as were there Chronicles,
with the prince were all made rich with honor and goods,
as well by ransoming of prisoners as by winning of gold, silver,
plate, jewels, that were there found." After the battle the
Black Prince entertained the captive king, waiting upon him
in person at table. But for all this chivalrous display, the
English shrewdly extracted full advantage from the victory ;
and pending the acceptance of their terms. King John was car-
ried prisoner to London, where for four years he was detained
in honorable captivity.

France meanwhile was in a deplorable condition. The gov-
ernment was carried on by the king's eldest son, Charles jgg inter-

— the first of the heirs-apparent of France to bear the nal disor-

dors in
title of Dauphin, derived from the Dauphine just east France

of the river Rhone, which was annexed to France in (1356-1360)
1349. Charles was an untried youth, and demoralization per-

HARDING's M. & M. HIST. — 14

236

RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

vadecl every branch of the government. The difficulties of
his position made necessary the frequent assembling of the
Estates-General, and the death and captivity of so many of
the nobles threw the preponderance in these sessions into
the hands of the Third Estate, or representatives of the towns.
Their leader was Stephen Marcel, provost of the merchant
guild of Paris ; and their demands embraced
a complete reform of the government, in-
cluding a reduction of the privileges of the
nobles and a commission of administration
appointed by the Estates. When the Dauphin
restored some dispossessed officials, Marcel
gathered a mob and slew them in the
Dauphin's presence. This was too much
for moderate men ; a reaction followed, and
when the Dauphin brought troops to reduce
his rebellious capital, Paris stood almost
alone.

At this time (1358) there was added to
tho other miseries of France a great rising
of the peasants, called the Jacquerie from
their nickname of " Jacques Bonhomme."
The peasants had suffered most from the war
and the pestilence; and to their dull minds the disasters of
Crecy and Poitiers were explainable only on the theory that
the nobles had betrayed France. The movement was confined
to a few })rovinces in northern France, but it was characterized
by the utmost ferocity; the peasants seemed turned by their
sufferings into wild beasts, and the nobles retaliated in like
manner. The revolt was soon put down, and the lot of the
peasant, who w^as now dreaded as well as despised, became
worse than before.

]\Iarcel's policy became steadily more narrowly selfish. He
tried to ally Paris with the revolted peasants ; then he plotted

Fkp:n(h Xorlk,
14 ih i' en uk y.

THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-145:]) 237

to put the city into the hands of Charles the Bad of Navarre,
who claimed the throne against both King John and Edward III.
While opening the gates to admit Charles, Marcel was assas-
sinated (July, 1358), and the Dauphin's authority over the city
was restored. In spite of his mistakes and failures. Marcel is
memorable as " the leader of the most notable attempt, before
1789, to give to France a constitutional form of government."

A treaty with E nglamLffl:as atja st conclnrled at Bretigrty in
1360 . King John agreed to pay a large money ransom, and

Edward III. agreed to abandon his claims to the French

^ ^ 199. Treaty

crown m return for the confirmation in full sovereignty of Bretigny

of his possession of Calais, Ponthieu, and Aquitaine. All (1360)

questions seemed settled and the war ended by this treaty.

Four years later King John died at London, whither he had

returned on a visit of mingled business and pleasure.

The new king, Charles V. (1364-1380), had as Dauphin

gained in experience ; as king he is known as Charles ^' the

Wise," and was one of the ablest rulers of France in the 200. Charles

Middle Ages. He was no knight-errant, but a shrewd, ^- ^^^ ^^
^ & J 5 Guesclin

practical statesman, who knew how to select good gen- (1364-1380)
erals, and fought no useless battles. During the first five
years of his reign, peace was kept with England, the abuses
of government were remedied, and the country was rid of the
" free companies " of mercenaries, who in spite of the peace
preyed upon the inhabitants.

After France had thus been strengthened^.^ ^^iretext was
found for reasserting suzerainty over Aquitaine, and in 1369
war with England began once more. Every advantage now
was on the side of France. England was tired of the war,
Edward III. was old and enfeebled (he died in 1377), and the
Black Prince was burdened with a disease which carried him
off the year before his father. The command of the sea was
with the French, thanks to the fleet of the king of Castile,
whom Charles aided against a rival supported by the English.

238

RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

French Ship, 14th Century.

Finally, the French now had a first-class general in Bertrand
du Guesclin, a low-born Breton who cast aside the old knightly
traditions of warfare, used professional soldiers instead of the

disorderly feudal
levies, and carried
on a cautious cam-
paign of rapid
maneuvers, strata-
gems, and ambus-
cades. As a result,
place after place
fell into French
hands; and in 1375,
when a truce was
made, Calais in
the north and Bor-
deaux and Bayonne
in the south were the only important places left to the English.
This, however, proved the limit of Charles's success. In
1380 both he and his general, Du Guesclin, died. His heir,
201 Lull ■ Charles VI. (1380-1422), was a siftkly boy, who became
the war insane soon after attaining manhood. The regency during

^ ~ ^ his minority was in the hands of his uncles, of whom the
leading spirit was the Duke of Burgundy. The new nobles of
the royal house proved as selfishly feudal and as opposed to
the interest of the monarchy as were the old nobility ; France
groaned under their oppressions, and ineffectual rebellions of
the cities broke out. Fortunately for France, England also
experienced the evils of a regency and internal dissensions
under the son of the Black Prince, Richard II. (1377-1399^ ;
and the war languished, with Jiuiginteryals of tm^e,jiiit£ 1414.
Civil war meanwhile broke out among the French princes,
to lend a deeper shade of horror to events. The rivals for
control during the insanity of the king were the king's cousin.

THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453) 239

John of Burgundy (who from his mother inherited Flanders

and Artois), and the king's younger brother, Louis, Duke of

Orleans. In 1407 this contest reached a climax when 202. Bur-

the taciturn and surly Burgundy caused the murder of his gundians

dJDid At-
opponent. For a time the adherents of Orleans accepted magnacs

a reconciliation; but in 1411 all restraint was thrown (1407-1416)
off, and civil war began. From the principal leader of their
party the Orleanists were called Armagnacs, their opponents
being Burgundians. In these struggles no quarter was giveny
and both parties devastated the country. The people were'
crushed with taxes, while the princes indulged in wild ex-\
travagance; the result was a rising of the Parisian mob
(called " Cabochiens," from one of its leaders), whose brutal
excesses disgraced the sober reform movement which they
accompanied. Both Armagnacs and Burgundians sought aid
from England, where Richard II. had been deposed, and
Henry IV. (1399-1413), of the Lancastrian house, had acquired
the crown. Upon the death of Henry IV., his son, the Eng-
lish national hero Henry V. (1413-1422) became king; and
to quiet dynastic struggles he revived the claims of Edward
III. to the French throne.

In 1415 Henry V. led an army into Normandy, whence,
after some successes, he marched northward toward Calais.
At Agincourt, near Crecy, his way was blocked by a great .-„ Battle
French army composed mainly of Armagnacs, who at of Agin-
that moment were in control of the government. The °°^^( ^^)
French seem to have profited neither by the disasters of King
John nor the successes of Charles V. and Du Guesclin. Again
their forces were chiefly dismounted knights, weighted with
their heavy armor, and packed so closely in the narrow defile
that they scarcely had room to wield their swords ; to make
matters worse, the field was newly harrowed and ankle-deep
with mud. Well might King Henry say, the night before the
battle, that he " wished not for a single man more " to share

240 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

the glory ! A third English victory, equal to those won at
Crecy and Poitiers, was the result.

Instead of uniting French parties, the disaster of Agincourt

served only to.^make the feuds of the princes more bitter.

204. Confu- In 1419 a conference took place between the Dauphin

sion in Charles, now head of the Armagnac party, and John of

(1415-1429) Burgundy, at which the latter was treacherously slain by

the Orleanists. The new Duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good,

put himself unreservedly on the English side. In, J 4^0 a

^eaty was_signed at Troyes by which the shameless French

queen, Isabella, disinhertteiHrer son the Dauphin, and married

her daughter Catherine to Henry V. of England, with provision

that the latter should rule France and become its king after

the death of her husband, Charles VI.

Against this treaty the Dauphin protested. Southern France
remained loyal to him, but the north, including the capital,
passed into English hands. Henry's rule in France, however,
was short, as he died in 1422 ; seven weeks later the pathetic life
of Charles YI. also came to an end. The heir of both kingdoms,
by the treaty of Troyes, was a babe less than a year old,
Henry YI., son of Henry Y. and Catherine. Such sentiment
of nationality as existed in France supported the claims of
the Dauphin, now called Charles" YII. (1422-1461). But his
resources were slender, and his court at Bourges was distracted
by the quarrels and violence of his adherents; during the
first seven years of his reign, therefore, little progi-ess was
made in driving the enemy from the realm. The English
cause also was weakened by quarrels : the young king's uncle,
the Duke of Bedford, who acted as regent in France, was an
able soldier and wise statesman ; but another uncle, the Duke
of Gloucester, was a selfish politician, whose ambitious schemes
seriously menaced the English alliance with Burgundy.
^ In 1429 a jievv factor entered the struggle in the person of
floan of Arc. Joan was an uneducated peasant maid of north-

THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453)

241

eastern France, of a mystical religious temperament. After

reaching the age of fourteen she began to hear "voices" and

see visions of saints and angels, in which she believed „^^ .

,. .,, ^, , 205. Joan

implicitly. She was much affected by the troubles of the of Arc

time. When she was seventeen her " voices " urged her (1*29-1431)
to go to the Dauphin, lead him to Rheims to be crowned, and
deliver France. After much difficulty she reached the king's
court, in male attire ;
and she so impressed
Charles that he gave
her an opportunity to
show the reality of
her powers. The city
of Orleans at this
time was beset by the!
English ; if it fell, itj
would carry with ill
the ruin of the French]
cause. Equipped with (
armor and a holy
banner, the maid set
out with a small
force, and entered Or-
leans in April, 1429.
Blow after blow was

struck against the English, and within ten days the siege was
raised. The French seemed suddenly to have become invinci-
ble. Success followed success, until in July Joan led Charles
to Rheims for'corohation at the place where his ancestors had
been crowned, and thus accomplished her mission.

After this, Charles was received with enthusiasm ; but the
successes won by Joan aroused the jealousy of Charles's ad-
visers, and they did all they could to thwart her further plans.
In September she was wounded while leading an attack on

Home of Joan of Arc.

The sculptures over the entrance date from the
restoration of the house in 1481.

242 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

Paris. In May of the next year she was taken prisoner by
the Burgundians, and eventually turned over to the English.
To break the spell of her deeds, she was accused of sorcery
and heresy and tried before the bishop of Beauvais, an Eng-
lish partisan. Her condemnation was a foregone conclusion ;
and at Rouen in May, 1431, — wearing the cap of those con-
demned by the IiKjuisition, on whic^h were painted devils and
flames, with the words, " Relapsed heretic, apostate, and idol-
ater," — she was burned at the stake. The nobility and purity
of her character were such as to impress even her enemies.
" We are lost ; we have burned a saint ! " were the words of an
Englishman who witnessed her execution. The greatest blot
on the fame of Charles VII. is the ingratitude he showed in
making no effort to rescue from death the brave girl who,
more than any one else, saved for him the throne of France.

The influence of Joan of Arc survived her in the energy with
whic]4 the war was continued. In 1435 Philip of Burgundy
206 CI e ^b^i^^^oned the English cause, on condition that he be
of the war j given certain lands and be freed from all homage to ■
^ ~ j Charles VII. during his lifetime; and France was thus
once more united. A series of reforms also gave to the crown
a standing army, a force of improved artillery, — for cannon
were becoming effective, — and a permanent revenue. While
j the French government was thus strengthened, England was
) weakened by the death of Bedford, the insanity of King Henry
VL, and the growth of the dissensions among the English
; princes which developed into the Wars of the Roses (1455-
/ 1485). In these circumstances the expulsion of the English
from France was only a question of time. In 1436 Paris sur-
rendered to one of (Charles's generals, the populace crying,
*' Peace, the king, and the Duke of Burgundy!" In 1445-1451
Normandy and the greater jjart of Aquitaine were conquered.
Finally, in 145M, Bordeaux surrendered. Only Calais remained
in English hands, to be kept for a century longer. The

THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1453) 243

Hundred Years' War, with its enormous injury, both material
and moral, to both parties, came quietly to an end.

Instead of winning for the English crown the whole of
France, the Hundred Years' War thus lost for it possessions
which had been held by English kings since the accession
of Henry II. (1154). For France the struggle had these
results : (1) the French king was delivered from the anomaly

Entry of Charles VII. into Paris.
From a miniature in a 15th century manuscript.

of having a rival king among his vassals ; (2) the power of the
crown was consolidated into ahnost absolute monarchy ; (3) a
national sentiment was born, which ultimately led to the com-
plete nationality of to-day. But against these gains must be
balanced fearful losses inflicted upon land and people, the
check to population, and the brutalization of long-continued
and unrestrained warfare.

The Hundred Years' War between England and France
began in 1337 and lasted until 1453. It was caused by friction

244

RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

between the two countries in Aquitaine, Scotland, and Flan-
ders, and became desperate as a result of the claim advanced
207. Sum- by Edward III. to the French throne. It comprised three
^^^ periods of active warfare : (1) In the first (1337-1360)

occurred the great English victories of Crecy (1346) and Poitiers
(1356), the terrible ravages of the Black Death (1347-1351), and
the uprisings of Marcel and the Jacquerie (1358) j it closed -^ith
the treaty of Bretigny (1360). (2) The second period (1369-
1380) was marked by the wise leadership of the French king,
Charles V., and his general, Du Guesclin, which brought the
greater part of the English possessions into French hands.
(3) The third period (1415-1453) saw Henry V.'s great victory
at Agincourt (1415), the treaty of Troyes (1420), the relief of
Orleans by Joan of Arc, and the final expulsion of the English
from Aquitaine in 1453.

Suggestive
topics

Search
topics

TOPICS

(1) Is the battle of Sluys to be classed as a real naval battle?
(2) What advantage did it give the English ? (3) What was it
that enabled the English to win at Cr^cy and Poitiers? (4) Of
what value was Calais to the English ? (5) How did the Black
Death produce a decline of the manorial system ? (6) Was
King John of France a good soldier ? Was he a good general ?
(7) What effect would the excesses of Stephen Marcel have on
the attitude of future kings toward the Estates-General ? (8) What
change was to be made in the position of the English in Aquitaine
by the treaty of Bretigny ? (9) Which side was responsible for
the renewal of the war ? (10) Was the treaty of Troyes binding
on France ? (11) Why did Joan of Arc experience such difficulty
in obtaining an opportunity to show her powers? (12) Was it
only jealousy of her that led Charles's advisers to oppose her
plans? (13) Why were the English determined to prove her a
heretic? (14) Was it a good or a bad thing for England that it
lost its possessions in France? (15) Would it have been an
advantage to the two countries to have had the same king?

(16) Real causes of the Hundred Years' War. (17) The Black
Prince. (18) The English archers, their training and prowess.
(19) The Black Death. (20) Rising of the English peasants in
1381. (21) Stephen Marcel. (22) The Jacquerie. (23) Renewal

THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR (1337-1463) 245

of the war in 1369. (24) Bertrand du Guesclin. (25) Battle of
Agincourt. (26) Joan of Arc. (27) Source of her strength.
(28) Attitude of the time towards witchcraft. (29) Reforms of
government under Charles VII. (30) Arms, armor, and warfare
in the time of the Hundred Years' "War. (31) The Dauphin^.

REFERENCES

See map, p. 228 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, map Ivi. ; Gardiner, Oeosnfaphy
School Atlas, maps 15-17 ; Freeman, Historical Geography, II.
(Atlas), maps 16, 17 ; Dow, Atlas, xii.

Duruy, France, chs. xxviii.-xxxiii., — Middle Ages, chs. xxvii. Secondary
xxviii. ; Lodge, Close of the Middle Ages, chs. iv. xvi. ; Hassall, ^''^* onties
French People, ch. viii. ; Masson, Medieval France, 165-272 ;
Kitchin, France, I. bk. iv. ; Mackinnon, Growth and Decline of
French Monarchy, chs. ii. iii. ; Michelet, History of France, L
415-469, II. 79-105, 127-174 ; Terry, History of England, 350-388,
443-464 ; Gardiner, Student's History of England, 231-320 ; Ran-
some. Advanced History of England, 299-348 ; George, Battles of
English History, chs. v. vi. ; Oman, History of the Art of War,
bk. viii. chs. i.-iii. ; Gasquet, The Great Pestilence, 34-57, 194-219;
Lea, History of the Inquisition, III. 338-378 ; F. C. Lowell, Joan
of Arc ; Stoddard, Bertrand Du Guesclin; Historians'' History of
the World, XI. chs. v.-ix.

Ogg, Source Book, ch. xxv. ; Robinson, Beadings, I. ch. xx. ; Soiirces
University of Pennsylvania, Translations and Beprints, II. No. 5 ;
Ashley, Edward III. and his Wars ; Froissart, Chronicles (Globe
ed.), chs. 1. cxxviii.-cxxx. clxi.-clxviii. ; Murray, Jeanne d''Arc;
Colby, Selections from the Sources, nos. 38-40, 42, 45 ; Adams and
Stephens, Select Documents, nos. 60, 73, 75, 79, 95, 98, 108 ; Frazer,
English History, 1307-1399, nos. 28-33, 38-43, 50-55 ; Durham,
English History, 1399-1482, nos. 22, 23, 27, 28-38, 41-58.

Catherwood, Days of Jeanne d'Arc; E. Robinson, The Maid of Ulustrative
Orleans] Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain), Personal Becollec- ^^^ *
tions of Joan of Arc, by the Sieur Louis le Conte ; G. P. R. James,
The Jacquerie ; C. M. Yonge, The Lances of Lynwood ; J. G.
Edgar, Cre(;,y and Poictiers ; Dumas, Isabel of Bavaria ; A. Conan
Doyle, The White Company.

CHAPTEK XV.

DEVELOPMENT OV MODERN STATES (1254-1600)

The fall of the Hohenstaufen house (§ 136) was followed in
Germany by the Great Interregnum (1254-1273), when for a

208. The «f'ore of years the land was practically without a head.

Great Two foreigners — Kichard, Duke of Cornwall, and Al-

Interreg-

num f onso X., king of Castile — claimed the throne by election,

(1254-1273) |3^^^ neither secured general recognition. The decentraliz-
ing forces long at work in Germany seemed completely tri-
umphant. The imperial domains passed into the hands of the
])rinces, so that the Interregnum caused the loss of the imperial
revenues as well as a weakening of the imperial prerogatives.
The feudal barons, secure in their strong castles, ruled as they
pleased ; peasants were tortured and oppressed, and merchants
were robbed at will ; " fist-right" — the rule of the strongest —
was the only law the nobles recognized.

Tlie death of liichard of Cornwall in 1272 gave the princes
the opportunity to end the Interregnum by a new election.

209. Sue- Their choice fell on Rudolph of Hapsburg, a Swabian,
cession of froin whose poverty no danger to their independence
perors was feared. Rudolph I. (1273-1291) recognized that it
(1273-1313) ^^a^g fQiiy f^y ^i^g Emperor to attempt to control Italy,

and devoted his attention to building up a family power in
Germany ; his greatest success was the conquest of Austria,
which thenceforth belonged to the Hapsburg house. On his
death the princes passed over his son, and chose another " poor
count," Adolf of Nassau (1292-1298) ; but Adolf's attempt to

24G

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1 2.14-1500) 247

find in an alliance with the lesser nobles and towns a counter-
poise to the power of the princes led to his deposition.

Kudolph's son, Albert of Austria (1298-1308), was then
elected Emperor, and followed the policies of his father ; his
reign was cut short by murder — the result of a private quar-
rel. Once more the princes refused to choose the son of the
preceding Emperor, and Erench influence procured the elec-
tion of a petty ruler of western Germany, Henry of Luxem-
burg (p. 252). Abandoning the safe policies of the last three
rulers, Henry VII. (1308-1313) revived the imperial pre-
tensions, and wasted his energies on an Italian expedition
which cost him his life. The acquisition of Bohemia for his
family, by marriage and warfare, was his one substantial gain.

The death of Henry VII. in 1313 was followed by a double
election. The right to choose the king of Germany (the fu-
ture Emperor), originally vested in all freemen, had 210 Dis-
gradually been restricted, until by the end of the P^te oyer
thirteenth century the idea became fixed that there election
should be just seven persons, constituting an electoral (1314-1347)
college, who possessed the hereditary right to elect. In 1313
two of the seats in the electoral college were in dispute ; and
moreover the notion of submission to a constitutional majority
was still weak. The Hapsburgs, seeking to regain the power
they had lost, procured the election of Frederick of Austria by
one section of the electors ; while the opposing electors, pass- -^

ing by the house of Luxemburg, chose Louis, Duke of Bavaria. ^

War followed, which ended in the capture of Frederick by his
opponent (in the battle of Mtihldorf, 1322). For political rea-
sons the Pope, John XXIL, refused to recognize Louis; but
the national sentiment of Germany rallied to his sup- Thatch&r
port. A Diet held at Frankfort in 1338 declared that <^nd

"he who is elected Emperor or king by the electors of Source

the empire, thereby becomes true king and Emperor . . . ^ook, 279
without the approval, confirmation, authorization, or consent of

248 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

the Pope or of any other person " ; and Louis was able to
maintain himself until his death in 1347.

In the last year of Louis's reign, his opponents procured the
election of Charles of Bohemia, grandson of Henry VIL, as
211. Charles his rival; and eventually Charles received recognition
Golden Bull ^^'^^^^ ^^^ Germany. He proved not merely the greatest
(1356) king of the Luxemburg house, but one of the wisest

rulers produced by Europe in the fourteenth century. His
policy of building up Bohemia, through the promotion of com-
merce and the founding of a university at Prague, caused one
of his successors, the Emperor Maximilian, to say that he
"was the father of Bolieniia, but the stepfather of the empire."
This charge was based on Charles's persistent refusal to be
drawn into Italian politics, and on the famous Golden Bull
issued by him in 1356. In this document the seven electoral
votes were definitely decided to belong to the three great
Rhineland archbishops — of Mainz, ( 'ologne (in German, Koln),
and Treves (in German, Trier) ; and to four secular princes —
the king of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the
Duke of Saxony, and the ]\Iargrave of Brandenburg (map, p}).
252, 253). To prevent future disputes, their territories were
made indivisible, with succession to males only. The right
of coining inoney and of trying cases without appeal was given
to the electors, who were placed above all other German
princes. This arrangement made the constitution of Germany
for centuries a federation instead of a centralized monarch3^
While the central power in Germany was growing feeble,
evidence was given, in the rise of the Swiss Confederation,
212. The of sturdy vitality in the people. Many legends, such as

Swiss Con- ^1^^^ ^ ^^.^j^j^ William Toll is the hero, have arisen

federation '

(1291-1338) (concerning the origin of the Swiss Confederation ; but

historians have shown these to be pure myths. The real

beginning of tliat inii)ortant movement was the desire of the

peasants of the three Swiss mountain cantons — Uri, Schwyz,

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1254-1500) 249

Growth of the Swiss Confederation.

and Uiiterwalden — to secure their independence against their
powerful neighbor, the Count of Hapsburg, who claimed lord-
ship over them. In 1291 they formed their league, " to aid and
defend each other .... against every enemy; " as yet the confed-
eration embraced only the three " forest cantons," and provided
no means of federal government. The preoccupation of the
Hapsburgs with Austria left these- hardy mountaineers for a
time in peace ; and when (in 1315) an attempt was made to sub-
due them, the Austrian forces were signally routed at Morgarten.
Soon after, Louis of Bavaria, who was hostile to the
Hapsburg house, confirmed the immediate dependence of the
cantons on the empire. Other cantons then joined the con-
federation, until (by 1353) their number had been raised to
"the eight old places," including the prosperous cities of
Zurich, Lucerne, and Bern. But danger from the Hapsburg
lords still continued, and in 1386 a second great battle was

250

RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

Castlk H-vrsurij

(Frciii an old print.)

fought at Sempach: in this battle the confederates were
again victorious; the feudal forces of the Hapsburgs were

defeated by the rude
mountaineers, and
their leader slain.
After a third battle
(at Nafels, in 1388)
the independent posi-
tion of the Swiss was
secured ; and thence-
forth to the close
of the Middle Ages
their league grew in
numbers and in defi-
iiiteness of internal
organization, without
hindrance from the imperial power or the Hapsburg house.

In government a momentous change was taking place with
the rise of modern states. In the early Middle Ages there
213 Rise of ^^^^^led the two great world powers — ideal and often
modern visionary — the papacy and the empire, to which in
theory all owed allegiance. In the second half of the
fifteenth century both these i)owers were broken, and lingered
c'ls mere ghosts of their former selves. Then, feudalism was
the basis of union in the state ; now, feudalism as a political
force was dead. Then, the nations of Europe had not been
formed, and governments were characterized by provincial
separation, by weakness of c(mtral control, by absence of
legislative, })olice, and taxing functions, and by undeveloped
machinery for such powers as were exercised; now, in several
countries, modern states had arisen, strong in their national
support, with enlarged powers and differentiated organs,
strengthened by a body of well-ordered law, and controlling
adequately their resources of men and money.

states

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1254-1500) 251

Of such states, France is the ,be^t_iXPS>— Under Charles
VII. (1422-1461), after the close of the Hundred Years' War,
the government not only recovered from disorder but 214. France
took on new strength; and under his son, Louis XI. ^T^^/r^ei-
(1461-1483), the development continued. In character, 1483)

Louis XI. was unscrupulous, cruel, and fond of cunning in-
trigue. His chief object was to wipe out the last traces of
feudal independence and make the monarchical power supreme.
At the beginning of his reign he was met by a formidable
league, headed by the dukes of Burgundy and Brittany,
and his own brother Charles of Berri ; although this was
called the " League of the Public Weal,'' the peace extorted
from the king in 1465 showed that selfish interests predomi-
nated. On the rise of new difficulties, Louis, in 1469, rashly
sought to try his powers of diplomacy in a personal inter-
view with Charles the Bold, who had now succeeded his
father as Duke of Burgundy : at this moment the Burgundian
city of Liege revolted, stirred up by the agents of the French
king; Charles was furious, and Louis escaped from his peril-
ous position only by a second humiliating submission. The
opportune death of the Duke of Berri, in 1472, finally broke
the coalition of princes and ended open hostilities.

Charles of Burgundy thenceforth found his energies diverted

in a new direction. As ruler of the duchy and county of

Burgundy, of the county of Flanders, and of a number 215. Death

of imperial fiefs in the Netherlands, Charles was one of Charles

... the Bold of
of the greatest princes of his day ; but his territories Burgundy

were scattered and inharmonious (map, p. 252), and were (1477)

held by widely differing titles. The ambition of his life was

to consolidate these, and secure for himself the title of king.

The pursuit of this object led him more and more into

German politics, and ultimately he came into conflict with the

Swiss confederates. In this war he was signally defeated at

Granson and Morat in 1476 ; and a little later (January, 1477)

254

RISE OJ NATIONAL STATES

Charles the Bold met his death at Nancy, at the hands of thi^
Swiss pikenien and halberdiers. Again the lesson was enforced,
as at Crecy, that foot soldiers properly armed and handled
were more than a match for feudal cavalry.

Louis XI. meanwhile was carrying out unchecked his policy
of royal aggrandizement. Charles the Bold left as heir his

daughter Mary, who
was soon married to
Maximilian of Aus-
tria ; but the duchy of
Burgundy and other
of Charles's posses-
sions were seized by
Louis as king of
France, on the ground
that they could piss
only to male heirs.
In other directions
the royal domain was
rounded out under
Louis XL, until it
became almost coter-
minous with France
itself. The only great
feudal domains left
outstanding were
Brittany and Flanders : the former was finally acquired by
marriage early in the sixteenth century ; the latter had long
been drifting away from France, and in 1526 was surren-
dered to the empire — to be largely reconquered in the next
century.

Charles VIIL, son of Louis XL, was thirteen years of
age when his father's death made him king of France.
During his minority the government was ably administered

Mary of Burgundy.
From the painting by R. van Bruges.

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1254-1500) 255

VIII. of

France

(1483-1498)

Maximilian of Austria.
From an old print.

by his sister Anne, whom
her father had cynically
styled "the least 21 6. Charles
foolish woman in
the world."

Upon coming of age,
Charles, in 1494, led an
army into Italy to en-
force claims to the king-
dom of Naples which he
had inherited, from the
house of An j oil (§ 136).
The weakness of the
mutually hostile Italian
states was strikingly re-
vealed by this expedi-
tion; it was almost a triumphal procession, and Naples fell
with scarcely a blow. But soon Charles was called back by
news of a formidable league formed in his rear by Milan,
Venice, the Pope, Spain, and the Emperor. Before his death
(in 1498) Naples was again lost to France, and soon passed
into the hands of Ferdinand of Aragon, who already ruled
Sicily. The expedition of Charles YIII. was nevertheless of
great importance : it marks the end of the period of national
isolation, and introduces a period of international leagues and
warfare ; more especially it marks the beginning of a conflict
for the control of Italy between France and Spain, which lasted
until 1559, and profoundly affected the development of the
German Keformation.

England from 1455 to 1485 was torn by the Wars of the
Eoses, in which the rival houses of York and Lancaster 217. Eng-
contested for the crown. The Yorkist king Edward lY. if^thesS^ses
(1461-1483) gave England a strong, capable rule in the (1455-1485)
intervals of peace; but after his death his two little sons
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 15

2r,(3

RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

were murdered in London Tower by their uncle, who usurped
the crown as Richard III. In 1485 Richard was slain at tlie
battle of I>os worth, and his opponent of the house of Tudor
became king as Henry VII. (1485-1509). The Tudor kings
became almost desi)otic ; but tlie nation gladly supported their
rule for the sake of the peace and good order which it brought.

JSti: i.f Uihralh

f Gibialtii

SCALE OF MILES

^K^

Spanish States, 12()<)-14'.>'_'.

The development of Spain in the fifteenth century was little

short of marvelous. During the Middle Ages its history lies

0,0 T»- outside the general history of western Europe, its chief
218. Rise " • i '

of Spain features being (1) the gradual decay of the Mohammedan
power (§ 12), whicli passed to the Moors (descendants of
African l^)erbers mixed with other peoples), and (2) the rise
of the ( 'hristian states of Castile and Leon, Aragon, Portugal,
and Navarre : by 120(5 the floors were confined to the kingdom
of Granada, where they remained in comparative peace for
more than tw-o centuries. In 1469 the marriage of Ferdinand

1469-1516)

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1254-1500) 257

of Aragon and Isabella of Castile laid the basis of the per-
manent union of these countries under a single head; then
in 1492 Granada was taken, and the long crusade against the
Mohammedans was brought to an end.

Portugal, meanwhile, for more than half a century, had been
taking the lead in Atlantic discovery, and in the search for an
ocean route to India ; and the exertions of Prince Henry the
Navigator (died 1460) led successively to the discovery of the
Madeira Islands, the Canary Islands, the Azores, and Cape
Verde. In 1486 the Portuguese navigator Bartholomew Diaz
reached the Cape of Good Hope ; and in 1498 Vasco da Gama
completed the work by reaching India. Seeking to anticipate
this result. Queen Isabella of Castile, in 1492, consented to fit
out the expedition with which Columbus unwittingly discov-
ered the New World. To both Spain and Portugal the result
of these efforts was the acquisition of vast colonial depend-
encies, and a flood of wealth.

Sicily had been annexed to Aragon since 1409 ; and the fail-
ure of the French kings to maintain their hold on Naples gave
Spain that kingdom also (confirmed by treaty in 1504), thus
making Spain the dominant power in Italy. At a later date,
fortunate marriages joined to Spain's other possessions the
Burgundian Netherlands, and the Hapsburg lands in Germany.
The church in Spain was purified and the monarchical power
strengthened by a reform movement under Archbishop Ximenes
(§ 233). This marvelous growth made Spain, in the sixteenth
century, the wonder of Europe.

Charles IV., the author of the Golden Bull, was succeeded

(in 1378) both as kins^ of Bohemia and as German Em- „ ^ «,
^ ^ . 219. The

peror by his eldest son Wenzel, who proved drunken and empire

incapable, and was declared deposed as Emperor by the , ^"ider the
^ ' ^ r J Luxemburg

electors in 1400. After a period of confusion, in which line

several claimants were raised up to contest Wenzel's title (l*'''*-^^^?)
to the imperial crown, his younger brother Sigismund, who by

258

RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

Impkrial Arms after
SuasMUND's Rp:ign.

From iron work in the State
Museum at Frankfort.

marriage was already king of Hungary, was recognized as ruler
of Germany ; and after Wenzel's death (in 1419), Sigismund

succeeded him as king of Bohe-
mia also : from his coronation as
JCmperor at Rome (in 1433) dates
the use of the double-headed eagle
as the imperial ensign.

Sigismund's rule in Bohemia
was long interrupted by a na-
tional uprising of the Czechs, due
to his })art in the burning for
heresy of John Huss, the great-
est religious teacher of Bohemia
(^ 228). Under their blind leader
Ziska and his successor Prokop
(l*roeo})ius), the ]]ohemians not
only successfully resisted crusade after crusade sent against
them, but devastated large areas of Germany, until dissensions
in their ranks permitted the triumph of their Catholic foes.

Tlie death of the Emperor Sigismund, in 1437, brought to an

end the Luxemburg line ; and in the person of his son-in-law,

220. Haps- Albert II. (1438-1439), the Hapsburg line for a third

t d^ ^^"^^ came to the throne, of which it retained possession

(1438-1519) continuously for three centuries.

Frederick III. (1440-1493), cousin of Albert, was the last
Emperor to be crowned at Rome. The weakness of the im-
perial power did not permit him to take an active part in
the affairs of Europe ; and indeed for twenty-five years he
remained secluded on his hereditary estates without visiting
other parts of Germany ; but his long reign and patient per-
sistence laid the foundations for the great growth of the
Hapsburg power. For years the five vowels " A • E • I • O • U"
ai)iieared inscri])ed ou all his l)uildiu,ij:s and ]K)ssessions : these
are interpreted to mean, Austrioi est imperare orbi universo (in

DEVELOPMENT OP MODERN STATES (1254-1500) 259

German, Alles Erdreich ist Oesterreich unterthan) — that is,
" the whole world is subject to Austria."

In the latter part of Frederick's reign and the earlier portion
of that of his son, Maximilian I. (1493-1519), attempts were
made by the electors to carry through an aristocratic reform
of the constitution. The old Diet, or Reichstag, was to be
developed into an effective assembly, meeting annually, in

Town Hall of the Free Imperial City of Frankfort.

Present condition ; built 1405-1413. Here the imperial elections were held in
the sixteenth century.

three houses composed of the electors, princes, and representa-
tives of the imperial cities ; and at the same time an efficient
system of courts, and an administrative council which was
not dependent on the Emperor, were to be instituted. These
reforms would have done something to end the anarchy of
Germany, but only by substituting an aristocratic federation of
the princes for the nominal rule of the Emperor. The move-
ment failed, and the absence of any coercive central authority

260 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

continued to be one of the features of Cxerman political organi-
zation : this, together with the rivalry of Spain and France in
Italy, proved of the utmost importance in allowing Protestant-
ism the opportunity to grow and spread.

While the Holy Roman J'^mpire of the West was becoming, in
the language of Voltaire (an eighteenth-century Frenohman)
221. The "neither holy, nor Koman, nor an empire," the Eastern
Empire Empire came to an end altogether. The downfall of
(1261-1439) the Latin power at Constantinople, in 1261, restored the
Crreek Empire, with dominions in both Europe and Asia
(see p. 138), but its vitality was enfeebled. On the north
and west its territory was curtailed by the development of the
Slavic states of Servia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria ; its capital w^as
disquieted by the rivalry of (xenoese and Venetian traders, and
by never-ceasing palace intrigues and revolutions ; more menac-
ing still was the advent of a new and more formidable branch
of the Turks in Asia ]\Iinor.

The newcomers were the Ottoman Turks, so called from
their sultan, Othman, under whose father they first appear in
western Asia in the latter part of the thirteenth century.
The conquest of Nicaea, in 1330, brought them to the Bosphorus,
and made them the dominant power in Asia Minor. A few years
later they crossed the Hellespont and began a series of European
conquests which culminated (1361) in the capture of Adrianople
— thenceforth for nearly a century their capital. The strong
walls of Constantino])le long withstood them, but the Eastern
Emperoi's were forced to ])ay tribute. In another way also the
Christian pojjulations contributed to their own subjugation :
each year the Turks demanded a fixed number of children, who
were educated by them in the ^lohammedan faith, and trained to
fight as their famous " new troops," or Janizaries.

The overthrow of the Ottoman sultan, in 1402, by the great
Tartar leader Timour (Tamerlane), only checked for a time
the Turkish conquests. To gain assistance against them, the

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1254-1500) 261

Greek Emperor and patriarch agreed to a submission of the
Greek Church to the Latin, at a council held in Italy in 1438-
1439 ; but neither the submission nor the assistance was real.
In 1453 Sultan Mohammed II. began the final siege of
Constantinople with an overwhelming force. Mediseval and
modern appliances were used together, the Turkish 222. Fall
cannon, constructed by foreign engineers, being of larger °^ Constan-
caliber than ever before used. The Greek Emperor, Con- (1453)

stantine Palseologus, made an heroic defense ; but his people
held aloof in sullen bigotry because of new negotiations for
union with the Latin
West. After fifty-
three days' siege, a
final assault was or-
dered, and the Jani-
zaries forced the gates
(May 29, 1453). The
Greek Emperor was
slain after a desper-
ate resistance ; the
city was given up to
plunder, and thou-
sands of the popula-
tion were enslaved.

The great Church of St. Sophia was robbed of its treasures, its
frescoes and mosaics were whitewashed over by the puritanic
zeal of the Turks, and it was converted into a Mohammedan
mosque. The Eastern Empire, after surviving the Koman
Empire in the West for a thousand years, came to an end.
Constantinople became the capital of the Turkish dominions ;
but the Christian population was contemptuously tolerated, and
before the end of the reign of Mohammed IT. the city enjoyed
more real prosperity than had been its lot for several centuries.

Mosque of St. Sophia.

From a photograph. The tall minarets are
Mohammedan additions.

262 RISE OF NATIONAL STATES

After the Great Interregrmm (1254-1273), Germany became
in reality a confederation of many states, and the strength of
223. Sum- ^^^ Emperor depended largely upon the extent of his
"lary family possessions ; with Frederick III. (1440-1493) the

Hapsburgs of Austria secured almost hereditary possession
of the imperial throne, and laid the foundations of their
great family power. In France the Hundred Years' War was
followed by a rapid recovery of the monarchy, which made
Louis XI. (14()1-1483) practically despotic; his son, Charles
VI 11., by his attem})t to conquer the kingdom of Naples (1494),
began a series of wars which lasted for many years and had
profound results. Charles tlie I>old, Duke of Burgundy,
planned to unite his dominions into a kingdom between
France and Germany ; but lie was defeated and slain by the
Swiss confederates (1477), and his plan came to naught. Eng-
land, in the fifteenth century, experienced the civil Wars of
the Koses (14o5-1485). Spain rose rapidly in importance,
through its union by the nuirriage of Isabella of Castile and
Ferdinand of Aragon (1469), the concpiest of the Moorish
kingdom of Granada (1492), the hold which it acquired upon
southern Italy (1504), and its new-found empire in the Indies
(America). In the East, Christian Europe was curtailed by
the ca[)ture of Constantinople by the Turks, and the final fall
of the Eastern Kmjure (1453). The development of modern
states in the fourteenth and tift(HUith centuries was of great
importance ; but even more momentous was the history of
the church and the intellectual changes of the period, which
are treated in the next chapter.

TOPICS

Suggestive (1) To wliat body connected with the papacy does the imperial

topics electoral colk'ire correspond? (2) What advantages had the Swiss

in their strutit^de for independence ? (;J) What advantages had

the n;ii)sl)urgs? (4) By what right did Louis XI. of France claitn

tlie (huliy of Hurgundy after 1477 ? (■'>) In what respects did the

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STATES (1254-1600) 263

German constitution at the close of the Middle Ages resemble that
of the United States under the old Articles of Confederation?
(6) What peoples kindred to the Ottomans had preceded them
in European history ? (7) Why did the West not come to the
assistance of Constantinople in 1453? (8) How did an English-
man (Richard of Cornwall) come to claim the German throne?
(9) Why were the English civil wars of the fifteenth century called
the " Wars of the Roses" ?

(10) The imperial electoral college. (11) Origin of the Swiss SearcU
Confederation. (12) Battle of Morgarten. (13) John Ziska and ^^^^^^
the Bohemian wars. (14) Character of Louis XI. of France.
(15) Charles the Bold of Burgundy. (16) Expedition of Charles
VIII. into Italy. (17) Conquest of Spain from the Moors.
(18) Character of Maximilian I. of Germany. (19) Proposed
reform of the German constitution in the time of Maximilian.
(20) Ottoman Turks. (21) Incidents of the fall of Constantinople.
(22) Compare the states of Europe in 1500 with those in 800.

REFERENCES

See maps, pp. 249, 252 ; Putzger, Atlas, maps 18, 38 ; Freeman, Geography
Historical Geography, I. ch. ix. par. 1, ch. viii. par. 1, ch. xii. par.
1-2, — II. (Atlas), map 24; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps vii.
xxxvi. ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 18, 19 ; Dow, Atlas, xiv. xv.

Henderson, Short History of Germany, I. chs. vi. vii. ; Duruy, Secondary
France, chs. xxxiv.-xxxvi., — Middle Ages, chs. xxviii.-xxxi. ; authorities
Lodge, History of Modern Europe, ch. i. ; Bryce, Holy Boman
Empire (revised ed.), chs. xiv. xvii. ; Seebohm, Era of the Prot-
estant Bevolution, pt. i. ; Fisher, Outlines of Universal History,
Period IV. chs. i.-ii. ; Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle
Age, chs. xviii. xx. ; Tout, Empire and Papacy, ch. xx. ; Lodge,
Close of the Middle Ages, chs. vi. vii. xvi. xxi. ; Mackinnon, Growth
and Decline of French Monarchy, ch. iv. ; Hassall, French People^
ch. ix. ; Willert, Beign of Louis XL ; Freeman, Historical Essays^
First Series, 314-372 ; Kitchin, France, II. bk. i. chs. i.-vi., bk. ii.
ch. i. ; Hume, Spain, Lts Greatness and Decay, 1-33, — Spanish
People, chs. iv.-viii. ; Hale, Spain, ch. xx.

Ogg, Source Book, 409-416; Robinson, Beadings, I. 477-485; Sources
Henderson, Documents of the Middle Ages, bk. ii. no. x. ; Memoirs
of Philip de Gommines (Bohn), bk. i.ch.x. and bk. vi.

Victor Hugo, N'otre Dame ; Scott, Quentin Durward ; W. H. G. lUustrative
Kingston, Bocking Stone ; W. Alexis, The Burgomaster of Berlin ; '^^^'^^
G. P, R. James, Mary of Burgundy, — Agnes Sorrel ; Anne Lucas,
Wenn^eVs Inheritance.

CHAPTER XVI.

THE GREAT CHURCH COUNCILS AND THE RENAISSANCE

(1300-1517)

In the history of the church the fourteenth and fifteenth

centuries saw successively (1) a seventy years' " Babykmian

224. The Captivity " of the papacy in France, (2) a schism which

Popes at divided the nations of western Europe in their church

Avignon ^

(1306-1376) allegiance for forty years, and (3) a series of great church

councils which sought to wrest power from the hands of the

Pope and to remedy a number of church abuses.

The " Babylonian Captivity " was the result of the triumph
of Philip IV. of France over Pope Boniface VIII. (§ 187) ; it
lasted from 1305 to 1376, during which time the Popes resided
at Avignon on the river Rhone. The identification of the
papacy with one of the monarchies of Europe inevitably in-
jured it with the others. When England entered upon its long
war with France, it treated the papacy as a French ally, re-
fused the tribute which John had agreed to pay, and })assed
statutes forbidding papal appointments to English benefices
and appeals to papal courts (§ 171). In Germany it was the
feeling that the papacy was the organ of France that rallied
the national sentiment about Louis of Bavaria, and led the
Diet to put forth its declaration that the Pope had no right of
confirmation or rejection over the imperial election (§ 210).

Still more significant was the appearance of writings attack-
ing the theoretical grounds of the papal power. In the De-
fender of the Peace, by Marsiglio of Padua, a partisan of Louis,
sovereignty is claimed for the people, the clergy are confined

264

THi5 GRtJAT CHURCH COUNCILS 2t:;5

to spiritual functions without power of excommunication or

other (Coercive authority, and the rights of the state are poole,

asserted against the papacy. In these principles we find Wycliffeand

° X i. ^ ^-r-. . '7 r ,. . , Movements

"the whole essence of the political and religiousjtheory for Reform,

which separates modern times from the Middle Ages." ^^

The threatened loss of the Papal States through municipal

revolts and the encroachments of tyrants brought the papacy

back to Rome in 1377. Pope Gregory XI. died the next 225. The

year; and in the election which followed, the Roman „^^®^*

-^ ' 1 -n. Schism

mob, dissatisfied with the series of French Popes re- (1378-1417)

siding abroad, demanded "A Roman Pope, or at least an

Italian!" The majority of the cardinals were French, but

their own dissensions and the fear of mob violence led them

to choose a Neapolitan, Urban VI. Within a few months,

Urban's . rough violence and obstinacy led the cardinals to

repent of their choice ; and on the ground of mob intimidation

they then tried to set aside his election, and chose in his stead

a Genevan, who took the name Clement VII. and set up his

papacy at Avignon.

A schism in the church was thus produced which lasted for
forty years. " All our West land," wrote the Englishman
Wyclif , " is with that one Pope or that other, and he that Arnold,
is with that one, hateth the other with all his. . . . y^li^^ji
Some men say that here is the Pope in Avignon, for he 401M02

was well chosen; and some say that he is yonder at Rome,
for he was first chosen." France and the Spanish kingdoms
supported the Avignon Popes, while Germany, England, and
Scandinavia adhered to Urban VI. and his successors.

Since French influence was largely responsible for the
schism, it was fitting that France should take the lead in
efforts to heal it. On the advice of the University of Paris,
the French government tried to organize a movement to com-
pel both Popes to abdicate by withdrawing from allegiance to
either: but Charles VI. of France was subject to insanity,

^6^

RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

and Wenzel of Germany was a confirmed drunkard ; and the
attempt at coercion came to nothing. The scandal t)f the
schism then forced the Popes themselves to take steps, and
an agreement was made for a conference in 1407 at Savona,
near Genoa, to bring about a joint abdication. Both Popes
professed the greatest zeal for unity, and were probably
sincere : but the Roman Pope, Gregory XIL, was old and
vacillating, and his fears were played upon by his ambitious
nephews; while the Avignon Pope, Benedict XIII., was too
tenacious of the rights of the papacy as represented by him-
Creighton, self. The conference, therefore, never took place. " One
oIj ' ' ' Pope," said a contemporary, ^' like a land animal, refused
to approach the shore ; the other, like a water beast, refused

to leave the sea."

The failure of these attempts pro-
duced a revival of the idea of action

226. Coun- ^^^fy^^^^Sik through a general council of the

cil of Pisa

(1409)

Pisa

liAPTiSTF.KY, Cathedral, and Lkaning Tower.
Erected 10(33-1350.

church, which was zealously urged by two members of the
University of Paris, Pierre d' A illy and Jean Gerson. Accord-
ing to the canon law, only a Pope could summon a coun-
cil; the cardinals of both Popes, however, abandoned them,
and united in calling a council which met at Pisa in 1409,

THE GREAT CHURCH COUNCILS 267

declared both Popes deposed, and elected a new one, who took
the name Alexander V.

Instead of ending the schism, this only added a third claim-
ant for the papacy, for neither Gregory nor Benedict recog-
nized the act of deposition. On the death of Alexander
v., in 1410, the cardinals chose as his successor John cilofCon-

XXIII., a man of infamous life, but who seemed to have stance

C1414-1418)
the needed political vigor to make good his position. In

1413 the capture of Rome by the king of Naples forced John

to appeal for aid to the Emperor Sigismund; and Sigismund

demanded, as the price of his assistance, the summoning on

German soil of the Council of Constance, which lasted from

November, 1414, to April, 1418.

All the states of Europe recognized this assembly, and it
was thus enabled to succeed where the Council of Pisa had
failed.* It asserted its authority in the most far-reaching terms,
declaring that it had power " immediately from Christ, r^ • i,
and all men, of every rank and dignity, even the Pope, Papacy, I.
are bound to obey it in matters pertaining to (1) the faith, ^^^

(2) the extirpation of the present schism, and (3) the general
reformation of the church of God in head and members."

In carrying out this threefold programme, the council con-
demned the heresies of Wyclif, and burned at the stake John
Huss and Jerome of Prague, who headed a movement in „
Bohemia similar to that of Wyclif in England. Huss had sies con-
come voluntarily to Constance under a safe conduct from ®°^^®
Sigismund, the violation of which was justified by the plea
that faith should not be kept with those who are unfaithful to
God. Both Huss and Jerome of Prague met their deaths with
heroic constancy. This action of the council kindled a religious
war, in which the Hussites not merely maintained themselves
but carried devastation into the heart of Germany (§ 219).

In healing the schism the council was more successful than
in dealing with heresy. Gregory XII., who represented the

268 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

line of Urban VI., sent envoys from his refuge in northern
Italy to offer his abdication ; and Benedict XIII., now a fugi-
tive in Spain, was deposed and left without a following.
Great John XXIII., who opened the council as president, was

Schism appalled by the array of charges brought against his

character and life, and after ineffectual efforts to avoid
his fate, submitted to deposition as "unworthy, useless, and
harmful." Representatives from the five "nations" into
which the council was divided were then added to the cardi-
nals, and the united body chose as Pope a Roman cardinal
who took the name Martin V. All Western Christendom
recognized him, and the schism came to an end (1417).

Of the reform question at Constance, a Catholic historian
says: "The great majority of the assembly were of one mind

f^.^r^ n^ ^-S to thc uccd of rcform. ' The whole world, the clergy,
230. The > t^j j

question of all Christian people, know that a reform of the church

re orm militant is both necessary and expedient,' exclaims a

fonX/tfit theologian of the day. ... But . . . the members of

Popes, I. the council were neither clear nor unanimous in their

views as to the scope and nature of the reform." A

strong party sought to defer the election of the new Pope

until after a reform had been effected, but in this they failed.

Pope Martin V., after his election, speedily showed " that

little was to be expected from him " in this matter. " Neither

the isolated measures afterward substituted for the universal

reform so urgently required, nor the Concordats [separate

agreements] made with Germany, the three Latin nations, and

England, sufficed to meet the exigencies of the case, although

they produced a certain amount of good."

One of the decrees of the Council of Constance provided for
_-, _ the regular summoning of councils in the future : and
cil of Basel the continued demand for reform, together with the rout
(1431-1449) q£ successive armies of crusaders sent against the hereti-
cal Bohemians (§ 219), led to the assembling, in 1431, of the

THE GREAT CHURCH COUNCILS 269

Council of Basel. Pope Eugenius TV. soon issued a bull to

dissolve the council; "incorrect information and fear of the

growing power of councils induced the Pope to take this

^ Pastor, His-

mouientous step, which was a grievous mistake." The tory of the

council claimed superiority over the Pope, and refused ^^P^^y^-^^'^

to recognize his decree; and after two years the Pope was

forced to yield and revoke the decree of dissolution.

This council proved far more radical than the one at Constance.
The attendance of the higher clergy at Basel dwindled until
business was carried on mainly by members of the lower clergy
and ecclesiastical adventurers. A hearing was given to the
envoys of the Bohemians, and a series of compacts was entered
into by which some of their demands were granted, especially
the administering to the laity the wine as well as the bread
in the Lord's Supper. It was no small gain that heretics should
be treated with instead of being repressed by the arm of
authority. The compacts, however, failed to end the troubles
in Bohemia, and they were annulled by the Pope in 1462.

No adequate results followed the discussion of reform ques-
tions at Basel. " Instead of the reform of ecclesiastical abuses,
which in many countries had reached a frightful pitch,
the diminution of the papal authority and the destruc- tory of the
tion of the monarchical character of the, church became ^^P^^^^-^^^
the chief business of the synod." Among the ideas discussed
and rejected was the abolition of the requirement of celibacy on
the part of the clergy ; but certain reforms were agreed upon at
Basel, and following these both France and Germany issued
" Pragmatic Sanctions " limiting abuses of papal taxation and
appointment, which were ultimately withdrawn.

In 1437 hostilities again broke out between Pope and council,
and Eugenius IV. issued a bull dissolving the council and call-
ing another to meet in Italy. At Basel this step was met by
decrees suspending, then deposing, Eugenius ; and on November
5, 1439, the schism was renewed by the election of an anti-pope.

270 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

who took the name Felix V. No important nation recognized
Felix; and after ten years came the downfall of both the
Council of Basel and its anti-pope.

For the next few years the papacy was engaged — under
Nicholas V., Calixtus III., and Pius II. — in remedying the
232. The damage done by the Great Schism, and in stamping
af^r^tti ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ embers of the conciliar movement. The
councils schism liad doubled the financial burdens of the church,
and reunion had not lessened them; and tlie demand for the
removal of evils and abuses in the church grew stronger as time
went on. In vain did Nicholas V. seek, by identifying the
papacy with the literary and artistic revival of the fifteenth cen-
tury, to recover its lost prestige. Tlie effort also of Pius II.
(1458-14G4), to stir up a crusade against the Turks, only re-
vealed more clearly that, as he himself had said, Europe looked
" on Pope and Emperor alike as names in a story or heads in a
* picture." The mediaeval papacy was dead as a political world
power equally with the mediaeval empire.

In these circumstances tlie Popes confined themselves largely

to looking after the interests of the Pa])al States. From 1404

to 1521 the sovereign j)ontifl:'s ^ may be described as Italian

princes, who often united to their powers as head of the church

the ])olitical craft and perfidy and the looseness of morals

which then characterized Italy, and lost sight of the spiritual

side of their oftice. A C'atholic historian quotes approvingly

this characterization of Alexander VI. (1492-1503), one of the

worst of their number : " The reign of this Pope, which

tory of the . lasted eleven years, was a serious disaster, on account

J'opes, IV. Qf j^g worldliness, openly proclaimed with the most

amazing effrontery, on account of its eipially unconcealed

nepotism [favoritism to relatives], lastly on account of his

utter absence of all moral sense both in public and private

iPaul II. (14r4-1471>; Sixtus IV. (1471-1484); Innocent VIII. (1484-1492);
Alexander VI. (1492-1503) ; Julius II. (1503-1513) ; Leo X. (1513-1521).

THE RENAISSANCE 271

life, wMch made every sort of accusation credible, and brought
the papacy into utter discredit, while its authority seemed
unimpaired."

Thus the Middle Ages end with the papacy and higher
clergy sunk in worldliness ; but among the people " the evi-
dence is overwhelming," says a recent Protestant histo- 233 Span-
rian, "that the whole mediaeval period witnessed a ishawaken-
gradual deepening of the hold of religion on life and "^^

thought. ... If the wider interests of religion are Reforma-
had in view, the period just previous to the Eeformation <*on, 6

witnessed not the lowest decline but the highest development
of mediaeval Christianity — high enough to be dissatisfied
with its state, to feel dimly the inadequacy of its institutions,
and the need of their improvement." In Spain, in the latter
half of the fifteenth century, was seen a religious movement
which particularly testifies to this. There a reform was car-
ried out, on the initiative of Ferdinand and Isabella, and
through the agency of Archbishop Ximenes, which purified
the Spanish church, and produced a religious revival charac-
terized by strict orthodoxy, limitation of the papal power, and
a more rational theology.

In Italy also a moral and religious revival was begun by
the Dominican friar Savonarola (1452-1498) at Florence. His
vivid eloquence and commanding personality aroused . _
the people from their frivolity and sensuality, and for a vonarola
time he swayed the city at will. But unhappily he was ^ '

led into politics; he took a prominent part in a revolution
which temporarily cast out the ruling family of the Medici,
and he turned Florence to alliance with the French when
Charles VIII. made his raid into Italy (§ 216).

This brought Savonarola into conflict with Pope Alexander
VI., whose chief object was to provide a principality in Italy
for his son, Caesar Borgia. This end was pursued by father
and son with frank disregard of morality and religion ; in-

HAKDING'S M. & M. HIST. 16

272

RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

Savonarola.

deed, the Italian writer Machiavelli (1469-1527), in his work
entitled The Prince, took Caesar Borgia as a model of that

unscrupulous craft which was
thought necessary to rule a newly-
won state. The chief danger to
the Pope's designs came from the
interference of France in the pen-
insula, and Florence was the chief
supporter of that intervention.
The persistence of Savonarola in
adhering to the French alliance,
his preaching after being excom-
municated, and his attacks upon
the Pope at length led to his
downfall. Although his teachings
were in general harmony with the doctrines of the church,
Savonarola was condemned as a heretic, and burned at the
stake in 1498. Unlike the Hussite movement in Bohemia, his
influence died with him.

The reform movements of Ximenes and Savonarola were
orthodox efforts to effect an adjustment of the church to the

modern spirit which was manifesting itself in the ffreat
235. Decay o &

of mediae- movement called the Renaissance. The term means liter-

vahsm ^\\j << rebirth," and is applied especially to the intel-

lectual and artistic revival which, beginning in Italy about
the year 1300, went steadily on throughout the fourteenth, fif-
teenth, and sixteenth centuries. Fundamentally, it was an
awakening of the human intellect to wider fields of activity ;
it was the recovery of the freedom of individual thought and
action. In the Middle Ages the individual was nothing ; the
guild, the commune, the church, were everything. The world
and the flesh were regarded as evil, and their influence was
to be combated. Curiosity was to be repressed ; hence natural
science, which is based on observation and investigation, made

THE RENAISSANCE 273

little progress. The learning most worth having was the-
ology, the basis of which was revelation ; and with it flourished
philosophy (the handmaid of theology), and law — the impor-
tance of which was due to the incessant conflicts of papacy
and empire, of church and state.

With the fourteenth century a new way of looking at things
began in Italy to manifest itself. Human life and this world
were viewed as things good in themselves, and not £36 Re-
merely as a means of preparation for the world to vival of
come. Men began to give way to the stirrings of curi-
osity in matters hitherto neglected. A new interest was
taken in the monuments of antiquity. Throughout the Middle
Ages, Vergil, Cicero, and others of the best Latin authors were
read as models of style, however imperfectly they were
followed; but their content was feared as pagan. Now
they began to be read for meaning as well as style ; and in
them men found that spirit of individualism, of " humanism,^'
of which they were beginning to be conscious in their own
breasts.

"The expression of the human mind in the Middle Ages

had been scholasticism, that is to say, the interpretation of

texts; the expression of the humanistic spirit was rea- ^ .

Lavtsse,
son, that is to say, the affirmation of truth, evident or General

demonstrated." A new and exaggerated reverence for ^*^^' -^^^

antiquity sprang up; and because the classical authors were

now understood, men profited by their style as never before.

Better Latin began to be written ; and Greek, the knowledge

of which had gradually died out in the West, was relearned

from Constantinople. "Greece has not fallen," said an ^^^, ^

Italian scholar after the fall of Constantinople ; " but Papacy,

seems to have migrated to Italy." Under the impulse of

the new love for learning, the libraries of the monasteries of

Europe were ransacked, and many lost works were recovered.

Critical scholarship was born in the task of identifying and

274 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

•
editing these treasures, and grammars and dictionaries were

compiled for their interpretation.

The chief representatives of the revival of learning, in the

fourteenth century, were Petrarch and Boccaccio. Petrarch

237. Classic (1304-1374) was born near Florence, spent his boyhood

study and ^^ Avignon, and in manhood passed from one Italian

literature court to another. He longed passionately for a revival

of the glories of ancient Eome, and was the first who zealously

collected Latin manuscripts, inscriptions, and coins. He tried

• ineffectually to learn Greek in order that he might read

Homer; and in countless letters, each an essay in finished

Latin style, he spread broadcast the cultured and inquiring

humanist spirit. Boccaccio (1313-1375) also was a Florentine ;

with much difficulty he gained some knowledge of Greek, and

was the author of valuable dictionaries of classical mythology

and geography. In the fifteenth century scores of humanists,

of lesser genius but greater learning, carried on the work begun

by these two.

Along with the revival of learning went another move-
ment, which also owed much to Petrarch and Boccaccio. The
Italian, French, and English tongues, and later the German, were
raised to the rank of literary langiuiges, and vernacular litera-
tures were created. The Florentine poet Dante (1265-1321)
represents "the glimmer of the dawn" of the Renaissance.
Born amid the strife of Guelf and Ghibelline, he spent his later
life in the wanderings of political exile. His epic poem, the
Divine Comedy, was not merely the first important literary
work in Italian, but was the first great piece of modern litera-
ture, one of the masterpieces of all time. Petrarch's Sonnets
showed that the Italian language was adapted to lyric poetry ;
and Boccaccio, in a series of short stories called the Decameron,
became the father of Italian prose. In England the poet
Chaucer (1340-1400) used the language of the people for his
Canterbury Tales ; and Wyclif used the same tongue in much

THE RENAISSANCE 275

of his writing and preaching. In Germany the development
of a literature in the people's tongue was aided by the work of
Martin Luther in the sixteenth century.

Architecture, sculpture, and painting also felt the new im-
pulse, and flowered into masterpieces such as the world had
not seen since the days of classical Greece. In archi- 238 The
tecture the classical revival was felt early in the fifteenth fine arts in
century, when men restored the style of ancient Rome,
adapted to the requirements of modern ecclesiastical, civic,
and domestic building. Bramante (1444-1514) was foremost

St. Peter's, at Rome. (Present condition ; erected 1506-1626.)

in this work, and to him . Rome owes the original plan and
part of the completed structure of the church of St. Peter's.
Michael Angelo (Michelangelo, 1475-1564) illustrates the
many-sidedness of the Italian Renaissance by the preeminence
which he attained alike in architecture, sculpture, and paint-
ing. He superintended the building of St. Peter's, and added
the towering dome; sculptured many figures, of which those

276 llENAISSAXCE AND REFORMATION

of David, Moses, and the figures for the Medici momimeut
at Florence are perhaps most famous ; and painted a series
of biblical pictures for the Sistine Chapel at Rome, of which
his fresco of the Last Judgment is probably the most famous
single picture in tlie world ; in addition he was a poet of no
mean note. In painting, the Italian Renaissance reached its
height in the period 1470-1550, Avhich saw the works of
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Raphael (1483-1520), and
others, as well as those of Michael Angelo. In Venice the
movement was of somewhat later origin than elsewhere in
Italy ; but a Venetian school, of which Titian (1477-1576)
was foremost, gained fame for its brilliant and accurate col-
oring.

The critical spirit which was developed in the study of the
ancient authors passed into criticism of mediaeval philosophy,

o„« « . mediicval science, and medieval religion. Scholastic ])hi-

239. Science ' ^ ^

and criti- losophy lost its hold upon the world, and the writings of
cism Plato were read along with those of Aristotle, whose works

now became known in the original Greek. Medicine profited
by the dissection of the human l)ody ; but it was not until the
middle of the seventeenth century that an English physician,
Harvey, completely demonstrated the circulation of the blood.
Chemistry made important strides, though to many investiga-
tors it was only a means to find the mythical " philosopher's
stone," with which to turn base metals to gold. Mathematics
also experienced some advances.

Above all, the study of the stars passed from the astrologer
to the astronomer. For centuries the teaching of the Greek
philosopher Ptolemy had prevailed, which made the earth the
center of the universe, about which turned sun, moon, and
stars. Copernicus (1473-1543) now taught that the sun is the
center about which the earth revolves with the other planets,
turning at the same time upon its axis. Galileo (1564-1642),
with the aid of the telescope, which he so improved as to make

THE RENAISSANCE 277

practically a new invention, explored the heavens and made
discovery after discovery ; but because of the opposition of
the theologians, he was obliged to withdraw as heretical the
teaching, which he borrowed from Copernicus, that the earth
moves around the sun.

The same sort of .critical investigation which led to these
scientific discoveries enabled Lorenzo Valla (1405-1457) to
prove that the alleged Donation of Constantine (§63), by which
were defended some of the papal claims to temporal power,
was a clumsy forgery.

A development of the arts of war and of navigation also
marked this period. The improvements in the arms and
handling of foot soldiers, which made them superior to
the mounted and armored knights (§§ 185, 193, 215), were of war and
accompanied by the introduction of gunpowder, which ^^^^S^^^on
robbed the feudal castle of its strength. From a very early
date gunpowder was used in India and China for rockets
and fireworks. Its introduction into Europe, and use in
cannon, took place in the fourteenth century ; but it was not
until the fifteenth that improvements in its composition and
in appliances made it an effective instrument of war. The
musket and pistol do not appear until the sixteenth century.

The art of navigation also owed much to the Far East.
About 1300 the mariner's compass was introduced into Europe
from China, where it had long been known ; and the astrolabe
and cross-staff, used to ascertain latitude, were adapted to
purposes of navigation in the fifteenth century: these were
among the few instruments possessed by Columbus and Vasco
da Gama on their famous voyages. Longitude, however, could
not be reckoned with any degree of accuracy until the inven-
tion of the watch, in the eighteenth century, made compara-
tively easy its calculation by differences of time.

Geographical knowledge was greatly increased by the accept-
ance of the view that the earth is a sphere (a fact known to

273

RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

tho ancients, but rejected on theological grounds by the Middle
A^cs), and by a system of rational maps in place of fantastic
and mythical representations of the world. In the sixteenth
century the invention of Mercator's projection — a form of
map in which all meridians and parallels are straight lines
intersecting at right angles — made possible sea charts for
compass sailing on courses drawn as straight lines.

Spread of Pkintino di ring the Fifty Years following its
Introduction into Mainz.

The boundaries are modern.

The intellectual awakening came earliest in Italy, and gradu-
ally spread to the lands beyond the Alps. The great church
241. Inven- ^<^^"<^ils of the fifteenth century were an important help
lion of ill its spread -by bringing the scholars of Italy into touch

(about "^^'^^^ those of other lands. The greatest aid, however,

1450) was afforded by the invention of printing. As late as

1350 practically all books in Europe were prepared entirely
with the pen. Some time after that date the practice arose of

THE RENAISSANCE 279

printing tracts and short books, for which there was a large
sale, from engraved blocks of wood. Such crude "block books"
were a step in advance; but it was not until separate types
were cast in metal, making possible their use in many combina-
tions, that the art of printing was really born. The honor of
this invention is usually given to Johann Gutenberg of Mainz,
in Germany, who printed from movable types about the year
1450 ; but the date, place, and original discoverer of the art
are all disputed. The invention cheapened books and spread
broadcast the means of culture. By the end of the century,
printers had established themselves in more than two hun-
dred places in Europe, and books and pamphlets were multiplied
at an unprecedented rate. Leaflets containing woodcut pic-
tures, illustrating the questions of the day, made an equally
powerful appeal to the illiterate.

In Italy, in the latter part of the fifteenth century, scholars
became almost pagan in their devotion to the learning of
Greece and Kome ; and frank disregard of religion and 242. The
morality spread among all classes. North of the Alps a Kenais-
more serious tone characterized the movement ; without yond the
neglecting the classical authors, scholars turned more to ^^^

the study of early Christian writers. In England, John Colet,
dean of St. Paul's cathedral at London, labored for an educa-
tional and religious revival. In Germany, Reuchlin became the
center of a bitter literary and theological quarrel, because of
his Hebrew studies and his desire to save the books of the
Jews from burning at the hands of bigoted scholastics ; and
to defend him, a group of younger humanists, of whom the
brilliant but dissolute Ulrich von Hutten was one, published a
series of satirical letters entitled Epistolce Obscurorum Virorum,
purporting to be written by Keuchlin's opponents, and designed
to cast ridicule upon them as a stupid party.

The best example of northern humanism is offered by
Erasmus of Rotterdam (1467-1536). After passing a few

280

RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

years in a Netherlands monastery, he studied at Paris, in Eng-
land, and in Italy ; his home thenceforth was wherever there
243 E "were literary friends, books, and a printing press. In

mus biting satire he attacked the evil lives of monks, the

( 67-1536) arrogance of theologians, and superstition and ignorance
everywhere. He devoted himself especially to editing and
printing works of the early church fathers, and thus became
the founder of a more learned and comprehensive theology.
Scores of books were published by him : the most widely read,

perhaps, was his satirical Praise
of Folly) the most important
was his edition of the New
Testament (1516), making ac-
cessible, for the first time in a
printed volume, the original
Greek text. Owing to the
knowledge of Latin possessed
by all educated men, his works
were everywhere read. He de-
sired a reformation in the church
" without tumult," carried
through by education and by
appeal to the reason. In his
own day he possessed an influ-
ence such as few scholars have had. Though his plan of
orderly reform could not avert the uprising against the church,
j5g^^^ his work profoundly affected that movement as well as

Reforma- the church itself. "The Keformation that has been,"

tion of the . p . • -r i ,

Sixteenth s^js a ^vriter 01 our own time, " is Luther s monument :

Century, 73 perhaps the lieformation that is to be will trace itself
back to Erasmus."

Erasmus.
From the painting by Holbein.

In reviewing the history of the seven centuries between 800
and l.")(H), we see Eui'Oi)e in a cuustant state of transformation,

THE RENAISSANCE 281

The prosperity of Charlemagne's reign was followed by the
political and ecclesiastical disintegration of the ninth and __
tenth centuries. Through feudalism, military efficiency „. .
was recovered and the Continent saved from conquest mary of the )
threatened by Saracens, Hungarians, and Northmen. Middle Age^^.

The refounding of the Holy Roman Empire by Otto I. (962)
again gave Europe theoretical political unity, and led to the
purification of the papacy and the church through the Cluniac
reforms (tenth and eleventh centuries). The conflicting claims
of papacy and empire then produced a series of struggles be-
tween these world powers, lasting from 1075 to 1268: these
include the Investiture Conflict (1075-1122) begun between
Gregory VII. and Henry IV. ; the long struggle with Frederick
Barbarossa ; and the contest which ended in the death of
Frederick II. (1250) and the final downfall of the Hohen-
staufens (1268). - ^

National states meanwhile were arising; and with France,
the first of these, the papacy came into disastrous conflict in
1296-1303. Then followed the "Babylonian Captivity" at \
Avignon, the Great Schism, and the church councils, which ^
ended the papacy as a world power. The political supremacy
of France which followed was checked by a long war with
England (1337-1453) ; and again at the end of the period it
was about to be eclipsed by the newly grown power of Spain.

The Crusades (1096-1291) were almost exactly contempora-
neous with the struggle of papacy and empire. In one view
they were an expansion of Europe eastward; similar move-
ments were the conquests from the Slavs on the northeast of
Germany, the Northman colonization of Iceland and Greenland,
and the Spanish and Portuguese discoveries of the fifteenth
century. The Middle Ages were also the period of the rise
and vigor of the towns, of the universities, and of monastic
organizations of various sorts. Chivalry, scholasticism, and
Gothic art are manifestations of the earlier period, which

/V. :-i

282

RENAISSANCE AND IlEF(JRMATION

gradually change as the revival of learning grew in the four-
teenth and fifteenth centuries. All in all, the Middle Ages
were a period of transformation, when the old classical civiliza-
tion, Christianity, the vigorous Teutonic races, and elements
drawn from the Mohammedan East combined in bewildering
variety. It was essentially the period when Eiirope_becaine
Europe, and made"feadyto found new Europes across the seas.

Suggrestive
topics

Search
topics

TOPICS

(1) Was Urban VI. or Clement VII. the true Pope? Give your
reasons. (2) Why should England and France take opposite sides
in the Great Schism ? (3) Compare the powers claimed by the
Council of Constance with Gregory VII. 's memorandum of the
powers of the papacy. (4) Was the council's claim constitutional
or revolutionary ? Was it necessary or unnecessary ? (5) Why did
the councils fail to reform the abuses in the church ? (0) Compare
the character and European position of the Popes after the councils
with the character and European position of Pope Innocent III.
(7) Contrast the mediaeval with the modern way of looking at the
world. (8) Why was scholasticism insufficient as an intellectual
training ? (9) Why should the revival of learning come first in
Italy? (10) How did printing help on the Renaissance? (11) Why
were the northern humanists more serious and religious-minded
than the Italian ?

(12) Effects of the Babylonian Captivity and the Great Schism
on the papacy. (lo) Incidents of the Council of Constance.
(14) John Huss. (1.")) The Emperor Sigismund. (16) The
papacy under Julius II. (17) The reforms of Ximenes in Spain.
(18) Savonarola. (19) Dante. (20) Petrarch. (21) Michael
Angelo. (22) Raphael. (28) Leonardo da Vinci. (24) Invention
of printing. (25) Reuchlin. (26) Erasmus. (27) Discoveries of
ancient works of art. (28) Discoveries of ancient literary works.

Geogrraphy
S'^condary
authorities

REFERENCES

See map, p. 252.

Adams, Civilization during the 3Iiddle Ages, chs. xv. xvi. ; See-
bohm, Era of the Protestant Revolution, pt. i. chs. i.-iv., pt. ii.,
ch. i. ; Henderson, Short History of Germany, I. chs. ix. x. ;
Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, chs. xxi. xxiii. ;
Van Dyke, Age of Renascence, 1-34, 62-121 ; Walker, Reforma-

CHURCH COUNCILS AND RENAISSANCE

285

eion, chs. i. ii. ; Lodge, Close of the Middle Ages, ix.-xi. xxii. ;
Wylie, Council of Constance^ lectures v. vi. ; Maurice, Bohemia,
176-220 ; Poole, Wycliffe and Movements for lieform, chs. iii.
ix.-xiii. ; Cutts, Turning Points of General Church History , chs.
xxxviii. xxxix. ; Trench, Medieval Church History^ chs. xix.-xxii. ;
Desmond, Mooted Questions of History, chs. vii.-lx. xxiil. ; Mil-
man, Ifistory of Latin Christianity, bk. xiii. ch. ix. ; Creighton,
History of the Papacy, bk. ii. chs. iv. v. ; Pastor, History of the
Popes, I. 194-207, V. 181-212, VI. 3-54 ; Alzog, Church History,

II. 853-896 ; Symonds, Short History of the Renaissance in Italy,
chs. i. iv. V. vii. xii. xiii.; Symonds, Eevival of Learning, 368-391,
— Age of Despots, chs. iii. iv. ; Burckhardt, Benaissance in Italy,
esp. 8-27, 62-87, 171-176, 187-209 ; Lilly, Benaissance Types,
chs. i.-iv. ; Field, Introduction to the Study of the Benaissance,
chs. i.-iv. ; Fiske, Discovery of America, I. chs. iii. v. ; Cambridge
Modern History, I. ch. v. ; Eraerton, Erasmus, chs. i.-vi. ; See-
bohm, Oxford Beformers, chs. iii. v. ix.-xi. xv. ; Gardner, Dante ;
Mrs. Oliphant, Makers of Florence, 1-97, 238-331 ; Milman,
Savonarola, Erasmus, etc. ; Villari, Life and Times of Savonarola
(2 vols.) ; O'Neil, Jerome Savonarola; Van Dyke, Text-Book of
the History of Painting, chs. vi.-x. ; Goodyear, Benaissance and
Modern Art, chs. i. iii. vi. xiii. xiv.

Robinson, Beadings, I. chs. xxi. xxii., II. chs. xxiii. xxiv, ;
Whitcomb, Literary Source Book of the Italian Benaissance, —
Literary Source Book of the German Benaissance ; Robinson
and Rolfe, Petrarch, 53-55, 59-76, 117, 169-174, 178-190, 191-196,
210-214, 243, 261, 275-278, 298-325, 384 ; Emerton, Erasmus, 36-
38, 149-151, 188, 232-235, 298-307, 310-319, 347-349, 360, 373-374;
Nicholas, Epistles of Erasmus ; Froude, Life and Letters of Eras-
mus, 39, 95-96, 97-100, 121-123, 207-210, 221-225, 243-249, 253-
255, 259-272, 278-280, 284-286, 293-296, 300, 305, 317-:318, 327-332,
340, 342-343, 356, 363-365; Benvenuto Cellini, Life (Symond's
trans.), 380-392,416-427,443-457; Machiavelli, The Prince, esp.
ch. xviii. ; Vassari, Lives (biographies of Raphael, Michelangelo
Buonarroti, Leonardo da Vinci) ; University of Pennsylvania,
Translations and Beprints, IV. No. 6, pp. 14-15, I. No. 1, p. 8,

III. No. 6, pp. 9, 14, 26-32 ; Erasmus, Praise of Folly ; Commines,
Memoirs (Bohn), IL 189-191, 284-287.

Charles Reade, Cloister and the Hearth ; " George Eliot,"
Bomola ; G. P. R. James, Leonora d^ Oreo ; Mrs. Beecher Stowe,
Agnes of Sorrento ; C. Baker, The Gleaming Dawn, — The Cardi-
naVs Page.

Soxirces

Illustrative
works

CHAPTER XVII.

THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1555)

It was inevitable that the changes in the intellectnal, politi-
cal, and economic life of Enrope, in the fourteenth and fifteenth
245. Causes centuries, should produce changes in religion as well,
of the Q^-^ rpi^^ allegiance of peoples to the See of Rome had

tion been weakened by the practical dissolution of the Holy

Roman Empire, by the residence of the Popes at Avignon for
seventy years, and b}^ the Great Schism, (2) The spirit of
inquiry due to the Renaissance was in the air : and the
P)ible and the writings of the church fathers were now more
accessible. (3) Reasons existed for calling in question many
things in the existing order of the church, among which was a
sense of dissatisfaction with the worldliness and corruption of
the higher clergy — a feeling increased by the failure of the
reform movement in the councils of Constance and Basel, and
particularly marked in Germany, where bishoprics and canonries
passed almost exclusively to younger sons of princely houses,
who showed more of a political than an ecclesiastical spirit.
(4) A national feeling also existed in Germany which mani-
fested its«df in the attemj)ts at political reform under Maxi-
milian (§ 2-0), and resented the devices by which money was
drawn from Germany for the support of the Pope and Italian
priests. (5) The economic condition of the German peasantry
was bad, and their social discontent predisposed them to reli-
gious revolt (6) Finally the period immediately preceding the
Reformation saw a quickening of spiritual life in Germany,
which led many to turn from formalism and the veneration
of relics and seek the more spiritual elements of relig:ion.

286

THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1555) 287

Beard,

These more spiritual elements of religion many found in
various organizations of mystics which flourished in the Khine-
land, typical of which were the mysterious " Friends of God,"
represented by the great Strassburg preacher, John Tauler (died
1361), and the more practical " Brethren of the Common Life,"
who gave themselves to the work of education: their most
famous member was Thomas a Kempis (died 1471), whose
Imitation of Christ is still a popular book' of devotion with
Catholics and Protestants alike. The mental attitude of mysti-
cism is thus described: "It aims to soar into a region
above that in which ecclesiastical and theological diversi- Martin

ties arise. Its method is the direct apprehension of God Luther, 43
by the soul — as form, color, sound, are apprehended by the

senses. Mysticism does not argue;
it can not appeal to any external
authority ; it broods, it meditates, it
listens for the divine voice."

From the various causes indicated
above came the Protestant Keforma-
tion — a movement which was at the
same time a political, intellectual, so-
cial, and spiritual reaction against the

/ r f "m.^^mm^^m " ' • ^^^^ ^^^ religion of the Middle Ages.

^ I J wMKm^^ ^\\\^ reaction manifested itself in-

^|-'^ ^ WBBUK^. dependently in different countries

and in different persons; but 046 m
the dominant personality of the tin Luther
whole movement was the Saxon ~ '

Martin Luther. Born at Eisleben, in
1483, of peasant parents, Luther was
educated at the University of Erfurt
for the law, but entered instead an Augustinian monastery.
He strove in vain to attain inward peace through a strict
observance of monastic rules — through fasting, vigils, and

Luther.

From the painting by
O. Brausewetter.

288 RENAISSANCE AND KEFOKMATION

mortification of the flesh. From what may be classed as mys-
tical teachers and writings, he at last got the assurance that
justification (or salvation) comes as a result of faith in the
atonement of Christ, and not as a result of good works. The
peace which this assurance gave him, he sought to impart to
others by his labors as preacher and theological teacher. From
1508 till his death he was a professor in the University of
Wittenberg, newly founded by the Elector of Saxony.

In 1517 Luther was disturbed by the advent in his neighbor-
hood of Tetzel, a preacher of indulgences. In the later Middle
247. The Ages the practice had arisen of commuting the discipli-
Seses" ^^ ^^^^'^ penances (such as fastings and pilgrimages) imposed
(1617) by the church upon penitent offenders for a money con-

tribution to some worthy cause ; and at this time the indul-
gences were offered by Pope Leo X. for aid toward building
the great church of 8t. Peter's at Rome. In the authoritative
teaching of the church, indulgences did not do away with the
necessity for repentance on the part of the sinner ; but some
preachers perverted the authorized theory, and gave the im-
pression that the indulgences wiped away the penalties of sin
even witliout true repentance. Relatives were encouraged to
purchase indulgences for tlie dead, so that souls being kept
for a time in purgatory, as penalty for sins not wiped away on
earth, might be released and go at once to heaven. Says a
Janssen, Catholic historian: "Grievous abuses there certainly

Histonj of were in the proceedings and the behavior of the indul-

the German

People, III. gence preachers, and the manner of offering and extolling

^^ the indulgence caused all sorts of scandal."

In accordance with the practice of mediaeval scholars, Luther,

in 1517, posted on the door of the church at Wittenberg a

series of ninety-five theses (or propositions for discussion by

scholars), setting forth his views concerning indulgences.^ He

1 See University of Peunsylvania, Translations and Reprints, II. No. G,
pp. 5-12.

THE HEFORMATION in GERMANY (1517-1566) 289

was far from wishing to break with the ancient church: his
theses merely denounced the abuses of the indulgence system,
and emphasized the necessity of faith in order to attain salva-
tion ; and (in spite of the corruption and indifference to religion
which he had found at Rome when on a visit there in 1510) he
declared that no one would be quicker to condemn the teachings
of Tetzel than the Holy Father. Much to Luther's astonish-
ment, his theses when printed spread rapidly throughout Ger-
many. Leo X. was at first inclined to look upon the whole
matter as a mere " squabble of monks " ; but to give up
indulgences as then used meant a considerable loss to the papal
revenue, and Luther's opinions, when carried to their logical
conclusions,- meant a wide breach with the theological and
ecclesiastical system on which indulgences were founded.

It was determined, therefore, to quiet Luther, and in 1519 he
was prevailed upon to make a qualified submission. His views,
however, were attacked by Dr. John Eck ; and in a dis- 248. Luther
putation at Leipzig Luther went far beyond his earlier *-^° t°d

position, and affirmed that many of the views for which (1520)

the Hussites were condemned as heretics were nevertheless
true. His opinions developed still further in the months
which followed. In a series of writings in 1520, — the most
important of which was his Address to the Christian Nobility of
the German Nation,^ — he rejected the papal headship, the
mediatorial power of the priest, the binding nature of monastic
vows, the doctrine of transubstantiation, and all of the seven
sacraments except baptism, penance, and the eucharist. The
Pope now seemed to him "not the most holy, but the most
sinful of men" ; and he seriously questioned whether the Pope
was not the Antichrist foretold in the Bible. As the heat of
controversy increased, his peasant blood betrayed him into
coarseness of language and intemperate and unseemly abuse
of opponents, which his friends in vain strove to check.
1 See translation in Wace and Buchheim, First Principles of the Reformation,

290

RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

In the latter part of 1520 a papal bull of excommunication
was published against Luther. Forty-one articles selected
from his writings were condemned, his books were ordered to
be burned, and he and his followers, unless they recanted, were
threatened with the punishment of heretics. This bull, to-
gether with books of canon law and scholastic theology, Luther
burned before the city gate of
Wittenberg, amid great popular
.J enthusiasm. "My meaning

Church His- is," he wrote, "that the

'^^^' ' Papal Chair, its false teach-
ings and abominations, should be
committed to the flames." His
breach with the Catholic Church
was complete : it was difficult to
see what fate other than that of
Huss could await him.

The young Em})eror Charles V.*
had inherited the sovereignty of

249. Em- the Netherlands, Spain, the

ChlriesV. ^^^^^^^ realms of Naples
and Luther and Sicily, and vast posses-

-* sions in the New World and the East (see map, p. 284) ;

to these were added, upon the death of his grandfather

Painting in Windsor Castle, show-
ing the famous " Hapsburg lip."

» GENEALOGY OF CHARLES V. AND THE HAPSBURG IMPERIAL HOUSE

(I)Maximii.tan I. —
(Eiiiperur
149a-15iy)

= Mary (d. 1482)

daughter of

C/harles the Bold

of Burgundy

Fkrhinand

(King of Aragon
1479-1 51 C)

Isabella

(Queen of Castile
14-4-1504)

Philip

Archduke of Austria

(d. 1506)

(2) Charles V. = Isabella of Portugal
(Emperor I
1519-1550;
d. 155S) I

Philip II.

(King of Spain

1556-1598)

Spanish Hapsburgs

Juana

the Insane
(d. 1555)

Catherine

in. Henry VIII.

of England

(3) Ferdinano I. = Anne of Bohemia
(Emperor I and Hungary
1556-15W)

(4) Maximilian IL

(Emperor

1564-1576)

Austrian Hapsborgs

THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1555) 291

Maximilian, the Hapsburg inheritance in Germany, and —
after a spirited contest against the candidature of Francis I.
of France — the imperial crown (1519). These possessions
made Charles the greatest prince of his age; and upon the
course taken by him in Germany would depend in large
measure the outcome of the Lutheran movement.

In 1521 the young Emperor came into Germany for the first
time, to hold an imperial Diet at Worms. To this meeting
Luther, as a special concession to his friends, was summoned
under the Emperor's safe-conduct. Charles was, by nature and
education, a good Catholic ; but it would never do to condemn
the German heretic unheard — even the papal legate wrote:
"Nine-tenths of Germany shouts for Luther. The other Creiqhton
tenth, if it does not crave for Luther's teaching, at least Papacy, VI.
cries, 'Down with, the Roman Court,' and raises the
further demand for a council to be held in Germany."

When Luther was warned of the danger that awaited him at
the Diet, he replied, "Though there were as many devils in
Worms as there are tiles upon the roof, I will go there." ^g^^j^,^ jif^j^.
At the Diet he was called upon to recant the opinions ^^'^ Luther,

432-441

expressed in his books, and courageously replied : " Un-
less I am convinced by witness of Scripture or plain reason
(for I do not believe in the Pope or in councils alone, since
it is agreed that they have often erred and contradicted them-
selves), I am overcome by the Scriptures w^hich I have adduced,
and my conscience is caught in the word of God. I neither
can nor will recant anything, for it is neither safe nor right to
act against one's conscience." Then he added in German :
"God help me! Amen." From Pope and councils, Luther
thus appealed to the Bible, interpreted by individual judgment.
All efforts to procure any other answer from him proved
vain. It is to the honor of Charles V. that Luther was allowed
to depart in safety, and that he did not, like Sigismund at
Constance, break his pledge of safe-conduct. In May, 1521,

HABDING's M. & M. HIST. 17

292

RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

Li thkk's Koom in thk Waktbiik;. (l'li(»iogiiii>li.)

the Edict of Worms was issued, adding the ban of the empire
to that of the papacy : all persons were forbidden to shelter
or assist Luther, his person was to be seized and delivered to
the Emperor, and his books w^ere to be burned.

The preservation of Luther after the Edict of AVorms was

due chiefly to the stanch support given him by his prince,

250. Prog- Erederick the Wise of electoral Saxony.^ On the road to

ress o t e ^Vittenberg he was secretly seized, by friendly arrange-

tion ment, and carried off to the strong castle of the AVartburg,

^ " ^ where he lived for a time in seclusion, few even of his

followers knowing what had become of him. His leisure there

was occupied by translating the Bible into the German tongue,

the result being the version still used by German Protestants.

1 In 1485 Saxony was divided between two brothers (Albert and Ernest)
into (1) electoral Saxony, with Wittenberg as its capital, and (2) ducal
Saxony, with I^ipzig and Dresden as its chief cities.

THE KEFORMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1555) 293

In 1522 he left his retreat and returned to Wittenberg, in order
to quiet disturbances caused by more radical reformers in his
absence. Under his guidance a conservative reform was then
carried out. The mass service in Latin was replaced by a serv-
ice in the German tongue, in which preaching and congrega-
tional singing were given prominent places, Luther himself
composing some of the finest hymns in the German language.
Bishops and archbishops were replaced by officers called " super-
intendents," whose functions were wholly ecclesiastical. The
doctrines of the Lutheran Church were ably set forth by Lu-
ther's friend and Wittenberg colleague, Philip Melanchthon.^
From Saxony the movement spread to most of the states of
North Germany, and even South Germany was for a time pro-
foundly affected. Wherever the Reformation was established,
monasteries and nunneries were dissolved, and the church
property, beyond what was needed for the support of the new
faith, passed into the hands of secular rulers.

In 1525 occurred a great revolt of the peasants in South
Germany, due partly to religious agitation, and partly to long-
standing economic grievances. In a series of Twelve ^^i peas-
Articles, the peasants demanded (1) that each parish ants' revolt
have the right to choose its own minister, (2) that
they be freed from the personal bondage of serfdom, and
(3) that dues to their lords and clergy be reduced. The
revolt was put down by the nobles with pitiless severity,
urged on by Luther, who feared to see the religious reform
complicated with questions of social and political regenera-
tion, and wished to preserve the support of the German
princes. The peasants gradually sank into a state of oppres-
sion exceeding anything known elsewhere in western Europe.
In the same year, Luther, the ex-monk, showed his disbelief in

1 His family name was Schwarzerd (= " Black-earth "), but this in accord-
ance with a practice of scholars of the time was exchanged for its Greek
equivalent, " Melanchthon."

294 renaissancp: and reformation

the binding nature of monastic vows by marrying Catherine
von Bora, an ex-nun.

Erasmus, who was accused of having " laid the egg that
Luther hatched," maintained an attitude of neutrality toward
352 Atti- ^^^^ Eeformation, for he disapproved of Luther's violence
tude of of language and action, and had little sympathy with

Protestant dogmatism. "I dislike these gospelers on
many accounts," he wrote in 1528, " but chiefly because through
their agency literature everywhere languishes, disappears,
lies drooping, and perishes. They love good cheer and a wife,
and for other things they care not a straw." The bitterness
of contending sects and the clash of arms overbore the plea for
reason, moderation, and toleration which he raised; and he
died in 1536 out of harmony with all parties. Other scholars
also, who had led in attacking the abuses in the church, re-
turned to the ancient fold when reform became revolution.

From 1521 to 1530 Charles V. was continuously absent from
Germany, engaged in a series of wars with France for the
253. "Wars duchy of Milan, to which both laid claim. Pope
wi^hFranJe ^'l^ment VIL^ (1523-1534) feared Spanish control of
(1521-1529) ]\[ilan more than French, because Charles V. already
possessed the kingdom of Naples ; accordingly, he actively
aided Francis, and Charles thereupon cooled in his zeal to
crush the Lutheran movement. In 1525 a great victory at
Pavia gave Charles possession not only of Milan, but of the
person of his rival, Francis I. The French king agreed to a
treaty surrendering his claims in Italy as the price of his
release, but no sooner did he regain his liberty than he re-
pudiated the treaty, and war was renewed.

In 1527 the imperial army in Italy, which was unpaid and
largely composed of Germans of Lutheran sympathies, re-

1 Tlie Avijjnoii Popes of the (ireat Schism (Clement VII. and Benedict XIII.,
§ 22."i) are not reco<:jnized by the Catholic Church, and these names were as-
sumed by later Popes.

THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1555) 295

volted, and plundered Rome. The destruction wrought was
enormous, and the agony of the event " marked the end of the
gay, easy-going, artistic, pleasure-loving Rome of the ^ ,«
Renaissance." It also forced the Pope to abandon the Reforma-
French alliance, an'd adopt a policy more favorable to tion,i36
Charles V. In a second peace (1529) Francis again renounced
his claims in Italy, and paid a heavy indemnity.

Each prince and city of Germany, meanwhile, dealt with the
question of religion in his own way, some holding fast to
the old faith, some adopting the new. As a result of 254. Diets
Charles's successes, the representatives of the Catholic of Spires
faith were able to take a more decided stand at a Diet turg

held at Spires in 1529, where a decree was passed calling (1529-1530)
for the carrying out of the Edict of Worms. Against this decree
the Lutheran princes and cities issued the protest that won for
them the familiar name of '' Protestant." Fortunately for them,
the Turks, who in 1526 had defeated and slain Louis, king of
Bohemia and Hungary, at Mohacz, and taken Buda, now ad-
vanced, in 1529, to the siege of Vienna. In the face of this
danger, the attempt at suppression of the Protestants was again
deferred.

In 1530 Charles himself appeared at a Diet which met in
Augsburg. The Protestants, in their attempt to justify their
innovations, presented to him the Augsburg Confession — the
first great Protestant creed. It was the work of Melanchthon,
and was eminently conciliatory ; but it was found impossible
to reconcile the differences between the two parties. The
Catholics being in the majority, it was ordered that the Prot-
estants must make their submission within five months.

The long-expected religious war again seemed about to begin,
and in anticipation of it the Protestants organized the 255. The
League of Schmalkalden. But again Charles found his ^.^ ^^^
hands tied by troubles with the Turks and renewed war (1546-1647)
with France (1536-1544). A treaty which was concluded

29(1 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

with France in 1544 coniirnied to Charles the possession of
Milan, and secretly pledged both Charles and Francis to the
extirpation of heresy. Then at last the Emperor was left free
to deal with the l*rotestants in Germany, and preparations
for war began.

Fonr months l)efore the struggle commenced, Luther passed
peacefully away at Eisleben, the ])lace of his birth (February,
1546). The Sehnialkaldit; war, as Charles's attack upon the
Protestants was called, ended with the battle of oVIuhlberg
(April, 1547), in which their leaders, the Elector of Saxony
and the Landgrave of Hesse, were defeated and taken prison-
ers. This was due in large part to the assistance given the
Emperor by Maurice, the I'rotestant ruler of ducal Saxony ; as
reward for this service, the electoral title and half of electoral
Saxony were taken from tlu^ line of Fredei'ick the Wise and
given to the collateral line represented by Maurice. The col-
lapse of Protestantism seenunl complete.

But again Charles's hand was stayed in dealing with Ger-
man heresy. This time the check was administered by the
256 New ^*^P^ himself (Paul III.), who was filled with alarm at
difficulties the Emperor's too ra})id victories, and adjourned the
V. (1547- church council, which at Charles's request had been as-
1552) sembled at Trent to hear the Protestant demands, to the

papal city of liologna, where it might be more fully under his
own control (1547). After four years of diplomatic struggle,
Charles secured the return of the council to Trent, but was
then suddenly confronted by a dangerous political and reli-
gious combination in (rermany. The leader of this combina-
tion was his former ally, iVIaurice, who after all was himself a
Protestant ; besides the chief Protestant princes of Germany,
the alliance included Henry XL, the Catholic king of France,
who promised financial aid to the rebels on condition that he
be allowed to take possession of the great imperial border for-
tresses, ]Metz, Toul, and Verdun. With an army raised osten-

THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1555) 297

sibly for the Emperor's service, Maurice suddenly marched
southward against Charles, who was taken unprepared at
Innsbruck, in the Tyrolese Alps, and saved himself only by
a hasty flight (1552).

NORTH S E

' ' ^ ' and Protestants.
Tient^' " .".ZT-^-f^^ .^ .^iA SCALE OF MILES

Extent of the Protestant Movement in Germany, 1555.

Wearied with a lifetime of struggle, Charles now gave up
the contest, and a truce was concluded, which in 1555 was con-
verted into the religious peace of Augsburg. Catholics 257. The
and Protestants alike longed for peace, and were ready A^^^b^ ^*
to purchase it at the cost of some sort of toleration for (1656)

the opposite party. The principle adopted was that expressed
in the phrase cu^us regio, ejus religio, which meant that the
rulers of each principality and free city might establish at
their option either the Catholic or the Lutheran worship, leav-
ing to dissentients the right to emigrate. For more than half
a century this treaty gave repose to Germany, but it contained

ft
298 RENAISSANCE AND KEFOKMATION

two fatal defects which ultimately brought about the Thirty
Years' War : (1) there was no protection promised to Protest-
ants other than Lutherans, although Calvinism was already be-
ginning to be of importance ; and (2) there was still room left,
as time passed, for bitter disputes concerning the ownership of
church lands secularized by Protestants.

In the negotiation of this peace Charles V. took no personal
part, and in 1555 and 1556 he abdicated his many crowns
258. Abdi- and retired to the monastery of Yuste in Spain, where
Charles V ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ 1558. He was cold, calculating, far-sighted,
(1556) patient ; it was his fate to rule two diverse lands, Spain

and Germany, at the most difficult moment of European his-
tory. His son Philip II. (1556-1598) succeeded him as king
of Spain and the Two Sicilies, and lord of Milan, the Nether-
lands, and the Spanish colonies — but not (in spite of all
Charles's efforts) as Emperor.

The imperial office, by choice of the electors, passed to
Charles's brother, Ferdinand I. (1556-1564), who united to the
archduchy of Austria the kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary,
wliich he had acquired by election of the nobles on the death of
the unfortunate king Louis at Mohacz (§ 254). From 1556 there
are thus two Hajjsburg houses, the one in Spain, lasting until
the extinction of its male line in 1700, and the other in Ger-
many, whieli continues in the Austrian rulers to the present
time. The imperial dignity and the elective kingshii)s of
])()hemia and Hungary made the Austrian Hapsburg line one
of the greatest of European powers, occupying by its peculiar
j)osition a place both in the system of western and in that of
eastern luirope — the head of a growing multitude of states,
diverse in race, language, and religion, and the chief bulwark
of Europe against the Turks.

The intellectual awakening wliich we call the Renaissance
carried with it a reformation in religion and a lasting schism ;

THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY (1517-1555) 299

this came independently and in different degrees in different
countries ; but the German Reformation, of which Luther was
the dominating spirit, was the most important. The pre- 259. Sum-
occupation of Charles Y. with affairs outside Germany, mary
and the lack of a centralized constitution, gave the movement a
chance to establish itself wherever it found the local authorities
favorable. After more than twenty-five years of delay, the
attempt at forcible repression was made, and failed. Territorial
toleration was then established by the peace of Augsburg (1555)
for Lutherans and Catholics, but not for other sects. The right
of individual toleration was recognized neither by Catholics nor
by Protestants for years to come.

In many respects the Reformation age was "the most striking
period in religious history since the days of the early church.''
Doubtless the causes of the Reformation are not entirely to be
found in laudable instincts for higher spiritual life and the
cultivation of the human intellect; and its course does not
show all zeal, holiness, and religion on one side, and tyranny,
ignorance, and relic worship on the other. The immediate
effects of the Reformation, too, were not altogether what the
reformers had expected, and Luther's later life was embittered
by the radical excesses, moral decay, and theological bicker-
ings which Protestant Germany experienced. Nevertheless,
for Protestants the movement brought independence of reli-
gious thought, individual responsibility, and a freer life ; while
for Catholics it developed more zeal and love for the old faith
and hastened the adoption of the reformatory measures within
the church, which we shall soon see enacted in the Council of

Trent.

TOPICS

(1) Did the cause of the Reformation lie in Luther or in the Suggestive
general state of things? (2) What caused the development of *°P*cs
Luther's views from the position he held in the Ninety-five Tlieses
to that shown at the Diet of Worms ? (3) Was the cause of the
peasants in their revolt just or unjust ? (4) Is Luther to be blamed

300

RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

Search
topics

for opposing them ? (5) Why did Erasmus refuse to join Luther ?
(6) How did Charles's foreign wars aid the Reformation ? (7) How
did the Turks aid the cause of the Reformation? (8) What is
the place of Melanchthon in the history of the German Reforma-
tion ? (9) How far was the Reformation directed against obser-
vances and how far against doctrines?

(10) The German Mystics. (11) Luther's early life. (12) The
Reformation, to the end of 1520. (13) Hutten. (14) Tetzel.
(15) The Diet of Worms. (16) Elector Frederick the Wise.
(17) The peasants' revolt. (18) Attitude of Charles V. toward
the Reformation. (19) Melanchthon. (20) The Augsburg Con-
fession. (21) Luther's character and home life. (22) Maurice of
Saxony. (23) The religious peace of Augsburg.

REFERENCES

Geogrraphy

Secondary-
authorities

Sources

Illustrative
works

See map, pp. 284, 285 ; Putzger, Atlas, map 21 ; Poole, Historical
Atlas, maps viii. xxxviii. xxxix. ; Dow, Atlas, xvii. xviii.

Henderson, Short History of Germany, I. chs. xi,-xv. ; Bryce,
Holy Boman Empire (revised ed,), chs. xviii. xix. ; Seebohm, Era
of the Protestant Bevoliition, pt. ii. chs. iii.-v., pt. iii. ch. i. ;
Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, chs. iii.-v. ; Walker,
Beformation, chs. iii. v. ; Fisher, History of the Beformation.,
85-135, V>6-108 ; Ilausser, Period of the Beformation, chs. i.-ix.
xiv.-xvii. ; Freytag, Martin Luther; Beard. Martin Luther and the
Beformation, chs. iv.-vii. ix. ; Kostlin, Life of Luther; Jacobs,
Martin Luther; Armstrong, Charles V.; Robinson, Charles V. ;
Janssen, History of the German People, bk. vi. ch. i. ; Alzog, Church
History, III. ch. i. ; Schaff, History of the Church, VI. 287-^328,
422-434. 440-449 ; Creighton, History of the Papacy, bk. vi. chs. iii.
v.; Ranke, History of the Beformation, bk. ii. chs. i. iii. iv.,bk.iii.
ch. vi. ; Cambridge Modern History, II. chs. iv.-viii. ; Llistorians''
History of the World, XIV. 248-288.

Robinson, Beadings, II. chs. xxv. xxvi. ; Wace and Buchheim,
First Principles of the Beformation ; Luther, Table Talk; Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania, Translations and Beprints. IT. No. G ; Jacobs,
Martin Luther, appendix ; Augsburg Confession (Lutheran Publi-
cation Soc, Phila., 10 cts. ; also in Schaff, Creeds of Christendom,
III. 3) ; Crozer, Theological Seminary Leaflets, I. ; Earned, History
for Beady Reference (article Luther).

W. H. G. Kingston, Count Ulrich von Lindburg ; G. M. Thorn-
bury, True as Steel ; Mrs. Charles, Chronicles of the Schonherg-
i'ldta Family; Ebers, Barbara Blomberg.

CHAPTEK XYIII.

THE REFORMATION IN OTHER LANDS, AND THE COUNTER
REFORMATION (1518-1610)

In the Protestant Reformation it was mainly the Teutonic

nations — Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, England, Scotland,

and parts of Germany and the Netherlands — those „^^ „ ^ ^

. . *^ 260. .Extent

nations which had most successfully withstood the power of the revolt

of imperial Rome of old — that rejected the authority of ^^°^ ^°°^®
the Pope. The Romance nations — France, Spain, and Italy,
which were most affected in language and habits by the Roman
Empire — remained true to the papal allegiance. The Slavic
nations which had received Roman Christianity, such as Poland
and Bohemia, accepted Protestantism for a time, but later
were won back to the Catholic Church. Russia and southeast-
ern Europe, which were Greek Christian or Mohammedan, were
unaffected by the movement.

We have considered the Reformation chiefly as an event in
religious history, but it must not be forgotten that it was also
a political change: it was a revolt of the new national 261. Its
spirit against the control by Rome of ecclesiastical i„°?-^Jerent
persons, property, and trials. In countries where the countries
Reformation was established, the civil power claimed those
rights of taxation, jurisdiction, and the like which the papacy
had before exercised :■ where the governing power was a mon-
archy, the crown was strengthened ; but in Switzerland, where
the government of each canton was republican, it was the
power of the people that was increased. The political condi-
tion of the different countries also determined the course which

301

.^02 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

the Kefonnation took. In Germany and Switzerland, where
there was practically no central authority, a period of division
and civil wars was followed by the definite establishment of
Protestantism in some districts, and its rejection in others.
In England, Denmark, and Sweden, where the central power
was strong enough to carry the nation with it, the revolt from
Rome was completely established. In France, in spite of its
strong monarchy, a series of disastrous religious wars followed,
ending in a limited toleration for Protestants ; but a century
later this settlement was overturned, and Catholicism com-
pletely triumphed.

The Reformation in German Switzerland began, independ-
ently of Luther, with the labors of Ulrich Zwingli, the son

262. Swiss of a prosperous peasant, who received a good education,

Eeforma- ^^^^^ grew into his reform views without either the ma-

tion : °

Zwingli terial or the spiritual struggle which shaped Luther's

character. He represents the humanistic culture derived from
Erasnuis more than does Luther, and had none of the mysticism
which tinged Luther's views ; the reformation which he carried
out was more logical, and also more radical, tlian that of the
Saxon reformer. Luther, who became a reformer almost
against his will, wished to preserve all that was not positively
contrary to Scripture, as he interpreted it ; Zwingli, on the
other hand, like Calvin a little later, rejected all not com-
manded by the Bible. Zwingli, again anticipating Calvin,
introduced a rigid discipline, in which playing games, swear-
ing, and tavern frequenting were severely punished.

Zwingli's work as a reformer began with an attack in 1518
upon indulgences and pilgrimages. His appointment, late in

263. Zwing- the same year, as preacher at the cathedral of Zurich,
reformer enabled him to secure a wider hearing ; and in a series
(1518-1529) of sermons in which "evangelical" views were set forth,

he prepared the peoi)le for a breach with the old church. In
152.3 the burgomaster and councils of the city ordered a public

SWISS KEFORMATION 303

debate to be held between Zwingli and his opponents. In
preparation for this, Zwingli published a series of theses, in
which he maintained the- sole authority of the Bible, salvation
by faith, and the rightfulness of clerical marriage ; and re-
jected fastings, purgatory, and similar practices and beliefs of
the Roman Catholic Church. Zwingli triumphed in the debate,
and the magistrates gave their approval to his work. " Pictures,
crucifixes, and images were removed from the city churches Walker
. . . relics were burned^ holy water was done away with, Reforma-
organs silenced, and frescoed walls whitewashed, as an
effective method of making a tabula rasa of- the symbols of the
older worship." Extensive changes were also made in the
services and constitution of the church; and from Zurich
the reformation spread to the cities of Bern and Basel, and
to others of the Swiss cantons.

Zwingli was more of a statesman than Luther ; and his mind
formed projects of a union of all the opponents of Charles V.
Luther had no liking for such political alliances, and 264. His
distrusted Zwingli's theological views, especially on the ^^^T^tl^^
Lord's Supper. Both rejected transubstantiation (§ 56) : (1529)

Luther, however, believed that the body of Christ was physi-
cally present in the sacrament along with the bread and wine
(consubstantiation) ; Zwingli, on the other hand, interpreted
the words of Christ, " This is my body " to mean " This signi-
fies my body," and taught that Christ was present only in a
symbolical sense.

In 1529 a conference was held at Marburg between the
parties, with a view to bringing them into union with each
other. Luther took his stand on the letter of the text, and
with chalk wrote the words of Christ in Latin on the table
before him, Hoc est corpus meum. From their literal mean-
ing it proved impossible to move him, and he even refused to
take Zwingli's hand in token of fellowship, saying that the
Swiss reformers were "of another spirit." Their failure to

304 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

agree was unfortunate, for a union of all Protestants was
imperatively needed to meet threatening dangers. A lack of
political insight, a hasty temper, and some measure of intol-
erance were weaknesses intertwined with Luther's strength.

The wealthier and more populous Swiss cantons embraced

the cause of the reformers; but the five forest cantons re-

265. The mained zealously Catholic. Besides religious differences,

Swiss war, there were also political disimtes : the city cantons
and death ^ . ^ -^

ofZwingli wished to change the constitution so that representa-

(1631) i-JQj-^ jj-^ ^Y^Q Swiss federal Diet should be proportionate to

population, in 1529 war was narrowly averted ; in 1531 it
actually came. At Cappel the troops hastily levied by Zurich
were totally defeated by a larger force from the forest can-
tons, and among the slain was numbered Zwingli himself.
A peace was then made wliereby each canton was left free to
do as it liked in religious matters. This was really a victory
for the Catholic party, which soon secured a majority in the
federal Diet.

The work which Zwingli began at Zurich was continued by
John Calvin at Geneva. As organizer and systematizer, Calvin

266 John ^^^^ ^^'^ greatest of tlie reformers, and his influence was
Calvin most widespread. Calvin was born at Noyon, in north-
ern France, in 1509 ; he was thus a generation younger

than Luther and Zwingli. He was prepared at French uni-
versities for the profession of law, but determined to devote
himself to a life of scholarship; then he fell under the in-
fluence of French reformers, and in 1535 was forced to leave
the kingdom.

A year later (1536) Calvin happened to pass through the
French-speaking city of Geneva, which had recently thrown

267 Calvin ^^ ^^^ control of its feudal lords and accepted the
at Geneva Reformation ; and the urging of the Protestant leaders

induced him to remain and take up the active duties of
reformer in that turbulent little republic. With the exception

SWISS REFORMATION

305

of two years of exile, Geneva was thenceforth, the scene of
Calvin's labors until his death in 1564 j and for a quarter of a
century he controlled completely its civil and ecclesiastical
government. Two important features of his ecclesiastical
system were: (1) the republican
constitution of the church, by
which control was vested in coun-
cils called "synods" and "pres-
byteries," instead of in bishops
and archbishops ; and (2) the rigid
supervision exercised by the church
over manners and morals, — the
"Puritan" ideas of worship and
life, indeed, come chiefly from Cal-
vin and his predecessor, Zwingli.
The greatest blot on Calvin's fame
was the burning, with his ap-
proval, of a brilliant but unbal-
anced writer named Servetus, on a charge of heresy and blas-
phemy. This act, though strpngly condemned by modern
opinion, was in harmony with the views, both Catholic and
Protestant, of that age.

Under Calvin's leadership the Genevan Church became the
model for Protestant churches in many lands. His views
were embodied in a book called the Institutes of the Christian
Religion, which became the leading theological work of the
age and profoundly influenced all subsequent Protestant
thought. The reformation in France, the Netherlands, and
Scotland was thoroughly Calvinistic, while in England and
the English colonies in America, religious and even civil in-
stitutions were profoundly affected by his teachings.

While Protestantism was becoming systematized under the
influence of Calvin, the Catholic Church began to reform
the practical evils in its organization, and prepared to take

John Calvin.
From an old print.

806 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

the aggressive. The model for this reformation within the

church was found in the reform movement carried out in Spain

268. The under Ferdinand and Isabella (§ 233). Under Pope

Eef^rma ^^^^^^ ^^- (1522-1523) an attempt was made at finan-

tion cial reforms in the Roman court, but this was defeated

(1534-1563) i^y ^j^g shortness of Adrian's rule and the opposition of

the officials whose interests were concerned. After the sack

of Kome by the soldiers of Charles V., in 1527, the political

activity of the papacy was diminished ; and under a series of

reforming Popes — Paul III. (1534-1549), Paul IV. (1555-

1559), and their successors — a sincere effort was made to do

away with the long accumulation of abuses.

One of the chief agencies of this Counter Reformation was
the Council of Trent, which first assembled in 1545, was
adjourned for a time to Bologna (§ 250), and lasted (with
an intermission of ten years) until 1563. It rejected private
interpretation of the Scriptures, declaring that not the indi-
vidual member of the faithful but the highest authorities in
the church must determine the true meaning of the text;
affirmed the use and validity of ecclesiastical tradition in
matters of belief, holding that all of the doctrines revealed
by Christ are not necessarily or explicitly set forth in the
written word; and made the Vulgate (Latin) version of the
Bible the standard in the church. In the matter of reform,
the council increased the authority of the bishops over their
clergy, and strengthened the whole ecclesiastical discipline;
it emphasized the preaching function both of bishops and
parish priests; and it issued decrees requiring seminaries
to be established in every diocese for the better education
of candidates for the priesthood. The result of the council's
labors was that the church could thenceforth appeal to a
modern, clear, and authoritative presentation of its faith,
and was put in a position to present a united front to
Protestantism.

THE COUNTER REFORMATION

SOT

The most aggressive force in checking the revolt from Kome
was the Order of Jesus, popularly called the " Jesuits," founded
by Ignatius Loyola (1491 ?-1556), a high-minded Spanish
nobleman, whose dreams of military glory were cut short Jesuit^

by a wound which permanently lamed him, and who ^ '

thenceforth turned his energy to the service of the church.
His order was based on military as well as monastic models ;
the members were drilled and dis-
ciplined in spiritual exercises, took
the monastic vows of poverty and
chastity, were bound to unques-
tioning obedience to the Pope in
missionary service, and renounced
by vow all ecclesiastical dignities
such as bishoprics. Ko special
dress was prescribed, thus permit-
ting disguise in hostile lands ; and
room was found in the order for
the exercise of the most varied
talents. Its missionaries, chief of
whom was Saint Francis Xavier,
did heroic work in carrying Chris-
tianity among the natives of America, and to the East Indies,
Japan, and China. Preaching and educational work were also
carried on in Europe ; and the centralized organization of the
society, together with an elaborate system of reports to the
general at its head, made its work extremely effective.

" By the end of the century the tables had been completely
turned. Zeal, devotion, learning, self-sacrifice, religious en-
thusiasm, were now on the side of the church. Superior wakeman
in concentration, the church presented a united and Ascendancy
effective front to her enemies, and was prepared when
the opportunity should come to initiate a crusade by the help
of the Jesuits against Protestantism in Europe, while a new
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 18

iGNATros Loyola.
From a painting in Venice.

308 llENAISSANCE AND KEFOHMATION

world was being won for her across the ocean by their mis-
sionary efforts."

In France the reform movement began as an outgrowth of

the Renaissance, in the work of Jacques Lefevre, who taught

270. The independently some of the doctrines which Luther

Keforma- developed in Germany. It was affected little by the

tion in .

France teaching of Luther and much by that of Calvin. The

(1515-1562) j^'rench king Francis I. (1515-1547) for a time showed

toleration to the reformers, but in 1535 persecution began.

Under Henry II. (1547-1559) ^ the French Protestants, or

"Huguenots," drawn mainly from the middle and higher

classes, are said to have numbered four hundred thousand

persons, and possessed two tliousand places of worship; unlike

the lower classes in Germauy, the lower classes in France

remained intensely loyal to the Catholic Church. Henry II.

for political reasons supported Maurice of Saxony and the

German Protestants, in 1552, in their attack upon Charles V.

(§ 256) ; his sympathies, however, were wholly with the

Catholics. Peace with Spain, concluded in 1559, gave him the

chance to turn his attention to rooting out the heretics ; but in

the fetes accompanying the Spanish treaty, he was accidentally

killed while breaking a lance in a tournament in mediaeval

fashion.

The three weak sons of Henry II. then reigned one after

another. A contest for the control of the government occurred,

1 Charles VIII. (§ 210) was succeeded, upon his death without children, by
his father's second cousin, Louis XII. (UiKS-lola), the representative of the
nearest collateral line of the house of Valois. The death of Louis XII. with-
out children gave the throne to his cousin's son, Francis L, whose successors

were as follows : —

(1) Francis I. (1515-1547)

(2) Hen-rv II. (1547-1559)
in. Catherine de' Medici

I \ : I 1

(3) Francis II. (4) Charles IX. (.i) Henry III. Francis, Duke of Alencon

(1559-1560), (1560-1574) (1574-1.5R9) and Anjou (d. 1584)

first husband of ^ ^~^.^^^^x^^ 's^v^n/v\^
Mary, Queen of Scots

THE REFORMATION IN FRANCE 309

in which the parties were the upstart but able heads of the
Catholic house of Guise, the queen mother Catherine de'
Medici, and the leading Protestant nobles, headed by Louis
of Conde (a member of the Bourbon house) and Gaspard de
Coligny. During the short reign of ^Francis II. (1559-1560)
the Guises were all-powerful, and Protestantism was rigor-
ously repressed. An unsuccessful conspiracy to overthrow the
Guises caused the Prince of Conde to be condemned to death ;
but the sudden death of the youug king saved him and brought
the power of the Guises to an end.

The new king, Charles IX. (1560-1574), was entirely ruled
by his mother, Catherine de' Medici, who was jealous of the
power of the Guises, and at first favored Conde and 271. First
the Huguenots. In 1562 an edict was issued, allowing religious
the Protestants to assemble unarmed for worship, except France

in walled towns. The Duke of Guise, however, soon (1562-1570)
attacked a congregation of Huguenots peaceably assembled in
a barn at Vassy, and this act of lawless violence inaugurated a
period of religious warfare which lasted for thirty years, and.
was marked on both sides by treacheries and assassinations.

Eight distinct wars are counted in this period, separated by
formal treaties of peace — four in the reign of Charles IX., and
four in the reign of Henry III. (1574-1589). In the first war,
Duke Prancis of Guise was murdered by a Protestant sympa-
thizer, leaving his title and a burning desire for vengeance to
his son Henry ; in the third, brave Conde fell. The exhaus-
tion of both parties then led, in 1570, to the first real treaty of
peace : the Protestants were assured of freedom of worship
except at Paris, and were granted possession of four cities,
including the strongly Protestant town of La Rochelle, as a
pledge of the observance of the treaty. This was the begin-
ning of a practice, later continued in the Edict of Nantes
(§ 274), whereby the Huguenots became "a state within the
state."

310 uenaissancp: and reformation

After the close of the third war, Charles IX. threw off the
influence of his mother, and came for a time under the as-

272. Massa- cendency of the high-minded Coligny, now the leader of
Barttiolo- *^^® Huguenot party. Catherine de' Medici plotted with
mew (1572) the Guises for Coligny's murder, but the attempt failed,

and in desperation she then played upon the fears and weak-
ness of the king to procure the seizure and execution of Coligny
and the other Huguenot leaders. Charles yielded at last, but
demanded that not only the leaders but all Huguenots should
be slain, in order that none might remain to reproach him with
the deed.

Large numbers of the Protestants had assembled to cele-
brate the marriage of Conde's nephew, Henry of Navarre, with
the sister of Charles IX. (hi tlie night of August 28, 1572,
(St. Bartholomew's eve), more than two thousand of them
were slain, including Coligny hiinself; and the massacres in
the provinces added at least twenty thousand more to this
number. Personal enmities and opportunities for phinder
Ranke Civil "^^'^re not forgotten by the fanatical mobs. "It was a
Waf'sand combination of private vengeance and public condemna-
in France, tiun,' says the historian Kanke, "such as the world had
^^^ never seen since the days of Sulla's proscriptions."

A renewal of the religious war followed immediateh^, and
republican ideas begin to appear in Huguenot writings : against

273. More the monarchy which had wronged them they raised the
r^ gious -jg^ ^^ ^j^p sovereignty of the peo})le. When Charles
(1572-1589) IX, (lied, and was succeeded by his brother Henry III.

(1574-1589), a thoroughly evil man and one of the promoters
of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, the Catholics themselves
were divided. The extreme party, under the Duke of Guise,
turned more and more to Philip II. of Spain, from whom came
money, men, and leaders for the "Catholic League," which
they formed; the more moderate party, called Polificpies,
wished to secure a permanent peace on the basis of toleration.

THE REFOUMATiON IN FRANCE

311

The death of the king's sole remaining brother, in* 1584,
opened the succession to the Protestant Henry of Navarre,
head of the house of Bourbon, whose claims were strongly-
opposed by the League, backed by Spain and the Pope.

The eighth civil war (1585-1589) followed, called the " War
of the Three Henrys " from its leaders, Henry of Guise, Henry
III., and Henry of Navarre. In this struggle the Duke of
Guise showed himself more king than Henry III. himself, and
the latter caused him to be murdered, as he was entering the
royal council chamber (1588).
The Duke of Mayenne, Guise's
younger brother, succeeded him
as head of the League; and
Henry III., to escape a just
vengeance, allied himself with
Navarre. In August, 1589, while
laying siege to rebellious Paris,
Henry III. was himself assas-
sinated by a fanatical monk.

Henry of Navarre now be-
came king of France^ by the
same hereditary right to which Henry IV. (From an old priut.)

1 His claim to the throne is shown by the following table
Hugh Capet

(Seven generations)

Loins TX. (Saint Louis, 1226-1270)

Philip III. (1270-1285)

Philip IV. (128&-1314),
father of Louis X. (1314-
1316), Philip V. (1316-
1322), and Charles IV.
(1322-1328), with whom
the (1) direct Capetian
line ends.

Charles, Duke of Valois,
ancestor of the (2) main
Valois line, which begins
with Philip VI. (1328-
1350) and ends with
Charles VIII. (1483-
1498) ; of (8) Louis XIL
(1498-1515) ; and of the
(4) line of Francis I.
(see p. 808).

Robert (married heiress of
Bourbon), ancestor of the
(5) Bourbon line of kings,
•which ascended the throne
in Henry IV. (1589-1610)
and continued to the French
Kevolution (1792).

812

llENAISSANCK AND REFORMATION

the Valois kings owed their succession, and against his bril-
liant leadership the League struggled in vain. Spain, its ally,
274. Henry ""^'^^ crippled in 1588 by the defeat of its great Armada

IV. ends ygnt against England (§ 282), and was able to lend little

the wars in

France assistance. By becoming a Catholic in 1593, Henry IV.

(1689-1610) i-emoved the last obstacle to his acceptance by the French

people. The religious question was settled for the time by

the Edict of Nantes, issued in 1598, by which Huguenots were

Beginning of the Edict of Nantes.

given (1) equal political rights with Cath-
olics, (2) a limited freedom of worship,
(o) the possession of La liochelle and other
strong places as cities of refuge.

The Edict of Nantes completed the pacifi-
cation of France. AVitli the aid of his min-
ister the Duke of Sully, Henry IV. then
restored the monarchical power, which had
been seriously impaired in the religious wars,
and carried out a series of reforms to improve
the finances and i)romote prosperity. In foreign
affairs he abandoned the policy which had made
France a mere satellite of Spain, and directed his
efforts toward weakening the overgrown power of
the Hapsburg house. His rule was eminently wise, and he
was the most popular king France ever had. Extreme Catho-
lics, however, remained irreconcilable ; and in 1610, as his

THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 313

carriage was passing through the streets of Paris, Henry was
stabbed to death by a religious fanatic. A period of disorder
followed, in which the Huguenots again took up arms ; but the
struggle was now primarily political, and not religious.

The English Reformation was largely the work of the Tudor
dynasty, which ascended the throne at the close of the Wars
of the Eoses in 1485 (§ 217). Thirty years of intermit- ^^^ ^^
tent civil war had greatly weakened the nobles, while the land under
Commons desired nothing so much as peace and orderly and^Henry
government. Henry VII. (1485-1509), the first of the VIII. (1485-
Tudor line, was thus enabled to make the crown almost
despotic. His son, Henry YIII. (1509-1547), was educated
in the atmosphere of the Renaissance, but turned his atten-
tion as king to plans of foreign war. His alliance was eagerly
sought by both Francis I. and Charles V., and his minister,
Cardinal Wolsey, raised England to a position of importance
among European nations. A book which Henry wrote against
Luther led the Pope to give him the title (still borne by Eng-
lish sovereigns) of " Defender of the Faith " ; but a few years
later Henry embarked upon a course which ended by separa-
ting England as a nation from the Roman Catholic Church.

The English Reformation differs from that in Continental
countries in two ways : (1) it was begun and its course con-
trolled by the government, the people for the most part 276. Henry
passively following ; (2) the English Church after the ^^^^ ^^^^
Reformation was more of a compromise between the old mation

and the new, its doctrine being Protestant, while its (1529-1547)
ritual and government were largely Catholic.

The ground for the Reformation in England had long been
prepared. Resistance to the papacy was embodied in the
Statutes of Provisors and Praemunire (§171), and the labors
of Wyclif and the Renaissance movement combined to break
the hold of the Catholic Church. The actual separation from
Borne came from the desire of Henry VIII. to have his mar-

314

RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

riage with Catherine of Aragon, with whom he had lived for
eighteen years, declared void, in order that he might marry
Anne Boleyn, with whom he was infatuated. When Pope
Clement VII. refused to grant this, Henry procured the annul-
ment from Cranmer, his Archbishop of Canterbury, and pro-
claimed Anne queen, in defiance of the Pope.

In November, 1534, the separation from Rome was made

complete by an act of Parliament declaring the English king

Adams and to be " the only supreme head in earth of the Church of

Documents ^^S^^^^^ " 5 *^^ authority which the Pope had exercised

?io. 148 was divided between the king and the Archbishop of

Canterbury. The monasteries were dissolved (1536 and 1539),

on the ground that they were ho])elessly corrupt, and their

property was given in

large part to laymen.

Two important results

followed from this step:

(1) the abbots were re-
moved from the House
of Lords, and the power
of the ecclesiastical
peers was reduced ; and

(2) the nobles and gen-
try who received grants
of monastic land be-
came zealous sup])()rt-
ers of the Keformation.

While repudiating
the papal headship,
Henry clung tena-
ciously to Catho-
lic doctrine, and put to death ini])artially those who de-
nied his supremacy in the church and those wlio professed
I*rotestant views. Sir Thonuis More, one of the noblest cliar-

277. Tyr-
anny of
Henry VIU

Armor of Hknry VIII.

lu Tower of London. Belonjjs to period of
fendal decadence, when armor was largely
for show, and tonruaments were usually
harmle.s.s spectacles.

THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 315

acters in English history, was sent to the block for refusing to
acknowledge, in explicit terms, the king's supremacy. Henry
was equally ready to punish other offenses against his arbitrary
will. Cardinal Wolsey, who had been deprived of power be-
cause of his inability to secure a papal annulment of the king's
first marriage, escaped imprisonment in the Tower only by his
timely death (1530). His successor, Thomas Cromwell, was
beheaded for negotiating an unsatisfactory marriage for his
royal master (1540). Henry was six times married, two of his
queens being divorced, and two (including Anne Boleyn) exe-
cuted for misconduct. He was a strong monarch, under whom
England prospered ; but he was tyrannical and cruel, and it is
estimated that seventy thousand persons — rebels, Protestants,
and Roman Catholics — perished by his orders.

Henry VIII. left one son and two daughters, each by a dif-
ferent marriage (see genealogy, p. 317). His son, Edward VI.,.
aged nine years, succeeded him. The government at „„ _
first was carried on by the king's uncle, the Duke of ward VI.
Somerset; but after a time he was overthrown and exe- ^ 7-1553)
cuted by his rival, the Duke of Northumberland. Somerset
from conviction, and Northumberland from selfish motives,
favored Protestantism ; and under Edward VI. the Reforma-
tion was carried into the field of doctrine and ritual. Under
the guidance of Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, a Book of
Common Prayer in English was framed, the clergy were per-
mitted to marry, and a Protestant creed was adopted ; to assist
in this work, Protestant divines from the Continent were called
into consultation. These changes went beyond the desires
of the nation, and rebellions broke out, but were easily sup-
pressed. The young king, from whose precocious intelligence
much was expected, died at the age of fifteen.

By hereditary right, and by a will left by Henry VIII.,
Edward's half-sister Mary, daughter of Catherine of Aragon,
was next in succession. She was a Catholic, and Korthumber-

316 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

land plotted to secure the succession for his son's wife, Lady-
Jane Grey, a Protestant girl of noble character, who was a
granddaughter of Henry VIII.'s younger sister. The attempt
failed, and iS"orthumberland was executed; and ultimately the
gentle Lady Jane and her young husband met the same fate.

Queen Mary (1553-1558) came to the throne amid great
rejoicing, but w^hen she died five years later she was hated by

279. Catho- almost all her subjects. This was due not to the fact

lie restora- i]^^j^ gj^g restored the Catholic religion, — for the majority

tion by

Queen Mary of the English people were willing to accept the old

(1553-1658) '^vorship, the old belief, and even the authority of the
Pope, — but to her marriage with a foreigner, Philip 11. of
Spain, and to the rigid persecution of Protestants which she
carried on. Her marriage proved unhappy, and her health was
miserable ; her mind perhaps was affected from these causes :
persecution appeared to her a sacred duty. Cranmer, Arch-
bishop of Canterbury, ^vas among the 277 Protestant martyrs.
In foreign affairs IVIary sided with Spain against France, and
through delay in sending aid she allowed the French (in 1558)
to take Calais — the last of the English possessions in France.
A few months later her unhappy life ended, and her Protestant
half-sister Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn, came to the
throne.

The reign of Elizabeth (1558-1603), alike in its domestic
legislation, its foreign policy, and its religions interest, was

280. Re- ^"® ^^ ^^^^ most important in English history. This was
li^ous set- due in part to the ability of her councilors, especially
Elizabeth Lord ])urghley (or Burleigh) ; still more was it due to
(1558-1603) iier own character. She had her father's strength and

imperious will, with her mother's vanity and fondness of dis-
play ; but above all she was devoted to England's interest.

Elizabeth was without strong religious feeling either way ;
she had conformed to the Catholic religion during Mary's
reign, but when herself in power she repealed Mary's Cath-

THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND

317

Great Seal of Queen Elizabeth.

"Elizabeth by God's grace queen of England, France, and Ireland;
Defender of the Faith."

olic statutes, although, she refused to restore unmodified her
brother's legislation. The Book of Common Prayer and the
Thirty-nine Articles issued by Elizabeth — both of which re-
main still in force — were based on similar works of Ed-
ward VI., but altered so as to give less offense to adherents
of the old religion. She sought to include Catholics and
Protestants in one national church, shaped by the royal will.
In large measure her attempt was successful, though ex-
tremists of both communions caused trouble. (1) Extreme
Catholics claimed, on the ground of the nullity of Henry's mar-
riage to Anne Boleyn, that the crown should go to Mary Queen
of Scots,^ and plotted Elizabeth's overthrow. More than 175

1 The claims of Mary Queen of Scots, which she transmitted to the Stuart
line, are shown in the following genealogy : —

(1) Henry VII. (1485-1509)

Mare^aret
(m. James IV. of Scotland)

James V. of Scotland

(2) Hknry VI II. (1509-1547)

Mary Queen of Scots /^tl^.^^^Ix

I (IO.TO— lOOo)

(6) James I. (daughter of

of England Catherine

(1603-1625) ^^ Aragon)

Mary
(grandmother of
Lady Jane Grey)

(5) Kl.lZABETH

(1558-160.3)
(daughter of
Anne Boleyn)

(3) Edward VI.

(1547-1553)

(son of

Jane Seymour)

;U8 RENAISSANCK AND IIKFORMATION

Catholic priests and laymen were put to death in her reign for
refusing to (conform to the new religion. (2) Protestant ex-
tremists, called Puritans, were intensely loyal, but were dissat-
isfied that Elizabeth did not go further in religious change.
Many of them had fled to the Continent during Mary's perse-
cutions, and now returned filled with the ideas of Calvin and
the Genevan Ileformation ; in spite of Elizabeth's attempts at
repression, their number and importance increased greatly,
until at tlie end of the reign they constituted a considerable
party.

In Scotland the Reformation was established, about 1560,

largely through the efforts of John Knox, a man of intense

281 Eliza- foi'ce and fearlessness and rigidly Calvinistic views.

beth and Mary Queen of Scots, who succeeded to her father's

Mary of

Scotland throne (1542) when only a few days old, was educated

(1560-1587) under French influences, and became the bride of

Francis il. She had no children in France, and upon her

husband's death, in l^GO, she returned to her native land.

The Scots at this time were rude, ignorant, and backward in
civilization ; while Mary was pleasure-loving, vivacious, and an
ardent Catholic. Her second marriage, with her cousin Lord
Darn ley, proved unhappy, and within two years Darnley was
murdered ; whether Mary was concerned in the deed or not,
she allowed herself in a few months to marry Bothwell, the
chief autlior of the crime. A revolt followed, in which Mary
was forced to abdicate, and her infant son by Darnley became
King James VI. Less than a year later (in 1568) Mary
escaped from captivity, fled to England, and threw herself
upon the generosity of Elizabeth.

The English queen could not forego the advantage which
this step gave her against one who was a claimant of her
throne, though she disliked to countenance rebellion. For
nineteen years Mary was kept in honorable captivity. Plots
were on foot with the purpose of dethroning Elizabeth through

THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND 319

the aid of a Spanish invasion, and setting Mary on the English
throne; and the complicity of Mary in one of these, which
English law made a capital offense, was at last proved. Eliza-
beth reluctantly signed Mary's death warrant, and early in
1587 the Queen of Scots was beheaded.

Bold sailors like Sir Francis Drake — the first of English-
men to circumnavigate the globe — had long been preying
upon Spanish commerce in the New World, when assist- 282. The

ance sent the Dutch by Elizabeth in their revolt against Spanish

Armada.
Spain (§ 292) produced open war. The first expedition (1588)

prepared by Philip II. to attack England was prevented from

sailing by Drake's daring raid into Cadiz harbor, where he

" singed the king of Spain's beard " by destroying the ships

and stores gathered there. The next year (1588) the Great

Armada set sail; it numbered nearly one hundred and fifty

ships, about half of them large, while the English fleet, though

greater in numbers, was composed of much smaller vessels.

The fight occurred in the Channel and off the Netherlands,

where the superior seamanship of the English, together with

their greater daring, gave them the advantage ; and a tempest

completed the work which they began. Out of Spain's vast

Armada, only sixty-seven vessels returned home. This victory

ended the danger of a Catholic restoration by Spanish arms.

In many directions, Elizabeth's reign witnessed an outburst

of English energy such as the world had never seen. In no

line was this more true than in literature. The poet

283. Eng-
Spenser, the philosopher Bacon, and the dramatists lish litera-

Shakespeare, Marlowe, and Ben Jonson, with many *^^®

others, made this the golden age of English letters. Such

activity no doubt was the result of many causes, long in

preparation; but one of these was certainly the freedom of

thought and intellectual stimulus which came with the

religious Reformation.

320 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

The Swiss Reformation, begun at Zurich by Zwingli (died
1531), was continued at Geneva by Calvin (died 1664) ; it was
284. Sum- more radical than the German Reformation, producing
^^^ the Calvinistic theology, the Presbyterian mode of church

government, and the Puritanic ideal of life ; and to Geneva,
after Luther's death (1516), passed the Protestant headship
which had belonged to Wittenberg. A Counter Reformation
of the Catholic Church, meanwhile, was carried through by the
Council of Trent (1545-1563) ; and resistance to Protestantism
was organized in the Jesuit order, founded by Loyola in 1540.

In France a reformation, affecting mainly the upper and
middle classes, began with Lefevre about 1512. Political as
well as religious causes produced the eight Huguenot wars
(1560-1589), which ended with the accession of Henry IV.,
who renounced Protestantism (1593), and issued the Edict of
Nantes (1598), granting to Huguenots political and religious
equality with Catholics.

In England Henry VIIL, to secure a divorce which the Pope
refused, broke the ties which bound England to the papacy
(1529-1534), but upheld Catholic doctrines. Edward VI.
(1547-1553) introduced Protestant doctrines and worship ;
]\Iary (1553-1558) restored Catholicism ; and Elizabeth (1558-
1603) gave the English Church the modified Protestant char-
acter that it bears to-day. Scotland adopted Calvinistic
Protestantism; and Mary, the Catholic Queen of Scots, de-
posed and fleeing captivity at home, was put to death in
England (1587) for plotting to obtain the English throne. The
defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588) insured England against
Catholic conquest.

Of the other countries that had recognized the Pope, Scot-
land, Denmark, and Sweden became Protestant; the Nether-
lands and Germany were divided ; Italy and Spain remained
Catholic ; and Poland and Bohemia, after adopting Protestant-
ism, were later won back to the Catholic Church.

REFORMATION AND COUNTER REFORMATION 321

TOPICS

(1) How did the fact that Germany was a confederation of Suggestive
sovereign principalities, Switzerland a league of republican can- topics
tons, and France and England centralized monarchies, affect the
outcome of the Reformation in each ? (2) Why were the forest
cantons of Switzerland more likely to remain Catholic ? (3) Who
was to blame for the failure of the Swiss and German reformers to
unite? (4) Compare Calvin's ideas of church government with
those of Luther. (5) What Protestant churches of to-day are
governed according to Calvin's plan ? (6) Why did the Council
of Trent succeed in carrying through reform measures which had
failed at Pisa, Constance, and Basel ? (7) Would the reforms of
the Council of Trent have satisfied the reformers if enacted a cen-
tury earlier? (8) What advantages did the Jesuit order have .
over earlier religious orders? (9) How do you account for the
number of assassinations in the religious wars of France ? (10) Was
the English Church Catholic or Protestant at the death of Henry
VIII. ? At the death of Edward VI. ? At the death of Mary ? At
the death of Elizabeth ? (11) Mark on an outline map the extent
of the territories which revolted from Rome.

(12) Zwingli. (13) Calvin, (14) Servetus. (15) Council of Search
Trent. (16) Loyola. (17) Coligny. (18) Henry of Navarre. *°P^<^»
(19) Henry VIII. of England. (20) Suppression of the Enghsh
monasteries.. (21) English Reformation under Edward VI.
(22) Persecution under Queen Mary. (23) Elizabeth. (24) John
Knox. (25) Mary Queen of Scots. (26) The Great Armada.

REFERENCES

See maps, pp. 284, 285, 249 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 22, Geography
23; Freeman, Historical Geography, II. (Atlas), map 25; Poole,
Historical Atlas, map viii. ; Dow, Atlas, xvii. xviii.

Duruy, History of France, chs. xliii.-xlvii, ; Besant, Oaspard de Secondary
Coligny ; Seebohm, Era of the Protestant Bevolution, pt. ii. ch. ii., authorities
pt. iii. chs. i. ii. iv. v. ; Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century,
chs. vi. ix. ; Wakeman, Ascendancy of France, chs. ii. iii. ; Walker,
Beformation, chs. iv. vi. ix. ; Fisher, History of the Beformation,
136-156, 192-284, 316-384 ; Hausser, Period of the Beformation,
chs. X. xiii. xviii. -xx. xxv.-xxix. xli. xlii. ; Historians'' History of
the World, XL 351-427, XVI. 623-632, XIX. 54-468; Schaff,
History of the Christian Church, VIL esp. 257-260, 489-523,
and ch. xvi.; Hug and Stead, Switzerland, chs. xxii.-xxiv. ; Jack-

322

RENAISSANCE AND REFORAfATION

Sources

Illustrative
works

son, Zwinyli ; Walker, Calvin ; Symontls, Short History of the
Renaissance, ch. xiv. ; Ward, Counter lie formation, chs. iii. iv. ;
A\zog,Church History, III. 373-385 ; Desmond, ^Mooted Questions of
History, chs. xi.-xx. ; Ranke, History of the Popes, bk. ii. ; Hughes,
Loyola; Baird, Bise of the Huguenots, I. 15'.)-192, II. 426-500;
Kitchin, France, bk. iii. pt. ii. chs. i.-vii., bk. iv. chs. i. ii. ; Ranke,
Civil Wars and Monarchy in France, chs. vii. xii. xv. xxi.-xxiii.
XXV. xxvi. XXX. ; Willert, Henry of Navarre ; Gardiner, Student's
History of England, chs. xxiv.-xxx. ; Terry, History of England,
528-017 ; Ransome, Advanced History of England, 392-481 ; Green,
History of the English People, II. bk. vi. ; Creighton, Age of Eliza-
heth, — Queen Elizabeth; Beesly, Queen Elizabeth.

Robinson, Readings, II. chs. xxvii. xxviii. ; Jackson, Selections
from the Writings of Zwingli ; University of Pennsylvania, Trans-
lations and Reprints, I. No. 1, III. No. 3 ; Sully, Memoirs (Bohn),
bks. i. iii. iv.

F. Breton, True Heart ; Miss Manning, The Household of Sir
Thomas More ; Scott, Kenih^orth ; Kingsley, Westward Ho ! ; G. P.
R. James, Darnley, — The Huguenot; E. L. Floyer, Soldiers of
the Cross; W. H. G. Kingston, Three Hundred Years Ago, — The
Royal Merchant; Major, When Knighthood Was in Flower;
Prosper M^rimee, A Chronicle of the Reign of Charles IX. ;
Dumas, Marguerite of Valois ; Stanley Weynian, The House of the
Wolf. — A Gentleman of France, — From the Memoirs of a Minister
of France.

CHAPTER XIX.

THE UNITED NETHERLANDS AND THE THIRTY YEARS'
WAR (1568-1648)

By the year 15G8 the Keformation had crystallized into
permanent form. Luther and Melanchthon, Zwingli and
Calvin, Charles V. and Loyola, had completed their
work and passed away. Protestantism had developed acterofthe
its characteristic doctrines; Catholicism had established penod

its Counter Reformation. A struggle for the mastery followed,
of which the Huguenot wars of France were an important
episode; but its chief centers were the Netherlands and Ger-
many. In the Netherlands, political and religious tyranny
produced a revolt against Spanish rule, which was accom-
panied in the northern provinces by a rejection of the Roman
Catholic religion ; in Germany increased religious tension and
schemes of political aggrandizement led to a war, lasting for
nearly a generation, which involved practically all the nations
of western Europe.

The Netherlands, when they came into the hands of
Charles V., were a group of seventeen distinct provinces
loosely bound together. The northern were Dutch in 286. Condi-
speech and race; the southern were Flemish and Wal- *^°^ether-
loon. The States-General, a federal legislature which lands

met from time to time, had little realr.-power ; everything
rested with the separate provinces.

The wealth and prosperity which had marked the Flemish
cities in the Middle Ages now characterized the Netherlands
as a whole. Their land was undisturbed by war ; their ports
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 19 323

324

RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

SCALE OF Mites
I JS 20 30 40 SO So

Republic of the United Netherlands,
conimonlj called Holland.
Spanish Netherlands (Austrian after 171 4
with extent iomewhat diminished.)

The Netherlands, about 1650.

were well situated for ocean commerce ; capital accumulated
rapidly. Far more than Spain itself, the Netherlands profited
by the enormous influx of gold and silver from Mexico and
Peru ; and from the Portuguese discovery of India they drew
the greater share of commercial gains. Flemish and Dutch
fleets were found on every sea. Antwerp, in the sixteenth

THE UNITED NETHERLANDS 325

century, held the place that Bruges had held in the fourteenth,
and often two hundred and fifty vessels lay at once at its
docks ; its bankers succeeded to the financial leadership left
vacant by the decline of the great banking houses of Florence
and Augsburg. Every city of the Netherlands was noted for
some branch of manufacture : as Lille for its woolen cloth, and
Brussels for its tapestries and carpets. Well- watered meadows,
protected by dikes from the encroaching sea, enabled the north-
ern provinces to produce butter and cheese famous for their
quality. Agriculture was improved by minute and patient
cultivation ; and the fisheries flourished.

Charles V. was himself Flemish born, and cherished the
Netherlands more than any other part of his dominions ; but
he adopted measures of rigid repression when Protest- £87 Gov-

antism crept in from Germany and France. In 1550 ernment of

Charles V.
he issued an edict threatening death "by pit, fire, or and Philip

sword ^' to all heretics and their adherents. Many were ^•

executed, but there was no stirring of revolt ; for Protestantism
as yet was not widespread, and there were no political griev-
ances to swell the religious discontent.

A change, however, came when Charles resigned the govern-
ment to his son, Philip II. With Spanish obstinacy and
bigotry, Philip throughout his reign (1556-1598) sought to
put down heresy everywhere, — in France, in England, in
Germany, as well as in his own dominions, — and to extend
the Spanish power. He placed his half-sister, Margaret of
Parma, over the Netherlands as regent ; and though her rule
was wise and moderate compared with what came later, the
edict of 1550 was put in force with greater severity, Spanish
troops were kept in the land contrary to promise, and it was
proposed, without consulting tlie States-General, to make an
ecclesiastical reorganization which would increase the power ^
of the crown and strengthen the Inquisition. Protestants
and Catholics alike united in opposing this measure, and at

326

RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

their head appeared one of the greatest statesmen produced
by that age.

William of Orange-Nassau was born a Lutheran and a

German ; but upon succeeding at the age of eleven to the

TO"! principality of Orange (in southern France) and the pos-

liamof sessions of his family in the Netherlands, he was

Orange educated as a Catholic. He won his surname, "the

Silent," from the skill with which he masked his indignation

when the French king (in 1559) began to speak to him, as to

one fully informed, of an agree-
ment made with Philip II.
for rooting out heresy in the
Netherlands. " From that
hour," wrote William twenty
years later, "I resolved with
my whole soul to do my best
to drive this Spanish vermin
from the land."

At first the opposition to

Philip's measures was entirely

constitutional. With AVilliam

of Orange were associated Eg-

mont, Horn, and other nobles. Philip was obliged to promise

a redress of some grievances, but accompanied this with a secret

protest before a notary that he should not feel bound by his

promise. The opposition became more widespread, and the

name "The Beggars" was adopted, from 'a slighting remark

of one of Philip's ministers. Popular riots broke out in which

hundreds of churches were stripped of their rich images and

shrines, and irreparable damage was done to art treasures.

These excesses were doubly unfortunate, for they checked the

patriotic enthusiasm of the Catholics, and also offended the

Lutherans, who threw the blame upon Puritanic Calvinists.

In 1567 Philip sent to the Netherlands as governor the Duke

William the Silent.
From an old print.

THE UNITED NETHERLANDS 327

of Alva, a stern, narrow-minded bigot. William of Orange

withdrew for a time to Germany; but Egmont and Horn

trusted to Philip's promises of amnesty, and remained. 289. Alva's

Both were immediately seized by Alva, and were exe- tyranny

'' •^ ' causes re-

cuted on a charge of treason (1568). A tribunal popularly volt (1668)

known as the " Council of Blood " was appointed to hunt down
all persons suspected of heresy or participation in the late dis-
orders: "From a judicial point of view the proceedings were
a mere farce. Whole batches of the accused were condemned
together offhand; and from one end of the Netherlands Cambridge
to the other the executioners were busy with stake, History
sword, and gibbet, until the whole land ran red with HI- 217
blood." Many emigrated, of whom sixty thousand sought ref-
uge in England and more in Germany, to the profit of both
lands from their industrial skill. The climax of tyranny was
reached when Alva imposed a tax of ten per cent on all sales
of goods — a measure which caused shops to close and trade
to come to a standstill.

Armed resistance began in 1568. In 1572 Brill, at the
mouth of the river Meuse, was seized by a body of freebooters
called " Beggars of the Sea " ; and with this event was 290. War

laid the foundation of the Free Netherlands. Town after ®^ ^'^f.^*-

tion

town thereafter rose in revolt, the resistance centering (1568-1678)
especially in the provinces of Holland and Zealand, where
William of Orange was strongest. Among the novelties of the
war was the use of skates in winter attacks and maneuvers.
Places retaken by the Spaniards, such as Mechlin and Haar-
lem, were treated with ferocious cruelty ; but this only nerved
the Netherlanders to greater efforts.

The complaints against Alva, and his failure to end the war,
led to his recall in 1573. His successors carried on the war
with greater moderation, but with no greater success. In 1574
the Spaniards laid siege to Leyden, situated on low ground, six
miles from the sea : to raise the siege, the district was flooded

328

RENATSSANCK AND REFORMATION

Amstekpam (tAte, Haarlem.
l>uilt ill media'val times; restored in 1(500.

by cutting the dikes, a gale swelled the tide, and Dutch barges

loaded with men and supplies relieved the town.

In liiTC) the Spanish troops mutinied at Antwerp, because of

the lack of pay, and sacked tlie city with savage cruelty : " Not

Cambridge in all tlie Cruel and bloodstained annals of the Nether-

^ o(cni i^^^^^i troubles are any pages to be found more tilled with

History, j i r.

III., 246 horrors than those which tell the story of the ' Spanish
Fury' at Antwerp." This outrage led the southern provinces,
which had remained Catholic, to unite Avith the Calvinist
provinces of the north, under an instrument called the Paci-
fication of (llient. By its terms the Spaniards were to be
expelled and William of Orange accepted as " stadtholder "
(or lieutenant governor) under the nominal sovereignty of
riiilij) II. ; the religious difficulty was postponed.

Under a new regent, Duke Alexander of Parma (1578-1592),
291. North- a policy of sowing distrust between the northern and the
inces gain southern provinces was successfully carried on, and a

independ- permanent division of the Netherlands on racial and
ence

1578-1584) religious lines was the result. The ten southern prov-
inces (now Belgium) were restored to Catholicism and to

THE UNITED NETHERLANDS 329

Spain; and the seven northern provinces then united in the
Union of Utrecht (1579). Finally, on July 26, 1581, a formal
declaration of independence was issued, and the United Neth-
erlands (now Holland, or the Netherlands), under William of
Orange, emerged as a separate nation. This is said to be
" the first great example of a whole people officially renouncing
allegiance to their hereditary and consecrated monarch"; it
was by two generations in advance of the English Common-
wealth (§ 348), and by two centuries in advance of the American
and French republics.

In 1580 Philip put a price on William's head ; and in 1584
an assassin, animated by religious fanaticism no less than by
hope of reward for his family, shot and mortally wounded
him. As the struggle with Spain developed, William had
thrown off Catholicism and accepted Calvinism. ^'Through-
out he acted as politician, not as theologian. He was a
diplomatist, not a reformer ; a statesman, not a preacher ; uarnson
a man of the world, not a saint. As he passed into William the
middle life and the terrific struggle which absorbed and '

killed him, he grew to a deeper conscience and a more spiritual
temper." His place, like that of Washington, is firmly fixed
among the creators of nations.

After William's death, Jan van Olden Barneveldt, as
advocate-general of Holland, largely directed the policy of
the United Netherlands. William's son, Maurice, was g.g „
appointed stadtholder, and displayed remarkable military of thestrug-
capacity in the field ; but he was unable to prevent the ^ NShe/
capture of' Antwerp and other places by the Duke of lands

Parma. Henry III. of France and Elizabeth of England " '

each refused the proffered sovereignty of the United Provinces,
though Elizabeth, after long delay, sent troops to their assistance.

The reconquest of the Netherlands was hindered by Philip's
alliance with the League in France (§ 273), as well as by his war
with England (§ 282). His successor, Philip III. (1598-1621),

330 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

carried on the war in the Netherlands until 1609, when a truce
for twelve years was agreed to. Dissensions now arose be-
tween ]\Iaurice, who aspired to hereditary sovereignty in Hol-
land and sided with the Calvinists in religious quarrels, and
Barneveldt, who was leader of the aristocratic republicans and
championed what was known as the Arminian cause in religion
(§ 339). A synod held at Dort condemned the Arminians,
and unjustly and illegally sentenced Barneveldt to death —
a sentence which his enemy, Maurice, at once carried out. In
spite of these political and religious quarrels, the Dutch finally
triumplied; for before the truce of 1609 expired, the Thirty
Years' War began in Germany, and they no longer stood alone.
The independence of the seven United Provinces was formally
recognized by Spain in 1648, just before the Peace of West-
phalia.

The causes of the great German civil war, which lasted
thirty years, from 1618 to 1648, lay in (1) the increased strength
293. Causes of Catholicism due to the Counter Reformation, and (2) the
Y a/' War opportunities for dispute left by the religious peace of
(1618-1648) Augsburg (§ 257). Interpreting strictly the terms of the
treaty, ecclesiastical princes banished Protestants froin Bam-
berg, from Paderborn, and from the three great Rhenish elec-
torates — ^lainz, Cologne, and Treves; and the example thus
set was followed in the Hapsburg lands (Styria and Austria),
and in Bavaria. The treaty, moreover, did not provide toleration
for Calvinism, and at the beginning of the seventeenth century
the Calvinists of the ui)per Rhineland found their worship in
danger of forcible suppression. The Lutheran rulers of North
Germany, in turn, were threatened with a demand for the res-
titution of Catholic church lands seized since 1552. In these
circumstances the forcible extinction of Protestantism in a free
city on the Danube (I)onau worth) led to the organization, in
1608, of the l*rotestant Union under Frederick, Elector Pala-
tine of the Rhine, a rash, ambitious Calvinist; and the next

THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1618-1648)

331

294. Bo-
hemian-
Palatinate
phase of the
war

year a Catholic League was formed, under Maximilian, Duke of
Bavaria — one of the richest and ablest princes of Germany.

For ten years the impending struggle was averted; when
it finally came, it manifested itself in four successive phases,
each of which was practically a separate war: (1) the Bo-
hemian-Palatinate phase (1618-1623) ; (2) the Danish phase
(1625-1629); (3) the Swedish phase (1630-1635); (4) the
Swedish-French phase (1635-1648).

(I.) The first phase of the war began with a rebellion of
Protestant nobles in Bohemia. The teachings of Huss (§ 228)

had prepared
the way for the
Reformation
there, and nine
tenths of the (1618-1«23)

inhabitants became
opponents of Rome;
in 1609 the Emperor
Rudolph II. (grand-
son of Ferdinand I.)
was forced to grant
toleration by a royal
charter. In 1617
Rudolph's successor,
Matthias, surprised
the Bohemian Diet
into an agreement by
which that kingdom,
together with Austria
Beginning of the Thirty Years' War. and Hungary, was to

Throwing the king's regents out of the windows pasS to his cousin
^* P'^S"^- Ferdinand of Styria,

a rigid Catholic. Repentance followed swift upon consent;

and in May, 1618, a party of Protestant nobles at Prague flung

332 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

Ferdinand's regents from the lofty windows of the council
chamber, both marvelously escaping with their lives. The
authors of this rebellion showed little of the heroism which
marked the Dutch in their struggle ; they were only a faction,
fighting for license and for power under the sacred names of
liberty, patriotism, and religion, and from the first they showed
an unwillingness to tax themselves to pay the costs of war.

In August, Ferdinand was declared by the Bohemians de-
posed from their throne, and it was offered to Frederick, the
Elector Palatine, with the hope that he would bring to the
struggle not only the resources of the Palatinate, but also
those of England, since he was son-in-law to King James I.
(1603-1G2;")). This expectation was disappointed, for James's
assistance was confined to ineffectual negotiations. Ten days
after Frederick's election his rival, through dissensions between
Calvinist and Lutheran electors, was chosen Emperor as Ferdi-
nand II. (1619-16,S7).

With the assistance of Maximilian of Bavaria and the king

of Spain, Ferdinand carried on a vigorous warfare against hia

295. Fail- rival, while the German Lutherans remained neutral. In

ure of November, 1G20, Frederick was defeated near Prague by

Bohemian . . ' ' & J

revolution Maximilian's general, Tilly, and was driven from Bo-

(1620) hernia; the prophecy of the Jesuits that he would prove

only a "winter king*' was thus fulfilled. The Palatinate,

meanwhile, was overrun by the Spaniards. In Bohemia the

leaders of the revolt were executed, their lands confiscated, and

Protestantism relentlessly rooted out; thus one more land was

l)ermanently added to those won back to Catholicism by the

Counter Reformation.

Maximilian of Bavaria was the person to whom the success

achieved was chiefly due; his army won the victories, his head

directed the policy, his purse paid the soldiers: and in 1623

he received his reward in the transfer to him of Frederick's

vote in the electoral college (§ 211), together with a part of

THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1018-1648)

333

Frederick's dominions. The first period of the war closed with
the Catholics completely triumphant.

(II.) The tenacity with which Frederick clung to his claims,
and the jealousies aroused by the successes of Ferdinand and
the League, led to the continuance of the war. Non- 296. Danish
German Protestant powers now began to play a leading P^^^® °^ *^®
part. In 1625 Christian IV. of Denmark agreed, on the (1625-1629)
promise of money aid from England, to take the field at the
head of the Protestant forces, although the Lutheran Electors
of Saxony and Brandenburg continued neutral.

Ferdinand now accepted the offer of a Bohemian nobleman
named Wallenstein (Waldstein), to raise a force of 20,000 men
to be supported by a series of requisi-
tions on the German' states. Wallen-
stein was not merely a great general,
but a statesman as well; he wished to
shut out foreign interference, centralize
power in the Emperor, and grant tol-
eration to all creeds.

Adventurers from all quarters flocked
to Wallenstein's standard, and within a
few months he had at his command,
not 20,000 but 50,000 troops. The
armies of the Thirty Years' War, like
those of the Middle Ages, were without
uniforms; to distinguish friends from
foes, bands of white or red cloth were
worn on the arm, hat, or cap. Soldiers
often took their women and children
with them on the march, and at times

an army of 40,000 fighting men drew along with it a motley
host of 140,000 camp followers. Troops and followers often
appeared like hordes of beggars or famishing vagrants; but
after the sack of a city or a successful marauding expedition^

Musketeer of Thirty
Years' War.

Showing gun rest in right
hand, and burning
"match," with which
to fire the charge, in
left.

334 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

thej adorned themselves with hue fabrics and gold and silver
ornaments.

4^gainst the armies of Tilly and Wallenstein the Danish
king could do little, especially as Charles I., the new king
of England (1625-1649), found himself unable, owing to
quarrels with his Parliament, to carry out his father's prom-
ise. Northern Germany was overrun; but Stralsund, on
the Baltic Sea, successfully withstood Wallenstein's attack.
The war was then carried into Denmark itself, and in 1629
Christian IV. was glad to sign a treaty leaving to him his
hereditary territories, on condition that he withdraw from the
German contest.

The withdrawal of Denmark was followed by two events

which profoundly influenced the subsequent course of the war.

(1) In ^larch, 1629, Ferdinand issued an Edict of Ilesti-

of Kestitu- tution, enforcing the strict Catholic interpretation of the

tion, and peace of Augsburg: all ecclesiastical property seized by

Wallen- Protestants since 1552 was to be surrendered, and tolera-

stein tion was limited to Lutherans. This edict menaced

(1629-1630) . ^

rights enjoyed for from fifty to eighty years, and aroused

to resistance even the lethargic John George of Saxony and
the Elector of Brandenburg. (2) The Catholic princes had
long been restive under AVallensteiu's policy, and in July,
1630, they forced the Emperor to dismiss him. This step was
taken at a time when King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, the
greatest military genius of the age, had already landed on Ger-
man shores to cliampion the Protestant cause.

(III.) From l.')97 until the time of the Reformation, Den-
mark, Norway, and Sweden were united in the Union of Cal-
298. Swe- mar. Under the house of Vasa, Sweden revolted (1523),
Gastavus established its independence, and adopted the Lutheran
Aiolphus Reformation. When Gustavus Adolphus became king
(in 1611), he inherited three foreign wars: (1) with Denmark,
wliich held the southern part of Sweden and controlled the

THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1618-1648)

335

entrance to the Baltic Sea ; (2) with Kussia, which, under the
newly arisen house of Romanoff, was beginning to threaten
Swedish dominance in the
Baltic ; (3) with King Sigis-
mund of Poland, who claimed
the throne of Sweden. From
all three wars Gustavus issued
victorious and with substan-
tial gains ; but when imperial
forces were established near
Stralsund, he found his Bal-
tic supremacy threatened from
a new source. Motives of
political interest, therefore, Gustavus Adolphus.

as well as a sincere desire to aid his fellow Protestants, im-
pelled him to intervene in German affairs.

Gustavus landed on the coast of Pomerania in July, 1630.
Catholic France, under her great minister Kichelieu, was eager
to humble the Hapsburg power, and agreed to furnish 299. Swed-
money to pay his troops. The vacillating Elector of ^^ P^aseof
Brandenburg was forced into alliance by the appearance (1630-1635)
of the Swedish army before Berlin ; and John George of Sax-
ony was forced from his neutrality by Ferdinand's senseless
demand that he dismiss his troops or else oppose Gustavus in
the field: when compelled to choose,
he chose the Protestant side. The city
of Magdeburg meantime fell into the
hands of Tilly's soldiers and was sacked
and burned : soldiers and citizens, men
and women, old and young, were merci-
lessly butchered; even in that time
the deed caused a thrill of horror.

At Breitenfeld, near Leipzig, Gusta-
vus in September, 1631, won an over-

j¥%v^

-L>Wf!"^-

' 'tM^'fA

Breitenfeld b<^f^^ _/

Y^^ If ^„^'"* ■

Battle of Breiten-

FSLD.

386 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

whelming victory over Tilly. With all North Germany at his
feet, Gustavus then advanced to the relief of the Protestants
of the center and south, his route (p. 339) lying along, the
" Priests' Lane," as the row of bishoprics of the Main and
Rhine valleys was called. In the spring of 1632 he entered
Bavaria, after a skirmish in which Tilly was mortally wounded ;
and Munich, jNIaximilian's capital, was occupied. The Saxons,
meanwhile, overran Bohemia. The one resource left to the
Emperor, short of submission, was to recall Wallenstein, who
made his own terms : the Edict of Restitution was to be with-
drawn, and Wallenstein was to be practically the military and
political dictator of Germany.

Within a few months Wallenstein was again at the head of
an army, and the Saxons were driven headlong out of Bohemia.

At Nuremberg Gustavus vainly endeavored to entice
300. Gus- . . ...

tavus's ^^i^i^ iiito battle, and at length the Swedish king retired

death northward. At Llitzen Gustavus succeeded in trapping

(1632) ^^ *'

Wallenstein into fighting. The battle was mainly a

hand-to-hand conflict, in which the superior discipline of the

Swedes avou the day ; but the victory was at the cost of the

life of their king, who fell, riddled with balls, while leading a

charge of cavalry (November 16, 1632).

Gustavus was the greatest general of his time; he was
the first of modern commanders to supply his army from a
fixed base, instead of subsisting upon the country ; and the
strict discipline of his troops was in marked contrast to the
lawless violence of the imperial forces. His death was an
irreparable loss, not merely to his country, but to the Prot-
estant cause ; for he was the one man who could unite Ger-
man Protestants and successfully withstand the ambitions of
Prance and the fanaticism of the Emperor Ferdinand. When
he fell, ''all moral and religious ideal died out of the Thirty
Years' War."

Wallenstein now sought to impose a peace upon Emperor,

THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1618-1648) 337

Swedes, and Saxons alike. How far his designs extended,
and whether he was actually guilty of treason, it is diffi-
cult to say : at all events, the jealousy of Ferdinand was qq^ Assas-
aroused, and a proclamation was issued deposing him sinationof
from his command and setting a price upon his head, stein (1634)
Wallenstein counted upon the devotion of his army ;
but at Eger he was murdered by four of his own officers
(February, 1634). In the same year the imperialists won a
decisive victory at Nordliiigen, which insured that southern
Germany should remain Catholic. In the next year (May,
1635) the Elector of Saxony concluded with the Emperor the
peace of Prague, which settled satisfactorily the question of
church lands, but failed to provide ^ toleration for Calvinists;
this failure, and the ambitious designs of France and Sweden,
protracted the war for more than a decade longer.

(ly.) In 1635 France declared war against Spain, and began
a policy of more active intervention. Thenceforth the charac-
ter of the struggle was profoundly changed ; religion 3Q2 g-^^ed-
played less part, and politics more and more. The ish-French
,1 ■ 1. £ ' £ J. ' phase of the

struggle now consists 01 a series 01 separate wars, cen- ^ar

tering in the great contest between the Bourbon house (1636-1648)
of France and the Hapsburg houses ' of Spain and Austria.
The theater of the war was Germany, Italy, the Netherlands ;
its objects, the humiliation of the Hapsburgs, and the exten-
sion of France to the northeast. Under the guidance of her
great, ministers, Richelieu and (after his death in 1642)
Mazarin, France more and more gained the ascendency,
through her generals Turenne and Conde. The power of
•Spain was broken; Germany was rendered desolate.

After five years of tedious negotiations, with interminable
disputes about questions of etiquette, treaties of peace 303. Peace
were signed in Westphalia in 1648. The peace of Augs- «hai'a

burg, with its principle cujus regio, ejus religio (§ 257), (1648)

was confirmed, and extended so as to include Calvinists as well

338 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

as Lutherans; and Catholics and Protestants were to share
alike in the administration of the empire. The church lands
were to remain as they were in the year 1624, thereby secur-
ing to Protestantism the secularized lands of the north, while
leaving to Catholicism the victories gained by the Counter
Reformation in Austria, Bohemia, and Bavaria.

More difficult of settlement were the political questions.
Maximilian of Bavaria was allowed to retain his electorate and
his annexations from the Palatinate ; but the heir of the un-
fortunate Frederick was given a new vote in the electoral
college (the eighth), together with the remnant of his father's
dominions. Sweden received as imperial fiefs extensive ter-
ritories on the German coasts of the Baltic and North seas.
France obtained Alsace, and was confirmed in practically
sovereign possession of Metz, Toul, and Verdun (§ 256).
Saxony, lirandenburg, and other German states received com-
pensations. Finally, the United Netherlands (Holland) and
the Swiss Confederation were recognized as completely inde-
pendent of the empire.

Pope Innocent X. refused to sanction the treaties, and pro-
nounced null and void the concessions to Protestants ; but his
protests went unheeded, and from this time papal influence in
international politics of Europe practically ceases. The im-
portance of the peace of Westphalia was very great, for it
marked the close of one epoch and the opening of another.
The long series of religious wars growing out of the Reforma-
tion was now at an end ; there begins a new period of inter-
national rivalry and war, marked by the ascendency of France.

Seldom has warfare wrought more suffering and desolation

than did the Thirty Years' War. From its effects Germany

304. Condi- did not recover for two centuries. The population,

tion of Ger- ^yj^i^^h in 1618 numbered between twenty and thirty
many in j j

1648 millions, sank to about one half; Augsburg fell from

80,000 to 18,000, Berlin from 25,000 to 6000. Commerce and

339

340 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

industry were annihilated. The Hanseatic League, already
declining, was broken up, and the separate towns (except
Liibeck, Hamburg, and Bremen) passed under the rule of
neighboring princes. " How miserable are the cities," writes
p.if J, a contemporary; ^'how wretched the smaller towns and
Qacllen- open country ! They lie, burned, ruined, destroyed, with
uti,Ho. neither roof, rafters, doors, or windows to be seen. How
has it fared with tlie churches ? They have been burned, or
converted into stables for horses or booths for sutlers' stores ;
their altars have been plundered and their bells carried oft'.
(rod, how lamentable are the villages ! One may wander
for ten miles and see not a human being, not an ox, not a
sparrow." The introduction about this time of the potato from
America, as a chief article of food in Germany, did something
to check the terrible decline of population.

The political condition of the empire was ecpially discour-
aging. In form there was still an Emperor, imperial Diet,
and imi)erial court of justice; in fact, everything rested with
the separate states, of which (including the free cities) there
were several hundred. They made their own law^s, coined
money, maintained armies, sent rei)resentatives to other courts,
and cou'ld form foreign alliances, except against the empire
or Emi)er()r. All sense of patriotism in Germany was stifled.
France was now the center of fashion in literature, art, dress,
and court eticpiette ; and each petty German princeling aped
the court of Versailles.

By a separate treaty, in 1648, Spain acknowledged the

independence of the United Netherlands (Holland) ; but she

305 The refused to give her assent to other provisions of the

decline of peace of Westphalia, and for eleven years longer the

Franco-Spanish war dragged on, until ended by the peace

of the Pyrenees in K*.")!). Sj^ain's ])osition in the middle of

the seventeenth (ientury was much lower than it had been at

the beginning of the sixteenth. The German Hapsburg lands,

THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1618-1648) 341

with the imperial office, were now in the hands of the younger
branch of the family (§ 258) ; the Dutch Netherlands had suc-
cessfully revolted; and Portugal, which in 1581 had been
made a Spanish province, regained its independence under
the house of Braganza in 1640.

These external losses were accompanied by internal decay,
the result of many causes. The constant wars in which the
ambitious plans of Charles V. and Philip II. involved Spain
weakened her resources in men and in money. The Inquisi-
tion, which stamped out with relentless intolerance all oppo-
sition to church or crown, undermined freedom of thought
and of initiative. The expulsion of the Christian descend-
ants of the Moors (called " Moriscoes "), in 1609, reduced the
population by hundreds of thousands ; from twenty millions
under Moorish rule, the population of Spain declined in the
sixteenth century to six millions. The flood of gold and silver
brought in from the new world proved as much of a curse as a
blessing. With slavery, it bred a contempt for honest labor,
and produced a false system of political economy — the " mer-
cantile" system — under which the efforts of government were
directed chiefly to increasing the stock of precious metals,
instead of fostering trade and industry. The Spanish char-
acter, with its intolerance, pride, and southern indolence, con-
tributed to the decline. Finally, after the death of Philip II.,
its kings were mere figureheads, and its ministers incompetent
favorites. Under Charles V. Spain was the first state of
Europe, and her might overshadowed the world; a hundred
years later she had declined to a third-rate power.

The period of Spain's political decline was nevertheless an
epoch of great literary and artistic excellence. Cervantes
(died 1616) wrote his inimitable satire on chivalry, Don
Quixote-^ and Lope de Vega (died 1635) and Calderon (died
1681) founded the Spanish drama. In painting, Velasquez
(died 1660) and Murillo (died 1682) created a Spanish school
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 20

842 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

of art whose works rank in excellence with the best produc-
tions of Italy and the Netherlands.

The fall of Henry IV. of France by the assassin's dagger
(§ 274) was followed by fifteen years of anarchy and disorder.

306. France Henry's son, Louis XIII. (1610-1643), was but nine years
^der Louis ^|^^ ^^^ ^^iq regency passed into the hands of the queen
(1610-1643) mother, Marie de' Medici, a vain, weak, selfish woman.

The policies of Henry IV. were abandoned ; his minister,
Sully, retired to private life; the great nobles resumed their
places in the government, and favorite succeeded favorite. In
1614 the Estates-General were called together, for the last time,
as it proved, until 1789 ; but selfishness pervaded their sessions,
and no relief followed. To add to the disorder, the Hugue-
nots rose in rebellion, with the hope of enlarging their political
semi-independence. Only two persons seemed to place the
interests of France above those of self and party : these were
the slow, tenacious king, Louis XIIL, and a young bishop
called Richelieu — at first the protege of the queen mother,
soon to become chief minister of France.

Richelieu was the youngest child of a good family of Poitou.
He was educated for the army, but entered the clergy and

307. Riche- secured a bishopric, through the king's favor to his
.^: 7"^® family, at the age of twenty-two. From the first he

(1626) devoted himself to securing political advancement. He

was a member of the Estates-General of 1614, and as speaker
for the clergy attracted public attention. In the struggle of
French parties, he attached himself to the queen mother ; and
in 1622 her efforts secured for him from the Pope the title of
cardinal. Four years later he was admitted to the council of
state ; and within a few months, by the ascendency of his
spirit, he acquired a control over the administration and over
the king which was to last until his death in 1642.

When Richelieu entered the royal service, as he once told
Louis XIIL, " the Huguenots divided the state with you, the

THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1618-1648)

343

Richelieu.

nobles conducted themselves as though they were not subjects,
and the most powerful governors of provinces as if they were
sovereign in their charges. I may add that foreign alliances
were disdained. I promised
your Majesty to employ all my
efforts and all the authority
which it might please you to
give me, (1) to ruin the Hugue-
not party, (2) to lay low the
pride of the nobility, and (3) to
raise your renown among for-
eign nations to the point at
which it ought to be."

What Kichelieu planned he
achieved. In 1625 a new re-
volt of the Huguenots broke
out, and after three years'
struggle La Eochelle, the chief of their towns, was taken.
The practice of granting them fortified towns as places of
refuge was then abandoned ; and although freedom of worship
and civil liberty were left them, they were no longer to hold
the position of a state within the state.

The struggle with the turbulent nobility was of longer

duration, but was no less successful, since he even put an end

for a time to the practice of dueling, by which in eighteen

years four thousand persons are said to have lost their lieu's

lives. Until 1638, Louis's brother Gaston was heir pre- ^^^^^^^^
' ^ over tne

sumptive to the throne, and with the aid of the queen nobility
(Anne of Austria), the queen mother, some of the great
nobles, and the Spaniards, he again and again rebelled and
strove to overthrow Richelieu. Once (in 1630) Louis yielded
for a moment to the outcry and dismissed Richelieu ; but after
a few hours of this so-called "Day of Dupes," his good sense
and patriotism reasserted themselves. " Continue to serve me

(1625-1642)

344 RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

as you have done," said he, in restoring his minister, " and I
will maintain you against all who have sworn your ruin."

Thenceforth, to the day of his death, there was no time
when Richelieu's power was seriously endangered. Revolt
and intrigue did not cease, but they injured only their
authors : five dukes, four counts, and a marshal of France
perished from this cause on the scaffold. The subjection of
the nobility to the crown — for the time, at any rate — was
complete. The destruction of feudal fortresses not needed
for national defense, and the introduction of royal officers
called intendayits as a check upon the governors of provinces,
helped to make permanent the political abasement of the
nobility. In internal affairs, Richelieu's efforts were bent
to two special objects — the establishment of a civil service
directly under control of the crown, and the organization of
the army on a professional basis.

Richelieu's promise to raise the renown of France abroad
was also fulfilled. The crowning principle of his foreign
309 R' h P^^^i^y ^^^s resistance to the Hapsburg houses of Austria
lieu's for- and Spain, in order that France might expand to the
eign po icy |jj^-, j^^ ^^f ancient Gaul. To this end he concluded alli-
ances with Protestant states (England, Sweden, and the
Netherlands) as readil}^ as with Catholic Venice and Savoy.
To cut off land communication between the Spanish Haps-
burgs in northern Italy and their Austrian brethren, he used
all his arts of diplomacy and war; and when the interests of
France demanded it, he did not hesitate openly to take the
Protestant side in the Thirty Years' War (§ 302).

It is not too much to say that Richelieu gave to France
national unity, secured for her religious peace, strengthened
the monarchy, and raised it to the first position among the
powers of Europe. The weakness of his policy was that he
cared too much for the state, too little for the peoi)le; hence
gross abuses in the finances and internal administration were

THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1618-1648) 345

allowed to remain unchecked, and beneath the glamour of a
brilliant court and military glory was the misery of a suffer-
ing nation.

The hundred years from the middle of the sixteenth cen-
tury to the middle of the seventeenth saw many important
changes in Europe. Spain sank from the first place, 310. Sum-
and France under Eichelieu rose to that rank. The ^^^

Dutch Netherlands secured their religious and political free-
dom, and formed a federal republic which offered precedents
in government to England and America. The Thirty Years'
War — the last and most lamentable of the religious wars —
was begun in the Bohemian revolution (1618) and was ended
by the peace of Westphalia (1648), which confirmed the
principles of the peace of Augsburg (1555), and admitted
Calvinists to an equal footing with Lutherans. The struggle
for religious mastery comes to an end with the balance of gain
on the side of the Catholics; and religious toleration thence-
forth slowly makes its way as the only practical solution of
the difficulty.

TOPICS

(1) Was the revolt of the Netherlands more due to political or to Suggestive
religious causes ? (2) To what were due the divisions which arose *°P^°^
between the northern and the southern provinces ? (3) To what
was due the final success of the United Netherlands ? (4) Were
the causes of the Thirty Years' War more religious or political ?
(5) Why did not the Lutherans aid the Elector Palatine in the
Bohemian-Palatinate phase of the war ? (6) What finally led to
union of the Protestants ? (7) Which side was responsible for the
continuance of the war after the downfall of the Elector Palatine ?
(8) How did the armies in the Thirty Years' War differ from those
of to-day ? (9) Was the Edict of Restitution wise or unwise ?
Why ? (10) Was Gustavus Adolphus animated more by religious
or by political policy in entering the war? (11) What effect did
the war have upon the position of the Protestants in Germany ?
Upon the political constitution of the empire? (12) Was the
Thirty Years' War a necessary or an unnecessary war? (13) To

346

RENAISSANCE AND REFORMATION

Search
topics

what was due the rise in importance of France in this period ?
(14) How could Richelieu reconcile his policy of alliance with the
German Protestants with his position as cardinal ?

(15) Character of Philip II. (16) Causes of the revolt of the
Netherlands. (17) William of Orange. (18) " Spanish Fury " of
1576. (19) Barneveldt. (20) Causes of the Thirty Years' War.
(21) Wallenstein. (22) Gustavus Adolphus. (23) The sack
of Magdeburg. (24) The armies of the Thirty Years' War.
(25) France and the Thirty Years' War. (26) Peace of West-
phalia, with the negotiations leading to it. (27) Richelieu's pri-
vate life and character.

REFERENCES

Geogrraphy

Secondary-
authorities

Sources

Illustrative
works

See maps, pp. 252, 284, 324, 339 ; Putzger, Atlas, map 22 ; Gardi-
ner, School Atlas, maps 26, 28 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps ix.
xl. xlii. ; Dow, Atlas, xviii.

Duruy, France, ch. xlviii. ; Henderson, Short History of Ger-
many, I. chs. xvii, xviii. ; Bryce, Holy Boman Empire, chs. xviii.
xix. ; Wakeman, Ascendancy of France, 46-81, 87-104, 112-128,
132-152 ; Walker, Beformation, ch. x. ; Hausser, Period of the
Beformation, chs. xxi.-xxiv. xxxii,-xl. ; Johnson, Europe in the
Sixteenth Century, ch. viii. ; Fisher, History of the Beformation,
285-;315, 423-4.S2 ; Griffis, Brave Little Holland; Rogers, Holland,
chs. vii. -xviii. ; Hume, Philip 11. ; Harrison, William the Silent ;
Armstrong, Charles V., II. 332-348, 365-383; Motley, Bise of the
Dutch Bepublic, pt. ii. chs. ii. vi., pt. iv. chs. ii. v., pt. vi. ch. vii., —
History of the United Netherlands, I. ch. v., II. ch. xix. ; Gardiner,
Thirty Years'' War ; Gindeley, History of the Thirty Years' War ;
Trench, Gustavus Adolphus ; Fletcher, Gustavus Adolphus ;
Kitchin, History of France, bk. iv. chs. iv. v. ; Perkins, France
under Bichelieu and Mazarin ; Lodge, Bichelieu ; Perkins, Biche-
lieu ; Historians' History of the World, XI. 432-486, XIII. 375-
589, XIV. 289-387.

Stirling-Maxwell, Hon John of Austria, II. appendix (letters
written in the Netherlands by Don John) ; Old South Leaflets,
No. 72 (The Dutch Declaration of Independence); Ruth Putnam,
William the Silent (contains many letters and documents).

Stanley Weyman, My Lady Botha, — Under the Bed Bobe ; G. A.
Henty, The Lion of the North ; G. P. R. Jame.s, Heidelberg ; W. H.
Harrison, Waldemar ; Enfield, The Blameless Knight ; Van der
Velde, T?ie Lichensteins ; L. C. Cornford, The blaster Beggars;
II. Rider Haggard, Lysbeth; S. R. Crockett, B^d Axe; Z. Topelius,
The King's Bing.

CHAPTER XX.

THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715)

As Richelieu lay dying, in December, 1642, he recommended
to the king as his successor Cardinal Mazarin, an Italian who
early left the papal service for that of France. Five 311 jja,z.
months later (May, 1643) Louis XIII. himself passed afin, chief

miTi 'iat.fti* of

away, leaving the throne to his son, Louis XIV., then less France

than five years old. Anne of Austria, the queen mother, (1642-1661)
was named regent; she confirmed Mazarin in office, and so
long as he lived she supported him against the opposition of
the Parlement of Paris (the chief judicial body of France),
against the riots of the Parisian populace, and against the
intrigues and rebellions of the French nobles.

Mazarin. lacked the creative genius of Richelieu, but was
well qualified to carry on an established system of government;
the device upon his arms was " Time and I." In his love of
dissimulation, his avarice, the advancement of his relatives,
and his art collections of rare books and sculpture, he was
thoroughly Italian. As a foreigner and the minister of a
foreign queen, and as the continuer of a policy fatal to the
nobility and oppressive to the people, he was violently hated.
Nevertheless he is entitled to rank as a great minister by his
triumphs in the closing scenes of the Thirty Years' War, by
his victories over Spain, and by the success with which he
maintained the authority of the crown.

In 1648 the opposition broke out in the frivolous war known

as the "Fronde," a name derived from a game of Parisian 3^2. The

Fronde
street boys. The movement was twofold. (1) The Par- (1648-1668)

348

THE OLD REGIME

lement of Paris sought to secure a position similar to that
which the English Parliament occupied (see ch. xxi.) j this was
impracticable owing to the fact that it was primarily a court of
justice, not a legislature ; and, instead of being representative,
its seats were purchased and hereditary. The Parlement de-
manded that it should be given control of taxation, and that
limits (similar to the English habeas corpus principle) be put
upon the right of arbitrary arrest ; but these demands, right
and proper in principle, lacked the necessary foundation in
Erench history and experience.

(2) The princely Fronde was animated by the purely selfish
motive of restoring the old days of private anarchy and public
plunder. Conde and Turenne, French generals in the Thirty
Years' War (§ 302), fought in turn for the crown and against
the crown, but always opposed to each other. Twice Mazarin
Avas obliged to flee from France. In the end the court tri-
umphed, the Parlement was forbidden to deal mth affairs of
state, and Mazarin returned to power. The whole movement
was chiefly noteworthy as the
last attempt to oppose tlie court
by internal armed resistance;
thenceforth, the nobility lost
all political importance.

In 1661 Mazarin died; and
Louis XIV., who was then
313. Louis twenty years old, an-
nounced that ^* he had
resolved to be his own
minister, and that he was
unwilling to have the least or-
dinance or the least passport

signed without receiving his orders." The young king pos-
sessed considerable ability, was well trained, and worked with
the greatest industry at what he called "his trade of king."

XIV. be-
comes his
own minis-
ter (1661)

Louis XIV.

THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715) 349

He had the external gifts of kingship in profusion, and dis-
charged the ceremonial duties of his office with punctilious
dignity, tact, and a refinement of behavior which made his
court the model of Europe.

Under the inspiration of their master, trained and able
ministers organized the foreign office, the internal adminis-
tration, and the war department on principles which were sub-
sequently adopted by the leading countries of Europe. The
military innovations included uniforms to distinguish the dif-
ferent regiments; bayonets added to the muskets to take the
place of pikes ; marching in step ; pontoon bridges ; and the
Hotel des Invalides, a home for disabled soldiers. Vauban,
the creator of the engineer corps, made many improvements in
the art of fortifying and taking cities : " A city besieged by
Vauban," says a proverb of the time, " is a captured city ; a
city defended by him, an impregnable one." For many years
thereafter, the French army remained without an equal in
Europe.

The internal administration was placed in the hands of
Colbert, one of the greatest finance ministers that France
ever produced. When he took charge of the finances
there was no system of accounts, no thought of economy, bert's

and no check against dishonesty; hereditary offices were ances

created for the sole purpose of selling them; taxes were
" farmed out " on ruinous terms ; of the vast sums collected
from the people less than half found its way into the treas-
ury ; the revenues were spent two years before they were
collected, and there were debts of large amounts drawing
interest at exorbitant rates.

Out of this financial chaos Colbert soon brought order. The
number of those exempted from taxes was reduced ; the cost
of collecting the revenues was cut down one half; the plun-
derers of the treasury were forced to disgorge ; fraudulent
certificates of debt were repudiated ; and a proper system of

350

THE OLD R:fcGIME

France:: Acquisitions of Louis XIV.

bookkeeping was introduced. Within a year after taking
office, Colbert Avas able to show a surplus of forty-hve mil-
lion francs, without having perceptibly increased the burdens
of taxation.

I n other ways, also, Colbert was active. Roads were improved
and a system of canals constructed, of which the most imi)or-
tant was one connecting the Atlantic with the ^Mediterranean.
jManufactures were encouraged by a system of tariffs, boun-
ties, and monopolies, yive great commercial companies were
formed on the model of the Dutch and English East India
companies. The navy and merchant marine were developed.
The French colony of ('anada — neglected by Richelieu — was
fostered ; many islands of the Antilles were acquired ; and

THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715) 351

steps were taken to occupy the Mississippi valley, which had
just beea explored by La Salle. The way was open for France
at this time to secure the commercial and colonial supremacy
of the world, — for the day of Spain and Portugal was over,
the Dutch could not long withstand their more powerful
neighbors, and the empire of England, chiefly the result of
successful wars, was scarcely begun. But Louis XIV. pre-
ferred the traditional but disastrous path of military conquest.
A passion for fame and the desire to increase French territory
in Europe were the doininant motives of Louis XIV., and pro-
duced the four wars of his reign. The first (1667-1668) 315. Wars
had for its object the conquest of the Spanish Nether- ^rrr^^,!"^^^

.2L1V. (1667—

lands, and ended with the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ; the 1713)

second (1672-1678) was directed against the Dutch Republic,
and closed with the peace of Nimwegen; the third (1689-1697)
was waged against a coalition of the states whose interests
were threatened by Louis's aggressive policy, and ended with
the peace of Ryswick ; his fourth and greatest war (1701-1713)
was over the succession to the Spanish throne, and was con-
cluded by the peace of Utrecht.

Louis's first war (1667-1668) is called the War of Devolution,
from the claim on which it was based. An obscure custom of
private inheritance in the Netherlands (styled the "right 316. The
of devolution ") provided that children of a first marriage ^^oluf^^'
should inherit to the exclusion of those of a second; and (1667-1668)
when Philip IV. of Spain died (1665), Louis XIV. advanced,
on this flimsy ground, his wife's claim to the Spanish Nether-
lands (see genealogy, p. 358). The Dutch Netherlands, alarmed
lest their turn should come next, concluded with England
and Sweden a Triple Alliance (1668) ; and the prospect of
their assistance to Spain induced Louis to sign the peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle, by which he received twelve fortified towns
on the borders of the Netherlands, and surrendered the rest of
his conquests. Against " their High Mightinesses the States-

352 THE OLD REGIME

General of the United Provinces," who had taken the chief
part in balking him of his prey, Louis XIV. thenceforth
cherished a lively resentment.

The prosperity of the Dutch Netherlands in the first half

of the seventeenth century had continued undiminished: in

317. The America they colonized New York and New Jersey; in

^H**^^d^^*^" ^^^^ ^^^^y secured Ceylon and Java; in Africa they

(1609-1667) founded Cape Colony. Said an old writer, "like bees

they gathered honey from every land. Norway was their

forest ; the banks of the Rhine, the Garonne, and the Dordogne

Wicquefort, their vineyards ; Germany, Spain, and Ireland their

^^^^^l ' shccp pasturcs ; Prussia and Poland their grain fields;

Ramhaud, India and Arabia their gardens." They became masters

Ilistoire

G^ndrale, of the seas, and had almost a monopoly oi the carrying

^'^- -^^^ trade of the world.

Jealousy of the house of Orange, however, led the oligarchical
burghers in 1651 to declare the stadtholderate vacant ; and for
twenty years (until his assassination in 1672) the affairs of
the United Provinces were directed by Jan de Witt, the able
head of the republican party. The contest of parties which
underlay these events constituted a serious danger. A second
source of danger was commercial rivalry and war with Eng-
land. After much friction between the two countries, the
English Parliament, in 1651, passed the first navigation act,
under which foreign ships might import into England only
the products of their own countries ; the act was especially
designed to wrest from the Dutch the control of the carrying
trade of the world. Two wars followed, the first lasting from
1651 to 1654, the second from 1665 to 1667, just before which
the Dutch colonies in North America were taken by the Eng-
lish ; in the end the Dutch were obliged to accept a peace by
which the navigation acts remained in force. The republic's
greatest prosperity was thus already past when the envy and
hatred of Louis XIV. brought on war in 1672.

THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715)

353

As a preliminary step Louis won Sweden and England from

the Triple Alliance ; Charles II. of England even agreed to

assist him, and secretly pledged himself to adopt the 318. Louis's

Catholic religion whenever conditions seemed ripe for T^^^^^?

^ ^ the Dutch

that step. The army which Louis gathered numbered (1672-1678)

more than one hundred and twenty thousand men, and regular
depots of supplies were established to maintain it on its march.
On the French side the war was character-
ized by the brilliant strategy of Turenne,
until his death in 1675. The Dutch re-
sisted doggedly, cutting the dikes to save
Amsterdam j while on the sea their in-
trepid admiral De Ruyter twice defeated
the French and English fleets.

After the assassination of De Witt,
William III. of Orange — great-grandson
of William the Silent, grandson of Charles
I. of England, and later himself king of
England as William III. — was elected
stadtholder and captain-general. The re-
mainder of his life, until his death in 1702,
was one long struggle against the power
of Louis XIV. In 1672 he formed a
coalition against France, which included
the Emperor Leopold, Spain, Denmark, and the chief German
states. In England the opposition of Parliament to the for-
eign policy of Charles 11. forced him to make peace with the
Dutch ; and this was cemented in 1677 by an important mar-
riage between Mary, the oldest daughter of Charles's brother
James, and her cousin William III. of Orange (see p. 388^.

In 1678 France agreed to a peace, signed at Nimwegen.
The only substantial gains made in this war were at the
expense of Spain, which ceded to Louis XIY. the Franche-
Comte (on the eastern border of France), and a number of

Soldier of Louis XIV.

354 THE OLD U]fcGIME

places in the Spanish Netherlands. Louis's attempt to
conquer Holland had ignominiously failed.

The treaty of Niniwegen was followed by ten years of peace
(1678-1688), in which occurred a quarrel between Louis XIV.
. and the papacy. The French (or Gallican) Church had
XIV. and loug been noted for its national spirit, and the idea of
the Pope ^i^g supremacy of the state was as firmly fixed as in
England. Even the suppression of the Huguenots was as
much a political as a religious matter. In 1673 Louis claimed
the right to receive the revenues of all bishoprics in France
during their vacancy (right of regale) ; this right was denied
by the Pope, and in the contest which followed an assembly
of the French clergy passed (in 1682) four resolutions assert-
ing the "Liberties of the Gallican Church." These taught:
(1) that kings were not subject to the Pope in temporal mat-
ters ; (2) that a general council, as declared by the Council of
Constance (see § 227), was above the Pope, even in spiritual
things ; (3) that the rules and usages of the French Church
must be observed ; and (4) that the decisions of the Pope in
matters of faith are not final until accepted by the church.

For twenty years the (piarrel dragged on; in the end the
pai)acy admitted the right of mjale, and Louis ceased to
require the theological schools to teach the propositions of
1682. Xevei'theless, the principles which they contained con-
tinued to govern the French Church, and at various times
received the sancticm of the civil law.

Although Louis XIV. asserted his independence of the

papacy, he showed no favor to French Protestants : his sus-

320 Revo- pif'ioi^ that the Huguenots were still disloyal to the crown

cation of the (§§ 271, 274, 307), his passion for uniformity, a desire to

Nantes prove his orthodoxy, and religious bigotry alike urged

(1685) Jiiin to measures of persecution. An impulse in the same

direction came from the religious zeal of Madame de Maintenon,

the estinuible governess of his children, to whom he was

THE AGP: of LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715)

355

secretly 111 arriecl in 1683. Pressure was gradually put upon the
Huguenots, aud many conversions were announced ; and when
milder measures failed, Huguenot households were put at the
mercy of brutal soldiers (the dragonnades).

The Grand Trianon.

Erected by Louis XIV. for Madame de Maintenon in 1687-1688.

Finally, in 1685, the Edict of Nantes was revoked and all
protection of law was withdrawn from French Protestants ;
their worship was suppressed, their ministers ordered to leave
France within fifteen days, and their adherents forbidden to
follow them. Many pastors who braved the edict suffered the
penalty of death ; and hundreds of their followers, taken in
the attempt to flee, were sentenced to long years of service at
the oar in French galleys. More than two hundred and fifty
thousand Protestants succeeded in making their escape from
France to carry to other countries French arts, the secrets of
French manufactures, and hatred for Louis XIV. The indus-
tries of England, Holland, and Brandenburg profited greatly
from this cause, and America found in the Huguenots some of
her most desirable colonists. France lost not merely many of
her ablest artisans, but some of her choicest citizens, who carried
with them treasures of heroism, of constancy, of disinterested-
ness, which she could ill spare. A noble of the French court
declared that the measures against the Huguenots were "with-
out the slightest pretext or necessity," and that they " depopu-

856 THE OLD Ri:GIME

lated a quarter of the realm, ruined its commerce, weakened it
St Simon ^'^ every direction, gave it up for a long time to the pub-
Mpinoirs, He and avowed pillage of the dragoons, . . . armed rela-
tives against relatives . . . [and] filled all the realm
with perjury and sacrilege. . . . Erom torture to abjuration,
and from that to the communion, there was often only twenty-
four hours' distance. . . . The good and true Catholics and
the true bishops groaned in spirit to see the orthodox act
toward errors and heretics as heretical tyrants and heathenr
had acted toward the truth, the confessors, and the martyrs."

Treaties made by France, beginning in 1G48, had transferred
to her a number of places, each "with its dependencies" ; in this

^^, . phrase Louis XIV. saw the means of further extensions.

321. Annex- ^

ations on In 1G79 he appointed courts, called "Chambers of Re-
tne Rhine union,'' whose mission it was to give to the language
of the treaties its widest interpretation. Titles were invoked
running as far back as the Fraftkish kings before Charlemagne ;
and more than twenty important border towns were thus seized.
Strassburg, the chief place of Alsace, which had been with-
held in the peace of Westphalia, was included in this num-
ber; and the genius of Vauban soon made it one of the
impregnable fortresses of France.

The German Emperor was too much occupied with the
Turks on the Danube to resist such high-handed proceedings,
and otlier powers were loath to go to war ; however, in 1G86,
the Emperor, Spain, Sweden, the princes of North Germany,
and the Dutch United Provinces joined in the Augsburg
League to oppose the ambition of France. Two years later
Louis XIV. committed the mistake of allowing William III. of
Orange to succeed by revolution to the throne of his father-
in-law, James II. of England (§ 355). Protestant England
then ranged itself definitely against France, and there began a
new hundred years' war between the two countries, involving
the colonial and commercial supremacy of the world.

THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715) 357

Against the coalition of European powers, France stood
alone. It was not merely a duel of William III. against
Louis XIV.; it was a contest of opposing principles. 322. Third
Twenty times William barely escaped being (^rushed ; ^ -^xiV
but he "represented the ideas of the future, — free (1689-1697)
thought in religion, popular sovereignty in politics," — and
these principles sustained and inspired him. The war on the
Continent presents few features of interest. Louis had now
lost the generals who in the earlier part of his reign guided
his armies to victory; and on the opposing side also there
were no commanders of first-rate ability.

The real interest in the war centers in the struggles at
sea between the fleets of England and France. In 1690 the
French won a battle which for two years made them masters
of the seas ; but the English brought this brief supremacy to an
end by a victory off La Hogue — " the greatest naval victory
won by the English between the defeat of the Armada and the
battle of Trafalgar." In America the chief event of "King
William's War," as the English colonists called this struggle,
was the conquest of Acadia by the Massachusetts men in 1690.

The exhaustion of all parties led to the conclusion of peace
at Ryswick in 1697. Eecent conquests, including Acadia, were
•restored, and Louis surrendered the places "reunited" since
1678, except Strassburg; the Dutch were allowed to garrison
the chief fortresses of the Spanish Netherlands as a " barrier "
against France; and Louis XIV. recognized William III. as
king of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and agreed not to aid
the exiled James 11. The pride of the " grand monarch " was
thus brought low ; but within four years the war was renewed
on a larger and more disastrous scale than before.

Charles II. of Spain, the last male representative of the
Spanish Hapsburg line, was weak in body and mind, and
without children. The inheritance which he would leave Spanish
embraced "twenty-two crowns," including Spain, the succession
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 21

358

THE OI.I) REGIME

greater part of Italy, the Spanish Netherlands, tlie Philii)-
pines, and a vast American empire. Three persons could
make out plausible claims to the succession: (1) the Dau-
phin, son of Louis XIV. of France and of Charles's eldest
sister; (2) the electoral prince Joseph of Bavaria, grandson
of Charles's younger sister ; (3) the Emperor Leopold, who
derived his right from Charles's aunt. ^ The claims of the first
two were barred by renunciations; Louis XIV., however,
could claim that his descendants were not bound by his wife's
renunciation, because the dowry upon which it was conditioned
had never been paid.

The succession to such an empire was too important to be
settled like the succession to a private estate; the principle
called the " balance of power " was beginning to govern Euro-
pean politics, and this required that no state should be allowed
to grow so great as to threaten the others. Hence the powers
concerned agreed to a treaty by which Spain and the bulk of
the inheritance should go to the electoral prince Joseph ; but
unfortunately he died in 1(399. By a second treaty of parti-

1 The following table shows the descent of the claimants to the Spanish
throne : —

Piiii.u' III. (i.vjs-ifiil')
son of Philip II., and fourth in descent fioin Ferdinand and Isabella

Louis XIII. =

: A

ine of Austria

Pill MP I V. ( I f.-i 1-1605) Maria =

= FEKt>INAND in.

of France

(right to

[twice iiiari-ietl ; fig-

(F.ini>eror

(1610-1(>4;3)

succession
renounced)

ures l)elo\v indicate
children of first (1)
and of second (2)
wife.]
(•2) 1 (2)

16;i7-1657)

Lons :

1 1 1
. = Maria Theresa Ciiaki.es II. Margaret = Emperor

Leopold I. z^"

of France

(right

(1665-1700) Theresa (165S-1705)

(1648-1715)

renounced)

last of by a second
Spanish Maria Antoinette "marriage

Louis the Dauphin .

Hapsburgs (right renounced)

(d. ~

1711)

m. Elector of Bavaria

_ 1

1
Louis,

Philip of Anjou, Jo.seph.' Joseimi I. Archduke

D. of Burpundy

succeeds to

Electoral Prince (Emperor Charles,

(d. 1712)

Spanish throne of Bavaria 1705-1711) Emperor as

as Philip V.

(d. 169y) Charles \' .

Louis XV.

(1701-1746)

(1711-1 74(»)

(1715-1774)

first of the

Spanish Bourbons

THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1(348-1715) 359

tion, Leopold's second son, Charles, was to secure Spain, the
Indies (the American colonies and the Philippines), and the
Netherlands, and the Dauphin was to receive other territories.
This was unsatisfactory to the national party among the
Spaniards.; and their influence induced Charles II. to make a
will, three weeks before his death, leaving the whole inheritance
to the Dauphin's second son, Philip (1700).

Louis XIV. had solemnly pledged his honor to the partition
treaties, but acceptance of the legacy offered greater prospect
of gain. His decision was announced when he appeared 324. War of
leaning upon the arm of his grandson, and presented *^® Spanish
him to the court, saying, " Gentlemen, behold the king . begun
of Spain!" The spirit which animated the court is (1701-1703)
summed up in the saying, wrongly ascribed to Louis himself,
" The Pyrenees no longer exist." For a time the accession of
the young king, Philip V., was accepted even by those who
liked it least. William III. wrote bitterly from England, " It
grieves me to the soul that almost every one rejoices that LecTcy, Eng-
France has preferred the will to the treaty." But when ^'^'^xvinth
Louis expelled the Dutch from the "barrier" fortresses CenturtjJ.si
of the Spanish Netherlands, and on the death of the exiled
James II. recognized his son as king of England, a reaction
came. Before the death of William III. in 1702, he had the
satisfaction of seeing a new coalition, embracing England, the
Emperor, and the Dutch, in arms to check the Bourbon power.

The war was waged in Italy, the Netherlands, Germany,
Spain, and North America; the question at issue was not
merely the disposal of the Spanish Hapsburg possessions in
Europe, but whether France should be allowed to join the
control of Spain's vast colonial empire to her own North
American colonies. At the head of the allied forces 326. Marl-
were the imperialist general Eugene of Savoy, and the ^helieadof
English Duke of Marlborough. Both are ranked among the allies
thf) greatest generals of history ; of Marlborough it was said

360 THE OLD REGIME

that he " never besieged a fortress which he did not take, never
fought a battle which he did not win, never conducted a nego-
tiation which he did not bring to a successful close." The two
acted in i)erfect harmony, but each was hampered by political
enemies at houie. The Dutch showed themselves more con-
cerned with preserving their trade than with bringing the war
to a successful close. The French generals were liot the equals
of Eugene and Marlborough ; and they were hampered by the
necessity of having precise orders from the king for all that
they did. During the first three years of the struggle neither
party gained any decisive advantage.

In the second period of the war (1704-1710) the allies were
brilliantly successful. In 1704 Eugene and Marlborough won

on/. T, ^., the battle of Blenheim from the French and the Bava-
326. Battle

of Blenheim rians, who were advancing upon Vienna by way of the
( 704) Danube. This battle broke the si)ell of Louis's vic-

tories, and preserved the coalition ; it enhanced the prestige
of the English soldiery and vindicated the right of England
to choose its own king; it was indeed "a glorious victory,"
and decisive of great issues. Other brilliant victories of the
allies led the French king to negotiate for peace; but when
they demanded, in addition to all reasonable concessions, that
Louis XIV. should himself drive his grandson from Spain, he
broke off negotiations, saying that he preferred making war
upon his enemies to making it upon his children.

In the last i)eriod of the war (1710-171.3) the balance was

more nearly even, for jMarlborough was removed from command

327 Close ^^ ^ result of the political triumph of Tories over Whigs

of the war at home. In 1711 the archduke Charles, for whose suc-

(1710-1713) ^ ^1 CI 1 ^1 .1 1^ T 1. n l_^-

cession to the Spanish throne the English were nghtmg,
became Emperor ui)()n the deatJi of his older brother. The
English forthwitli cooled in their zeal, for they liad no wish
to see the emi)ire of (Jharles V. revived by the reunion of the
Austrian and Spanish possessions under Charles VI.

THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715)

861

Li:r:;:;;;:| loAuBlrla

To House or Bourbon

zv:

Gibraltar
To Eng

SICILY
To Savoyr'
in 1720 to Austria.

Territorial Gains of the War of the Spanish Succession.

Less severe terms therefore were demanded of Louis XIV.

In 1713 England and France concluded a separate treaty at

Utreclit ; and by the close of 1714 treaties were also made ggg peace

with the other members of the alliance. Philip V. was of Utrecht

ri7i3)
recognized as king of Spain and the Indies, but with

the provision that the crowns of France and Spain should
never be united. The Austrians received Naples, Milan, Sar-
dinia, and the former Spanish Netherlands, subject to the
right of the Dutch to garrison the " barrier " fortresses. Eng-
land received Newfoundland, Acadia, and Hudson Bay terri-
tory from France ; while from Spain she secured Gibraltar
(taken in 1704 and retained to the present day), the island
of Minorca in the Mediterranean, and limited rights of trade
with Spanish America. Finally, Louis withdrew his recogni-
tion of the son of James 11. as claimant to the English throne.

362 THE OLD REGIME

These treaties close the long struggle — dating from before
the days of Richelieu — of France against the Austro-Spanish
power. In spite of French defeats, a Bourbon replaced the
Hapsburgs at Madrid, and France remained the leading state
of Europe, though with lessened prestige; she owed her
eminence not merely to the ambition of her king, but to
the energy and ability of her people, the richness of her soil,
and the advantages of her geographical position. The treaties
mark also an important epoch in the development of Prussia,
whose ruler now received the title of king; and in the devel-
opment of the house of Savoy in Italy, which received from
Spain as a kingdom the island of Sicily, soon exchanged (1720)
for Sardinia. The Dutch were forced into a peace against their
will, and sank to the rank of a third-rate power.

Louis XIV. died September 1, 1715, at the age of seventy-
seven, and after a reign of seventy-two years, the longest in
320 Ah European history. His son the Dauphin and his eldest
lutism of grandson both died before him, leaving as heir to the
°^^ ' throne his great-grandson, Louis XV., a child of five
years.

The idea of government held by Louis XIV. is summed up
in the words (which, however, he never uttered in precisely
this form) '^ Vkat c^est moi (I am the state)": it belonged
to the head of the state alone to deliberate and form policies ;
the functions of the other members of the body politic con-
sisted only in executing the commands given. The obedience
exacted was a passive, blind, machine-like submission, founded
upon the theory of the divine right of kings to rule.

Under Louis XIV. the government was absolute to the last
degree. Estates-General were suppressed, the Parlement was
confined to its judicial duties, and "intendants" were held to
strict accountability. To secure favor the nobles had to reside
in the palace of Versailles, follow the court everywhere, and
a])prove of everything. To impress the people, the person

THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715) 363

of the king was hedged about by a rigid ceremonial, and
" etiquette became the veritable constitution of the state."
The moral tone of the court was extremely corrupt.

Any one might be imprisoned or exiled, without trial or even
formal charge, by means of a system of lettres de cachet : these
were letters written by order of the king, countersigned 330. Lettres
by a secretary of state, and signed with the seal {cachet) ^® cachet
of the king. The persons against whom the letters were issued
usually deserved punishment ; but the system violated all safe-
guards of personal liberty, such as are the pride of the English
law with its rights of trial by jury and habeas corpus. Under
Louis XIV.'s successors, the letters were sometimes issued in
blank, leaving to the person obtaining them the right to fill in
such names as he chose (p. 436). The most celebrated of Louis
XIV.'s prisoners was the " Man in the Iron Mask " — really; a
mask of black velvet : many attempts have been made to solve
the mystery of his identity, but without general acceptance of
results.

While absolutism reigned at home and unscrupulous ambi-
tion governed the foreign relations of France, the foundations
of scientific international law were laid in the treatises ggj inter-
of Grotius (a Dutchman, 1583-1645) and Puffendorf national
(a German, 1632-1694). Among the principles which *^

they taught were these : war should be carried on only for a
just cause, and for purpose of defense; do no more injury to
the vanquished than is strictly necessary ; force alone ought
not to regulate the relations of peoples, for there is justice be-
tween states as well as between individuals ; to observe treaties
is the wisest practice and the greatest strength of sovereigns.
The reign of Louis XIV. was one long violation of these
principles.

In literature the age of Louis XIV. was one of the most
brilliant in French history. By means of the French "Acad-
emy " founded by Richelieu, and a system of pensions for

364 THE OLD REGIME

literary effort, great men were fostered and rewarded. Cor-
neille (1606-1684)^ founded the classical school of French
332 L't a di'^iii^tists. His younger contemporary, Racine (1639-
ture under 1699), is styled by a French critic ''the most perfect
®^^ ■ of our tragedians, and perhaps of our poets." Moliere
(1622-1673), in a series of admirable comedies, held up to ridi-
cule the vices and follies of the time. The names of many
others — poets, philosophers, orators, and moralists — might be
added to the list. Coming between the religious reformers of
the sixteenth century and the political reformers of the eigh-
teenth, these writers were occupied preeminently with matters
of literary form, with ascertaining and establishing for literar
ture the laws of good taste. In painting, the academic art of
France could show nothing to compare in strength and effec-
tiveness with the work of the Dutch painter Rembrandt (died
1669).

A system of street lighting for Paris was established in this

reign, by which a lantern containing a lighted candle was

333. Social placed at the entrance or in the middle of each street,

life, and every nicrht from November 1 to March 1. With better

condition of ^ »

the people paved streets, carriages could be used ; and cabs for hire,

and even the " omnibus " following a fixed route, were intro-
duced. For travel from city to city, heavy coaches were pro-
vided which took fourteen days to go from Paris to Bordeaux.
Tobacco began to ])e used under Louis XIII. ; coffee was first
brought from the eastern Mediterranean under Louis XIV.,
the example of the Turkish ambassador making it the fashion-
able drink; chocolate was introduced from Central America,
and tea from China.

To the splendor and ceremonial of the court there was an-
otlicr side. Even the pahu-e of Versailles lacked sanitary aj)-
plian('('s,an(l to cover the l)ad odors, perfumes were freely used.
It was not until the middle of the eighteenth century that the
habit of bathing all over was introduced into fashionable soci-

THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715)

365

ety from England. The art of cookery, born in Italy, was
developed in this period to the perfection for which France
has since been renowned.

The luxury of the court and the costly wars of the reign re-
duced the peasantry to its lowest condition. An author of that
time (Fenelon) dared to write to the king : " Your people are
dying of hunger. The cultivation of the soil is almost aban-
doned ; the towns and the country decrease in population."
In time of famine peasants were reduced to living on grass,
nettles, roots, and whatever else they might find.

The sufferings of the lower classes, however, attracted little
attention in the general advance of arts and culture. The
nobility lost the rudeness which characterized them in 334. Influ-
the earlier periods, and took on France in
the polished manners of the eigh- Europe

teenth century. " Men and castles had
been divested of the habiliments of war;
the chevalier [knight] had become Lavisse
a cavalier, and the tournament a General
carousal. The denizens of the cas-
tles and communes, who in former times
had been isolated from their fellow-men,
acquired a taste for ' society ' and ' po-
liteness.' Art — formerly the product
of guilds, — philosophy, literature, and
science — formerly the property of the
church and the schools, — emerged from
these privileged bodies, and were freely
diffused throughout society." French
civilization under Louis XIV. became the most brilliant in
Europe, and the court of France the model to air others. The
French tongue became the universal language of diplomacy,
philosophy, and high society. " The taste of France," wrote
Frederick the Great of Prussia some years later, "rules our

View, 135

Costume of Nobleman
IN THE Time of Louis
XI V.

366 THE OLD REGIME

cooking, our furniture, our clothes, and all those trifles over
which the tyranny of fashion exercises its empire." The domi-
nation over Europe which Louis XIV. was not able to conquer
with the sword was peaceably won by French intelligence and
taste.

From the peace of Westphalia (1648) to that of Utrecht
(1713) the struggles of European states have a political instead
335 Sum- of ^ religious basis: such were the wars of Louis XIV.,
°iary and those of the English against the Dutch. Philoso-

phers and scholars framed rules of international law to moder-
ate warfare, but these were little regarded. The object of
European dread was now not Hapsburg domination, but that
of the Bourbons ; and against France European coalitions were
formed. By his provocations Louis XIV. prepared the rise of
Savoy in Italy, of Prussia in Germany, of England, and of
Russia; and to these new powers the future largely belonged.
In internal administration the absolute monarchy of France
proved a failure: "French kings knew how to exact obedi-
ence, but they did not know how to govern." At home the
reign of Louis XIV. established political despotism, economic
misery, and social inetpiality ; the logical outgrowth of these
was the French Kevolution three quarters of a century later.

TOPICS

Suggestive (1) With wluat movement in France in the fifteenth century

^^^^^^ may the Fronde be compared? (2) Was the prosperity of the

early part of the reign of Louis XIV. due to the king or to his min-
isters ? (:>) What were the effects of Louis XI V.'s wars on France ?
(4) Compare tlie objects of the English wars with the Dutch with
those of Louis XIV. against the same people. (r>) Wliat advan-
tages did England reap from her Dutch wars ? (6) What led
to the cessation of wars between the English and tiie Dutch ?
(7) Under wliat former king had France vindicated its rights
against the papacy? (8) Wliy was the revocation of the Edict
of Nantes unwise? (l>) Were the annexations by means of the

THE AGE OF LOUIS XIV. (1643-1715) 867

tlhambers of Keunion just or unjust? (10) Was Louis XIV. 's
conduct with reference to the Spanish succession honorable or
dishonorable ? Was it expedient or inexpedient for France ?
(11) Why did William III. make himself the head of the opposi-
tion to Louis XIV. ? (12) What was the prize at issue in the
series of wars between England and France? (13) Why does
sea power now begin to be important ? (14) Did Louis XIV. do
more good or harm to France ?

(15) Mazarin. (16) Colbert. (17) Vauban. (18) The wars Search
between England and Holland. (19) Jan de Witt. (20) Kise ^°P^^^
of William III. of Orange. (21) The liberties of the Galilean
Church. (22) Dispersion of the Huguenots. (23) Character and
influence of Madame de Maintenon. (24) War of the Spanish
Succession. (25) Marlborough. (26) Eugene of Savoy. (27) The
peace of Utrecht. (28) French colonization under Louis XIV.
(29) The Man in the Iron Mask. (30) French literature in the
time of Louis XIV. (31) Dumas's pictures of French court life.

REFERENCES

See maps pp. 284, 350; Freeman, Historical Geography, II. Geography
(Atlas), maps 26, 33 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 40, 41 ; Poole,
Historical Atlas, map Iviii. ; Dow, Atlas, xix. xxiii.

Duruy, France, chs. xlix.-liv. ; Adams, Growth of the French Na- Secondary
«iow, ch. xiii. ; Hassall, French People, chs. xii.-xiv. ; Wakeman, authorities
Ascendancy of France, 153-164, 184-264, 311-371 ; Guizot, Popular
History of France, chs. xxxviii.-xlii. xlv.-xlvii. ; Airy, English
Bestoration and Louis XIV. ] Perkins, Bichelieu ; Lodge, Riche-
lieu ; Hassall, Mazarin, — Louis XIV. ; Louise Creighton, Duke
of Marlborough ; Traill, William the Third] Martin, Age of Louis
XIV. , chs. V. vi. ; Dollinger, Studies in European History., ch. xi. ;
Kitchin, France, bk. iv. chs. vi.-viii., bk. v. chs. i.-vii. ; Perkins,
France under Richelieu and Mazarin, I. ch. ix., II. chs. xi. xviii.
xix., — France under the Regency, chs. ii.-ix. ; Mahan, Influence
of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783, chs. iii. iv. ; Historians''
History of the World, XI. 487-652.

Duke of St. Simon, Memoirs (trans, by Bayle St. John), I. 18, Sources
143, 167-176, 211, IL 60, 64-66, 76-77, 97, 126, 221, 247-248, 321,
III. 226-228, 235-244, 258-260, 273, 292-294.

Dumas, The Black Tulip, — The Vicomte de Bragelonne, — The Illustrative
Three Musketeers, — The War of Women ; A. Conan Doyle, The ^°^^^
Refugees', J. B. Burton, The Scourge of God, — In the Days of
Adversity ; R. Macdonald, The Sioord of the King ; A. Paterson,
The King''s Agent ; S. MqManus, Lally of the Brigade.

CHAPTEPv XXI.

CONSTITUTIOXAL MONARCHY IN ENGLAND (1603-1760)

While absolute government was perfecting itself in France,
336. Acces- control by rarlianient arose in England. This was no ao-
sion of cident, but was rather the result to which all English his-

(1603) tory had been tending.

When Elizabeth died in 1G03, the nearest heir to the throne
was James VI. of Scotland, son of the unfortunate Mary
Stuart, Queen of Scots (§ 281). Being a Protestant, he was
quietly accepted, adding the English kingdom, in which he
was known as James L, in personal union to his Scottish
realm. lie was one of the most learned rulers of Europe, but
was so lacking in tact and prudence that the Duke of Sully
styled him ''the wisest fool in Christendom."

The times, moreover, were changed since the English ac-
qideseed in the despotism of the Tudors (§ 275) : there was
no louger danger of baronial violence, foreign invasion, or
religious war ; Puritanism was becoming more insistent in
its demands for further reform in the church ; and the middle
classes, through the development of commerce and industry,
were becoming important enough to claim an active voice in
the government. Even Elizabeth, in the later years of her
reign, saw the necessity of bowing to the will of Parliament.
When, therefore, James I. and his descendants, influenced by
the seventeenth-century doctrine of the divine right of kings,
set themselves to rule as absolute monarchs, disregarding
the wishes and ])rejudices of the nation, the " murmuring Par-
liament of (}ueen Elizabetli " developed into "the mutinous

ENGLAND (1603-1760) 369

Parliament of James I. and the rebellious Parliament of
Charles I.," and the end was the " glorious revolution " of 1688
which brought William III. to the throne.

The first question which James I. had to face was the
religious question, aggravated because some English Catholics,
finding no relief from the oppressive laws directed _-„ _,

o37. Til6

against them, plotted with disappointed courtiers against religious
the king. The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was an attempt ^I'lestion
by certain Catholics, including Guy Fawkes, to blow up the
Parliament house when the King, Lords, and Commons were
assembled at the opening of the session. The result of these
plots was that James heeded the demands of his Protestant sub-
jects and left the intolerant laws against Catholics in full force.
With the Puritans also James found it difficult to deal;
At a conference held at Hampton Court, in 1604, some of the
Puritan speakers, in justifying their worship, used words
which led James to think that they wished to introduce into
the church the Presbyterian system of government which he
found vexatious in Scotland. "I shall make them con- Hart, Source

form themselves," said the kinar, " or I will harry them , ^^^^ ^^
' ^' -^ American

out of the land, or else do worse." History, § u

Friction with his Parliaments followed, and persecutions
which led many of the more radical Puritans to seek homes
beyond seas. In 1620 occurred the famous settlement of New
Plymouth colony by the Pilgrims, and ten years later the great
emigration which founded Boston. Virginia, founded in 1607,
was settled more from economic than religious motives. Though
the founding of the American colonies can receive little atten-
tion in this book, it was one of. the great events of the time.

The king of England, unlike the king of France, had no
right of arbitrary taxation and no standing army., The 333 Quar-

extravagance of James made him more dependent upon ^^^^ o^®^

parliamen-
Parliament than his predecessors, yet he added quarrels tary privi-

over parliamentary privilege to the grievances over reli- \^%^^

370 THE OLD REGIME

gion. In the Thirty Years' War, James sought to aid his son-
in-law, Frederick of the Palatinate, through a treaty with
Spain which should include the marriage of his son, Prince
Charles, to a Spanish princess. When Parliament attacked
the project in 1621, James roundly ordered it not to " meddle
Prothero, with any thing concerning our government or deep mat-
Statutesand ^^^.g ^^ ^^^^^ „ . ^^iqiy privileges, he asserted, rested only
310, 313 on the will of the king. To this the Commons answered
by a protest setting forth that '' the liberties, franchises, privi-
leges, and jurisdictions of Parliament are the ancient and
undoubted birthright and inheritance of the subjects of Eng-
land " ; that *' affairs concerning the king, state and defense
of the realm, and of the Church of England, and the mainte-
nance and making of laws," were properly debated in Parlia-
ment; and that "in the handling and proceeding of those
businesses every member of the House of Parliament hath and
of right ought to have freedom of speech," and freedom from
molestation for his conduct. This protest James tore from
the journal of the Commons with his own hand, and its
authors Avere imprisoned.

A trip to Madrid, however, convinced Prince Charles and
the royal favorite, Buckingham, that the Spaniards were de-
ceiving them ; and when James met his next Parliament, in
1624, it was to invite them to declare for war against Spain.
The question of privilege was allowed to rest, and for the first
time James found himself really popular. The next year
(1625) he died.

Charles I. (162»>-1649) was a more kingly man than his

father, but also more arbitrary, self-willed, and unconcilia-

339. Acces- tory. His personal morality was of the highest, but

Charles I there was an unintentional untruthfulness in him which

(1625) made it impossible to bind him ))y any promise. To

these traits he added a devotion to the English Cliurch, as

he interpreted it, which was one of his noblest characteris-

ENGLAND (1603-1760)

371

tics, but which proved one of his most fruitful sources of
trouble.

The reaction against Calvinism, which began in Holland
and is called Arminianism (§ 292), now made itself felt in
England, and received the sympathy of some of the English
clergy, chief of whom was William Laud. Eigid "predesti-
nation " was rejected in favor of " free will," while in worship
as much of the forms and cere-
monies of the Catholic Church
were retained as possible. At
the opposite extreme stood the
Puritans, who wished to do
away with vestments, altars,
and pictured windows, and re-
duce worship to the bare sim-
plicity of apostolic times.
Laud's party in the church
was small, but had the king
with it, and in turn zealously
supported the royal authority,
and taught that disobedience
of the king was sin. The Puritans regarded such doctrines as
intended to overturn civil liberty and to pave the way for the
reintroduction of Catholicism.

Another source of growing dissatisfaction was the Duke of
Buckingham. Raised from humble station to the highest rank,
and intrusted with practically the whole administration,
he bore himself with insolence, while the government was tion of

miserably inefficient. In spite of the war already begun ^^ *^ ^
against Spain, and the aid pledged to the Protestant cause in
Germany (§ 296), Buckingham rushed headlong into an in-
glorious war with France. Men began openly to name him as
" the grievance of grievances " ; and in 1626 he was saved
from impeachment only by the king's dissolving Parliament.

Charles I.

From the contemporary painting by-
Van Dyke.

372 THE OLD REGIME

In the third Parliament of Charles a Petition of Kight (1628)
put the stamp of illegality upon recent arbitrary acts. It re-
Adams and ^^^'^^^^*^ 3, number of ancient, statutes, and declared that
.Stephens, arbitrary taxation, arbitrary imprisonment, the quarter-
me7its ' ^^S of soldiers upon the people, and martial law were
^''o. 189 illegal. Charles was obliged to give way, and the Peti-
tion of Right became law. Its importance is second only to
that of Magna Charta, for it settled in favor of the nation most
of the constitutional questions then in dispute.

Charles soon " prorogued " this Parliament — that is, ad-
journed it for some months, without putting an end to its
341. New existence. Before it reassembled Buckingham was mur-
wi^h^arlia- ^^^^^ ^^J ^ fanatic who had a private grievance to add
nieiit(1629) to the public discontent (1628); and Sir Thomas Went-
worth, hitherto one of the opposition leaders, changed to the
royal side. Neither a Puritan nor a believer in popular
government, Wentworth can not be held an apostate; with
Buckingliam gone, he gave his support to the government,
and ultimately, as Earl of Strafford, became Charles's chief
adviser

AVhen Parliament reassembled, the crown and the Commons
were as wide apart as ever. Besides the Arminian innovations
in religion the controversy was mainly over the king's right
to collect without grant of Parliament a customs duty called
" tonnage and poundage,'' which the Commons claimed was
prohibited by the Petition of Right. This parliamentary ses-
sion ended in a scene of great confusion. While the king's
messenger knocked loudly for admittance at the locked doors,
and the speaker was held forcibly in his chair, resolutions were
X)assed declaring : (1) that innovators in religion and those
advising the taking of tonnage and poundage without parlia-
mentary consent were " capital enemies to the kingdom " ; and
(2) that every one voluntarily paying tonnage and poundage
was " a betrayer of the liberties of England."

ENGLAND (1003-1760) 373

There followed eleven years of arbitrary government without
a Parliament. Laud, now Archbishop of Canterbury, forced
his ideas upon the English Church with conscientious 342. Arbi-
obstinacy. The wars with France and Spain were trarygov-
brought to an end for lack of means to continue them. (1629-1640)
Obsolete rights of all sorts were raked up in the effort to raise
a revenue without having recourse to Parliament. The Court,
of Star Chamber, the organization of which practically dates
from Henry VII., and the Court of High Commission, origi-
nally created to enforce the royal supremacy in the church, dealt
relentlessly with those who opposed the royal will. Sir John
Eliot, one of the leaders in the last Parliament, was imprisoned
for his course there and died in the Tower three and a half
years later, a martyr to constitutional liberty. Judges who
were suspected of being unfriendly to the royal claims were
dismissed. The attempt to levy an arbitrary tax called ^' ship
money " was resisted in the courts by John Hampden (1637) ;
and though the verdict was against him, the case helped to
consolidate the opposition.

In spite of the prosperity of those years, English discontent
became more widespread than ever. Finally the attempt of
Charles and Laud to force upon the kingdom of Scotland a new
service book, led to a revolt of the Presbyterian Scots. An Eng-
lish Parliament, when summoned early in 1640, showed itself
entirely on the side of the rebels, and was dissolved within three
weeks ; but new reverses forced Charles, in November, 1640, to
convene another Parliament, of which he was not so easily rid.

This body, known as the Long Parliament, showed itself
almost unanimously opposed to his religious and civil policy.
Charles could not dismiss it as he had his earlier Parlia- 343 Qpen-
ments, because a Scottish army was now on English soil ing of the
ready to march southward in case he failed to pay each Parliament
month the sums agreed to in a recent treaty, and for these (1640-1641)
sums he was dependent upon Parliament. The principal leader
Harding's m. &. m. hist. — 22

374 THE OLD R^.GIME

of the o])position was Jolin Pym. Under liis guidance the
Jjong Parliament proceeded (1) to punish the authors of the late
oppressions, (2) to compensate the sufferers, and (3) to provide
securities for the future. Strafford (1G41) and Laud (1645)
were beheaded, and others escaped a like fate only by flight.
The victims of the Star Chamber and High Commission were
freed from prison and received money compensation, and these
two bodies were abolished. To secure the regular recurrence
of Parliaments, a Triennial Act was passed, providing that
not more than three years should pass without a session of
Parliament; and another that the existing Parliament should
not be prorogued or dissolved without its own consent.

In assenting to this last act Charles made his greatest mis-
take, for divisions soon after began to appear. The Puritans
desired to cast out '•' root and branch " the ei)iscopal govern-
ment of the church, while the Anglicans wished merely to
restore the conditions which existed before Laud's innova-
tions. If Charles had been free to dissolve this Parlia-
ment, wliile frankly accepting the above acts, new elections
would doubtless have returned a Parliament of more moderate
composition. As it was, liis determination to punish the
opposition leaders, their wish to preserve what had been
gained, and the agitation for more radical reforms in church
and state gradually widened the breach. To the newly
formed royalist party the name " Cavaliers " was given, while
their opponents, from their puritanically cut hair, were called
" Roundheads."

A rebellion in Ireland, in 1641, made necessary an English

army to quell it. Parliament rightly feared lest the king

344. Out- should use this army to undo their work ; while the king

breakof refused to part with his prerogative of appointing the

(1641-1643) officers. Over the question of the control of the militia,

which involved the question whether king or Parliament

should rule, the two parties in 1642 drifted into war.

ENGLAND (1603-1760)

375

Geographically the north and west — the poorer and more
backward parts of the country — were royalist, while the richer
and more progres-
sive south and east
adhered to Parlia-
ment. Socially, the
middle classes,
including the Lon-
doners, were parlia-
mentarians; while
the gentry and the
nobles — save a
small number who
continued attend-
ance in the House
of Lords — sup-
ported the king.
The navy, the ar-
senals, and the ma-
chinery of taxation
were in the hands
of Parliament. England in the Civil War (1642).

Both sides sought allies. In 1643 the parliamentarians

entered into a Solemn League and Covenant with the Scots,

by which a reformation of religion in England and Gardiner

Ireland was pledged " according to the Word of God, and Documents

of the PxiV'i^
the example of the best reformed churches." This was ^^^^^ Revoiu-

understood to mean the establishment of Presbyterian- tion,i87-i9o

ism ; only on that understanding would the Scots furnish

troops, whose expenses were to be borne by Parliament. The

king in the same year came to terms with the Irish rebels, and

sought to bring over armies from Ireland and the Continent.

Hampden and Pym died early in the war. Oliver Cromwell,

an earnest. God-fearing man, organized a body of cavalry,

376

THE OLD REGIME

like-minded with himself, styled the " Ironsides " ; and the

efficiency of these troops and his own tactical genius brought

345. Victory him into increasing prominence. On the king's side, the

of parlia- ^^^q^^ brilliant officer was Charles's nephew, Prince liu-
mentarians ^ '

(1643-1645) pert, a son of the unfortunate Frederick of the Palatinate.

The first great reverse sustained by Charles was at Marston
Moor (July, 1644), when Cromwell's Ironsides and the Scots

overthrew Eupert and the royal-
ists ; this secured the north to
Parliament. The feeling that the
noble leaders of the parliamentary
army were disinclined to follow
up their victories against the king
led (in 1645) to the passage of
a " Self-denying Ordinance," by
which officers who were members
of Parliament laid down their
commands ; Cromwell, however,
was allowed to retain his, and the
army was reorganized under him
as lieutenant general. In 1645 the second decisive victory
over the king was won at Naseby. The royalist forces were
there practically destroyed ; and copies of Charles's private
letters were captured, showing his intrigues and duplicity.
In ]\Iay, 1646, Charles gave himself up to the Scots, think-
ing to obtain better terms from them than from his English
subjects.

The religious question in England meanwhile took a new
turn. An assembly of clergy and laity, called by Parliament,
346 Nego- ^^^ ^^ Westminster (just west of London) from 1643 to
tiations 1047, and framed the Westminster ('onfession, in which

Charles I. ^^'^^"^ embodied Presbyterian principles, including tlie
1646-1648) abolition of episcopacy and the disuse of the Prayer
Book. In Parliament the Presbyterians were in control, and

Froii

()i,ivEK Cromwell.

the contemporary painting
1>V Van der Faes.

ENGLAND (160B-1760)

S7T

sought to force their principles on the nation ; but in the
army the majority were Independents, or radical Puritans,
who opposed an established church of any sort and favored
religious toleration.

When Charles surrendered, the Scots, Parliament, and the
army all tried their hands at negotiation with him. The Scots
at last, in disgust at his obstinacy, turned him over to Parlia-
ment and marched
home. Quarrels then
broke out between
Parliament and the
army, owing to the
intolerance of the
Presbyterians and an
attempt to disband
the troops without
pay; and the army
took the custody of
Charles into its own
hands (June, 1647).
After five months
Charles escaped to the
Isle of Wight, but at Royal Apartments, Carisbrooke Castle.
Carisbrooke Castle he ^^«"^ * photograph,

was again taken into custody. In 1648 he succeeded in stir-
ring up a second civil war, in which the Scots, now supporting
the king, were routed by Cromwell at Preston. " The army
officers, convinced at length of the futility of further nego-
tiations with Charles, joined in demanding that he be brought
to trial. When Parliament, after passing measures directed
against the Independents, voted to reopen negotiations with
the king, a body of troops under Colonel Pride took posses-
sion of their hall, and excluded one hundred and forty-three
Presbyterian members (1648).

878 THE OLD R:fcGIMK

After "Vride's Purge," the "Kiiinp" (i.e. the remaimlei*

of ParliaiiR'iit) seldom numbered more than sixty members,

347 Execu- and coukl make no pretense of representing the country;

tion of nevertheless it appointed a High Court of Justice, which

G]l£LI*l6S X

(Jan. 30 tried the king and condemned him to death as " a tyrant,
1649) traitor, murderer and public enemy to the good people of

Gardiner, ^j^jg nation." Throughout the trial the strongest indi-

I)(>CUIIlP)ltS . -11

of tho Purl- cations were given that the proceedings were not approved
tan Rcroiu- even by the maiority of Londoners. ]S"evertheless, on

tlon,L'S?-290 J J .; 7

January 30, 1(349, Charles was publicly beheaded. He
bore himself with quiet dignity and religious resignation, and
his death went far to remove the unfavorable impression created
by his misgovernment and intrigues. His great error lay in
trying to " substitute the personal will of Charles Stuart for
the legal will of the king of England."

The Commons claimed that " the people are under God the

source of all just power" ; and assuming to act in the name

348. The of the people, they decreed the abolition of monarchy

Common- ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ House of Lords, and declared England to
wealtn ^ ^

(1649-1653) be a ('ommonwealth, or free state, with an executive

council of forty-one members.

Besides an unsuccessful movement of radicals called " Lev-
ellers," in England, the Commonwealth was threatened from
Ireland and Scotland by the adherents of Charles's son, whom
Carlyle, the Scots proclaimed as Charles II. In Ireland ('rom-
LeTiers' iios ^^'^'^^ ^^^^ ^^^'^ places by storm and put the garrisons
70, 71 to the sword, as a means " to ])revent the effusion of

blood for the future " ; and in September, 1650, he inflicted
a severe defeat upon the Scots at Dunbar. Next summer
young Charles II. made a dash into England, where the
royalists were expected to rise to his assistance : this ex-
pectation was disap})ointed, and, just one year after Dunbar,
the Scots were overwhelmingly defeated a second time at
Worcester, i^rince Charles escaped to France, after six weeks

ENGLAND (1603-1760) 379

of thrilling adventures, and for the next nine years Scotland
was forcibly united to England.

New difficulties meanwhile arose between the army and
Parliament. Cromwell and the army desired that elections be
held for a new Parliament, but the members of the Eump in-
sisted that they should sit in the new body, and have a veto on
the election of the new members. In April, 1653, Cromwell
ended the matter by forcibly turning out the Kump ; he then
called together an assembly of persons nominated by the Inde-
pendent ministers of the three kingdoms — popularly styled
"Barebone's Parliament" from a London member named
Praise-God Barebone.

The failure of this body to deal satisfactorily with matters of ^
government led to the adoption of a written constitution called
the Instrument of Government. In this Cromwell was 349. The
named Lord Protector for life of England, Scotland, and ^e°a653-
Ireland ; and with a council of not more than twenty-one 1659)

or less than thirteen, was constituted the executive. All legis-
lative power was vested in a Parliament of a single chamber.
Like the later American constitutions,- the Instrument of
Government was a rigid constitution, containing provisions
which could not be changed by ordinary legislation.

In foreign affairs Cromwell's government was eminently
successful, and England was more respected abroad than she
had been since Elizabeth's day. In internal affairs the Pro-
tectorate proved a failure because it was based upon the sup-
port of the army, and not upon the free consent of the nation.
When the first Parliament under the Protectorate met, in
1654, its members insisted on debating the advisability of
" government by a single person," and otherwise called in
question the constitution under which they were assembled.
Cromwell thereupon dismissed them at the earliest moment
possible ; and royalist plots for a time led him to assume the
powers of a dictator.

380 THE OLD REGIME

In 1656 Cromwell again called a Parliament, and after ex-
cluding some ninety members from their seats, he got along
smoothly with the rest. They even offered the crown to Crom-
well, and proposed a " second house " of Parliament ; he de-
clined the crown, but organized the second chamber. New
difficulties forced him, in February, 1658, to dissolve the new
Parliament, like its predecessor. On September 3 of the same
year, the anniversary of the battles of Dunbar and Worcester,
Cromwell died. He had not sought power, neither had he
shirked it, and while it was in his hands he administered the
government honestly and ably ; in his wish to grant toleration
to all Protestant Christians, whether Episcopalians, Presby-
terians, or Inde})endents, he was in advance of his time.

His son, lUcliard Cromwell, succeeded him as Protector, but
had noitlicr the force of character nor the hold on the army
350. Kesto- possessed by his father; and he soon permitted the gen-
Stuarts ^ ^'I'als to restore the Pump, which speedily forced him to
(1660) abdicate and retire to private life (1659). The Pump

again (piarreled with the army, was again expelled, and again
restored.

By this time England was heartily tired of Commonwealth
and Protectorate alike, and was ready to welcome the restora-
tion of the legitimate monarch. George ^Monk, a strong, silent
general, who had taken no part in recent squabbles, marched
to London with the northern troops, and forced the Pump to
admit the meniV)ers expelled by Pride in 1()48 ; the reconsti-
tuted assembly then ordered a new election and voted its own
dissolution (March, 1660). Thus ended the Long Parliament,
twenty ye'ars after its first assembling ; its republic had failed,
but it had forever put barriers to the absolutism of the crown.
Thenceforth l*arliament could not be dispensed with, and its
ascendeney in tlie government steadily grew.

'I'he Convention Parliament, as the new assembly was styled,
proceeded at once to call Charles 11. to the throne, and restore

ENGLAND (1603-1760)

.381

the old constitution. The new monarch was a man of great
natural sagacity, but indolent and grossly immoral. He came
back with the fixed determination ^' never to set out on his

travels again," and did not hesi-
tate to give way on any point
when circumstances compelled
him. Thirteen persons impli-
cated in the execution of Charles
I. were put to death. The puri-
tanic mode of life forced upon
the country in the preceding
period was followed by a licen-
tious reaction, of which the
king's court was the center;

In spite of the fact that to
the Presbyterians belonged the
credit for Charles's resto- 351. Perse-
ration, the new or Cava- ^^^
lier Parliament (1661-1679) showed itself violently in- (1660-1685)
tolerant of everything which differed from the Church of Eng-
land. Nearly two thousand ministers, many of them men of
the highest character, were expelled from their livings by the
requirement that they should accept the Book of Common
Prayer in every particular, and declare that it was unlawful to
bear arms against the sovereign on any pretense whatever.
The Five-Mile Act, Conventicle Act, and Corporation Act ex-
cluded the dispossessed ministers from the profession of teach-
ing, forbade under heavy penalties the holding of dissenting
religious assemblies, and shut out of municipal office those
who did not receive the sacrament of the Lord's Supper accord-
ing to the Church of England.

From this time there existed, along with the established
church, a large body of Protestant dissenters — Presbyterians,
Baptists, Quakers, and the like. Their ranks contained the

Woman's Dress in Court of
Charles II.

382 THE OLD RilGIME

noblest English writers of that time. John Milton (1608-
1674), the blind author of Paradise Lost, was for ten years
secretary to the council of state under Cromwell, and chief
literary defender of the Puritan cause in politics; in religion
he embodied the loftiest and most tolerant form of Puritanism.
John Bunyan (1628-1688) equally embodied the ideas of re-
ligious dissent in his prose allegory entitled Pilgrim's Progress.
In his foreign policy Charles II. showed himself subservient
to Louis XIV. of France in return for money to spend upon
352. Rise of his pleasures; but two wars against the Dutch (1665-
^fs ^""^ ^^^^ ^^^ 1672-1674) enforced Cromwell's policy of build-
(1672-1685) iiig up English shipping (§ 317).

At heart Charles was a Catholic, so far as he was anything,
and wished to secure toleration for his Catholic subjects. To
test public opinion, his brother and heir, James, Duke of York,
declared his adherence to the Koman Church. In 1672 Charles
even issued a Declaration of Indulgence, suspending the acts
which imposed disabilities on Catholic and Protestant dissent-
ers; but this step was attacked as unconstitutional, and the
obnoxious declaration was withdrawn. Parliament then (1673)
passed a Test Act, excluding Catholics from administrative
offices, and five years later (1678) the exclusion was extended
to Catholic members of the House of Lords. As Catholics
had been ineligible for the Commons since the days of Eliza-
beth, the exclusion now extended to all public life.

In 1678 England went wild over rumors of a " Popish plot "
for the forcible restoration of Catholicism. A persistent but
unsuccessful attempt in Parliament to pass a bill excluding
the Duke of York from the succession led to the rise of Eng-
lish political parties in the form which they were to hold for
more than a century. On the one side stood the Tories, who
laid stress upon the ideas of hereditary succession and the
duty of non-resistance, and were stanch su])])orters of the es-
tablished church; on the other were the Whigs, who leaned

ENGLAND (1603-1760) 383

to toleration of Protestant dissenters, and looked upon the
king as an official, subject to the law, and bound to act through
ministers responsible to Parliament. The reign closed in 1685
with the Tories completely triumphant and Charles at the
height of his power.

Two great calamities of this reign deserve notice. In 1665
a terrible plague swept away one hundred thousand persons in
London alone; and, a year later, fire destroyed nearly 353. Lon-
the whole city. Out of the ashes of ruined London rose ^^^^nd^re
a better built city, much of which still stands. (1665, 1666)

In spite of his Catholic faith, James 11. was allowed quietly
to succeed his brother, and a rebellion which aimed to set upon
the throne the Protestant Duke of Monmouth, illegiti- 354. Tyran-
mate son of Charles II., met with practically no support, ^^jj neTs-
Monmouth was put to death, and all who were in any 1688)

way implicated were punished in the Bloody Assize held by a
brutal and servile judge named Jeffreys. James possessed all
of Charles I.'s narrow-mindedness and tenacity of opinion,
without his ennobling traits ; it has been said of him that, " by
incredible and pertinacious folly, he irritated not only the
classes which had fought against his father, but also those that
had fought for his father."

The opposition arose chiefly from Jameses persistent efforts
to set aside the laws imposing disabilities upon Catholics, by
excusing them, through an assumed " dispensing power," from
the provisions of the Test Act. In 1687, and again in 1688,
he issued Declarations of Indulgence, suspending the execu-
tion of all penal laws for religious offenses, and forbidding the
imposition of religious oaths or tests as qualification for office.
James thought that Protestant dissenters would support his
policy, but their fear of a Catholic restoration led them to join
the opposition. The universities and clergy were also alien-
ated by high-handed attempts to force Catholics into univer-
sity offices.

884

THE OLD K^.GTME

For ;i time the nation bore patiently these oppressions, for
James's two daughters (his only legitimate children) were both
Protestant, and the elder, Mary, was married to William of
Orange (§ 318). In 1()88, however, the birth of a son by a
second Avife presented an heir who would be educated as a
Catholic. A tyrannical prosecution of seven of the leading
bishops for a petition which they presented to the crown

^^ • ■Salisbury

/ Southampton

London^

Kxetcr ^J!^—^-—^

Brighton

'^^OT^ Say

y Portland

C B ■"

^^ E z

KulTK OF WlLI>IAM III.

brought matters to a head, and Tories and Whigs alike united
in an appeal to William III. of Orange to save England from
a Catholic sovereign.

Unfortunately for James, his patron Louis XIV. wished to
teach him a lesson of submissiveness to France, and hence
355 Th <lii'f^cted the French armies elsewhere, leaving William
Revolution free to invade England. Scarcely a blow was struck in
James's behalf, the army which he had built up prov-
ing untrustworthy. Deserted by practically all his adherents,
he lost courage and fled to France. Nothing could have
better served William's interests. A Parliament, called on
the advice of leading peers, declared: (1) that James by his

of 1688

ENGLAND (1603-1760)

385

actions had abdicated the government, and that the throne
was vacant ; (2) that it was " inconsistent with the safety and
welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a Popish
prince " — and the throne was thereupon offered to William and
Mary as joint sovereigns. A declaration of the "true, ancient,
and indubitable rights of the people of this realm " was then
made in the Bill of Rights (1689), which effectually settled

The Flight of James II.
From an engraving by Roraeyn de Hooghe.

the constitutional questions in controversy : the dispensing
power was declared illegal ; freedom of speech and debate in
Parliament, together with the right of petition, was secured ;
and the keeping- up an army in time of peace, save with parlia-
mentary consent, was forbidden. The Bill of Rights, follow-
ing Magna Charta (1215) and the Petition of Right (1628),
completed the structure of the constitutional monarchy. The
rulers of England, after 1688, owed their throne ultimately to
a vote of Parliament, and this fact prevented the supremacy of
Parliament ever afterward being called in question.

In Ireland James II., relying on the loyalty of the Catholic

386 THE OLD REGIME

population, sought to regain what he had lost in England, but
after his defeat by William at the battle of the Boyne (1690),

Ireland was soon pacified. The Scots followed the ex-

356. Wil-

liam III. ample of the English in declaring James deposed and ac-

(1688-1702) cepting William ; but some severe lighting was necessary
before the Stuart sympathizers were forced into submission.

The religious question in England was largely solved in
1689 by the passage of a Toleration Act, which allowed Prot-
estant dissenters, under certain restrictions, to set up their
worship alongside that of the established church. This mod-
eration of religious opinion is connected with the growth of
scientific knowledge: Sir Isaac Newton had just announced
his discovery of the laws of gravitation ; the composition of
the atmosphere was being studied; botany was becoming a
science; and microscopic animal life had been discovered.
Such increased knowledge of nature inevitably affected men's
attitude in religion. A further evidence of j)rogress of intelli-
gence is seen in the fact that after 1712 no executions for
witchcraft took place in England.

William's long struggle with Louis XIV. (§§ 318, 322-324)
forms the chief part of England's foreign relations in this reign.

357. Poll- In constitutional history the facts of chief interest are
parties ^^^^ ways in which Parliament's ascendency was strength-
(1689-1702) ened and used. The Triennial Act of the Long Parlia-
ment sought to make sure that not more than three years
should elapse imthout a Parliament; a new Triennial Act
(1694) prohibited the continuance of a Parliament for more
than three years, the period later being extended to seven
years, in which form the law is still in force. Unlike the
legislative bodies of the United States, English Parliaments
are not elected for a fixed term, but last until dissolved ; they
must come to an end, however, before the seven-year period is
up. Annual sessions were secured by the practice of voting
taxes and the army bill for but one year at a time ; if the gov-

ENGLAND (1003-1700) 387

eriimeiit failed to call Pai'liament to renew these, it would be
left without legal revenue and without legal means of control-
ling the army. This practice effectually insures that the voice
of Parliament shall be heeded.

The development of the Whig and Tory parties, with defi-
nite political principles, made it easier to ascertain the voice
of Parliament; but fully organized parliamentary gov- 358. Eise

ernment required a center of influence, which was sup- °^ Cabinet

govern-
plied by the Cabinet. In its present form the Cabinet is ment

practically a committee of members of the two houses of
Parliament, who are intrusted with the administration of the
government. They are chosen ostensibly by the sovereign,
but really by a Prime Minister, out of members of the two
houses who are in political accord with the majority of the
House of Commons. The essential feature of the Cabinet is
the union of executive and legislative functions (contrary to
the American practice) in the same persons. The beginnings
of this system may be traced in the reign of William and
Mary, when in 1694 William formed the first truly constitu-
tional government by choosing his ministers entirely from one
political party — the Whigs.

Mary died in 1694 and William in 1702; they left no
children, and the throne passed to Anne, Mary's younger
sister. The long War of the Spanish Succession (§§ 324- g^g Queen
328) was the chief feature of this reign in foreign affairs. Anne

lu domestic affairs an important event was the merging ^
of the two kingdoms of Scotland and England into the single
kingdom of Great Britain (1707) ; by the terms of the Act of
Union the Scottish Parliament came to an end, and Scottish
representatives were added to both houses of the English
Parliament. Anne was a weak, good-natured woman, and
struggles between Whigs and Tories for control of the gov-
ernment fill the history of her reign. Although Anne had
many children, they were weakly and died young.

388

THE OLD R:fcGIME

In 1701 an Act of Sc^ttlenient was ]);isse(l which provided
that after the deaths of William and of Anne the throne
shonld go to the lineage of the Electress of Hanover, the
nearest Protestant branch descended from the honse of
Stnart.^ As Anne's death drew near, the Tories, who were
then in power, opposed the Hanoverian succession ; and it was
only the sudden termination of Anne's last illness, and the
firmness of the AYhig leaders, that prevented a second Stuart
restoration.

George I. (1714-1727), the first Hanoverian king of Great

Britain, was common j)lace and a thorough German. His

360. First ignorance of English led to his absenting himself from

two Hano- Oa|)iiiet meetings, thus establishing a i)recedent which
verians ^ ' o i

(1714-1760) gieatl}' increased the independence of the ministry. A
"Jacobite'" rising in favor of the Old Pretender (James, son
of Jaiues IT.), in 17ir>, was easily ])ut down; and a daring
invasion by the Young Pretender (Charles, grandson of
James II.), in 1745, which penetrated from Scotland to

1 Hanover (§ 125) was ^iven a vote in the imperial electoral collejjje (the
iiiiitli) ill KliiL'; it l)ec;uiie a kiiijjdoni in 1S15. The followiii.i; s^'nealogy shows
the relationship of the house of Hanover to the house of Stuart : —

(1) James I. ( 1 003-1 (;2r))
First Stuart Kinj? of Kii<rlaii(l

(2) CiiAiM.Es I. (KV.T.-ltU!))

Kli/al.rtli

Froderick V.,
Jlk'Ctor Palatine

Marv,
m. Williaiii II.
ofOnintr.-

(rxwii.i.iAM III.

(:i) Ciiaui.es II.

(lGtJU-lC)8i")),

Duko of Monmouth

(4).Iamks II.

(i(>.s;> ic.ss)
(.1. iToh

= Mai'.y (f>).\NNK James Ktlward

(d. 10y4) (1702-1714) thi' Old Pretoiulor
«1. 17G0)

I . I

I! II pert Sophia,

(d. 1(182) Electress
of Hanover

(7) OkokoeI.

(1714-1727)

Charles Edward,
the You 11^ Pretender
(d. 178S)

(S) (1e<>r<;e II.
(1727-1760)

I
Frederick,
Prince of Wales
(d. 1751)

(9) Okoroe III.
(1760-1820)
(see p. 559)

ENGLAND (1603-1760) 389

Derby (p. 410), and caused a panic at London, failed equally
because of a lack of English support. The government under
both George I. and George II. (1727-1760) was long in the
hands of Sir Robert Walpole, the first real prime minister in
English history (1721-1742). His policy was to strengthen
the Hanoverian succession, maintain peace, and allow free de-
velopment to English industry and commerce; he was sup-
ported by the Whig party, which was composed largely of
dissenters and the middle classes, and was opposed by the
Tory squires and clergymen, who long preserved a secret
loyalty to the exiled Stuarts. The prosperity of agriculture
and commerce, the wide prevalence of political corruption, and
a great religious revival under John and Charles Wesley (the
" Methodists ") characterize this period.

England's insular position protected her from foreign inter-
ference while passing through the political crises of the sev-
enteenth century, as it had while passing through the 361. gum-
religious revolution of the sixteenth. Three passions ^^^y
animated her in this period: (1) the sentiment of loyalty,
which long protected Charles I., recalled Charles II. from exile,
and disturbed the security of the Hanoverians by Jacobite
risings ; (2) hatred of Roman Catholicism, which put Charles I.
to death, raised up Cromwell, and exiled James II. ; and (3)
attachment to political liberty. "When the quarrel Lavisse,
between the loyalists and the anti-papists had been General
setiled, and foreigners, first a Dutchman and then the ni
Hanoverians, succeeded to the throne of England, the domi-
nant passion became that of liberty." Under the system of
government which followed. Parliament could do almost
everything without the king, but he could do nothing with-
out Parliament. "Against its own government the country
defended itself by means of its rights and liberties. It had
private rights, whereby the person of an Englishman, his

BA.RDING'8 M. & M. HIST. — 23

390

THE OLD REGIME

domicile, and liis purse were rendered inviolable against all
illegal acts ; and public rights, namely, the right of complaint
and petition, the right of meeting, the right of association, the
right to speak and to write. . . . England was free ; indeed,
in the eighteenth century she w^as the only free nation in the
world."

TOPICS

jiuggestive
uopics

.Search
topics

(1) Why did absolute monarcliy not succeed in England as it
(lid in France ? (2) In the contest between James I. and his Par-
liaments, which was seeking to introduce a change ? (3) What
were the chief causes of the failure of Charles I. as king ?

(4) Was the execution of Strafford and Laud just or unjust ?

(5) Would you have been a Cavalier or a Roundhead if you had
been in rarliament in 1640? Why? (G) Would you have fought
for the king or for Parliament in the civil war? (7) Was tolera-
tion in religion most likely to come from Charles L, the Long Par-
liament, the Scots, or the army ? (8) Was the execution of
Charles just or unjust? Was it expedient or inexpedient?

(9) Was Cromwell an ambitious usurper or a sincere patriot?

(10) Was Charles IL a good ^r a bad king? (11) Why did all
sects of English Protestants unite in refusing toleration to Roman
Catholics in the seventeenth century? (12) Why did Englishmen
turn to William III. of Orange? (i:l) Did the Bill of Rights
enact new princii)les? (14) Review the steps in the growth of
Parliament before the seventeentli century. (15) What were the
chief developments in the seventeenth century with respect to
Parlianu'nt? (1(5) How did the Hanoverian succession help the
growth of constitutional principles?

(17) Tlie (imipowder Plot. (18) Puritan emigration to North
America under James L and Charles L (lU) P^ngland and the
Thirty Years' War. (20) Character of Charles L (21) George
Villiers. Duke of Huckingham. (22) Thomas Wentworth, Earl
of Strafford. (23) William Laud. (24) Sir John Eliot. (25) John
Hampden. (2()) John Pym. (27) Oliver Cromwell. (28) Trial
and execution of Charles L (29) Growth of English sea power
in the seventeenth century. (30) Character of Charles IL
(31) Rise of Whig and Tory parties. (32) Character of James IL
(33) Revolution of 1688. (34) William IIL of Orange as king
of England. (35) Queen Anne. (36) Rise of the Cabinet.
(37) Reasons for union of Scotland with England. (38) Sir
Robert Walpole.

ENGLAND (1603-1700) 391

REFERENCES

Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 29-46 ; Dow, Atlas, xxii. Geography

Terry, History of England, 618-907 ; Gardiner, Student's History Secondary
of England, chs. xxxi.-xlviii. ; Ransome, Advanced History of authorities
England, 486-803 ; Gardiner, Puritan Bevolution, 1-69, 71-82,
85-96, 108-185; Hale, Fall of the Stuarts, 76-79, 98-110, 119-
144 ; Airy, English Bestoratiofi and Louis XIV. ; Morris, Age of
Anne, chs. vii. xxi. xxii., — Early Hanoverians; Harrison, Oliver
Cromwell ; Gardiner, Oliver Cromwell ; Morley, Oliver Cromwell,
bk. i. chs. ii.-vii., bk. ii. ch. v., bk. iii. chs. vi. vii., bk. v. chs. vii.
viii. ; Roosevelt, Oliver Cromwell, chs. i.-iii. ; Gold win Smith,
Three English Statesmen (Pym) ; Traill, William the Third, chs.
iii.-v. ; Morley, Walpole, chs. vii. x. ; Montague, English Consti-
tutional History, 113-173; Moran, English Government, ch. iv. ;
Seeley, Expansion of England, pt. i. chs. ii. v. -viii. ; Macaulay,
History of England, I. ch. iii. ; Historian'^s History of the World,
XIX. 469-628.

Hart, Source Book of American History, no. 14, — American Sources
History told by Contemporaries, I. chs. vii. viii. xiv. xv. xxi. ; Hill,
Liberty Documents, chs. vii.-ix. ; Henderson, Side Lights on Eng-
lish History, 33-283 ; Kendall, Source Book, chs. xi.-xviii. ; Adams
and Stephens, Select Documents, 326-489 ; Colby, Selections from
the Sources, nos. 68-103 ; Gee and Hardy, Documents Illustrative
of English Church History, nos. 88-124 ; Old South Leaflets, Nos. 6,
19, 23-28, 57, 60-63 ; Boyle, Characters and Episodes selected from
Clarendon, 4-19, 63-78, 82-85, 88-94, 151-168, 174-177, 216-218,
223-229, 275-284.

Scott, Woodstock, — Fortunes of Nigel; G. P. R. James, The illustrative
Cavalier ; Henty, Friends Though Divided, — Cornet of Horse ; ^o'^^s
De Foe, Memoirs of a Cavalier; Mrs. Marsh, Father Darcy ; F.
W. Robinson, Old Noll ; Thackeray, Henry Esmond.

CHAPTER XXII.

NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1689-1748)

(A) KussiA AND Sweden

" Russia is the last-born child of European civilization ; "
during the whole of the Middle Ages its history may be neg-
lected, because it was the history of barbarism, not of
362 Kussia ' t , • i

before Peter civilization — of Asia, not of Europe. In the ninth cen-

the Great tury, Rurik the Northman established his sway over the
Slavic tribes about Novgorod ; in the tenth century his descend-
ants received Christianity from Constantinople. For nearly
two hundred and forty years after 1241, the Golden Horde of
Mongols exercised suzerainty over the land. Poland, seizing
the western districts, placed herself between Germany and
Russia, and seemed about to develop permanently into a power-
ful Slavic kingdom.

In 1480, however, the Grand Duke of Muscovy cast off the
Mongolian yoke, and set about the creation of an independent
Russian state. Now that Constantinople had fallen before
the Turks, Moscow claimed to be its heir and its avenger.
By the middle of the sixteenth century, Astrakhan was con-
quered from the INIongols, and the Russian boundary was
pushed to the Caspian Sea. In 1613 the Romanoffs, ancestors
(in the female line) of the present ruling dynasty, ascended the
throne. Under the early rulers of this house the beginning
was made of that eastward expansion — paralleled in United
States history by the '^ winning of the West" — which gave
Russia the vast domain of Siberia. Internally barbarism still
ruled, and externally Russia was cut off from European politics.

NORTHERN AKD EASTERN EUROPE (1689-1748) 393

Russia: Conquests of Peter thk Great.

In both these respects a revolution was effected by the hero
of Russian history, Peter the Great, whose character was „_. _ .
a strange admixture of nobility and cruelty, of culture reign of
and savagery. When aroused to anger he decapitated his ® Great
enemies with his own hands, and he presided at the tor- (1689-1698)

394

THE OLD R^.GIME

turc and death of his eldest son wlien the latter threatened
the stability of his work ; his drunken orgies sometimes lasted
for days. Yet his nature was truthful, simple, and straight-
forward, and no one could be a truer friend to those who de-
served his friendship.

His reign really began in 1689, when he was seventeen years
old. Wliile still a lad he had already begun to manifest that

passion for western arts and for
warfare which were his most prom-
inent characteristics; he loved to
sli}) away to the part of Moscow
frequented by foreign merchants,
there to pick up a knowledge of
German and Dutch, and learn
something of European science
and inventions. In a shed by the
river he discovered a forgotten
sailboat, which fired him with a
desire to learn navigation and
shipbuilding; and this half-rotten
boat became the " grandfather of the Russian fleet." Playing
at war led to the formation of a company of soldiers equipped
in European fashion and commanded by a German officer, and
this proved the beginning of a new Russian army.

In two expeditions (1()95 and 1696), Azof on the Black Sea
was ca])tured, and the value of the young czar's "amusements "
was made manifest. But the Russian nobility, the Russian
priesthood, the old Russian army, were hostile to change. To
obtain that first-hand knowledge of the West which was neces-
sary to overcome Muscovite inertia, Peter, with a large suite,
in 1697 and 1698, made a journey of instruction to Germany,
Holland, and England. In Holland he worked for some days
in the shipyards, disguised as a common sailor. Wherever he
Avent he refused honors, in order to visit workshops and labora-

Peter the Great.

NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1689-1748) 395

tories. Anatomical and natural history collections were exam-
ined, as well as sawmills, paper mills, flour mills, printing
offices, and the like. His constant utterance was, "I must
see."

On his way to Venice, Peter was recalled home by a revolt of
the old Russian army (Streltsi), which had long played a part
similar to that of the praetorian guard in Roman history ; „g^ peter's
his native savagery burst out in fearful vengeance, and the reforms
opportunity was used to do away entirely with such dan-
gerous troops. By refusing to appoint a successor to the last
Patriarch of Moscow, who died in 1700, and by later commit-
ting the direction of the Russian Greek Church to a Holy
Synod, Peter broke the power of the priesthood, and weakened
a second center of blind conservatism. The nobles were gradu-
ally depressed, until, in 1711, the czar felt strong enough, by
forbidding them for the future to hold their council, to end
their political power. Thus army, church, and nobility alike
were rendered powerless to oppose reform.

A series of "ukases," or decrees, appeared meanwhile which
little by little reconstituted Russia's institutions — central, pro-
vincial, and municipal ; social, military, and educational. West-
ern shipbuilders, engineers, physicians, and schoolmasters were
invited in, under promise of security, rewards, and religious
toleration. Shaved faces and the short-cut sleeves of the West
replaced at the Russian court the long beards and flowing
sleeves of the East.

In spite of all efforts, '•' Holy Moscow," the center of Russian
conservatism, remained hostile to Peter's measures; he also
desired a maritime capital. Since Archangel on the White
Sea was closed by ice for more than half the year, and Azof on
the Black Sea was cut off from the Mediterranean by the
Turks at Constantinople, a port on the Baltic was a necessity ;
but both shores of that sea were in the hands of Sweden. To
^ain the site for a Baltic port, far more than to win new prov-

396 THE OLD REGIME

inces, Peter the Great embarked upon a war against the Swed-
ish king, Charles XII.

For some decades after the Thirty Years' War, Sweden's
possessions almost surrounded the Baltic Sea, and she was

365. Swe- *^® ^^s^ power of the Korth; but when the Swedes, then

den after in alliance with Louis XIV., attacked Brandenburg, they

the Thirty

Years' War experienced their first great defeat (1675) at Fehrbellin.

(1648-1700) j^ period of peace followed, devoted to commerce, indus-
try, and internal reforms. When Charles XII. (1697-1718)
ascended the throne as a boy of fifteen, the occasion seemed
favorable to despoil Sweden; and Peter the Great joined
Poland and Denmark for that purpose.

The allies miscalculated the character of the young king,
for Charles XII. was a man of exceptional ability and power,
with a genius for war: although of unblemished private life,
he showed passion and obstinacy in his public relations ; while
the czar, though governed by gross passion and whim in pri-
vate affairs, was guided in political action by reason and reflec-
tion. The French philosopher Voltaire said of Charles that
he "carried all the heroic virtues to such excess that they
became as dangerous as the opposite vices."

Without waiting for attack, Charles took the offensive and
invaded Denmark ; and before her allies could come up, Den-

366. Begin- ii^ark was forced to make peace (August, 1700). Then

ning of the Charles turned to meet the czar, who was attacking the
Northern .

War Swedish provinces on the Gulf of Finland. With eight

(1700-1706) thousand disciplined men against the sixty thousand still

half-trained troops of Peter, Charles won a brilliant victory at

Narva (November, 1700). Poland was next invaded, and there

for five years the war continued. Charles XII. occupied the

capital, Warsaw, and drove the king, Augustus II. of Saxony,

into his German dominions. In 1703 he procured the election

of a rival king (Stanislas Leszczynski) from among the Polish

nobles. Finally he invaded Saxony itself, and in September,

NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1689-1748) 397

1706, Augustus was forced to accept his deposition from the
Polish throne and withdraw from the Eussian alliance.

Peter the Great, meanwhile, had conquered the Swedish
provinces about the Gulf of Finland, and in 1703 began to
build there his new capital, St. Petersburg, amid the 367. Found-
marshes and low-lying islands about the mouth of the pet?r^burff
river Neva. To deepen the channels and make ready (1703;

the land for building purposes, an army of peasants was kept
at work. The level of the islands was raised, and countless
piles were driven into the swamps as supports for the heavy
foundations of the buildings. Lack of provisions and shelter,
with constant toil in the cold and wet, cost thousands of lives.
Every cart entering the place, and every vessel sailing up the
Neva, was forced to bring a specified quantity of building
stones, while the construction of stone buildings in other parts
of the empire was temporarily forbidden. To furnish inhabit-
ants, thirty thousand peasants were transported thither at one
stroke ; and the nobles were required to maintain, in the new
capital, houses proportionate to their means. To embellish
the city, foreign workmen and artists were imported. Thus,
against gigantic obstacles, Peter obtained his coveted " window
toward the West," and freed his successors from the conserva-
tive trammels of Moscow.

The War of the Spanish Succession (§§ 324-327) was going
on at the same time with the Northern War, and alliance with
Charles XII. was sought by both sides. Charles might 358. Charles
have played the role of arbiter of Europe ; but reasons ^^- invades
of policy, as well as chimerical ambition, led him to re- (1708)

fuse the part. In the spring of 1708 he directed his arms
against Russia, where he hoped to rival the exploits of Alex-
ander the Great. Refusing battle (as in 1812, against Na-
poleon), the Russians retired upon Moscow, with the Swedes
in pursuit. The winter, the most severe of the century, passed
with Moscow still untaken. Spring found Charles in the ex-

398 THE OLD liiiGIME

treme south, where, with reenforcements and supplies cut off,
he laid siege to Pultava. To the advice that he retreat while
there was yet time, he replied, " If an angel should descend
from heaven and order me to depart from here, I would not
go." When Peter arrived to relieve the city, the Swedes, out-
numbered two to one, were defeated. Charles's army was
almost entirely destroyed or captured, and he himself escaped
with difficulty to Turkish soil.

With unbending obstinacy Charles XII. stirred up the sultan
to war against Russia. Peter's army was entrapped by the
369 Death Turks, but Peter purchased peace by the return of Azof
of Charles to Turkey (1711). Charles XIL, indignant at the peace,
behaved like a madman. When, with but two companions,
he reached his Paltic possessions he found his outlying terri-
tories almost entirely lost and the Swedish power in ruins.
Four years later, while attempting the conquest of Norway,
his adventurous life was ended in the siege of Frederikshald.

The death of ( Jharles XII. nmde it easier to end the North-
ern War. and the peace of Xystadt between Sweden and Russia,

370. End of in 17-1, was the last of a series of treaties with that pur-
ernWar " 1*^^^^'* -^iig'^'^^ 'i^ <'f Saxcmy was restored to the Polish
(1721) thrones; most oi' Sweden's possessions in Germany (p. 339)

were given to Prussia and Hanover; and Russia secured the
provinces about the (Julf of Finland, the lion's share of the
booty. Sweih'u sank to the position of a third-rate state ;
Avhile I\iissia, rising to the position of foremost })ower of the
North, began to make its voice heard in Furopeau councils.

At the death oF Peter the (Jreat in 172;"), Russia had taken
on the form ot a modern state. IJiit the ancient despotism

371. Russia changed its form without changing its substance; Rus-
the Great ''^^'* ^"^''•''•^'''♦''^ '^^ bottom an oriental state with a heritage
(1725-1796) of manners and ideas borrowed mainly from Byzantine

and Mongol civilizations: to Europe it seemed like a mon-
ster and a distpueting enigma.

NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1689-1748) 899

After Peter's death the government for seventy jenvs (ex
cepting three brief intervals) was in the hands of women ; it was
a time of palace revolutions, of struggles between native Rus-
sians and foreign favorites, between oligarchical and absolu-
tist factions. The Empress Elizabeth (1741-1762), daughter
of Peter the Great, adopted a reactionary policy at home, but
acted vigorously in foreign affairs. The immoral but ener-

The Present Winter Palace, St. Pktkrsburg.
Built 1754-1769 ; restored 1839.

getic Catherine II. (1762-1796) is accounted one of the chief
founders of the Russian Empire; she took up the work of
Peter the G-reat, and fostered western civilization, while the
boundaries of the country were extended in every direction.
Thenceforth Russia extended to the heart of Asia ; it was the
only country of Europe that could increase indefinitely by
absorbing barbarian lands.

(B) Prussia

The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw also the rise
in power of another northern state -^ Prussia. Since ^^^ tt •
1415 Brandenburg had been a possession of the house of of Branden-
Hohenzollern — the family of the present German em- Pru^la
peror; but until the seventeenth century there was noth- (1609-1618)

400 THE OLD REGIME

ing to show that it was destined to leadership among German
states, though its territories slowly grew. The first half of
the seventeenth century, however, brought three events of
importance.

(1) Some small territories upon the Rhine were acquired
through the death of the Duke of Cleves and Jtilich (1609).
A dispute arose over this inheritance, in which the principal
j^owers of Europe took sides ; but Cleves and other small
provinces were united to Brandenburg, and gave her a footing
in western Germany.

(2) In 1618 a large part of Prussia was acquired. This
land was conquered from the heathen Slavs in the thirteenth
century by the Teutonic Knights (§ 101) ; but Poland had an-
nexed its western half, and forced the Knights to hold East
Prussia as a fief of the Polish crown by the treaty of Thorn
(1466). At the time of the Reformation the Grand Master of
the Knights, who was a member of the Hohenzollern family,
dissolved the order on Luther's advice, and formed a secular
ducliy (1525). In 1618 his line became extinct, and the duchy
fell, by previous arrangement, to the Brandenburg line of
Hohenzollern, thereby almost doubling the territories of the
Elector of Brandenburg and paving the way for future aggran-
dizements.

(3) The accession of the Great Elector, Frederick William,
in 1640, did much to remove the ill effects of the Thirty

373 The Years' War. To natural gifts of a high order he added
Great the advantages of education at a Dutch university. The

Frederick territories to which he succeeded lay in three widely sepa-
wiliiam rated groups, — the Brandenburg territories, the Cleves
(1640-1688). •. 1 ^, -D . .... .. T-,

territories, and the Prussian territories : the consolida-
tion, increase, and development of these nuclei became his life
work.

By the treaty of Westphalia (1648) Frederick William
secured eastern Pomerania, together with a group of secu-

NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1689-1748) 401

larized bishoprics on the west ; the gaps separating Branden-
burg from its sister territories were thus narrowed. By
adroitly using the opportunities offered by wars between Swe-
den and Poland, Frederick William obtained, in 1660, his
highest political triumph — a renunciation of Polish suzerainty
over Prussia. His greatest military success was an overwhelm-
ing victory over the Swedes won at Fehrbellin in 1675 (§ 365).

mm In 1640

E^ In 1688

NORXm 8EA

Brandenburg-Prussia under the Great Elector (1640-1688).
While increasing his dominions, and enhancing his prestige
abroad, Frederick William also busied himself with internal
reform. Commerce, manufactures, and agriculture were all en-
couraged; roads were built, and a waterway — the Frederick
William Canal — joined the Oder to the Elbe, and secured a
free outlet to the North Sea. French Huguenot emigrants
to the number of twenty thousand were made welcome, their
skill and industry proving a valuable acquisition. The army
was brought to a high degree of perfection. The administra-
tion of the three groups of territories was merged into one,
and absolutism established : we may regret the lost liberties
of the Estates, but the unity, strength, and good order of the
realm were thereby increased. The work of Frederick Wil-
liam is well summarized by his great-grandson, Frederick II. :
" With small means he did great things j was himself his own

402 THE OLD REGIME

prime minister and general in chief, and rendered flourishing
a state which he had found buried under its own ruins."

His less capable son Frederick added to his electoral and
ducal titles the higher one of king. " Great in small and

374. Prus- small in great things/* his mind dwelt much upon mat-

sia becomes ^.^^.^ ^^ etiquette and ceremonial. At an interview with

a kingdom ^

(1701) William III. the latter, as king of England, occupied

an armchair, while Elector Frederick was given one without

arms : thenceforth offended dignity joined with motives of

policy to urge him to seek the title of king. The head of the

Holy Roman p]nn)ire was the source from which such honor

should come, and eventually the Em})eror's need of military

assistance forced from him a grant of the coveted dignity in

January, 1701. The Emperor's pride was saved, while fuller

independence was achieved for the new royalty, by making the

title " Frederick I., King in Prussia," since Prussia lay outside

the empire.

Frederick's son. King Frederick William I. (1713-1740),

resembled liis grandfather, the Great Elector, in his diligence,

375. King ec(jnomy, aiul careful attention to administration, and
William I. ^^^^ father in his tendency to eccentricities. Realizing
(1713-1740) tlie weakness of Prussia's frontiers, his chief aims were

to secure a strong army and a well-filled treasury. Economies
were made in every de])artnu^nt, tlie number of royal riding
horses being cut down from one thousand to thirty, and a rigid
supervision, the beginning of the Prussian bureaucracy, was
introduced to prevent wastefulness and theft. Careful atten-
tion was also given to increasing the revenues, in part through
a better administration of the crown lands.

Manufactures were encouraged, and foreign weavers were
induced to settle in Prussia by the offer of a wife, loom, and
supply of raw material. When the Catholic Arclibishop of
Salzburg (in 17.31) drove out his Protestant subjects, fifteen
thousand were received in Prussia, where they founded six new

NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1689-1748) 403

towns and many villages. The Prussian nobles, who had the
old feudal repugnance to taxes, were forced by Frederick Wil-
liam to pay their full share; to a remonstrance that "the whole
country would be ruined," the king bluntly replied, "Jl don't
believe a word of it, but I do believe the political independence
of the country nobles will be ruined."

Under Frederick William's fostering care the Prussian army
was doubled in numbers and greatly increased in efficiency.

Tall soldiers were his hobby, and g-g ^^
through the payment of large sums, king's tall
kidnapping, and presents of giants from
friendly powers, he obtained a palace guard
that was the wonder of Europe. He watched
over his " children in blue " like a father ;
but his ready cane chastised them for the
slightest offense.

^ot merely soldiers, but servants, citizens,
and even his children, suffered chastisement
when they incurred the royal ire ; his eye
and his stick were everywhere. His idea of
kingship was patriarchal absolutism ; he was
a ruder, simpler, more primitive Louis XIV.
He would establish his sovereignty, he wrote,
"like a rock of bronze." Even his famous
"tobacco parliament," where officers, citizens, scholars, and
foreign travelers smoked and drank with him, would on
occasion be converted into an informal council of state, at
which the weightiest measures were discussed. In his only war
(1713) he acquired a part of Swedish (western) Pomerania and
the convenient port of Stettin, at the mouth of the river Oder.
The education which the king planned for his son and heir,
the future Frederick the Great, was hard, practical, and 377. Youth

matter-of-fact ; but the prince's own inclinations, joined of Frederick

tne (jreat
to his mother's and teacher's secret efforts, supplemented (1712-1740)

Giant Soldier

OF Frederick

William.

404

THE OLD REGIME

it with studies in literature, music, and art. Young Frederick
showed himself as self-willed as his father, and an estrange-
ment sprang up, which was widened by a public flogging. To
make matters worse, the prince, who was an officer in the
Prussian army, attempted to flee from the kingdom ; this was
desertion punishable with death, and the beheading of his accom-
plice before his eyes went far to cure the prince of his levity.

Then followed the " second education " of young Frederick.
To discipline him and train him in the practical work of

administration, his father set
him to work in the War and
Domain Office as assistant
clerk. This experience sobered
and strengthened him, and
prepared him for his duties as
king; but his education also
developed in him cynicism
and hypocrisy. His appren-
ticeship over, he was restored
to favor, and soon was allowed
to set up a little court of his
own, where he surrounded
himself with a brilliant cir-
cle. He entered into corre-
Fkedkkick thk Great. spondence with the skeptical

From a painting by J. Moller. French philosopher Voltaire,

and wrote a refutation of the political treatise of Machiavelli
(§ 234). To the su])erficial observer, he seemed likely to prove
anything but the unscrupulous master of war and statecraft
that his reign showed him to be.

Frederick II. succeeded his father in 1740 at the age of
378. First twenty-eight. A few months later the Emperor Charles
Wa"*" VI. died, leaving no son ; but he had secured the assent
(1740-1742) of Europe (including Prussia) to a document called the

NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1689-1748) 405

Pragmatic Sanction, by which his daughter, Maria Theresa, was
recognized as queen over all his dominions.

This was Frederick's opportunity j he desired above all else
military glory, and he had at his back one of the finest armies
of Europe and a well-filled treasure chest. " It is only a
matter of carrying out plans," he wrote, " which I have long
had in my head." Without a declaration of war, in the dead
of winter (1740), he threw his army into Silesia, to which he
had some shadowy claims : it was sheer brigandage. Austria
could at first offer no resistance ; and when her forces did
appear, they were defeated (at Mollwitz, 1741 ; map, p. 410).
The efficiency of the Prussian army was established, and
Europe recognized that a new power had arisen.

At once Spain, France, Savoy, Bavaria, and Saxony all set

up claims of various sorts to parts of the Hapsburg dominions ;

and there followed the general War of the Austrian Sue- Zavisse and

cession (1740-1748) : " from the banks of the Oder the Jiambaud,

^ Histoire

war spread successively to the banks of the Danube, the G^ndrale,

Elbe, the Po, then of the Scheldt and the Meuse, and ^^^^' ^^^

beyond the seas." Under French leadership a league was

formed which disregarded the traditions of three centuries

and put a Wittelsbach — Charles VII., Elector of Bavaria —

on the imperial throne.

In this crisis Maria Theresa needed all her splendid courage
and energy. Political concessions, joined to the pathetic situa-
tion of the young queen, moved the Hungarians and her 379. Maria
other subjects to enthusiastic support; her chief hope, ^^^^6^0'^
however, lay in breaking up the alliance. Frederick II. defense

was willing to abandon his allies ; and after a second victory
of the Prussians (at Chotusitz, in May, 1742), Maria Theresa
signed the peace of Berlin (July, 1742), by which Frederick
received practically the whole of Silesia, and ended what is
known as the First Silesian War.

Freed from one enemy, Maria Theresa turned energetically

HARDING'S M. & S. HIST. — 24

406

THE OLD E]fcGIME

to meet the otiiers. The French and the Bavarians were
beaten, but meanwhile the range of the struggle widened.
Holland and Great Britain
(whose king as Elector of
Hanover was intimately con-
cerned with German politics)
took up arms on the side of
Austria ; while the Bourbons
of France and Spain entered
into a " family compact "
mutually to guarantee their
possessions.

The successes of Maria
Theresa riglitly caused Fred-

380. Second erick to feel apprehen-
^lesian ^-^^ f^^. ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^

(1744-1745) his recent conquests;
he resented, too, the Haps-
burg occupation of Bavaria.
He therefore entered into re-

Maria Therksa.
From a painting by J. Moller.

newed alliance with France, and invaded Bohemia (1744), but
was soon obliged to fall back discredited into Silesia. The
French, upon whose assistance he counted, repaid his former
desertion by neglecting the Silesian war. The Emperor Charles
yil., in whose interests Frederick pretended to light, died in
1745 ; and his son made peace and aided the election of Maria
Theresa's husband, Francis I. (1745-1705) to the imperial
throne. To render Frederick's situation more desperate, Sax-
ony agreed with Austria to partition Prussia, and reduce his
kingdom to the ancient limits of Brandenburg. Nevertheless,
Frederick defeated the combined Austrians and Saxons ; and
on Christmas Day, 1745, a second peace was signed at Dres-
den, by which Frederick II. again laid down arms, on condi-
tion of the renewed cession of Silesia.

NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1689-1748) 407

The general war meanwhile took on a new significance. In
America the English colonists captured Louisburg, on Cape
Breton Island (1745). In India, also, and on the sea England
fought France : " it was recognized in London and at „ ,.
Versailles that the questions at issue involved not merely Balance of
the preservation of the Pragmatic Sanction, but the su- ^^^^' ^^^
premacy of the sea, the superiority of the Latin or the Teu-
tonic element in North America, and the growth of the influ-
ence of France and England in India."

For the settlement of questions so momentous as these, the
time was not yet ripe. All parties grew tired of the war,
and at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, a general peace was 381. Peace
signed. Maria Theresa was recognized as ruler of the ^c^welle
Hapsburg lands, with the exception of Silesia, which was (1748)

confirmed to Prussia; all other conquests were mutually re-
stored. Frederick alone profited much "rom the war. It in-
augurated, as Frederick predicted, ^'an entire change in the
old political system " of Europe ; but the ; ature and results of
the transformation became apparent only after the peace.

The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw the decline of
old powers in the north and east of Ex; rope and the rise of new
ones. Sweden, whose power was founded upon her army, 332. sum-
sank in importance, while her neighbors, Prussia and mary

Eussia, rose. Kussia's greatness was founded ultimately upon
her vast territories and the numbers of her people ; but for the
European stamp fixed upon these she was indebted to Peter
the Great (1689-1725). The Prussian- Brandenburg lands,
being without defensible frontiers and surrounded by hostile
neighbors, could rise to independent greatness only through
military power, based upon industrial development and govern-
mental absolutism. To the Great Elector (1640-1688) and
King Frederick William I. (1713-1740) belong the credit for
starting Prussia upon this development, the fruition of which

408

THE OLD KEGIME

came with Frederick the Great (1740-1786). The two Silesian
wars, which form parts of the War of the Austrian Succession
(1740-1748), mark Frederick's entrance into European politics.
Into this same contest entered France and Great Britain, and
thereby the war over the Austrian succession became one phase
of that h)iig rivalry for sea-power and dominion in America
and India which in the eighteenth century characterized the
relations of these two states.

Sugrgestive
topics

Search
topics

TOPICS

(1) Compare the condition of Russia at the accession of Peter
tlie (ireat with that of the Frankish kingdom at the accession of
Charlemagne. (2) What advantages had Peter over Charlemagne
in the development of this state ? (8) Was Charles XII. or Peter
the Great the better general? (4) Which was the better states-
man ? (o) What territorial advantages did Russia have over
other European states? What disadvantages? (0) On what
grounds could absolute govennnent for Prussia be justified at
that time? Do these reasons exist to-day? (7) Were the
actions of Frederick the (ireat in harmony with his denunciation
of the political principles of Machiavelli ? (8) Was Frederick's
attack on Austria worse than that of I'eter the Great on Sweden ?
(9) Why did the War of the Austrian Succession spread to India
and North America? (10) Why did the power of Sweden
decline? (11) Why did Frederick I. wish to make Prussia a
kingdom ?

(12) Early history of Russia. (1.']) Training of Peter the Great.
(14) His reforms. (1;>) Geographical causes of the expansion of
Russia. (If)) Russian conquest of Siberia. (17) Charles XII. of
Sweden. (IS) The Great Elector of Prussia. (19) King Frederick
William I. (20) His love for tall soldiers. (21) The Salzburg
Protestants. (22) Youth of Frederick the Great. (23) Maria
Theresa of Hungary. (24) Frederick's claim on Silesia.

(25) Frederick the Great and Voltaire.

REFERENCES

Geogrraphy See maps, ])p. 284, 89;], 401, 410; Putzger, Atlas, maps 23, 24a,

2"), .81 ; Gardiner. School Atlas, map 44 ; Poole, Historical Atlas,
maps X. xli. xlii. xlix. li. ; Dow, Atlas^ xix. xx.

NORTHERN AND EASTERN EUROPE (1089-1748) 409

Henderson, Short History of Germany, II. chs. i. iii. iv. ; Duruy, Secondary
France, 490-496 ; Bryce, Holy Roman Empire, ch. xx. ; Motley, authorities
Peter the Great ; Macaulay, Frederick the Great ; Wakemari,
Ascendancy of France, ch. xiii. ; Hassall, Balance of Fower, chs.
vi. vii. ; Morfill, Bussia, ch. vii. ; Tuttle, History of Prussia^ 1.
chs. v.-xi., II. ; Rambaud, History of Bussia, II. chs. i.-iv. ;
Historians' History of the World, XIV. 422-435, XV. 155-187,
XVII. 249-326 ; Lavisse, Youth of Frederick the Great ; Carlyle,
Frederick the Great, bk. ix. cli. iii. ; Morley, Voltaire, ch. iv. ;
Bright, Maria Theresa ; Schuyler, Peter the Great ; Bain, Charles
XIL

Wilhelmina, Margravine of Baireuth, Memoirs ; Duke of St. Sources
Simon, Memoirs (trans, by Bayle St. John), III. 377-382.

F. Hoffman, The Iron Head ; Miihlbach, ^eWiw and Sans-Souci ; Illustrative
H. J. Paulzow, The Citizen of Prague ; Miss Manning, Claude the ^^'^^
Colporteur ; M. Imlay Taylor, On the Bed Staircase, — The Bebel-
lion of the Princess ; F. Whishaw, Mazeppa ; Sheila E. Braine,
The King's' '•'■Blue Boys.''

NVlQNnOJ^3N P -

-t Si 5: £ ;t ■< 1^ c -

E- =

5 ^ "Si E ■" S i^

z 2

410

CHAPTER XXIII.
THE AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1786)

Louis XY., the great-grandson and successor of Louis XIV.
(§ 329), was a sickly child, and was not expected to live. His
uncle, Philip V. of Spain, in spite of the treaty of Utrecht 383. Re-
(§ 328), aspired to the regency and to the succession ; but S^^J "i
the regency passed into other hands, and Louis XV. (1715-1723)
lived to rival in the length of his reign Louis XIV. himself.

The Duke of Orleans, nephew of Louis XIV., and regent,
stood next in succession to the throne, if the exclusion of Philip
V. held good; his energies, therefore, were chiefly directed to
maintaining the treaty of Utrecht. Hence he permitted his
minister, the clever and unscrupulous but far-sighted diplomat,
Dubois, to ally France with Great Britain and Holland, her
late enemies. In other ways also the regency marks a reac-
tion : Orleans, although indolent and vicious in his private life,
was able, tolerant, and open to the new scientific and philo-
sophical impulses of the day ; he curtailed the influence of
the Jesuits in France, and even thought of recalling the
Huguenots.

In the financial administration, a Scotchman named John

Law bore the chief part. He was a great believer in the

power of credit, which, properly safeguarded, plays to-day 334. The

so important a part in the world's financial operations. "Mis-

sissippi
He sought to establish in France a huge national bank, Bubble"

such as England had possessed since 1694; and also a (1718-1721)

great commercial company, popularly known as the Mississippi

Company, which was to secure the monopoly of French com-

411

412

THE OLD lt:fcGIMl5

merce with Louisiana, Canada, Senegal, and the East Indies.
For a time both enterprises prospered, and a mania for specu-
lation sent the shares up to fabulous prices. "Everybody
St. Simon, was mad upon Mississippi stock. Immense fortunes
iv"^i58^' were made almost in a breath. . . . People could not
change their lands and their houses into paper fast enough."
The inevitable result of overissue of stock and notes was that
the " Mississippi Bubble " burst in 1720, and Law and his fol-
lowers were overwhelmed in ruin. The English also, about
the same time, were caught in a similar " South Sea Bubble."

The young king, Louis XV., was declared of age in 1723.

For a time he was restrained by the influence of Cardinal

rieury, his chief minister; but after Fleury's death

of Louis XV. (1743) he showed that
(1723-1748) j^g ^^^^^^ ^^^ j.^^lg g^^g

his pleasures. As time went

on, he fell under the sway

of shameless mistresses, of

whom the most noted were

Madame de Pompadour and

Madame du Barry. For the

misfortunes and misgovern-

ment of his reign Louis

XV. felt no sense of respon-
sibility ; if retribution came upon his successors, that was

no concern of his. "Things will outlast our time," said he;

and Madame de Pompadour added recklessly, " After us, the

deluge ! "

At the age of fifteen (172»")), Louis XV. married the daughter

of Stanislas Leszczynski, the Polish nobleman whom Charles
386. War of XII. of Sweden placed for a time on the Polish throne
Succ^essfon (^ ^^'^'^- ^^"^^ ^^"^ l^oms, against the better judgment of
(1733-1735) Cardinal Fleury, to join with Spain and Sardinia in a

war against Austria, Russia, and Saxony, to recover for Stan-

Chakiot of Louis XV.
In the Musee Cluny, Paris.

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1786) 413

islas the crown of Poland. The war was fought largely in
Italy. The treaty of peace (1738) rejected the claim of Stan-
islas to Poland, but compensated him with the grant of Lor-
raine, which upon his death (1766) passed to the Prench crown,
thus joining Alsace more closely to Prance, and rounding out
the conquests of two centuries (map, p. 350). Austria was
forced to cede Naples and Sicily to a Spanish Bourbon prince,
the founder of a line of Neapolitan Bourbons who reigned
(with an interval from 1806 to 1815) till 1861.

The part which Prance took in the War of the Austrian
Succession (1740-1748) has already been described (§§ 378-381).
The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, which closed that war in 387. Re-
1748 (§381), was far from a permanent adjustment, ^^^^^^^f-^
Maria Theresa bitterly resented the provision which ances(1756)
left Silesia in the hands of Prederick the Great ; and Prance
felt that her prestige was impaired by the rapid rise of Prus-
sia, and that her interests in India and North America were
threatened by the growth of English trade and colonization.

Nevertheless, renewal of war was postponed for eight years,
during which time a change in alliances took place which
amounted to a diplomatic revolution. " Austria and Hassall
Prance laid aside the enmity of two hundred years, Balance of
ceased to be rivals, and formed an alliance which con- '

tinned till the Prench Eevolution ; . . . while England found
an ally in Prussia." The Austrian minister Kaunitz, con-
vinced that Austria's traditional alliance with England would
never recover Silesia, took the first step toward the change ;
and the outbreak of hostilities between the English and the
Prench in India and America — the prelude to a new European
conflict — led Great Britain to take the second. George 11. of
Great Britain (§ 360) was concerned chiefly for the safety of
his Hanoverian electorate; and he concluded a treaty with
Prussia, which led Austria, in indignation at this act, to make
a formal alliance with Prance (May, 1756).

414

THE OLD RiJGIME

111 the war which followed, France, instead of concentrating
her strength upon the struggle in India, America, and on the
sea, wasted her energies on the European struggle. This " act
of madness, of imbecile treason against herself," could only-
have taken place under a weak and slothful king such as
Louis XY. It led to a decline of French influence in Europe,
to the loss of her colonies in America, and to the transfer of
the chief influence in India from France to England.

In Europe the war began with a sudden invasion of Saxony

by Frederick the Great in 1756 (Third Silesian War) to an-

388 Open- ticipate an impending attack by Austria, Russia, and

ingof the Saxony; he rightly judged that his best chance for safety

Seven

Years' War ^^y in striking first. In this war Frederick displayed

(1756) j^ii ]^ig splendid powers of generalship. His army was

the best drilled and the best equipped in Europe, and was

enthusiastically loyal; he was
served by able generals, ani-
mated by his own spirit and
trained under his own eye.
The French armies, on the
other hand, had lost their effi-
ciency. The controlling influ-
ence at the French court was
jMadame de Pompadour, who
caused ministers and generals
to be api)ointed and dismissed
at pleasure. Louis XV. further
complicated matters by his prac-
tice of corresi)onding secretly
with liis ambassadors, giving
them instructions which were at times diametrically opposed
to tliose officially received from the French foreign office.

The forces of ]\Iaria Theresa, however, had learned of
Frederick the art of war; and a series of administrative re-

Woman's Dkess in ('oukt
UK Louis XV.

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1786) 415

forms, inspired by those of Prussia, enabled Austria more
effectually to utilize her resources. Before the British alliance
began to show its good effects, Frederick likened himself to
a stag against which a " pack of kings and princes '' had been
loosed. In the course of the war his fortunes sank to their
lowest ebb, but disaster only inspired him to renewed exertions.

The war in Europe may be divided into three distinct
periods : —

(1) The campaign of 1756 opened with Prussian successes
in Saxony, followed by reverses in Bohemia, Hanover, and East
Prussia; then came Frederick's brilliant victories at 389. Course
Eossbach, in Saxony, and Leuthen, in Silesia (1757) : of fj, ^u^^e
the last-named battle Napoleon Bonaparte later said, "It (1756-1763)
was a masterpiece in the way of evolutions, maneuvers, and
determination, and would alone have sufficed to make Fred-
erick immortal, and to rank

him among the greatest
generals."

(2)- From 1758 to 1760
Frederick again suffered dis-
astrous reverses. The Rus-
sians overran East Prussia
and Brandenburg, and with
the aid of the Austrians they
overwhelmingly defeated
Frederick at Kunersdorf,
near Frankfort-on-the-Oder (1759). "The consequences of
the battle," Frederick wrote, "will be worse than the battle
itself. I have no more resources, and, not to hide the truth,
I consider that all is lost." His enemies, however, disagreed,
and failed to follow up their victory; and, in spite of the
surprise and burning of Berlin (1760), Frederick succeeded
once more, though with increased difficulty, in recovering the
advantage.

Battle of Leuthen.

416 THE OLD rIiGIME

(3) From 1761 to 1763 Prussia was almost exhausted. Year
by year the war drained Frederick's resources, until it was
only by the greatest efforts that his army could be kept in
the field. To add to his difficulties, George III., who suc-
ceeded to the British throne in 1760, broke off the Prussian
alliance and stopped paying the money subsidies which had
materially aided Frederick in carrying on the war. The great-
est crisis in Frederick's affairs was at hand.

At this juncture Peter III. came momentarily to the throne
of Russia ; he was an enthusiastic admirer of Frederick, and at
once made peace, which his successor, Catherine II., ratified
(1762). " Heaven still stands by us," wrote Frederick, " and
everything will turn out well." The result justified his belief;
but the remainder of the war on the Continent, in Carlyle's
words, was "like a race between spent horses." Even Maria
Theresa at last recognized the hopelessness of continuing the
struggle.

Of far more importance than the war in Europe was the
apparently minor contest between Great Britain and France
390. French for the control of the seas and for dominance in North
and English j^merica. Spain and then Holland successively had held
(1689-1754) and lost the supremacy of the seas and colonial empire ;
and the commercial and maritime instincts of the English had
embroiled them in frequent wars with both countries. The
marked commercial and colonial activity displayed by France
in the middle of the eighteenth century aroused not merely
the jealousy of the English at home, but the fears of English
colonists in America. They had good reasons of their own
for fighting the French, and after the accession of William
III. every war between the two countries was extended to
North America. King William's War (1689-1697) was fol-
lowed by Queen Anne*s War (1702-1713), and this by King
George's War (1744-1748). To antipathies of race, government,
and religion was added a conflict of material interests, especially

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1786) 417

in the Mississippi valley, where the French were trying to con-
nect Canada and lower Louisiana by a chain of forts, and thus
to cut off the chartered claims of the English colonists to the
land " from sea to sea " ; hemmed in by the French and Span-
iards, the English colonists would be exposed to constant
danger. The issue would decide whether North America
should be ruled by the Latin or by the Teutonic race ; whether
it should be self-governed or despotically ruled. With com-
mercial and colonial supremacy at stake for Englishmen at
home, and such vital interests of the colonists at issue, it is
not surprising that Great Britain's hostility to France domi-
nated all her other international relations, and made her part in
the Seven Years' War mainly a struggle for colonial dominion
and sea power.

Indeed, in the Seven Years' War, the outbreak of hostilities
in America preceded the beginning of the European war. As
early as 1754 young George Washington was here fighting 391. seven

the French : and in 1755, still a year before Frederick's '^®^"' "^^^

•^ in America

invasion of Saxony, came Braddock's expedition and de- (1755-1763)

feat. On the seas the British navy seized three hundred French

merchant vessels and two frigates before the formal declaration

of war on May 15, 1756.

In 1757 the administration in Great Britain passed, for the
first time in some years, into the hands of a really able man —
William Pitt the elder (called " the Great Commoner "), who
was later made Earl of Chatham. He found the war languish-
ing, the natural result of favoritism, corruption, and incompe-
tence. The island of Minorca, which had been British for half
a century, was lost in 1756. " I am sure that I can save the
country," Pitt boasted with proud confidence, "and that no
one else can." Against his will George II. was obliged to
accept Pitt as chief minister, and until 1761 the direction of
the war was in his hands.

While vigorously aiding Frederick the Great in Germany

418 THE OLD REGIME

and driving tlie Frencli from the seas, Pitt did not neglect the
c'oh)iiial Avar. In 1758 the British took Louisburg and Fort
Diuiuesne — thenceforth called Tittsburg; and in 1759 fell
Quebec, "the Gibraltar of America." In spite of the entrance
of Spain into the war as the ally of France, in 1762, the
islands of Martinique, Grenada, St. Vincent, and the rest of
the French West Indies passed into British hands. Great
Britain's maritime power was established beyond dispute ;
France's colonial empire in America came practically to an
end ; and the British colonies could freely develop their heri-
tage of political and religious liberty.

In the East Indies, from 1500 to 1600, the Portuguese, as

a result of their maritime enterprise, culminating in Gama's

392. French famous voyage (§ 218), enjoyed a trade monopoly; but

and English ^^ ^^^^ ^1^^^ ^^^ ^1^^ sixteenth century they were losing

(1600-1751) ground to the English, Dutch, and French. The English
East India Com])any, which represented English interests in
India, was chartered in IGOO ; and in the eighteenth century
it possessed trading stations at ^ladras, Bombay, and Calcutta.
Friction with the Dutch in the East Indies, culminating (in
1623) in a massacre of English traders and seamen there, at
Amboyna, led the English company to withdraw from the
islands, and to confine its subsequent activity to the Asian
mainland. The French also had several stations in India, of
which the chief, Pondicherry, was not far from Madras.

India, unlike America, was a tropical country, thickly popu-
lated, ruled by established governments, and possessed of a
civilization older and in some respects more advanced than
that of Euro})e. Colonization such as had taken place on the
American contin(Mit was thus out of the question ; and the
European settlements were at first mere trading stations, not
attempting political control.

Dupleix, the French governor of Pondicherry (1742-1754),
was the first to see the possibilities of conquest in India and

AGE OF FKEDElllCK THE GREAT (1748-1786) 419

devise the means by which to effect this. The natives, when
properly drilled and officered, made excellent soldiers (Sepoys),
and their lack of all sentiment of nationality rendered pos-
sible a conquest of India by natives for the benefit of Europe.
The British, in self-defense, organized similar troops. In
1751, on the occasion of a dispute between two rival " nabobs '^
(rulers) of Arcot, the French and British took opposite sides.

MAJfSION OF THE EAST InDIA COMPANY, LONDON.

From an old print.

and thus began a struggle for the mastery in India (1751-
1761), which merged into the Seven Years' War.

On the British side the hero of the war was Kobert Clive
(1725-1774), who proved not only his genius for war, 393. Su-
but also the loyalty and stanchness of his Sepoy troops. India won
Dupleix, whose worth and work were little appreciated for Great
in France, was recalled in disgrace in 1754. In 1756 (1751-1761)
the nabob of Bengal quarreled with the British, and imprisoned

420 THE OLD REGIME

over a hundred persons in a small, close dungeon (the " Black
Hole" of Calcutta), where five sixths died before morning.
The horror of this deed forced upon the British the conquest
of Bengal, which was accomplished by the battle of Plassey
(June 23, 1757). The French, meanwhile, steadily lost ground
through mismanagement, incompetence, and lack of support at
home; in 1760 came the defeat of the French at Wandiwash,
and with it went the overthrow of French influence in India.

After the close of the Seven Years' War, the English East
India Company was practically without a rival. Its efforts
were still devoted chiefly to trade, and it was only gradually
that functions of government passed into its hands. Under
Warren Hastings, the first governor general of India (1774-
1785), the full administration of Bengal was undertaken, and
in various ways control was exercised over regions in which
native princes continued to rule. The anomaly of a commer-
cial company governing an empire led the British Parliament,
in 1784, to establish a governmental Board of Control in Eng-
land to supervise the political side of the company's action ;
but it was not until 1858 that the company government came
entirely to an end (§ 571).

In 1763 the Seven Years' War was brought to a close. The

new king of Great Britain, George III. (1760-1820), resented

394. Close the rule of the aristocratic Whig families, and favored

Years" War P^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ b^^t means of ridding himself of that party.

(1762-1763) Pitt was forced out of office, but was rewarded with the

title of Earl of Chatham ; and his successor, Lord Bute, then

(1762) agreed with France to withdraw from the Continental

war.

The terms of the final peace of Paris, in 1763, though very
advantageous, were by many Englishmen deemed insufficient.
Canada was ceded to Great Britain, together with Grenada,
St. Vincent, and others of the French West Indies. Spain was
forced to give up Florida, which remained British until 1783;

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1786) 421

as recompense, France ceded to Spain the city of New Orleans
and its claims to the Louisiana territory lying west of the Mis-
sissippi. Manila and the Philippines, captured by the British
from Spain while the negotiations were in progress, were
restored. In India, France was allowed to retain only a few
unimportant trading posts.

The treaty of Hubertsburg, signed a few days after that
of Paris, made a peace between Prussia, Austria, and Saxony,
by which Silesia remained with Prussia, Austria's only gain
lay in Frederick's agreement that Maria Theresa's son, Joseph,
should succeed his father, Francis I., as Emperor.

The results of the Continental war were greatly inadequate

to its cost. About 850,000 men perished in the struggle, of

whom 180,000 fell in Prussia's service. " It is singular,"

395 Re-
says Bernis, a French minister of the time, " that all the g^its of the

courts have missed their goal in this war. The king of "^^^

Prussia has gained much glory in dominating the courts Lavisse and

of Europe, but he will leave to his heir a power lacking Hiatoire

in solidity ; he has ruined his people, exhausted his G^n^rale,

treasury, depopulated his states. The Empress [Maria

Theresa] has increased her reputation for courage, power, and

the efficiency of her troops, but she has not accomplished one

of the objects she set before herself. Russia has shown to

Europe the most invincible soldiery, but the worst led. The

Swedes have played uselessly an obscure and subordinate role.

Our own part has been extravagant and shameful." Only

Great Britain had profited by the war, but her enormous gain

was won not in Europe, but in America, in India, and on the

seas : " the kingdom of Great Britain had become the British

Empire."

Sea power was both the object and the principal weapon of

England in all her wars with France from 1688 to 1815 ; 396. Gro-wth

according to Captain Mahan, it rests upon " (1) pro- . d'g s£

duction, with the necessity of exchanging products; power

422 THE OLD REGIME

(2) shipping, whereby the exchange is carried on; and (3) colo-
nies, wliich facilitate and enlarge the operation of shipping and
Mil s ^^"^^ ^^ protect it by multiplying points of safety." By
Poioer {1660- natural conditions England was marked out for sea power,
" and from the beginning of the seventeenth century popu-

lar sentiment and governmental policy were directed to this
end. Holland's maritime power was weakened by the English
navigation act (1651), crippled by the English wars which fol-
lowed, and ruined by the attacks of Louis XIV., which forced
her into submissive alliance with England.

France's sea power rested upon action by the government
rather than by the people ; and when Louis XIV. began his
Continental conquests, he sacrificed to his land wars France's
colonies, sliipping, and everything save actual fighting vessels.
By 17r)() France had but forty -five ships of the line to Great
Britain's one hundred and thirty, and her whole navy was
demoralized. Her small naval squadrons were soon destroyed
by the superior force of her antagonists, her mercantile ship-
ping was swept from the seas, and her colonies fell into British
haiuls. The damage once done could not be repaired ; the
outcome of the struggle has influenced the whole course of
subsequent history. With a land narrow in extent and rela-
tively poor in natural resources, England has grown rich
through the possession of sea power, has been enabled to grant
large subsidies of money to her Continental allies, and at criti-
cal times lias ])layed the foremost role in European politics.

From the peace of Hubertsburg to the outbreak of the wars
of the French Revolution, in 1792, there was no general Euro-
397. Europe 1^^^^^ conflict, l^ut at no time has self-interest so fla-
after 1763 grantly and unscrupulously been made the rule of action
for European states as in the attempts, in this period, to round
out territories to symmetrical wholes by despoiling weaker
neighbors, especially Sweden, Turkey, and Poland.

Sweden, after the death of Charles XII. in 1718 (§ 369), was

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1786) 423

for a time given up to aristocratic anarchy, and it was not
until 1789 that Gustavus III. restored the authority of the
crown, established order, and thus saved Sweden from the fate
to which Poland succumbed.

Turkey was exposed to Kussian and Austrian attacks, and
its overthrow seemed a matter of a very few years. At the
height of its power, about 1680, the Ottoman Empire 398. The
stretched from the headwaters of the river Bug, which (^estion
flows into the Black Sea, to Raab on the Danube (p. 285), (1683-1792)
— in Asia to the Euphrates, and in Africa to the cataracts of
the Nile. A decline of the Janizaries as a military force
paved the way for reconquests by Christian powers, which
began in 1683 with the repulse of the Turks from Vienna.
Austria then gradually reconquered Hungary and Transyl-
vania ; and a treaty in 1739 fixed the Austrian frontier at the
Save and Danube rivers. Catherine II. of Russia carried to a
successful conclusion two Turkish wars, which established a
claim to intervene in behalf of the sultan's Christian subjects,
led to the annexation of the Crimea (1787), and pushed the
Russian frontier forward to the Dniester (1792). Only the
opposition of Great Britain and France prevented the realiza-
tion of Austrian and Russian designs for the total expulsion
of the Turk from Europe ; the result was the beginning of the
Eastern Question as it confronts Europe to-day.

Against Poland the unscrupulous schemes of Russia, Prussia,
and Austria were entirely successful. In the eighteenth cen-
tury Poland was a hotbed of anarchy, the result of its 399. Parti-
elective kingship, the feuds of its nobles, the oppression *^°^^ ° ^^^^
of the lower classes, and the right of any member of the (1772-1795)
Diet to block business by his liberum veto. Her powerful
neighbors were thus enabled to carry out the "vast national
crime" of her partition. (1) In 1772 the first division was
made, Prussia taking the district separating East Prussia from
Brandenburg, and Russia and Austria taking districts border-

HARDING's M. & M. HIST. — 25

424

THE OLD rvi:GIME

ing upon tlieir territories. (2) In 1703 Russia and Prussia
took further portions, (o) An attempted revolution tlie next
year, under the leadership of the patriot Kosciusko, was made
the excuse for a third and final partition in 1795. A state
possessing two hundred and eighty thousand square miles of
territory, and twelve million inhabitants, was thus by force

^ o :/■:,■-■<

,..„ ,.„,j ,.„. , H M/n GARY

rZn^IIl^ZJr^ I'r^'"^-^ SCALE or M,LES V ° ^ ° \^ -

p ! §521 '^" ■■<«»<'■'" ^ 5^0 100 IM ?0<> : , o ^ "^P"!

Paktitions of Pokam).

wiped off the map. Since that time a new sentiment of
n^itionality lias arisen among the Poles, a sentiment which
lies at the root of recent troubles of Prussia, Russia, and
Austria in their Polish dominions.

The domestic history of Great Britain in the second half
400. Eng- of the eighteenth century deals largely with a series of
Georeelll i'T^'entions and changes in manufacturing which we call
(1760-1820) the Industrial Revolution (§ 477) ; also of importance

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1786) 425

were the political struggles arising out of the attempt of
George 111. to impose his individual will on the nation, and
the loss through revolt of the American colonies. To break
down the rule of the great Whig families, George III. sought,
through the use of bribes and crown patronage, to build up
in Parliament a party subservient to himself, called " the king's
friends." He was a good man and was attentive to business,
but had very little understanding. "He inflicted more per-
manent and enduring injuries upon his country," says the Eng-
lish historian Lecky, " than any other modern English king. . . .
He spent a long life in obstinately resisting measures which
are now almost universally admitted to have been good, and
in supporting measures which are as universally admitted to
have been bad." His support enabled the Tories to regain
control of the government; and for twelve years (1770-1782)
the amiable Lord North was nominally prime minister, though
he disapproved of many of the measures which his royal
master insisted on carrying out : among these was the con-
tinuance of the war in America after 1778.

The aid given by France to Great Britain's revolted colonies
perhaps had motives among the upper classes other than those
of selfish policy ; but by French statesmen generally the 401 Europe
war was regarded mainly as an opportunity for revenge and the

against England. Spain entered into the war (1779) in -^ar

a vain attempt to secure Gibraltar; Holland was forced (1775-1783)
into it (1780) by questions of trade. Kussia, Sweden, Den-
mark, Prussia, and Austria formed (in 1780) the "Armed
Neutrality ' of the North," which asserted the doctrine that
" free ships make free goods," and sought in general to secure
protection for neutral commerce.

The disaster to the British arms at Yorktown (1781), and
the menacing aspect of European affairs, finally forced George
III. to concede the independence of the colonies, and a gen-
eral peace was made at Paris in 1782-1783. Spain recovered

426

THE OLD Ri:GIME

Florida, and France received a few islands from Great Britain.
Great Britain came out of the war with diminished pres-
tige and curtailed empire, and it was generally believed that
her decay had begun. To France the war brought financial
bankruptcy, while the example of the American revolt aided the
growth of revolutionary ideas : in many ways, therefore, the
War of American Independence profoundly affected Europe.
While unscrupulous spoliation was the keynote of inter-
national relations, benevolent despotism was the European
402. The ideal in internal policy. Governments, it was recognized,
ened^des- existed for the good of the people ; but they were to be
pots" administered by their rulers; outside of Great Britain

the idea of the sovereignty of the people obtained practically
no recognition. Among rulers who may be classed as "en-
lightened despots " were Catherine II. of Russia (1762-1796),
Gustavus III. of Sweden (1771-1792), Charles III. of Spain
(1759-1788), the Emperor Joseph II. (1765^1790), and Fred-
erick the Great of Prussia (1740-1786).

W'm In 1740
^M In 1786

NORTH SUA

Prussia under Frederick the Great (1740-1786).

Frederick the Great is the best example of the enlightened
despot. " The people are not here for the sake of the rulers,"
wrote he, " but the rulers for the sake of the people." After

AGE or FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1786) 427

the Seven Years' War he set himself with all his energy to
repair his country^ s ruin. Public funds were used to rebuild
houses and to supply horses, carts, and seeds for agriculture,
and the serfs on the royal domains were freed. Efforts were
made to improve commerce and manufactures, justice and
education. In everything Frederick not merely planned the
whole, but oversaw the execution of the minutest details : his
ministers were mere clerks. Hence, when his master hand was
withdrawn by death, the Prussian administrative system fell
into decay : in a despotically ruled state all depends upon the
character of the head, and a succession of able and benevolent
rulers can never be assured.

The reforms of the Emperor Joseph II. are peculiarly illus-
trative of the good and evil sides of enlightened despotism.
His scheme of domestic policy for the motley Hapsburg 403. Em

states was " no less than to consolidate all his dominions ^ ^t^rr

Josepn II.

into one homogeneous whole; to abolish all privileges (1765-1790)
and exclusive rights ; to obliterate the boundaries of nations,

and substitute for them a mere administrative division _. . ,

Menvale,

of his whole empire ; to merge all nationalities and Historical
establish a uniform code of justice; to raise the mass of ^^^dtes, 12
the community to legal equality with their former masters;
to constitute a uniform level of democratic simplicity under
his own absolute sway." His edict for religious toleration
(1781), and his attempt to abolish serfdom in Bohemia, Mora-
via, and Hungary, are two out of many laudable but ill-planned
measures.' The weakness of his whole scheme of reform was
that it took no account of religious, national, and class preju-
dices, and that everything was attempted at once. Most of
his reforms, therefore, were overturned in his own lifetime.

The expulsion of the Jesuits from the leading Catholic
countries was another important event of the last half of 404. Eclipse
the eighteenth century. With prosperity and success ^^^^^'^^^der
the order had deteriorated. In France a Catholic party (1769-1773)

428 TliE OLD R]fcGlME

called Jaiisonists vigorously attacked the Jesuits, on the
ground that they taught that " tlie end justifies the means."
In many (juarters the memhers engaged in commerce, which
aroused the liostility of the nuu-chant class, while their politi-
cal intrigues angered the kings. Portugal began the attack
in 1759 by ordering the expulsion of Jesuits throughout Por-
tuguese territory. France, Spain, and Naples adopted similar
measures, and finally, in 1773, the Pope was obliged by this
united opi)()siti()n to order the dissolution of the society.
Prussia and Russia, in neither of which was there danger from
Jesuit influence, were among the few countries which re-
ceived the exiled Jesuits. The suppression of the order lasted
until 1814, when the bull dissolving it was revoked, and the
Jesuits were once more restored to favor in Catholic countries.
In England, Ciermany, and France the literature of the
eighteenth century possessed certain features in common, in
405. Eigh- spite of local ])eeuliarities. In the early part of the cen-

teenth-cen- turv it was artihcial and closely followed classical forms;
tury litera- . ". . ^ , , •

ture 111 the latter part came a return to nature and the begin-

ning of what is known as the Romantic movement.

In Great l)ritain, the first half of the ctMitury saw the works
of Addison and Steele, joint authors of the })olished essays
called the Sppctafor-, of Jonathan Swift, the satirist; of Defoe,
best known by his Jiohinson Crusoe; and of the poet Alexander
Pope (1()(SS-1744). The second half of the century saw the
works of Fielding and Rii'hardson, who developed the mod-
ern Fnglish novel ; the essays and Englisli dictionary of Dr.
Samuel Johnson (1709-17.S4), whose life was entertainingly
written l)y his friend Roswcll; the history of the Z)^c7me and
F((/l of tho Roman Empire^hy Edward Gibbon; and Adam
Smith's Wealth of Nations, which laid the foundations of the
new science of political economy. The reaction toward Ro-
manticism is seen in the Scottish poet, Robert Burns (1759-
171)0).

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1786) 429

In German literature the first great name is that of the
critic and dramatist Lessing (1729-1781), whose Nathan the
Wise enshrines "all that was noblest in the struggles and
aspirations of his age, and connects the thought of the eigh-
teenth with that of the nineteenth century." Goethe (1749-
1832), author of Faust and a universal genius, holds the same
place in German literature that Shakespeare does in English
and Dante in Italian literature. Schiller (1759-1805) is best
known by his poetical drama, William Tell. Kant (1724-1804),
author of the Critique of Pare Reason, made philosophy the
absorbing subject of study at the German universities.

In France the great names of the century were those of men
who introduced new ideas and ideals, and paved the way for
the French Revolution (§§ 411, 412). Chief of these were the
dramatist, poet, and reformer Voltaire (1694-1778) ; the jurist
Montesquieu (1689-1755) ; the encyclopedist Diderot (1713-
1784) ; and Rousseau (1712-1778), a writer on education and
social organization. More exclusively literary w^ere Le Sage
(1668-1747), author of the novel Gil Bias; the witty come-
dian Beaumarchais (1732-1799) ; and Bernardin de St. Pierre
(1737-1814), author of the charming romance Paul and
Virginia.

In the age of Frederick the Great, France declined in
power, Russia steadily advanced, and Prussia, while gaining
increased influence abroad, became the center about ^qq gum.
which could crystallize the growing sense of German mary

nationality. Great Britain gained one empire (Canada) in this
period ; lost another through the revolt of the thirteen Ameri-
can colonies ; and in India laid the foundations of a rich and
vast dominion through the fortunate enterprise of her traders.
"The expansion of England in the New World and in Seeley,Ex-
Asia is the formula which sums up for England the his- /'^"^^p ^f
tory of the eighteenth century. ... In those three 28-31

430

THE OLD REGIME

wars between 1740 and 1783 the struggle, as between Eng-
land and France, is entirely for the New World. In the first
of them the issue is fairly joined ; in the second FrancB suffers
her fatal fall ; in the third she takes her signal revenge."

The eighteenth century witnessed, at the same time and
from the same sources, the partitions of Poland and the
reforms of the enlightened despots. The principles of the
sovereignty of the people, of nationality as a necessary basis
for the state, and of individual liberty were foreign to the
policies of the time; but in the intellectual and moral life
a new spirit appeared, preparing the way for the introduc-
tion of those ideas into political action. The older order was
about to be summoned to the bar, to give place to a new one ;
and it was France which "lield, and was about to sound, the
trumpet of judgment."

Suggestive
topics

Search
topics

TOPICS

(1) What does the rage to invest in Mississippi and South Sea
stock show concerning the amount of capital at the time? Why-
could such things not have happened in the Middle Ages? (2) Was
the change of alliances in 1756 wise or unvi^ise for France? For
Austria? For Prussia? For Great Britain ? (8) Was Frederick
the Great justified in attacking Saxony in 1756? (4) To what was
Frederick's final success in the Seven Years' War due ? (5) What
caused the war in America ? (6) What caused it in India ?

(7) From the standpoint of general history which was more im-
portant, the war in Europe or the war in America and India ?

(8) Why did Great Britain i)rofit more than other countries
by the war? (<>) Where should the chief blame be placed for
the partition of Poland ? (10) To what qualities in George III.
were due the injuries which he inflicted upon Great Britain?
(11) Was the participation of France in our Revolutionary War
wise or unwise for her? (12) What do you consider the chief
fact in the history of the eighteenth century before 1789 ?

(13) The Mississippi Bubble. (14) The change of alliances
in 1756. (15) Frederick the Great in the Seven Years' War.
(16) The war between France and Great Britain at sea. (17) Loss
of the French possessions in America. (18) The French in India.

AGE OF FREDERICK THE GREAT (1748-1780) 4B1

(19) Robert Clive and the beginning of Britisli rule in India.

(20) Character and services of Williain Pitt the elder. (21) Treaty
of Paris, 1763. (22) Sweden in the eighteenth century. (23) Rea-
sons for the decline of Turkey. (24) Partitions of Poland. (25) Re-
lations of George III. to Parliament. (26) Attitude of France
toward the American War of Independence. (27) Domestic policy
of Frederick the Great. (28) Reforms of the Emperor Joseph II.
(29) Goethe. (30) Schiller. (31) Court life of France under
Louis XV. (32) Addison. (33) Lord Chesterfield. (34) Gold-
smith. (35) Samuel Johnson.

REFERENCES

See maps, pp. 284, 410, 424, 432 ; Putzger, Atlas, maps 24, 24 a, Geography
24 6, 31 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, map 44 ; Poole, Historical Atlas,
maps X. xl. xlii. ; Dow, Atlas, xx. xxi.

Duruy, History of France, 496-500 ; Henderson, Short History of Secondary
Germany, II. chs. iv. v. ; Macaulay, Frederick the Great ; Lodge, authorities
Modern Europe, chs. xix. xx. ; Hassall, Balance of Power, chs.
viii.-xiii, ; Mackinnon, Growth and Decline of French Monarchy,
chs. xix.-xxii. ; Grant, French Monarchy, 1483-1789, II. chs. xvii.
xviii. ; Malleson, French in India ; Perkins, France under the
Begency, chs. xiii.-xv., — France under Louis XV., I. chs.
ix.-xi. ; 11, chs. xii.-xv, ; Macaulay, Pitt, — Lord Clive; Green,
William Pitt ; Harrison, Chatham ; Gardiner, Student's History of
England, 745-808 ; Longman, Frederick the Great ; Kugler, Fred-
erick the Great, chs. xxi. xxii. xxxviii.-xliv. ; Carlyle, Frederick
the Great, bk. xvi. ; Tuttle, History of Prussia, III. chs. iii.-v. ;
Bright, Joseph IL ; Leger, Austro-Hungary, chs. xxi.-xxiii. ;
Mahan, Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783, ch. viii. ;
Historians'' History of the World, XIV. 441-445.

Duke of St. Simon, Memoirs, III. 185, 188 seq., 202-203, 316- Sources
317, 334 ; IV. 158-193 ; Wilhelmina, Margravine of Baireuth,
Memoirs ; American History Leaflets, No. 5 (extracts from the
Treaty of Paris).

Emerson Hough, The Mississippi Biihble ; Mlihlbach, The Mer-
chant of Berlin, — Frederick the Great and his Family ; G. P. R.
James, The Ancient Begime ; Lady Bulwer, The Peer^s Daughter.

CHAPTER XXIV.

THE FREXCII REVOLUTION (1789-1795)

The eighteenth century closed with a popular upheaval
which overturned the existing political system of Europe,
407 Ch a&'iiii raised France from a position of weakness to
acter of the Continental rule, and spread abroad ideas which have
movement gj^g^ped all subsequent history. The English Revolu-
tion of 1688, and the American Eevolution of 1775, both
brought to logical completion institutions of long and steady
growth ; the French Revolution, on the other hand, broke
sharply with the past, and changed the direction of national
development.

In 'the greater part of Germany, in Poland, and in Russia,
absolute serfdom prevailed, and the peasant was little better
off than the negro slave in America; but in France serfdom
was nearly extinct, and the peasants owned their lands, subject
only to slight seignorial dues. Says a recent historian : " It
was because the French peasant was more independent, more
Stephens, wealthy, and better educated than the German serf that
tionary Eu- ^'^ resented the political and social privileges of his
rope, 8 landlord and the payment of rent, more than the serf

objected to his bondage. It was because France possessed an
enlightened middle class that the peasants and workmen found
leaders. It was because Frenchmen had been in the possession
of a great measure of personal freedom that they were ready
to strike a blow for political liberty, and eventually promul-
gated the idea of social equality."

There were in France, however, grievances of a real and

434

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 435

serious character. Society and government were founded
upon a system of caste, in which the clergy, nobles, and
commons were widely separated in privileges and bur- ^Qg .j^g
dens. The first two Estates (§ 185), constituting the oldr6gime
"privileged orders," numbered less than two per cent in a
population of about twenty-five millions. The higher nobles,
who resided at the king's court, differed in manner of life and
interests from the lesser ones, who resided on their estates ; in
like manner the nobly born higher clergy had little in common
with the hard-working and underpaid parish priests (cures),
who sprang from the people. Class inequalities were increas-
ing ; by 1789 four generations of noble descent were necessary
to secure a commission in the army, and to enter the charmed
circle of the court it was necessary to prove nobility on the
father's side back to 1400. The offices of the church — bishop-
rics, abbacies, priories — were regarded as a provision for the
younger sons of noble families. In taxation the privileged
orders had many exemptions. Pride of class led the nobles
to refrain from all labor; and extravagance, gambling, and
the decline of their estates made them greedy seekers after
pensions and corrupt gains.

Under Louis XV. and his successor Louis XVL (1774-1792),
the government was more oppressive and less efficient than
formerly : abroad, French prestige was seriously im-
paired; at home, vexations increased. Letters passing government
through the post were systematically opened, and each ° ranee
morning Louis XV. enjoyed the choice bits of scandal and
family secrets surprised in this way. In England the censor-
ship of the press came to an end in 1695 ; but France, in 1789,
still provided one hundred and sixty-eight censors to pass
upon publications. Instead of a single code of law for the
whole country, there were in force nearly three hundred differ-
ent sets of local " customs." Diversity and confusion existed
in every field of government. Torture, mutilations, and an

436 REVOLUTION AND REACTION

absence of safeguards to personal liberty (such as England
possessed iu trial by jury and the writ of habeas corpus)
characterized the administration of justice. Under Louis XV.
one hundred and fifty thousand lettres de cachet (§ 330) are

To VtfuCi. Sa\k. ettt-v Xdtttof-

(ff/v7 cA

Lettre de Cachet.

" Mr. — --. I send yon this letter to tell you to receive in my chateau of

the liastille Mr. and to hold him till further orders from me. And

I pray God to have you, Mr. , in his holy keeping. Written at .

Louis."

calculated to have been issued, many being sold for money.
Tolls and customs duties on goods passing from province to
province harassed internal commerce: a vessel descending the
Saone and Rhone rivers had to sto}) and pay charges thirty
times, the whole amounting to from twenty-five to thirty per
cent of the value of the cargo. The various trades and indus-
tries were hampered by oppressive guild regulations, enforced
by governuiental autliority. " Each week for a number of
years," said an ins]>octorof manufactures, " I have seen burned
at Rouen eighty to one hundred pieces of goods because some
regulation concerning the weaving or dyeing had not been
observed at every point."

TtlE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 487

The condition of the peasant, though better than in Ger-
many, Poland, and Russia, was still grievous. The obligation
to use the lord's mill and oven for grinding grain and ..^ « ,.
baking bread (§ 143) was hateful because of the delays, tion of the
fraud, and poor service to which it gave rise. Wild P®^^^ s
game of all sorts was protected for the lord's hunting, under
penalty of fine, imprisonment, and the galleys ; and for broken
fences and hedges, and crops trampled in the chase, the
peasant had no redress. Enormous dovecots were main-
tained by the nobles, and the damage done to the peasants'
crops by the pigeons found a prominent place in the com-
plaints of most country districts.

These annoyances, however, were slight compared to the
burdens imposed by the state. Innumerable taxes and forced
labor on the roads (corvees) crushed the peasant. The sale of
salt was a government monopoly, and to enforce the salt tax
(gabelle) every household was obliged to buy each year a
fixed quantity, nor could the surplus from this source be
used for curing meats or like purposes. The price, too, varied
enormously, in some provinces the government charging thirty
times what it did in other near-by districts ; over seventeen
hundred persons were usually in prison, and more than three
hundred in the galleys, for offenses against the salt laws.
The number and uncertainty of taxes discouraged all efforts
at improved methods of cultivation. An Englishman named
Arthur Young, who traveled extensively in France in 1787-
1789, found agriculture there worse practiced and the agricul-
turists much worse off than they were in England. The
potato, which has done so much to save from famine the
peasantry of Europe, was not widely used in France until
about 1780. Even where the peasant was best off, he con-
cealed his prosperity for fear of new taxes. "I should be
lost," said one such, "if it were suspeoted that I am not
dying of hunger."

438 KEVOLUTTOX AXn KE ACTION

While actual conditions were so wretched, ideas and ideals
had greatly enlarged. The appeal to reason, which came with
411 Ne ^^^® lienaissance in matters of scholarship, was now
political extended to matters of everyday life, manners, and gov-
P osop y ei-iiiuent; and whatever was found unreasonable was
relentlessly attacked. The ends sought by this eighteenth-
century philosophy were not metaphysical, but practical —
religious toleration, political liberty, economic reform, natu-
ral education. In England, John Locke (1632-1704) was its
chief representative, and his works greatly influenced Vol-
taire, Montesquieu, and Kousseau, who headed the movement
in France.

Voltaire (1694-1778) was preeminent in his mocking wit,
keen thought, and vigorous style. Sprung from the middle
class, he felt the tyranny of the crown and the insolence of
tlie nobles ; he " learned to think " during three years' exile in
England, and after his return made untiring assaults upon
fanaticism, intolerance, injustice, and arbitrary government.
In religion, lie was a deist; that is, he believed in God and the
immortality of the soul, but rejected all revealed religion, put-
ting (Jhristiauity on the same plane with Judaism, Mohamme-
danism, and Buddhism.

Montesquieu (1689-1755), in a series of Persian Letters,
showed France how her institutions would appear to an imag-
inary Asiatic; in his Sjtin't of Laics he applied reason and
experience to government, and held up English political lib-
erty and })arliamentary government to admiration.

Rousseau (1712-1778) sought to recall mankind from artifici-
ality to nature. In his chief work, the Social Contract, he set
up the doctrine of popular sovereignty against that of mon-
archy by divine right, and taught (in words whose influence
can be traced in our Declaration of Independence) that govern-
ments can have no other just rights than those founded in the
consent of the governed.

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 439

In the field of economics, similar ideas were stirring.

Against the minute regulation of industry and commerce wag

raised the doctrine of freedom of manufacture and free- - * „ -^

412. New

dom of transit, embodied in the words, '' Laissez /aire, ideas and
laissez passer.^' In every department of thought — reli- i e s

gion, morals, government, science — there was new activity.
To gather up and popidarize the results, the Encydopedie,
the first important encyclopedia, was projected by a group of
French scholars, chief of whom was Diderot, and completed
in thirty-seven volumes (1771). " The Encyclopedie was Rambaud,
like a general rising, a battle array, of all the men of the ^^*^«««^«or.
new era, against all the powers of the past ; it was the //. 377

great effort of the eighteenth century."

Men of the Third Estate led in these intellectual movements,
but the new ideas were taken up by the nobles also ; and dis-
gust with the court and ministers rendered a great part of the
nobility " almost democrats." Never were the salo7is of fash-
ionable society so animated, politeness so exquisite, or con-
versation so brilliant as among the frivolous, sensual, and
skeptical upper classes of France on the eve of the Revolution !
Never was there a generation more enamored of theoretical
justice, philanthropy, benevolence; more persuaded of the
cruelty and absurdity of war; more enraptured with dreams
of universal peace and happiness ! As early as 1753 an Eng-
lish observer wrote : " All the symptoms which I have ^,
ever met with in history previous to great changes and Letters, II.
revolutions in government, now exist and daily increase ^'^^

in France."

Louis XVI., grandson of Louis XV., who came to the throne
in 1774, was amiable and just, but lacked decision of char- .-„ «
acter and ability to rule. His queen, Marie Antoinette, got's at-
— the young, sprightly, frivolous, imperious daughter of *^^eform
Maria Theresa of Austria, — indulged in lavish expen- (1774-1776)
ditures and short-sighted intrigues in support of personal favor-

440 REVOLUTION AND REACTION

ites. Louis began his reign well by appointing Turgot, an
able and enlightened man, as minister of finance. Extrava-
gance and corruption had brought the government to financial
ruin; Turgot's motto was, "No bankruptcy, no increase of
taxation, no loans." His edict establishing free trade in grain
was hailed by Voltaire as the beginning of " a new heaven and
a new earth." Industry was freed from restrictions, and the
corvee was abolished. These measures naturally aroused violent
opposition from those who profited by the old abuses. The
Parlement of Paris made itself the center of resistance, and
Marie Antoinette joined the attack. The weak king thereupon
dismissed Turgot (1776) and recalled the reform edicts; with
this step the last chance to save the old monarchy passed away.

Turgot's successor was IS^ecker, a Swiss banker of mediocre
ability, who had little knowledge of the larger needs of France ;
but he sought to promote honesty and economy in the
cial crises administration, and he carried out many small reforms.
(1776-1789) ^}^g American war, however, forced up the debt by leaps
and bounds. To meet the same grasping opposition that over-
turned Turgot, Xecker appealed to public opinion (now becom-
ing an important force) by publishing an account of the finances,
revealing the enormous amount of pensions and gratuities. The
outcry produced at court by this act led to the ending of his
first ministry (1781).

A rapid increase of financial difficulties followed, until in
1786 the government was unable to pay the interest on out-
standing loans. In 1787 an Assembly of Notables (mainly
members of the privileged orders) was held ; but their selfish
interests and the opposition of the Parlement of Paris pre-
vented any effective reforms.

In despair the vacillating king abandoned the principle of
absolute monarchy by calling the Kstates-rxeneral, after a
hundred and seventy-five years' neglect, to meet in May, 1789;
and at the same time Necker was restored to office. It was

THE I'RENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 441

now too late for half-measures. The extravagance and finan-
cial incapacity of the last few years, together with a famine in
the winter of 1788-1789, gave to the reform movement a char-
acter of desperate and savage earnestness. Everything centered
in the approaching meeting of the Estates-General. In a
famous pamphlet, Sieyes, a political writer, asked : " What is
the Third Estate? Everything. What has it hitherto been
in the political order? Nothing. What does it ask? To
become something."

The Estates-General met at Versailles (the royal residence,
twelve miles from Paris) on May 5, 1789. The Third Estate
had been given double the number of representatives 4^5^ Es-
given to each of the other two orders ; but it was not de- tates-Gen-
cided whether the vote should be (as formerly) by the National

orders separately, or whether all three Estates should sit '^1^®^51^
^ •^' (1789-1791)

in one house and vote as individuals. In order to gain

the full benefit of their numbers, the Third Estate demanded
the latter arrangement, and refused to proceed with business
until the nobles and clergy joined them. They declared them-
selves a National Assembly, and claimed the right to vote all
taxes and to give a new constitution to France. When excluded
from their usual place of meeting, they took the famous Oath
of the Tennis Court (June 20, 1789), pledging themselves not to
separate until " the constitution of the realm was estab- Stephens,
lished and fixed upon solid foundations " ; by this act, arv^Eurom
" they practically became rebels, and the French Revolu- 54

tion really commenced."

This resolute stand brought to their side more than half the
deputies of the clergy — many of whom were poor country
priests and sympathized with the popular cause — and some
of the liberal nobles. Next day the king commanded that
the vote be taken, as formerly, by orders. Under the leader-
ship of Count Mirabeau, a man of extraordinary ability and
courage, but of dissolute life, the Assembly resolved to dis-

442

REVOLUTION AND REACTION

Oath (h iiii: Iennis Court.
From the contemporary picture by David.

obey. " Go tell your master," cried Mirabeau, " that we are

here by the will of the people, and that we will be removed

only at the point of tlie bayonet." The weak king, who dreaded

above all else the outbreak of civil war, gave way, and ordered

the other deputies to join the Third Estate (June 27).

The queen and the court party soon persuaded Louis to

attempt a policy of coercion tlirough mercenary troops gathered

416. Fall of about Paris. This threatening attitude called into action

the Bastille ^^ ^^^^y force in the Kevolution — the Parisian mob. On

(July 14,

1789) '^n\y 14, 17S9, the Bastille (the chief arsenal and royal

prison in Paris) was stormed amid scenes of wild enthusiasm

and brutal bloodshed. The government of the city passed into

the hands of a revolutionary committee, and a civic army, the

National Guard, was organized under command of Lafayette,

the former companion in arms of Washington. In the face

of these movements, Louis gave way ; he entered Paris, put

on the tricolor cockade, emblem of the Revolution, and once

more seemed willing to accept the results of the Assembly's

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795)

443

labors. Not so the reactionaries of his court, some of whom
(the so-called emigres = "emigrants") fled beyond the borders,
to stir up foreign intervention.

Up to the attack upon the Bastille there was nothing to
show that the Eevolution was not to be accomplished in peace-
able and orderly fashion, through the agency of the law- 417^ Spread
ful representatives of France. Thenceforth, however, of the revolt
the direct action of the people, especially the Parisian mob,
becomes more frequent, until curbed after six years by the rise
of a new executive government, capable of wielding the power
which dropped from the nerveless hands of the monarchy.

In the provinces the news of the revolt of Paris led every-
where to the setting up of revolutionary governments, and to
risings of the peasants, who sought to burn the castles and

The Bastille (restored).

Erected 1371-1383, and afterward used as a state prison.

Destroyed July 14, 1789.

destroy the manorial rolls which contained the evidences
of their lords' rights. On the night of August 4 some liberal
nobles in the National Assembly set the example of renouncing
their feudal rights, and the contagion spread until a de- university
cree was passed, amid the wildest enthusiasm, declaring of Pennsyl-
in detail that " the National Assembly hereby completely Translations]
abolishes the feudal system." ^' ■^^' ^

Harding's m. & m. hist. — 26

444 REVOLUTION AND REACTION

In October, 1789, a disorderly mob of women and men

marched to Versailles to bring the royal family to Paris, where

418 Consti- ^^® action of the court might better be watched and the

tution of Assembly be controlled by the National Guard. Aside
1791 ...

from this incident, the Eevolution proceeded quietly for

the next year and a half. Inexperience of self-government led
the Assembly to waste valuable time in drawing up a theoreti-
cal Declaration of the Eights of j\Ian, while the government,
the army, and the navy fell into great disorder.

The constitution, when framed in 1791, provided for a legis-
lature of. a single house, leaving to the king only a suspensive
veto. The old division of the kingdom into provinces was
abolished and eighty departments substituted therefor, a step
which greatly contributed to the unity of France. A uniform
system of law Avas projected, and sweeping judicial reforms
were made. A civil constitution for the clergy was adopted,
by which all, from bishops to parish priests, were to be elected
by the people. Monasteries were dissolved, and all clergymen
who refused to take an oath to support the constitution were
dismissed from their offices. Freedom of worship was estab-
lished for all religions.

To meet the pressing financial needs of the government, the
property of the church was conhscated, and the state thence-
forth undertook the support of the clergy. The confiscated
church estates, crown lands, and estates of emigres were suc-
cessively ordered sold ; and pending sale, assignats (a form of
legal-tender paper currency) were issued on their credit. The
value of the assignats declined until they passed only at four
hundred for one in silver, and ultimately they were repudiated.
The chief defect of the new constitution was its fatal jealousy
419. Rise of the executive. Mirabeau, whose wide experience and
Ucan^^sirty ^^^ding made him the most practical thinker of France,
(1791) worked for an amendment which would make the con-

stitution more like that of England, and give the ministry some

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1780-1795) ' 445

real power. Failing to secure this, he offered his services to
the court in order to check the anarchy into which the country
was drifting, and became a secret adviser to the king. His
advice, however, was rejected; and in April, 1791, he died,
worn out with dissipation, hard work, and disappointment:
in his death France was deprived of its most sagacious
statesman.

In June, 1791, after secretly drawing up a declaration dis-
avowing the measures of the Assembly, Louis with the royal
family fled by night from Paris toward the frontier of the
Austrian Netherlands (Belgium), where a force of emigres and
Austrians awaited them. At Varennes, within a few hours'
ride of the frontier, his carriage was stopped and turned back
to Paris. France realized with a shock that Louis XVI. par-
ticipated unwillingly in the work of reform, and would use
foreign aid to overthrow it. A few weeks later a tumultuous
crowd gathered on the Champ de Mars at Paris to sign a
petition for his dethronement; and in dispersing them the
National Guard under Lafayette lired and killed several per-
sons. These events completed a divergence of opinion which
had long been growing ; and from this time on the authors of
the Eevolution were divided into constitutional royalists and
democratic republicans.

In September, 1791, the National Assembly completed its

labors, Louis formally accepted the constitution, and the

Assembly was dissolved. So far the Revolution was 420. Disso-

under the control of the upper middle classes; and in lutionofthe

, , ^ , . n National

spite of some threatening outbreaks of mob violence, Assembly

liberal men in other countries generally applauded its (1791)

results. But from three sources the stability of the new con-
stitution was threatened : (1) from the emigrant nobles, who
stirred up foreign intervention ; (2) from the democratic party,
who wished a more radical reform ; and (3) from the weak-
ness and indecision of the king.

446 REVOLUTION AND REACTION

By an unwise provision, members of the old National
Assembly were excluded from seats in the new Legislative

421. Legis- Assembly, which was thus left without experienced

lativeAs- guides and grew more radical than the former. The

sembly

(1791-1792) constitutional royalists at first directed the government;

but gradually power passed to a group of theoretical repub-
licans called, from the departments whence came their principal
orators, the " Girondists." When foreign danger and internal
disorders arose, a still more radical party developed, called the
" Mountain " from its elevated seats in the hall. At first its
members possessed little influence in the Assembly, but out-
side in the political clubs of Paris, especially the Jacobin Club
(so called from its meeting in the Jacobin Monastery, p. 454),
their power was great. Affiliated societies were formed
throughout France, and the Jacobins set to work to arouse a
public spirit in the land ; their views steadily grew more radi-
cal, until the name Jacobin became the synonym for demo-
cratic excesses and mob violence.

The fact that the queen was related to the Austrian royal
family, and the intrigues of the emigres, made foreign inter-

422. "War vention certain. Early in 1792 the Assembly declared

with Aus- ^Yap upon Austria, and this involved war with Prussia

tria and

Prussia also, which was allied mth Austria against the Revo-

(1792) lution. The war opened badly for Prance, because a

senseless zeal for liberty had disorganized and weakened the

whole administration and destroyed the discipline of the army.

After the first reverses, a cry of "Treachery!" was raised,

and the Jacobin leaders began to plot the king's overthrow.

On August 10 a Parisian mob — aided by some volunteers

from Marseilles who raised enthusiasm to a white heat with

the new Revolutionary \\ymn,i\\Q Marseillaise — stormed the

royal })ala«e of the Tuileries, massacred the Swiss guards of

the king, and forced Louis and the royal family to seek refuge

in the hall of the Legislative Assembly.

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 447

Part of the Palace of the Tuileries.
As it was before 1871.

The Assembly, acquiescing in the results of this insurrec-
tion, decreed the suspension of the king from his office, and
ordered him and his family into confinement. Steps 423. Sus-
were taken at the same time to call a National Conven- ^^the^kinc
tion to decide the question of monarchy or republic for (1792)

France. The executive government, meanwhile, was intrusted
to a provisional ministry, of which Danton, an able and patri-
otic leader of the people, was the heart and soul ; and the
greatest energy was displayed in organizing the defense. The
continued advance of the Prussians produced a frenzy of rage
and fear at Paris, and in September a band of assassins entered
the prisons and systematically massacred hundreds of royalists
who had been arrested after the king's suspension. A few days
later the fruits of the new energy infused into the adminis-
tration were seen in a French victory won at Valmy (Sep-
tember 20, 1792 ; map, p. 459). Influenced partly by jealousy

448 REVOLUTION AND RKACTION

of Austria, the Prussians then retreated, and the National
Convention was enabled without the menacing presence of a
foreign army to deal with the question of the monarchy.

The democratic leaders of the Legislative Assembly con-
trolled the National Convention, and almost its first act was
424. Na- to decree that " royalty is abolished in France," and to
venUon^^' P^'o^laim a republic. Violent disputes arose over further
(1792-1795) proceedings. The Girondists feared the dictation of
Parisian mobs, and wished to carry on the government as if
in time of peace. On the other hand, the party of the Moun-
tain, chief of whom were Robespierre, Danton, and Marat
(later assassinated by Charlotte Corday, who regarded him as
responsible for the excesses of the Revolution), saw the need
of a strongly centralized government for the national defense ;
they resigned themselves to the dictation of Paris so long as
the crisis lasted, and were ready to employ violent means
to keep the royalists in subjection. The majority of the
members of the Convention — called the Center, Plain, or
Marsh — adhered steadfastly to neither of these groups ; but
at first the Girondists were in control.

The battle of Valmy was followed by a tide of French suc-
cesses. Savoy was occupied, the principalities of the middle
426. Revo- Rhine were overrun, and the Belgians were assisted in

Jt«^?^^ their efforts to expel their Austrian rulers. These suc-
propa- ^

ganda cesses intoxicated the Convention, and the members

believed their armies to be invincible. A decree of November

19, 1792, promised "fraternity and assistance to all peoples

who desire their liberty." " All governments are our enemies,"

Lavisse and Cried an orator of the Convention, " all peoples are our

Rdinhaud, friends ; we shall be destroved, or they shall be free."

G^n^rale, When democratic liberty of the French sort proved un-

\ 111.243,244 acceptable, it was forced upon the liberated populations,

and Belgium (the Austrian Netherlands), Nice, and Savoy

were declared annexed to France. .

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795)

449

To complete the destructive work of the Revolution, the
Convention ordered that Louis XVI. should be brought to
trial on a charge of intriguing with foreign courts for 426. Execu-
the invasion of France. By an almost unanimous vote *^xvi (Jan*
the Convention declared "Louis Capet" guilty, and by 21,1793)
a small majority passed sentence of death. Some of the
Girondists wished to submit the judgment to the vote of
the people; but the leaders of
the Mountain, taunting their
opponents with being concealed
royalists, caused the motion to
be rejected. The next day Louis
XVI. was executed at Paris, by
the guillotine, an instrument for
beheading, named from a physi-
cian. Dr. Guillotin, whose recom-
mendation brought it into use.
The king met his fate with cour-
age; but when he sought to ad-
dress a few words to the crowd,
his voice was brutally drowned
by the roll of drums.

English opinion, even among the Whigs, early showed signs
of division over the events in France. Upon the fall of the
Bastille Charles James Fox, the most liberal of English 427. Eng-
leaders, wrote, " How much the greatest event it is t^e^French
that ever happened in the world ! and how much the Revolution
best ! " On the other hand, Edmund Burke, one of the great-
est of British orators and political philosophers, in a widely
read pamphlet (1790) characterized the Revolution as a
" strange chaos of levity and ferocity, and of all sorts of Works, III.
crimes jumbled together with all sorts of fallacies " ; its ^^^

probable end, he thought, would be a military despotism under
some popular general, The British government was now

The Guillotine.

450 REVOLUTION AND REACTION

carried on by William Pitt (a younger son of the Great Com-
moner), who was prime minister continuously from 1783 to
1801, and again from 1804 until his death in 1806 ; he agreed
with Burke rather than with Fox, but wished sincerely to
maintain peace. Peace, however, was impossible in view of
the annexation of Belgium, the threatened conquest of Hol-
land (England's ally), and the horror excited by the execution
of the king.

The actual declaration of war came in 1793 from France,
whose leaders misunderstood British politics, and expected a
deiuocratic rising in their aid. Holland, Spain, Austria, Prus-
sia, and many smaller states, at about the same time took
up arms against the Kepublic. Until the final downfall of
Napoleon, Great Britain was thenceforth the head of the re-
sistance to France, and the paymaster of the coalitions formed
against her : the British fleet kept the seas, and British
subsidies enabled Prussia, Austria, and other countries to
maintain the war by land. The contest, in one aspect, was the
last stage of the war between France and England for colonial
and maritime empire; in another it was the struggle of two
systems of politi(3al liberty — the orderly, conservative, practi-
cal system of England, against the revolutionary, tumultuous,
theoretical system of Revolutionary France.

The tide of success which followed the battle of Valmy was
of short duration ; by March, 1793, invasions of France began
428 Fall of ^^"^^"^ ^^^^ north, south, and east. The shock of these
the Giron- events rudely awakened the enthusiasts of the Conven-
tion. A call for three hundred thousand troops, to be
raised if necessary V)y conscription, led to the famous insurrec-
tion of La Vendee in western France — at first directed against
conscription, but later turned into a priestly and royalist reac-
tion. In the Convention the quarrels between Girondists and
the Mountain L^rew more bitter, while tht^ popuhice of Paris,
in patriotic frenzy at the military reverses, took the govern-

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 451

ment of the city and the command of the civic troops entirely
into their own hands.

The crisis came at the beginning of June, 1793, when the
Parisian mob and civic troops invaded the hall of the Con-
vention and demanded the arrest of the Girondist leaders.
The demand was complied with (June 2), and the Girondists
as a political party ceased to exist : their fall was due to the
conviction — not unfounded — that they were impractical
visionaries, and that their ascendency in the Convention was
the chief obstacle to governmental unity and efficiency.

The ' Convention, now entirely under the control of the
Mountain, drew up the republican constitution of 1793, which
was submitted for ratification to the primary assemblies 429. com-
of the people: although approved, it never came into mitteeof
force. Instead, an exceptional executive power was Safety

lodged in a secret Committee of Public Safety, with (1793)

entire control over the laws and resources of France. Robes-
pierre was the Committee's most conspicuous member, be-
cause of his reputation for incorruptibility and his popularity
in the Convention and in the Jacobin Club ; but the real work
of the Committee, in organizing and feeding the armies, super-
intending military operations, and putting down disaffection,
was performed by others : of these the most notable was
Carnot, who gained the enviable name "Organizer of Victory."
From July, 1793, to July, 1794, the Committee of Public Safety
ruled France unchecked ; in this period fourteen armies were
placed in the field, discipline was restored, and France was
freed from foreign foes.

Actuated by a desire to break completely with the religious
and political past, the Convention at this time decreed the
adoption of an entirely new calendar. The date of the
establishment of the Republic (September 22, 1792) was taken
as the beginning of the new era ; twelve months of thirty days
each were instituted, with five or six supplementary days at

452 REVOLUTION AND REACTION

the end of the year ; and the months were divided into three

" decades " each, instead of weeks.^ This calendar was used

by France until January 1, 1806.

Through the exertions of the Conimittee of Public Safety

France was freed from foreign invasion, but at what a cost !

430. Reign '^^^ " Terror " was the means used to attain unanimous

of Terror and energetic action ; and the menace of the guillotine

(June, 1793,

to July, was over all who incurred the popular wrath, or whom

1794) policy or ambition found in the way. Two laws, passed

in September, 1793, constituted the basis of the system.
(1) By the Law of the Suspects all persons might be accused
who, "by their conduct, by their relations, or by their con-
versation or writings, have shown themselves partisans of
tyranny or federalism [/.e. of the Girondists] and enemies
of liberty"; for former nobles or royalists and their families
the only safety lay in attachment to the Ee volution. (2) The
Law of the Maximum, in defiance of the precepts of political
economy, fixed maximum prices in paper money at which
provisions, clothing, firewood, tobacco, etc., might be sold.
The possibility of prosecution under this law extended the
Terror to the petty tradesmen. To judge persons accused
under these acts, as well as those accused of other political
offenses, a Revolutionary Tribunal was set up, whose almost
invariable sentence was death.

By the practice of sending deputies of the Convention,
clothed with absolute power, "on mission" into the various
departments and to the armies, the Terror was extended
throughout Fi-eneh territory. In some places, as at Nantes,
where prisoners were drowned wholesale, the deputies abused

1 For the old nanu'S of the months the following were substituted : VemU-
niiaire (Viutaj^c month), Brumaire (Fog month), and Frimaire (Frost month)
for autumn : Nivosf (Snow month), Pluviose (Rain month), and Ventose (Wind
month) for wintt-r: Geriniiud (Budding montli), Flor^al (Flower month), and
Prairlal (Meadow month) for spring: and J/<.'«.s<(/or (Harvest Mouth)', Thermi-
dor (Heat month), and Frtictidor (Fruit mouth) for summer.

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 453

their powers; but the end achieved was the suppression of
revolt and restoration of internal peace. At Paris the num-
ber of executions steadily rose, and it became an established
custom to send batches of prisoners to the guillotine each day.
At first the average was only three a week, then it rose to
thirty-two, then in June and July, 1794, it reached one hun-
dred and ninety-six. Among the early victims were the queen
(Marie Antoinette), and twenty-one of the Girondist leaders
arrested in June, 1793. It must be noted, however, (1) that
outside of the Vendee rural France suffered very little, and
even at Paris the vast majority of the population was unaf-
fected ; and (2) that the Keign of Terror was in no sense the
work of the mob, but was a regular system, with a deliberate
purpose and a political aim.

From two quarters in the Mountain itself the Committee of
Public Safety met with opposition. (1) The extreme radicals
of the commune of Paris, under the leadership of Hebert ^^^ -^^^-^
(the editor of a coarse and virulent journal), clamored ofDanton
for more bloodshed, attacked the rich as the enemies
of the people, closed the churches, and set up with wild
orgies the worship of the goddess Reason. These excesses
led Robespierre, who was a deist, to denounce the Hebertists
before the Jacobin Club as atheists ; and when they attempted
an insurrection of the city, they were seized, condemned, and
guillotined (March, 1794). (2) Danton, on the other hand,
opposed the Committee because he believed the Terror had
accomplished its work, had gone too far, and now (thanks
to French victories) was no longer needed. Robespierre
seized the opportunity thus afforded to strike down his
rival in popularity, while the Committee as a whole wished
to insure its power by extending the Terror over the Con-
vention itself. Danton and his chief adherents therefore
were seized, accused of conspiracy, and after a mockery of
a trial hurried to execution (April, 1794).

454

REVOLUTION AND REACTION

Freed from competitors for public favor, Robespierre pro-
posed to set up a reign of A'irtue, founded upon the teaching
432. Fall of Rousseau, in whicli he should be the principal figure.
Pierre ^^" To check atheism, the worship of the Supreme Being
(1794) was established, and in June Robespierre presided at

a great festival of the new cult. He was now at the height
of his power, but a reaction was preparing. His colleagues

The Jacobin Club.
From an old print.

had little sympathy witli his ideas, and felt themselves men-
aced by his ascendency; and on July 27, 1794 (9tli Thermidor),
his opponents, after a stormy scene, arrested him on the floor
of the C'onvention. He was rescued by the Jacobin Club ; but
his opponents, now rendered desperate, recaptured him. The
Stephens, next day he and his adherents met the fate they had in-

Rrvohitioii-
nnj Europe,
147

flicted

upon

the Hebertists and the Pantonists. "Not

only his enemies but his colleagues threw upon him the

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 455

responsibility for all the atrocities included under the name of
the Terror " ; but the blame as well as the credit for its rule
belongs chiefly to men of obscurer name.

With the fall of Eobespierre the Terror came to an end,
through the influence of new members added to the Committee
of Public Safety. The club of the Jacobins was closed, 433. The
the Law of the Maximum was repealed, and imprisoned J^d

deputies were restored to their seats. The four living (1794-1796)
persons chiefly responsible for the Terror were ordered to be
deported to French Guiana (April, 1795). In May occurred a
revolt in which the famished Parisian mob broke into the Con-
vention, crying, "Bread and the Constitution of 1793!" Vic-
tory over these rioters was followed by new condemnations of
Terrorists, and the Mountain as a party was broken up.

While order was restored at home, the way was paved for
peace with foreign foes. The visionary attempt to establish
democracies everywhere was definitely given up, and this 434. The
broke the league of France's enemies. In April and ^formed
July, 1795, Prussia and Spain made peace with her at (1796)

Basel, and recognized the Eepublic. Holland, conquered in
1794-1795, was organized as the Batavian Eepublic, and
brought into close alliance. With Great Britain and Austria
alone the war still continued.

The leaders of the Convention, convinced of the necessity
of a permanent executive power possessed of sufficient force and
unity to cope with disorder, now prepared the " Constitution
of the Year III. (1795), " which intrusted the executive power
to a Directory of five members, and provided for a legislature
of two houses. The new constitution made constitutional the
strengthening of the executive power attained by the Com-
mittee of Public Safety, and for the universal suffrage of 1793
it substituted the requirement of a fixed residence and pay-
ment of taxes. To guard themselves against proscription and
to check royalist intrigues, the Convention decreed that two

456 REVOLUTION AND REACTION

thirds of the lirst members of the legislature must be elected
from among their own ranks.

This provision provoked what was practically the last of the

revolutionary revolts of Paris — the rising of October 5, 1795

435. Rising (loth Vendeniiaire). The defense of the Convention was

of i 3th Yen- pig^^.g(| [^^ ^\^q hands of a young officer named Napoleon

(1795) Bonaparte, who had lately been recalled from a command

in Italy. His cannon did terrible execution in the advancing

colunnis of the mob, and taught Paris that the day of riot and

revolt was past.

This rising quelled, the Convention proceeded to establish
the new legislature, and then quietly disbanded, its last act
being an amnesty for political offenses committed since the
beginning of the Kepublic. The new government was entirely
in the hands of men of moderate opinions. The Directors
chosen had all been members of the Convention and voted for
the execution of the king, but only one of them (Carnot) had
been a member of the Committee of Public Safety. It re-
mained for the future to show whether the new government
would be strong enough to maintain order at home and secure
peace abroad ; or whether upon the ruins of its policies there
sliould arise a new monarchy based on military power, success-
ful intrigue, and the will of the people.

Within seven years France had experienced almost every
form of government. The absolutism of the old regime gave

436 Sum- ^^^y ^^ ^ weak constitutional monarchy (1789-1792) ;

mary this in turn was followed by a Republic in which prac-

tically all power was vested in an unwieldy assembly (1792-
1793) ; and this by the executive despotism of the Committee
of Public Safety, and the Reign of Terror (1793-1794).
Leaders representing all shades of political liberty — Mira-
beau, the Giroudists, Danton, Robespierre — succeeded one
another. The excess of freedom wrought its cure, and France

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1795) 457

was now prepared (1795) to try a government which promised
strength of executive, with reasonable liberty, fraternity, and
equality. The mistakes and atrocities of the Revolution —
the mob violence, the Terror, the revolutionary propaganda,
the theatrical worships of Reason and the Supreme Being —
were in part due to the emotional, volatile temperament of the
French ; in part also they were due to the lack of opportunity,
under the old regime, to acquire experience in managing their
own affairs.

TOPICS

(1) How do you explain the difference in spirit between the Suggestive
French Revolution and the American Revolution? (2) What was *°P^°^
the theory on which the privileges of nobles and clergy originally
rested (see § 143). (3) Did the facts correspond to this theory in
eighteenth-century France ? (4) Could a strong king have averted
the Revolution ? (5) Do you approve of the attack on the Bastille ?
(6) How might a Girondist defend his policy ? (7) How might a
Jacobin answer him ? (8) Who was to blame for the beginning of
the wars of the Revolution with Europe ? (9) What was objection-
able in the decree of November 19, 1792, offering aid to all peoples
who revolted against their rulers? (10) Was the execution of
Louis XVI. justifiable? (11) Was Fox or Burke nearer right in
his estimate of the French Revolution ? (12) Why was the addi-
tion of Great Britain to the ranks of the enemies of France of so
much importance ? (13) What arguments might be used for and
against the Reign of Terror ? (14) What is your opinion of Robes-
pierre ? (15) What was the chief weakness of the executive
power under the Constitution of the Year III. ? Why ? (16) Was
the Revolution up to 1795 a success or a failure ?

(17) Some abuses of the old regime. (18) Voltaire. (19) Rous- Search
seau. (20) Diderot. (21) Turgot's attempts at reform. *°P^^*»
(22) Necker. (23) Marie Antoinette up to 1789. (24) The
Estates-General to June 27, 1789. (25) Fall of the Bastille.
(26) Influence of Marie Antoinette in the Revolution. (27) Mira-
beau. (28) Lafayette's part in the French Revolution. (29) The
Jacobin Club. (30) Robespierre. (31) Danton. (32) The Sep-
tember massacres. (33) Flight of Louis XVI. (34) Trial and
execution of Louis XVI. (36) Incidents of, the Reign of Terror.
(36) The Dauphin in prison. (37) Review of Burke's Reflections
on the French Bevolution.

458

REVOLUTION AND REACTION

REFERENCES

Qeography

Secondary
authorities

Sources

Illustrative
works

See maps, pp. 432, 459 ; Gardiner, School Atlas, 49, 51-53 ;
Poole, Historical Atlas, xi, xii. Iviii. ; Dow, Atlas, xxiii.-xxv.

Duruy, France, clis. Ivii. lix.-lxi. ; Lodge, Modern Europe,
47G-553 ; Bertha M. Gardiner, French devolution, 1789-1795,
1-18, 17-50, 58-220 ; Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth Cen-
tury, chs. i.-ii. ; Morris, French Revolution and the First
Empire, 19-125 ; Dabney, Causes of the French Bevolution ;
Lowell, Eve of the French Bevolution ; Taine, Ancient Begime,
chs. i. ii. ; Lecky, England in the Eighteenth Century, eh. xx. ;
Mathews, French Revolution ; II. Morse Stephens, Bevolutionary
Europe, Introduction and chs. ii.-iv. ; Mignet, History of the
French Bevolution, Introduction and chs. i.-xi. ; Michelet, French
Bevolution ; Rose, Bevolutionary and Napoleonic Era, chs. i.-v. ;
Lebon, Modern France, chs. i.-ii. ; Fyffe, History of Modern
Europe (popular ed.), chs. i.-ii. ; H. Morse Stephens, History of
the French Bevolution, I. chs. ii. v. xi., II. chs. ix.-xi. ; Carlyle,
French Bevolution, bk. iii. chs. ii. iii., bk. iv. chs. vi.-viii., bk.
vii. ch. iv. ; Kitchin, France, bk. vi. ch. viii. ; Morley, Voltaire, —
Bousseau; Say, Turgot ; Beesly, Life of Danton ; Belloc, Dan-
ton, — Bobespierre ; Cambridge Modern Histoid, VIII. chs. v.-x.
xii. -XV. ; Historians'* History of the World, XII. 111-417.

University of Pennsylvania, Translations and Beprints, I. No. 5,
IV. No. 5, V. No. 2, VI. No. 1 ; F. M. Anderson, Constitutions and
Documents of the History of France, 17S9-1900, nos. 2, 4, 5, 15, 29 e,
31, 41, 42, 44, 50 ; Arthur Young, Travels in France (Bohn ed.),
especially 8, 18, 27, 123, 189, 197-198, 230, 273, 279, 318, and 322 (on
the wretchedness and poverty of the people) ; 52, 70, 72, and 137
(on the poor cultivation of the land) ; 10, 58, 132 (on the expendi-
ture of money for useless magnificence) ; 54, 07, 92, 103, 113 (on the
wretched condition of highways, streets, and inns) ; 97, 153, 188,
214, 315 (on the signs of an impending revolution) ; 49, 60, 279
(on the defective administration of justice) ; 35, 39, 51, 84, 102,
229, 250 (on the customs of the people and court ignorance) ;
C. D. Hazen, Contemporary American Opinion of the French
Bevolution ; Bir6, Diary of a Citizen of Paris during The Terror.

Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities ; Victor Hugo, Ninety-three ;
A. Trollope, La Vendee ; Miss Martineau, Peasant and Prince, —
French Wines and Politics; G. A. Henty, The Beign of Terror;
S. Weir Mitchell, Adventures of Francois ; Dumas, Chevalier de
Maison Bouge ; F^lix Gras, The Beds of the Midi ; Erckmann-
Chatrian, The Story of a Feasant, — Madame Therese.

459

CHAPTER XXV.

THE RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (l'795-1804)

The time was approaching when, as Burke prophesied, the
government of France was to pass into a military despotism

437. Early under a popular general — Napoleon Bonaparte. Born
pirte ^°^^ of a good Italian family, in Corsica, in 1769 (the year
(1769-1795) following the annexation of that island to France), Bona-
parte embodied " the typical Corsican temperament, moody
and exacting, but withal keen, brave, and constant." At the
age of nine lie was admitted to the government military school
of Brienne, in northeastern France ; at sixteen (1784) he began
his service in the French army as junior lieutenant of artil-
lery. His })roud, im})erious nature, his poverty, and his alien
birth and sijeecli cut him off from his fellows, and directed his
early thoughts and ambitions chiefly toward schemes for the
independence of Corsica. Only gradually did the French
Revolution "blur his insular sentiments."

For a time he was much in the company of Jacobins ; but the
sight of the Parisian mob invading the Tuileries and insulting

438. Bona- ^^^^ royal family in 1791 called forth the significant excla-

parte and mation, " Why don't they sweep off four or five hundred

the Revolu- 'J J f

tion of that rabble with cannon ; the rest would then run away

(1789-1795) fg^g^ enough ! " Trained officers were scarce, so in spite of
repeated acts of insubordination his promotion was rapid. In
1793 at Toulon he first gave evidence of his energy and genius
in directing the artillery. In 1795 he was back in Paris,
de])rived of his command, without money or friends, and sus-
pected because of his Jacobin connections. His defense of the

460

RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804)

461

Convention against the mob of October, 1795, proved a turning
point in his career. "From the first," says an eye-witness,
" his activity was astonishing : he seemed to be every- „„ . , ,
where at once ; he surprised people by his laconic, clear, Memoires
and prompt orders; everybody was struck by the vigor of
his arrangements, and passed from admiration to confidence,

from confidence to enthu-
siasm." In reward he was
appointed by the Directory
to his first important com-
mand, that of the French
army operating against the
Austrians and their allies in
Italy.

Bonaparte was now but
twenty-seven years old, be-
low the middle height, 439. The
excessively thin, and ^ampaigS
with a sickly pallor. (1796-1797)
Some of the ablest generals
of the Kevolutionary army
served under him ; but all yielded to the indomitable will re-
vealed in his flashing eye, to the brilliancy of his plans, and
to the clearness and decision of his orders. The rank and
file were thrilled by the burning words of his first proclama-
tion : " Soldiers, you are ill-fed and almost naked. The nuruy, His-

government owes you much, but can do nothing for you. ^^^^^ ^^

tr . / -, , , France, I.

Your patience and courage do you honor, but procure you 532

neither gloTj nor profit. I am about to lead you into the

most fertile plains of the world: there you will find great

cities and rich provinces ; there you will win honor, glory, and

riches. Soldiers of the Army of Italy, will you lack courage ? "

The Italian campaign which followed was one of the most

brilliant in history, and well illustrates Bonaparte's military

Harding's m. & m. hist. — 27

Napoleon Bonaparte in 1795.
After the drawing by J. Guerin.

402 REVOLUTION AND REACTION

L^^piiius. His quickness of mind seized npon every geographi-
cal detail which might impede or assist his operations; he
was prompt to divine the plans of his enemies, and bewildered
them by the rapidity and daring of his well-calculated maneu-
vers. His favorite device was to meet the detachments of the
enemy separately, rapidly concentrating upon each the whole of
his effective force. In this manner he first separated the troops
of the king of Sardinia-Piedmont from the Austrians, defeated
the former five times in eleven days, menaced the capital
(Turin), and forced the king to sign an armistice which was
speedily converted into a treaty of peace. Then, skillfully
turning the flank of the Austrian army, he compelled it to fall
back, forced the passage of the bridge of Lodi in the face of
a galling fire, — an exploit which gained for him from his
admiring soldiers his life-long nickname of "the Little Cor-
poral," — and occupied Milan. Four times the Austrian gov-
ernment poured its armies across the Alps to relieve Mantua,
but in vain ; and in February, 1797, that last fortress fell. The
results of the year of fighting were summed up- by Bonaparte
in a proclamation to the army, here somewhat shortened : —
"The capture of Mantua has put an end to a campaign
which has given you lasting claims to the gratitude of the
440. Napo- Fatherland. You have been victorious in fourteen
leon's sum- pitched battles and seventy combats ; you have taken
results more than one hundred thousand prisoners, five hundred

Correspon- field pieces, two thousand heavy cannon, and four pontoon
XapoUon, trains. The contributions laid upon the lands you have
//. :i72-373 conquered have fed, maintained, and paid the army during
all the campaign ; besides which you have sent thirty million
francs to the minister of finance for the relief of the public
treasury. You have enriched the Museum of Paris with three
hundred masterpieces of ancient and modern Italy, which it
has lequired thirty centuries to produce. The kings of
Sardinia and Naples, the Pope, and the Duke of Parma

RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) 463

have abandoned the coalition of our enemies and sought our
friendship. You have expelled the English from Leghorn,
Genoa, and Corsica. Of all the enemies who combined to
stifle the Republic at its birth, only the Emperor remains
before us. There is no hope for peace save in seeking it in
the heart of the hereditary estates of the house of Austria."

The invasion of Austria, announced in this proclamation,
presented few difficulties. By April, 1797, Bonaparte had
advanced to Leoben, eighty miles from Vienna, where 441. Peace
preliminaries of peace were signed, which in October were ° Forndo
converted into a treaty at Campo Formio. The Emperor with Aus-
ceded Belgium (the Austrian Netherlands), and accepted (1797)

the Rhine as the eastern frontier of France. In the interval
between the preliminaries and the final treaty, Bonaparte found
pretexts for the conquest of the once glorious republic of
Venice, most of which was given to Austria. A portion of the
Venetian territories, together with lands taken from the Pope,
were joined to the territories of Milan to form the Cisalpine
Republic, with a constitution modeled on that of the Directory
in France. Similarly the oligarchic republic of Genoa was
replaced by the democratic Ligurian Republic, under French
tutelage. The Ionian Islands, formerly Venetian, were re-
tained for France, apparently as a stepping stone to conquests
in the East.

In his diplomatic negotiations, as in his military operations,
Bonaparte acted as though practically independent; but his
services were too important to permit the Directors to take of-
fense. With the people his popularity was increased as much
by the treaties which he dictated as by his victories in the
field, and upon his return to Paris he was given a triumphal
reception such as was accorded to no other French general.
Already the way was opening for him to seize political power.

With England — called by one of the Directors the "giant
corsair that infests the seas" — the war still continued.

464

REVOLUTION AND REACTION

In 1796 a French expedition to Ireland failed because of
storms. The next year a Spanish fleet of twenty-seven ships
442. War was defeated and practically destroyed in a battle off
^th Eng^ Cape St. Vincent (February, 1797) ; and the Dutch fleet,
land which put to sea in obedience to orders of the Directors,

was crushed in the battle of Camperdown (October, 1797).
With the British in complete control of the Channel, an in-
vasion of England and Ireland seemed hopeless.

Thk Great PYRAMros near Cairo.

Bonaparte now urged an expedition to Egypt, partly to pre-
pare the way to attack Great Britain's power in India, but
443. Expe- quite as much because of dreams of rivaling the con-
dition to querors of other days. The Directors, who doubtless
(1798) were not sorry to be rid for a time of their most ambitious

general, gave their consent ; and in May, 1798, the expedition
set out. It included the picked veterans of the army of Italy,
Bonaparte's favorite generals, and a corps of scholars to study
the monuments of the East. " The true conquests," said Bona-
parte himself at one time, " the only conquests which cost no
regrets, are those achieved over ignorance."

RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) 465

On the way to Egypt the French seized the island of Malta,
which had been under the rule of the Knights of St. John
(§ 101) since the sixteenth century, and their order was dis-
solved. Escaping a British squadron cruising in the Mediter-
ranean, Bonaparte landed safely in Egypt, which was nominally
a province of the Turkish Empire. Near Cairo the French
were forced to fight the "Battle of the Pyramids" (July,
1798), in which French infantry squares, defended by bayo-
nets, muskets, and grapeshot, successfully resisted, with a
loss of but forty men, the charges of the Mameluke cavalry.
This battle practically completed the conquest of lower Egypt.

A few days later Admiral Nelson, in command of the British
squadron in the Mediterranean, at last came upon the French
fleet in Aboukir Bay, and fought the battle of the Nile ^^^ Failure
(August, 1798). The French, slightly outnumbering the in Egypt
British in guns and men, swung at anchor just outside
shoal water; but Nelson, thrusting part of the British fleet
between the French and the shore, stationed the remainder on
the other side, thus sub-

^^s'rSa«»'*7"sC\^TW0 BRITISH SHIPS

Boute

ABOUKIR I. •:." / V «.

/ Shallow "■■ _ '**x.

jecting the leading ships
of the French line to a
deadly cross fire. The
battle lasted far into the
night; the French flag-
ship took fire and ex-
ploded ; nearly all the
French ships were cap-
tured or burned. Nel-
son's victory removed a
serious menace to the British power in India, cut off the
French in Egypt from support and foredoomed the expedition
to failure, and deprived France of communication with its best
troops and ablest general.

Encouraged by Nelson's victory, the sultan of Turkey, as

^aboukir"' Water

CASTLE

A B O U K I B

Battle of the Nile.

4GG REVOLUTION AND REACTION

suzerain of Egypt, prepared a vast army to attack the French.
Bonaparte anticipated the attack by marching into Syria, where
the Turks were defeated. His schemes of further concjuest
failed before the stubborn resistance of the city of Acre, and
in the end Bonaparte was forced to retire to Egypt.

In July, 1799, Bonaparte received from the British naval
commander, under flag of truce, copies of European news})ai)('rs
445. Situa- that determined him to abandon the army in Egypt, t<)
France brave the dangers of capture on the way, and to retuni

(1798-1799) secretly, and with but a small following, to France.
The government of the Directory was in great difficulty. The
radical republicans regarded it as '^ only a disguised royalty,
composed of five tyrants," while a reactionary party hoped for
a restoration of the Bourbon monarchy. The Directors did not
hesitate illegally to arrest their leading opponents, and to force
out colleagues (including Carnot) who disapproved of tliese
proceedings. To arbitrary rule at home the Directory added
folly and unscrupulous dealing abroad. At Borne and at
Naples republics of the French type were set up ; the Swiss
Confederation w\as remodeled in the interests of France ; and
even the United States, by the insulting demands of the French
authorities for money through three agents called X, Y, and Z,
was goaded for a brief period into a naval war (1798-1799).
Eesentment at these acts, and the prestige of Nelson's victory,
enabled Great Britain, in 1799, to form the Second Coalition, in
which Austria, Kussia, Naples, Portugal, and Turkey joined
her in arms against the French Republic. By the middle of
1799 Italy was lost, the French had suffered defeats on the
Ehine, and France was full of divisions and despair.

Such was the news which brought Bonaparte back to France.
446 Return T^anding on the Mediterranean coast, he found the Re-
of Bona- public already saved from invasion by its own exertions.
Egypt ^^^ reception was enthusiastic in the highest degree.

(1799) Even before the expedition to Egypt, Bonaparte's soar-

RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804) 467

ing ambition was aroused. " Do you suppose," he is reported
to have said, " that I have gained my victories in Italy in order
to advance the lawyers of the Directory ? Do you think either
that my object is to establish a republic ? What a notion ! university
A republic of thirty millions of people, with our morals of Pennsyl-
and vices ! How could that ever be ? It is a chimera Translations,
with which the French are infatuated, but which will pass ^^' '^^' ^
away in time like all the others. What they want is glory
and the satisfaction of their vanity ; as for liberty, of that
they have no conception. . . . The nation must have a head,
a head which is rendered illustrious by glory."

With these views, Bonaparte, on his return, joined Sieyes,
a famous constitution maker, and Talleyrand, a clever but un-
scrupulous diplomat, in a successful plot to overthrow 447. Con-
the government. The people acquiesced in the change, fonned

and a new constitution was prepared — that of the Con- (1799)

sulate (1799). Bonaparte's resolute ambition over-rode the
bureaucratic plans of Sieyes and made the new government
an almost unlimited dictatorship. The legislative power was
made entirely subordinate ; and the executive, nominally con-
fided to a board of three consuls chosen for ten years, really
rested in Bonaparte alone, with the title of First Consul. This
constitution, when submitted to the people, was accepted by a
vote of 3,000,000 against 1500.

After setting up the new government, Bonaparte's first care
was to carry on the war against the Second Coalition. In 1800
he led an army, by the difficult route of the Little St. ^^g p^g^^.^
Bernard pass, over the Alps into Italy, where he crush- of Lun6ville
ingly defeated the Austrians at Marengo. In Germany, Amiens

also, the French were victorious. Accordingly, in Feb- (1801-1802)
ruary, 1801, the Emperor Francis II. concluded a peace at
Luneville,' confirming the cessions made at Campo Formio:
the extension of France to the Rhine was again recognized, and
her power in Italy restored.

468 KEVOLUTION AND REACTION

Great Britain was left a second time to continue the war
alone. In 1801 the troops which Bonaparte had left in Egypt
surrendered. Inasmuch as Jacobin democracy was curbed
and France had returned to ordinary political conditions, the
British ministry negotiated the treaty of Amiens, concluded in
March, 1802, by which all British conquests made since the
beginning of the war (with the exception of Trinidad and
Ceylon) were restored, and Malta, taken from the French in
1800, was to be given back to the Knights of St. John. In
these negotiations, George III. gave up the title "King of
France," which English sovereigns had borne since the Hun-
dred Years' War.

As First Consul, Bonaparte showed that he was a great

administrator as well as a great general, mastering the details

449. Bona- ^^ business with almost superhuman energy and intelli-

parte's re- gence. A sound currency was established, the Bank of

tion of France created, roads and canals improved, agriculture

France ^^^ industry fostered. His legislation and the return of

order did wonders in restoring prosperity to France. Four of

his measures deserve particular notice : —

(1) Local government under the Revolution, as under
the old regime, was despotically administered from Paris.
Bonaparte simplified and strengthened the machinery for this
piiri)ose by a system (still in use) of departmental prefects and
sub-prefects, appointed by the central authority.

(2) Although personally without religious convictions, Bona-
parte saw the advantage of an alliance with the papacy and
a reestablishment of the Catholic Church. A Concordat was
accordingly entered into in 1801, by which Bonaparte restored
the Catholic religion, though he retained the nomination of
bishops and archbishops; and the Pope abandoned all claims
to the confiscated church estates, on condition that the clergy
should be paid by the state.

(3) All titles of nobility had been swept away in 1790 ; but

RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804)

469

Bonaparte said of the French: "They are what the Gauls

were, fierce and fickle. They have one feeling — honor. We

must nourish that feeling; they must have distinctions."

Hence, in 1802, he formed the Legion

of Honor, to be composed of soldiers

and civilians who by their arms or

by civil distinction greatly served

the state.

(4) Most important of all were his

measures for the reform of the law.

The "inextricable labyrinth of

• . -r. 450. Code

laws and customs, mainly Eo- Napoleon

man and Frankish in origin, (1804)

hopelessly tangled by feudal Jiose, Napo-
customs, provincial privileges, ^^^'
ecclesiastical rights, and the later
undergrowth of royal decrees," which
formed the law of the old regime,
had been swept away by the Revolu-
tion; and Bonaparte, with the aid
of a committee of learned jurists, completed the construc-
tion of a system of rational law to take its place. " In wilson, The
matters of inheritance, in the rules which govern the State, wi
family relations, and in the law of marriage, the Customs of
France find their place. ... In the law of contract, the law
of property, the rules of judicial trial, and all questions of
the legal burdens which may be placed upon land, Roman
law has had a chief place of influence."

Promulgated in 1804, this Code NapoUon was soon adopted by
Italy and Holland, and exerted great influence in the legisla-
tion of Germany, Switzerland, Spain, and the South American
states. Kowhere does Bonaparte appear to better advantage
than in the part he played in directing and shaping the pro-
ceedings of the committee which formed this code. " My true

Cross of the Legion of
Honor.

470

REVOLUTION AND REACTION

glory," said he at St. Helena, after his downfall, "is not that

1 have gained forty battles ; Waterloo will efface the memory

of those victories. But that which nothing can efface, which

will live forever, is my civil code."

Bonaparte skillfully set about making his power permanent

and hereditary. A plot against his life, in 1800, gave him

451. The the opportunity to crush the extreme republicans, and

empire ^^^ ^ gQ2 lie was made consul for life : thenceforth he

founded

(1804) signed himself "Napoleon," using his first name only,

like otlier sovereigns. In 1804, when war again broke out
with Great Britain, a royalist plot was made the excuse for

seizing, on neutral
soil, by Napoleon's
express orders, a
young Bourbon
prince, the Duke of
Enghien, who was
tried by court-mar-
tial, without any evi-
dence of guilt, and
was shot. This deed,
which excited the
horror of moderate
men, won the rem-
nant of the Jaco-
bins to Napoleon, by
making it impossi-
ble for him ever to
come to terms with
the Bourbons.

With the press
gai^^i^^'d. the lei^Mslalors conupted. the generals bound to him
bv .<,naiits (»J lioiiors and icwards, and the people inflamed
against England, it was easy to obtain, in 1804, the title

hl.'.-Ul.

RISP. OF NAPOLEON i30NAPARTE (1795-1804) 471

of Emperor of the French, with hereditary succession — a
change sanctioned by a popular vote of 3,500,000 to 2500.
The coronation was carried out with imposing ceremonies,
the Pope giving to it the sanction of religion by anointing the
new Emperor with oil. Hitherto the imperial title, which
since the fall of Constantinople had been limited to the Em-
peror of the Holy Eoman Empire, had possessed a peculiar

significance : " there was and could be but one Emperor ; Bryce, Holy
1 , . • 1 -.1 . • 1 • Roman Em-

he was always mentioned with a certain reverence ; his -^.^ (revised

name called up a host of thoughts and associations which ed.), 538
moderns do not comprehend or sympathize with." With Napo-
leon's assumption of it came a cheapening of the title, until
now it has little special signification beyond that of king.

As general under the Directory, Napoleon Bonaparte won a
series of brilliant victories in Italy, which forced Austria to
make the peace of Campo Formio in 1797. In 1798 he 452. sum-
conquered Egypt ; but his fleet was destroyed by Nelson mary

in the battle of the Nile, and his land advance into Syria was
checked at Acre. The next year he returned almost alone to
France, overthrew the inefficient Directory, and made himself
head of the state as First Consul (1799). He broke the Second
Coalition and forced Austria to sign peace again at Luneville
in 1801 ; and Great Britain, in 1802, signed a hollow peace at
Amiens : thus, for the first time since 1792, France's wars were
at an end. At home Bonaparte reformed the local govern-
ment, restored the Catholic worship as the established religion,
founded the Legion of Honor, and issued the Code Napoleon.
In 1802 his term as First Consul was prolonged for life ; and
in 1804 he became Emperor of the French.

With amazing rapidity Bonaparte had risen to one of the
proudest positions in Europe. It remained to be seen whether
this would satisfy him, or whether through rash ambition he
would hazard all in an effort to secure universal dominion.

472

REVOLUTION AND REACTION

Suggestive
topics

Search
topics

TOPICS

(1) To what qualities did Bonaparte owe his advancement?
(2) To what was due the success of his first Italian campaign?
(;>) What exactions mentioned in his proclamation of 1797 should
we regard as unjustifiable ? (4) Was Bonaparte's conduct toward
Venice justifiable or not ? (5) Why did he set up the Cisalpine
and Ligurian republics ? (0) Why were the British so successful
at sea in the time of tlie French Revolution? (7) Was Bona-
parte's expedition to Egypt wise or unwise ? (8) Was the over-
throw of the Directors justifiable? (0) AVould the same reasons
apply to the legislature? (10) Why did Napoleon assume the title
of empt'mr? (11) Show on an outline map the annexations of
territory to France made between 1780 and 1802. (12) What
qualities made Bona])arte a great ruler in peace ? (13) Why were
the Consulate and Empire accepted by such large popular majori-
ties ?

(14) Bonaparte at school. (15) Bonaparte at the bridge of Lodi.
(1(3) Kt'asons for the expedition to Egypt. (17) Battle of St.
Vincent. (18) Battle of the Nile. (19) The overthrow of the
Directory. (20) Bona]mrte"s work as legislator and administrator.
(21) Napoleon's friends. (22) Empress Josephine. (23) French
discoveries in ICgypL.

REFERENCES

Geography

Secondary-
authorities

Sources

See maps. pp. 432, 4-')*); I'utzger, Atlas, map 2G ; Gardiner,
Si-hoid Atlas, maps 5."), 82-84 ; Freeman, Historical Geography,
11. (Atlas), niaj) 28 ; Dow. Ath's, xxv.

Seeley, Short Ilistonj of Xapolooii the First, chs. i.-iii. ;
Kopes, First Xojiolro)), 1-97 ; Johnston, Xapoleon^ a Short
r>io[ir<tiihih chs. i.-viii.; Fournier. Xapoleon the First, 1-241;
Sloaiie. Li/r of X(tjtol('<,ii I>oii(tpartc, I. chs. ix. x. xvi. xxi. xxix.
XXX., II. (lis. v.-vii. ix. x.-xii. xvi.-xxiii.; Lanfrey, History of
X'ij,olro/i tin- First. I. elis. ii. v. vii. x., II. chs. ii. vi.; Rose, Revo-
Itttioiuinj and Xapottonir Fra, chs. vi. vii.; II. Mor.se Stephens,
licrolntioiKirii F((rop<\ chs, v. -vii.; Lebon, Modern France, chs.
iii. iv. ; .Mii:net, Histort/ of the French Jievolntion, chs. xii.-xiv. ;
Morris. Frctich Revolution and First Empire, 132-196; Fyffe,
IJistori/ if Modern Europe (Popular ed.), chs. iii.-v. ; Mahan,
Innuenre of Sea Foii-ir upon the French lievohition, I. 240-334,
II. 1-100; Historians- Jlistor;/ of the World, XII. 418-516.

Univei-sity of Pennsylvania, Translations and lieprints, II.

RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1795-1804)

473

No. 2, pp. 1-13; Tarbell, Napoleon's Addresses; Bourrienne,
Memoirs of Napoleon, I. 23 (Napoleon's arrest); I. 132-133, II.
33, III. 70, IV. 22 (his proclamations to his soldiers); I. 145, 317,
II. 195, III. 147, IV. 62, 100 (his orders and dispatches) ; I. 277-
300, IV. 135 (his character), II. 225, 291, 335, 375, III. 137-144,
178, 309, IV. 71 (his conversations and narratives) ; Chateaubriand,
Memoirs (edition 1902), III. pt. ii. 252-293 ; Madame de R^musat,
Memoirs, 372-390 (Napoleon's habits of work) ; 77, 153, 170 (his
relations with his relatives) ; 81, 137, 143 (attitude toward popular
opinion) ; 51, 103, 134, 403, 408 (attitude toward literature and
authors) ; 117-137 (the Duke of Enghien affair); 77, 171, 210, 223,
493, 549 (behavior in court society); F. M. Anderson, Constitu-
tions and Documents of the History of France, 1789-1901, nos. 58,
64, 67, 71.

Dumas, The Whites and the Blues, — The Twin Captains ; X. B.
Saintine, Picciola ; Conan Doyle, Uncle Bernac ; Erckmann-
Chatrian, Citizen Bonaparte, — The Blockade ; L. Kip, llie Dead
Marquis ; Mrs. Gore, The Tuileries.

Sloane, Life of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Illustrative
works

Pictures

CHAPTER XXVI.

THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815)

Peace with Great Britain lasted less than fourteen months ;
its rupture was due to Napoleon's growing impatience of oppo-
se, ^ sitiou and his great ambition. In the time that the
of war peace lasted, he became president of the Italian (formerly

( 1803)

Cisalpine) lie})ublie ; intervened in Switzerland; annexed
Piedmont, Piirma, and the isle of Elba to France ; projected the
]>artiti()u of Turkey ; and t(K)k steps looking toward a colonial
empire, embraciug America (where he had just acqnired the
province of Louisiana from S|)ain), Egypt, India, and the new
Rnsn, Xn/>n- islaud ('( )iitineiit of Australia. "The safety of our East
ron, . .„s,s jj„iij^,, possessions was actually at stake," says a recent
En,Lj:lisli w liter, *'and yet Europe was asked to believe that the
question was whether England would or would not evacuate
Malta."

In .May, 1S03, the British government began war by cap-
tui'iug two I'rench merchant vessels. In angry retaliation
454. Re- Napoleon seized English travelers to the number of
^^j. twelve thousand, and held them as prisoners of war.

vl803-l805i ( )ii both .sides the contest was bitterly waged. The
I uitt'd States gained Louisiana through the renewal of hos-
tilities; for Xai)oleon, rightly judging that the defense of
that ])r()viiic(' was impossii)le for France, sold the Avhole vast
tenitoiy to the t'nv(ys of l»resident Jefferson (April 30, 1803).
'I'o iii\;i(lt' laiglaud Napoleon established a naval camp at
P'ouh.gnc, .111(1 made ready to take advantage of any event
wliich should give him even momentary control of the Channel.

474

THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815)

475

Battle of Trafalgar.

But the British power at sea could not be shaken; and the
last possibility of invasion disappeared in October, 1805, with

the destruction of

the combined French
and Spanish fleets off
Cape Trafalgar —
Nelson's last and
greatest victory, won
at the cost of his life.
The formation of
the Third Coalition,
in -\7hich Rus- 456. The
sia, Austria, and Sweden joined. Great Britain against Austerlitz
France (1805), led Napoleon to break up the camp at (1808)

Boulogne and march to the upper Danube, where, by rapid
and skillful maneuvers, he took Ulm and an Austrian army
of thirty thousand men (October, 1805). " Our emperor,"
said the French, " has found out a new way of making war ;
he no longer makes it with our arms, but with our legs."

The road was now open to Vienna, and for the first time in
modern history the Austrian capital fell into the hands of a
foreign foe. In the face of a superior force, in the midst of
a hostile population, and with his line of communications
threatened by the vacillating king of Prussia, Napoleon's
position was for a time dangerous ; but in the battle of Aus-
terlitz (December 2, 1805) the Austrians and Russians were
entrapped and completely defeated. In the treaty of Press-
burg (December 26, 1805) Francis II. for the third time made
peace, surrendering his share of the Venetian territories.

Against Russia and Great Britain the war continued.
Prussia, after the treaty of Basel (1T95), had maintained 456. «on-
an inglorious but profitable neutrality ; but in 1806 her ^u*ssia
weak king, Frederick William III., was forced to declare (1806-1807)
war. The Prussian army was far inferior to that of the Seven

476 REVOLUTION AND REA(TION

Years' War, and it no longer had a Frederick the Great to
command it. In the neighborhood of Jena a double battle
was fought (October 14, 1806) ; the Prussians were crushed,
l^erlin was speedily taken, and Frederick William was forced
to flee northeastward.

Napoleon followed after — amid snow and rain, frosts and
thaws, over roads where men sank to their knees, horses to
their bodies, and carriages beyond the axles. In February,
1807, the Russians tried to sur[)rise the French in winter
quarters, with the result that at Eylau there was fought the
bloodiest and most desperate battle of a century. In June
the Russians were decisively defeated at Friedland. After
this reverse the czar (Alexander I.) decided to make peace.

The outlines of the treaty were sketched at an interview
which took place between Alexander and Napoleon at Tilsit

457 P a e (''*^^^' ^' ^^^'^) ^^^^ ^*' ^'^^^ moored in the river Niemen,
of Tilsit midway between the two armies. Alexander abandoned
the I)ritish alliance, and by a secret article agreed to join
France in war against (Jrcat Rritain in case that country refused
to uudve })eace. I\lore crushing terms were exa(;ted of Prussia:
lier recent annexations were taken from her, as well as her
territories west of the Elbe ; and her Polish j)rovinces (§ 399)
were formed into a duchy of Warsaw, under Napoleon's ally
the king of Saxony.

The ])iKive of Tilsit recognized other changes which consti-
tuted a reconstruction of Kurope. For some time Napoleon
458. Recon- bad been building u]) about France a circle of vassal
Europe°° ° kingdoms in the hands of his relatives and dependents.
(1805-1807) Tlius, in 1805, he exchanged his i)residency of the Italian
Jiej)u))lic — enlarged by the addition of Venice, taken from
Austria — for the title of king of Italy, and conferred the
viceroyalty on his stei)son Fugene. In 180G he overturned
the IJatavian Republic, and established his brother, Louis
Honaj)arte, as king of Holland. Later in the same year he

THE NAPOLEONIC EM TIKE (1804-1815) 477

drove the Bourbon king of Naples from the peninsula and
conferred the crown upon his older brother, Joseph Bona-
parte. A new kingdom of Westphalia was formed east of the
Rhine, and conferred upon his youngest brother, Jerome
(1807). In addition to these kingdoms in his own family.
Napoleon raised his dependents, the dukes of Bavaria and
Wurttemberg, to the rank of kings ; and in 1806 he formed,
chiefly between the Rhine and the Elbe, a Confederation of the
Rhine, of which he was the officially recognized protector.

These sweeping changes extinguished the last sparks of
vitality in the old German Empire. To meet the new situa-
tion, Francis II. proclaimed himself hereditary emperor of
Austria in 1804, under the name of Francis I., and then, in
1806, abdicated the throne of the Holy Roman Empire and
declared the Empire dissolved.

Great Britain, protected by the sea and her victorious navy,
still defied Napoleon. To reach that country, Napoleon estab-
lished the Continental System, the object of which was 459. The
to close Europe to England's commerce, and thereby °^ sjSem
force that " nation of shopkeepers," as he contemptu- (1806)

ously called it, to cry out for peace. The foundation of the
Continental System was laid in the famous Berlin decree,
issued from the Prussian capital soon after the battle of
Jena: though. Napoleon had scarcely a war vessel at sea,
the whole of the British Isles was declared in a state of
blockade ; commerce and correspondence with the British was
forbidden; and British subjects and British products, when
found in lands under French influence, were to be seized. The
decree was nominally a retaliation for a British blockade of
the Continental coast from Brest to the Elbe ; its effect was
to call forth from the British yet more stringent measures.
These, in turn, were answered by Napoleon's Milan decree
of December, 1807, declaring that all neutral vessels which
obeyed the British orders were liable to seizure as prizes.
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 28

478 REVOLUTION AND REACTION

"The imperial soldiers were turned into coastguardsmen to
^ J shut out Great Britain from her [the Continental] mar-
fluence of kets ; the British ships became revenue cutters to pro-
oTri-ench ^^^^* *^^ *^^^® ^^ France." Neutral commerce, then
Revolution, chiefly carried on in American vessels, suffered severely

// 289

from this double system of unjust restrictions.
The chief feature of Napoleon's policy now became the ex-
tension and maintenance of his Continental System. Prussia
460. Forci- "^^^s forced to close her ports to Great Britain ; and

ble exten- Russia adopted the system along with the French
sionofthe ^ "^ ^ ^ ^^

Continental alliance. To prevent the seizure of the neutral Danish

System ^^^^ ^^ Napoleon, the British bombarded Copenhagen

and themselves seized the fleet (September, 1807); where-
upon Denmark went over to France, l^ortugal was ordered by
Nai)oleon, on penalty of war, to close her ports against ships
of Great Britain ; but the demand was refused, and upon the
approach of a French army the royal family fled on board ship,
and sailed to the Fortuguese province of Brazil (1807).

The next step was the seizure of S})ain, where Napoleon,
taking advantage of a cpiarrel between the king and the crown
prince, forced both to abdicate, and then transferred his brother
Josepli from the Neapolitan to the Spanish throne — Naples
being given to his sisters husband, Murat, his most daring
cavalry general (1808). Tuscany was annexed to France; and
Kome was seized, and Pope Pius VII. im])risoned, because he
refused to Join the French alliance and exclude English mer-
cliaudisc (1809). Sweden, after being robbed of Finland by
Kussia, for a time entered tlie Continental System, and in 1810
the Swedes chose as crown prince and heir to the throne
one of Napoleon's greatest marshals, Bernadotte. At one
time or another every state of Continental Europe, excepting
Turkey, was forced into Napoleon's commercial system.

Even thus Napoleon found it impossible to exclude Eng-
lish goods from the Continent. The French government

THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 479

itself set the example of violating the system : the coffee,
sugar, and tea for the imperial table came from English
sources ; and when fifty thousand overcoats were ordered 461. Eva-
for the army in 1807, they could be obtained only from co^t^^^ui
the hated English. Smuggling was widespread, and the System

commerce of Great Britain actually prospered in this period.
The Continental System was foredoomed to failure ; and the
tenacity with which Napoleon clung to it, and the tyranny
with which he enforced it, eventually caused his downfall.

The rising of Europe against Napoleon's domination began
with Spain in 1808, when province after province rose in
rebellion against Joseph Bonaparte, and the British gov- 462. The
ernment sent troops to take an active part in this Penin- Pe^j^siilar
sular War (1808-1814). Napoleon in person restored Spain

his brother in Madrid; but a new war with Austria (1808-1812)
(1809) called him away. The French were operating in a
hostile country, and their generals in Napoleon's absence failed
to support one another. "In war, men are nothing; it is
a man who is everything," said Napoleon, in stinging rebuke
of their ill success. The British were fortunate in having in
command Sir Arthur Wellesley, later created Duke of Welling-
ton, who in spite of a lack of Spanish cooperation was able
to maintain himself, and gradually to advance. By 1811 the
French were driven from Portugal; in 1812, the south of
Spain was recovered ; in 1813-1814, the north was freed, the
French invaders were driven across the Pyrenees, and the
British followed them into France.

These successes in Spain would have been impossible, save
for troubles caused by the Continental System elsewhere.
In 1809 Austria took heart from the difficulties in which 463. New
Napoleon was involved in Spain to declare war again. ^AusSia
The contest, however, was brief and decisive: Vienna (1809)

was again taken, Napoleon won the bloody battle of Wagram
(July, 1809), and Austria for the fourth time made peace.

480

KKVOLUTIOX AND KKACTION

The fervor of the czar's admiration for Xapoleon after the

interview at Tilsit gradually cooled. The Continental System

464. Alex- weighed heavily upon Russia, which depended mainly

anderand ^^pon Ensrland for a market; and Napoleon's friendly

(1807-1812) attitude toward the Voles caused anxiety to Alexander.

Personal affronts, also, were not lacking: to secure a son to

whom Ids crown miglit descend, Napoleon, in December, 1809,

divorced his wife Jose})hine, and re(piested a bride from the

Russian royal family; but before the answer (which was a

refusal) was received, he arranged to marry ]\[aria Louisa, the

eighteen-year-old daughter of the Austrian em})eror.

t^-^

Stntce ,:llud iiith .\,ijH,l,'on

•yO 3IX) 4'H) .'i^O I

KlKOFK AT IHK HkIOHT OF XaPOLEON'S PoWKR (1S12).

On bdtli sides the irritation grew, until it ended, in 1812, in

465 Inva ^*^**'" ^^'^'' ^ ^" ^^'*' **"*^ ^^'^'^ ^^^^ Napoleon, master of
sion of Ru8- France and lord of seven vassal kingdoms and thirty de-
^ pfUiU'iit piin('i|ialil ies : on the otlier was the czar Alexan-
der, allied with Sweden and Great Britain. To invade Russia,

THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 481

Napoleon mustered an army of nearly half a million men, drawn
from " twenty nations," the French constituting about one third
of the whole. The passage across the river Nienien, with which
the invasion began in June, 1812, took three days. The Rus-
sians systematically refused battle and retreated, drawing the

foscow

Napoleon's Russia> Campaign.

French farther and farther into the heart of an inhospitable
country, where transportation and supply became increasingly
difficult. At Smolensk (about two thirds of the way to Mos-
cow) the Russians made a stand ; and after desperate fighting
the French were successful, but they were unable to prevent
the continuance of the Russian retreat. At Borodino, seventy-
five miles from Moscow, the Russians again made a determined
stand ; and though they were defeated, they were not crushed,
and again were able to retreat in good order.

One week later (September 14) the French entered Mos-
cow, with its Kremlin and "forty times forty churches,"
only to find it practically deserted. The next day fire broke
out, probably kindled by the Russians: for three days the
flames raged, and were stayed only when nine tenths of the
city was in ashes. The situation in which Napoleon found
himself was grave in the extreme. To winter in the ruined
city was impossible ; yet for five weeks he lingered, hoping
that Alexander might yet come to terms and the campaign
be saved from failure. But it was in vain. " I have learned

482 REVOLUTION AND KE ACTION

to know liim now,'' said the czar; "Napoleon or I ; I or
Napoleon : we can not reign side by side."

Napoleon at last began his retreat from Moscow, October
19, 1812. A southerly route which he attempted was blocked,

466. Re- and his troops were obliged to retreat by the devastated

^eat from ^.^^^^^ ^^^ ^1^^- ^. advance. The Russian general, Kutusoff,

Moscow .

(1812; wisely refraining from the hazard of a pitched battle,

hung upon the- rear and flanks of the retreating forces with

his Cossacks, and cut off stragglers. Marshal Ney, who covered

the retreat, here won his title " the bravest of the brave."

Zero weather came on, and at every bivouac the morning
showed stark and lifeless forms about the scanty campfires.
Horses died by hundreds; guns and wagons had to be aban-
doned ; provisions ran short, and discipline was almost de-
stroyed. At a little river, the Beresina, the passage was
blocked by a sudden thaw ; but heroic French engineers,
plunged for hours in the icy waters, constructed at the cost
of their own lives rude trestle bridges which saved the army
from utter destruction. A few days later Napoleon left the
troops and liurried on to J^aris. In the middle of December
the shattered reninant of the main army, less than 20,000 in
munber, staggered across the Russian frontier. Of the mighty
force that luid set out in June, loO,000 were left in Russian
prisons, .■)(). 00(1 liad deserted, 250,000 had perished — of cold,
hunger, disease, and the casualties of war.

This overwlielnnng disaster, together with the steady prog-
ress of the Rritisli in the Peninsular War, encouraged the

467. Revi- oppressed states of Germany to rise against Napoleon's
sia (1807- tyranny, Prussia taking the lead. Able and patriotic men
1813) — Stein, Scharnhorst, Hardenberg, and others — had

been laboring to adapt to Prussian needs the social reforms of
the French Revolution and Napoleon's military system. Serf-
dom was abolished, the privileges of the nobility were done
away with, and a system of election to municipal offices was

THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 483

introduced. Universal liability to military service took the
place of hired service, so that within a few years a large
proportion of the Prussian youth received military training.
Prussia, in place of Austria, came to be regarded as the natu-
ral head of Germany ; and poets like Arndt, and philosophers
like Fichte, did valuable service in fanning the flame of Ger-
man patriotism.

The Prussian general York, on his own responsibility, aban-
doned the French forces and made terms with the now in-
vading Eussians (1813). " The army wants war with ^gg Risine
France," he wrote, " the people want it, and so does the of Germany
king; but the king has no free will: the army must
make his will free.'^ Borne along by the tide of warlike
enthusiasm, Frederick William III. declared war, and issued a
stirring call to his people, saying: "It is the last decisive
fight which we must make for our existence, our independ-
ence, our well-being. There is no other issue except to an
honorable peace or a glorious downfall.^'

Napoleon meanwhile showed astonishing energy in raising
and equipping a new army from exhausted France. By the
end of April, 1813, he was back in Germany, and Saxony
became the battlefield of the two contending forces. In of Leipzig
the first half of the campaign of 1813 the French <^®^^^

emperor displayed his usual superiority; but Austria joined
the allies in August, and the tide turned. At Dresden (August
26-27) Napoleon again won a great victory, but within a fort-
night his lieutenants in other parts of the field lost five battles.
Amid autumn rains and fogs the struggle shifted to Leipzig,
where in a great three days' battle the French — outnumbered,
outgeneraled, and outfought — were overwhelmingly defeated
(October 16, 18, 19, 1813).

The battle of Leipzig marks the end of French domination
in Germany. All central Europe, forgetful of the benefits of
French administration, and mindful only of the humiliation of

484 REVOLUTION AND REACTION

foreign rule, rose in revolt. With the British and Spaniards
about to cross the Pyrenees, and the Kussians, Prussians, and
Austrians massiug their forces for the passage of the Rhine,
it was no longer a question of Napoleon's advancing to world
empire; thenceforth it was a question of saving the Rhine
frontier won by the Revolutionary wars, and even of maintain-
ing Napoleon's hold on France itself.

Even after the invasion of France had begun, the allies

would gladly have signed a peace leaving to Napoleon the

470. Abdi- throne and the French frontiers of 1792, provided that he

cation of i-eiiomice all claims to interfere in the affairs of Europe
Napoleon ^

(1814) outside those limits. ]>ut the spirit of the gambler was

strong in Napoleon : he would have all or nothing, and these

terms were refused.

In tlie campaign of 1814 Napoleon in vain displayed his old
genius and audacity. Slowly but surely the allies closed in
upon l*aris. Tlie jtopidace of the capital showed ominous
si_L;ns of discontent with Na})oleon's rule, and partisans of the
cxIUmI liourbons raised their heads. On the last day of March,
ISM, the allies entered tlie city. Napoleon wished still to
continue tlie couHict, but his generals refused to obey. Baffled
at every turn, he was forced (on April 11), at Fontainebleau,
near I'ai'is, to sign an uiu'onditional abdication, renouncing for
himself and his heirs the thrones of France and Italy. He
was allowed to retain the im})erial title, and was assigned in
full sovereignty the little island of Elba, with an annual sub-
sidy of two uiillion francs.

Fudcr the influence of the wily French diplomat Talley-
rand, the French Senate (the most important political body
under the emi)ire) and the allies were brought to favor the
restoration of the IJouriums to the throne of France. The
Dauphin Louis, son of Louis XVI., had died in prison in 1795,
as tlie result of shocking ill treatment; so Louis XVI. 's
brother was proclainu'd king as Louis XN'lll. The l*ope now

THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815)

485

returned to Eoine, and the dispossessed Bourbon king of Spain
to his capital. To settle further territorial questions, particu-
larly in Germany and Poland,
a congress of European powers
was summoned, to meet at
Vienna, in the late fall of
1814.

For Napoleon to remain
quietly in Elba was impossi-
ble. Eluding the guard 471. Napo-
ships placed about the ^^^^^^
island, he landed in Elba (1815)
southern France on March 1,
1815, with a force of eleven
hundred men. " I shall reach
Paris," he predicted, " without
firing a shot." Avoiding the
Ehone valley, where the roy-
alists were in control, he passed through the mountains of
Dauphine to Lyons. The troops sent against him deserted to
his standard ; and even Marshal Ney, who left Paris boasting
that he would bring his former master back " in an iron cage,"
declared for Napoleon. The peasants and poorer classes hailed
his arrival with joy ; but the wealthy townsmen of the capital
dreaded a restoration which meant renewed war with Europe.
Within three weeks after Napoleon's landing, Louis XVIII.
was again an exile, the French emperor was restored to his
capital, and there had begun the " Hundred Days " of his
second reign.

At Vienna the news of Napoleon's return ended the dissen-
sions among the allies. Declaring him "an enemy and dis-
turber of the peace of the world " and an " outlaw," they
])repared their armies to take tlie held anew. Napoleon found
himself far stronger than in 1814, by the return of prisoners of

Talleyrand.
From a painting in Versailles.

486

KE VOLUTION AND REACTION

(June 18
1815)

war and troops formerly on garrison duty in Germany. Fol-
lowing his favorite practice, he resolved to strike before his
enemies were ready, and on June 14 crossed the northern
frontier.

In Belgium there was a British army under Wellington

and a Prussian army under Bliiclier. Napoleon's rapid move-

472. Battle ments i)ractieally surprised these veteran commanders,

of Waterloo .^^^^^ ^^^, defeating Bliicher at Ligny, on June 16, he broke

their connection and rendered possible, as he hoped, the

separate overthrow of Wellington. But Bliicher, instead of

retreating eastward, turned northward, so as again to come

in touch with the Brit-
ish forces.

Relying on Blilcher's
assistance, Wellington
turned at bay on the
ridge of Waterloo, where
he was attacked by the
French on the morning
of June 18. For ten
hours the battle raged,
Napoleon repeatedly
hurling his columns of
cavalry against the bay-
onet-wielding squares of
the stubborn British in-
fantry. Never did Wel-
lington better deserve
the name of '' tlic Ircm Duke" than while anxiously scanning
the horiz(jn for signs of the promised Prussian aid. The roads
were soft and bad from the torrents of rain that had fallen the
day before, and it w;is not until late in the afternoon that
BlUcht-r arrivt'd. Tlu- French, attacked on the right flank
and 111 front, were Mkmi gradually overborne, and about nine in

MoVKMKNIS LKADIXC; TO WaTP^RLOG.

THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 487

the evening their defeat became a rout. Seven times the flying
forces of Napoleon halted for the nrght, but each time they
were driven onward. An eyewitness reports that at Waterloo,
the next morning, " the whole field, from right to left, was a
mass of dead bodies."

Napoleon's defeat was decisive ; it was due to his too great
confidence, to the decline of his powers from ill health, to the
slackness of some of his generals, and to the steadiness and
courage with which the British and Prussians performed their
allotted tasks. Had Napoleon shown the brilliancy of his ear-
lier generalship, he might have won the battle ; but it would
only have been to meet his downfall on some other field.

After Waterloo, Paris fell a second time into the hands
of the allies. Napoleon, failing to secure their permission
to withdraw to America, voluntarily went on board a .„„ _ .

473. !F3<t;6

British man-of-war and was carried to England. Had of Napoleon
he fallen into the hands of the Prussians, it is possible ^ - 82 )
that he might have been executed as an outlaw, under the
Vienna proclamation. As it was, he was transported to the
British isle of St. Helena, in the south Atlantic, where he
fretted out the remainder of his life in quarrels with his Eng-
lish jailers, dying of an hereditary disease in 1821.

Napoleon was a man of titanic force, with a remarkable gen-
ius for war and for government ; and the opportunity offered
to his talents by the chaotic state of Europe, and the upheaval
caused by the French Revolution, was unequaled in history.
His personal character, as described by Madame de E-emusat,
a lady-in-waiting to Empress Josephine, was a mixture of
attractive and repulsive traits. He could fascinate men and
women when he chose ; but his real nature, especially in later
life, was marked by monstrous selfishness, cynical unscru-
pulousness, and blind trust in the infallibility of his powers.

Europe meanwhile was reconstituted by the decrees of the
Congress of Vienna. In general, the " legitimate " rulers were

490 REVOLUTION AND REACTION

restored and barriers erected against democratic movements

and liberal ideas; the wishes of the peojde and national as-

474. Treat- pirations were ignored. Prussia gave up some of her

l?f®' i'olish provinces to Russia, but was compensated by

Vienna ^ . i i •

(1815) gains elsewhere in Germany. Austria was glad to give

up her former possessions in the Netherlands in return for
compensations in northern Italy. Catholic Belgium was joined
in unstable union with Protestant Holland to form the king-
dom of the Netherlands. Norway w^as torn from Denmark,
with which it had been united for centuries, and joined to
Sweden, to compensate that state for the loss of Finland, which
was retained by Kussia. Great Britain kept the Cape of Good
Hope, and ^lalta, Ceylon, Trinidad, and other islands won in
the course of the long war; l)ut she restored more than she
kept. Murat was at first allowed to remain on the throne of
Naples, but after the Hundred Days he was expelled, and
the Bourbon line restored ; w^hen IMurat returned to Naples,
lie was seized and shot (October, 1815). The petty states of
(Jermany, which formerly numbered over three hundred, had
])een reduced by Napoleon to less than forty ; and they were
now joined with Austria and Prussia in a loose Confederation
to take the place of the old Holy lloman Empire.

France, which fari'd wonderfully well, under the skillful
management of Talleyrand, in the first arrangements for peace,
was punished for its adhesion to Napoleon during the Hundred
Days. In the treaty of Paris, concluded in November, 1815,
Louis XN'III. was obliged to accept the frontiers as they had
been in 1790, })ay a war indemnity of seven hundred million
francs, and return the priceless works of art of which Napoleon
had despoiled conquered states. With France thus weakened,
and the priiici})les of legitimate monarchy reestablished
throughout Europe, the allied sovereigns thought themselves
free to return to the policies of the eighteenth century, secure
against any renewal of j)opular revolts.

THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815)

491

For Great Britain the struggle with Revolutionary France

and the Napoleonic empire was " a mortal struggle, the most

dangerous, the most doubtful, the most costly she had 475, cost

ever waged." It was entered upon with reluctance, but ®^ the war

^ ^ ' to Great

when it was once begun the English were the soul of Britain

every coalition. "England has saved herself by her exer-
tions," said the British prime minister Pitt, at one time, "and

Bank of England in 1798. (From an old print.)

will save Europe by her example." She contributed much
more than an example : her command of the sea, firmly fixed
by Nelson's victory in the battle of Trafalgar, was the chief
menace to all French plans of conquest ; and her financial
subsidies, freely given to France's Continental enemies, gave
the indispensable means for carrying on the war.

Her triumph, however, was dearly bought, for her total ex-
penditure was soon treble what it had been in time of peace.
By 1797 the drain of gold from the country forced the Bank
of England to cease redeeming its notes in specie, and specie

192 REVOLITIOX AND IMPACTION

payments were not lesumed until 1821. The public debt in-
creiised by leaps and bounds: at the beginning of the French
war, in 179.'>, it was .4;:i^31),000,00() ; at the close of the war, in
181 T), it had reached the enormous total of £861,000,000, with
jumual payments for interest amounting to i^2o,000,000. The
amount of this debt has since been decreased, but at the be-
ginning of the Boer \\ai\ in 1898, it was still £634,000,000.

The costs of war and the depreciation of paper currency
raised prices until wheat sohl, in 1801, at about $4.00 a bushel.
Wages on the contrary rose but little; and there followed a
great increase of pauperism among the people — a result
partly due to a ])ad system of poor relief. A change was also
wrought by the war in British politics: for a generation after
179U the Whig party was discredited because of the sympathy
of sonu' of its leaders for the French Revolution, and the
Tories, who opi)os(Ml every reform as likely to lead to revolu-
tion, were tirmly seated in ])ower.

Tlie Kevolution in France embroiled the Republic in war;
war led to the rise of a military dictatorship; and the genius
476. Sum- '^J^d good fortune of Napoleon converted this dictatorship
^^^y into an empire covering half of Europe. To maintain

an<l extend his power, he renewed the war with Great Britain
(ISO:')): he inaugurated the Continental System; he seated his
broihcr .loscpli on the Spanish throne; and he undertook the
in\asion ol' Unssiai ISIH). These policies brought him for the
first time into contiict with an aroused luitional spirit in Spain,'
Bussia. and (iciniany : and he fell before the combined attack
of peoples and piiiu-es, joined to the relentless opposition of
(Jieat Britain. Had Napoleon been content with the position
he had attained by the treaty of Amiens, — had he not striven
after universal empire, — France under his sway would have
been one of the ha))piest of countries, and his fame that of one
of the greatest of rulers. P)Ut his efforts were all for self, and

THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1804-1815) 493

his towering egotism led him on to ruin, while the memory of
his victories lingered to curse his country with dreams of idle
glory. The noblest part of his genius is commemorated in the
solid, substantial part of his work, which still lives — in his
reorganization of France, in his manifold works of peace, in
the Code Napoleon^ in his maintenance of the principle of
equality of all before the law.

TOPICS

(1) Was Great Britain or France chiefly responsible for the Suggestive
renewal of war ? (2) Make a list of Napoleon's vassal kingdoms °^^^^
and dependencies in 1812. (8) How might Napoleon expect his
Continental System to bring England to terms ? (4) Why were
his expectations disappointed ? (5) What part did the Peninsular
War play in the downfall of Napoleon ? (6) How did his invasion
of Russia contribute to his fall ? (7) Why was the military success
of Prussia greater in 1818-1814 than in 1806-1807 ? (8) Were the
terms granted to Napoleon in 1814 unduly harsh ? (9) Was the
Congress of Vienna justified in proclaiming him an outlaw upon
his return from Elba? (10) AVhat enabled Napoleon so easily to
recover possession of France ? (11) Why could not the allies treat
his dethronement of Louis XVIII. as a matter which concerned
France alone? (12) Which was the greater general, Napoleon or
Wellington ? (13) Were the British justified in keeping Napoleon
prisoner at St. Helena ? (14) Set down in one colunm the acts for
which Napoleon deserves praise, and in another those for which he
deserves censure. (15) Was Great Britain's victory over Napoleon
worth to her what it cost ?

(16) Incidents of the rupture of the peace of Amiens. (17) Na- Search
poleon's colonial projects. (18) Battle of Trafalgar. (19) Battles *°P^*^^
of Jena, Eylau, and Friedland. (20) Negotiation of the peace of
Tilsit. (21) The Confederation of the Rhine. (22) Bernadotte.
(23) Murat. (24) Ney. (25) The military career of the Duke
of Wellington. (26) Incidents of Napoleon's invasion of Russia.
(27) Rebirth of Prussia, 1807-1813. (28) ' Battle of Leipzig.
(29) Napoleon at Elba. (30) The return of Napoleon. (31) The
Waterloo campaign. (32) Napoleon at St. Helena. (33) Na-
poleon's private life and character. (34) Conflicts in the Con-
gress of Vienna. (35) Social life at Vienna during the Congress.
(36) Talleyrand at the Congress of Vienna.

494

REVOLUTION AND REACTION

REFERENCES

Geography

Secondary
ciut.iorities

Sources

Illustrative
works

Pictures

See maps, pp. 432, 459, 488 ; Putzger, Atlas, maps 27, 27 6, 28,
28 a ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 56-69, 86-87 ; Freeman, His-
torical Geography, II. (Atlas), maps 29, 30 ; Poole, Historical
Atlas, map lix. ; Dow, Atlas, xxvi. xxvii.

Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth Centm^, chs. iii.-v.; Bryce,
Holt/ lioman Empire (Revised ed.), ch. xx.; Henderson, Short
History of Germany, II. ch. vii.; Seeley, Short History of Napoleon
the First, 114-^^22 ; H. Morse Stephens, llevolutionary Europe,
chs. viii.-xi.; Rose, Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era, chs. viii.-
xi.; Mignet, French Revolution, cli. xv.; Fyffe, History of Modern
Europe (Popular ed.), chs. vi.-xi.; Lebon, Modern France, chs. v.
vi. ; Ropes, First Napoleon, 97-307 ; Johnston, Napoleon, chs. viii.-
xvii. ; Fournier, Napoleon the First, 242-4.32 ; Lord Rosebery,
Napoleon : Tfie Last Phase ; Rose, Life of Napoleon L, I. chs. xx.
xxi., II.; Sloane, Life of Napoleon Bonaparte, II. chs. xxviii. xxix.
xxxii., III. chs. xi.-xiv. xix. xxi.-xxiii. xxviii. xxix., IV. chs. i. ii.
xvi. xvii. xix. xxiii. xxiv. ; Lanfrey, History of Napoleon the First,
III. chs. iii. V. ix. xii., IV. chs. vii. ix.; Mahan, Life of Nelson, I. ch. x.,
II. chs. xvi. xxiii.; Russell, Nelson, chs. xiv. xv. xix. xx.; Southey,
Life of Nelson ; Mahan, Influence of Sea Power on the French
Revolution and Empire, II. chs. xv. xvi. xviii. ; Gardiner, Student's
History of England, chs. liii. liv. ; Green, History of the English
People, bk. ix. ch. v.; Historians' History of the World, XII.
517-649.

Madame de R^inusat, Memoirs, 376 (Josephine); 580-610 (her
divorce); 283, 363, 451, 489, 611 (Talleyrand, Fouch^, Louis Bona-
parte); J. Q, Adams, Memoirs, III. ch. x. ; Henderson, Side Lights
on English History, 123-124; University of Pennsylvania, Trans-
latious (Old Reprints, II. No. 2, pp. 113-30 ; Colby, Selections from
the Sources, nos. 109-112; F. M. Anderson, Constitutions and
iJornments of the History of France, 1789-1901, nos. 77, 79, 87-90,
ix;, 9!>, KM) : Lloyd, New Letters of Napoleon I., 22-347.

Wolfe, Burial of Sir John Moore ; G. A. Henty, One of the 28th ;
W. H. Maxwell, Stories of Waterloo ; Erckmann-Chatrian, The
Conscript, — The Great Invasion, —Waterloo ', Victor Hugo, Les
Miserahles ; C. M. Yonj^e. Kenneth, — The Little Drummer ;
Klbridge S. Brooks, A Boy of the First Empire ; B. P^rez Galdos.
Trafalgar ; Tolstoy, War and Peace ; H. Seton Merriman, Barlasdi
iif thi' Guar<l : Conan Doyle, Exploits of Brigadier Gerard, — T/ie
Adrfiifurt's 'if (icrard.
Sloane, Life of Napoleon Bonaparte.

CHAPTER XXVII.

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT, POLITICAL REACTION, AND
REVOLUTION (1815-1830)

The Vienna treaties kept peace between the five Great

Powers (Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia)

for almost exactly forty years, and the peoples of Europe 477, indus-

in this period increased rapidly in numbers, in wealth, trial Revo-

-,....,. r^ -, ■ o • lutionofthe

and m political importance. Other important factors m eighteenth

their development were : (1) the use, in manufacture, of century
improved machinery, driven by water or steam power ; (2) im-
provements in land transportation, especially the introduction
of steam railways ; (3) improvements in water transportation,
particularly the invention of the steamboat ; and (4) improve-
ments in postal facilities, and the growth of the press.

The improvements in manufacturing processes began in Eng-
land in the latter half of the eighteenth century, and have fitly
been called the Industrial Revolution. For Great Britain the
changes marked the beginning of an industrial and financial
supremacy in the world which has lasted down to our own
day. On the Continent their introduction took place after
1815. In general, the result of these improvements, together
with like changes in agriculture and in transportation, was a
transformation of the material conditions of life more rapid and
far-reaching than the world had ever before seen. The people
were benefited in better food, better clothing, and larger op-
portunities; but as the immediate effect of the introduction of
machinery was often the loss of employment by hand workers,
it is not surprising that the classes which ultimately profited
most met the new inventions with riots and machine breaking.

495

490

REVOLUTION AND KEACTION

Of all improveinoiit.s in manufactures, the most notable were
tliosc in s] nulling and weaving. For thousands of years so
478. Textile little advance had ))een made that the distaff represented
industries yj^ the moiiuiiK^its of ancient Kgypt was still in general
use almost to the eighteenth century: the hand spindle was
used for drawing out the fibers of wool or cotton into yarn or
thread, and the hand loom for weaving this into cloth. The
spinning wheel, o})erated by foot power, which was in common

use early in the eighteenth
century, marked the first
advance over these primi-
tive appliances. James
1 largreaves then devised a
machine called the "spin-
ning jenny" (patented in
1770), by which sixteen
or more threads could be
si)iin at one time ; at
about the same time Kich-
ard Aikwiiglit invented what was known as the "spinning
fiaiiic ■■ : and a few years later Samuel Crompton combined
the inventions (if Ilargreaves and Arkwright in a machine
whieli was called the '•spinning mule." With this improved
niacliiiiciy it liecame possible fur one ])erson to spin as many
as one liundicd and fifty threads at a time; and when water or
steam power was used, the capacity of a single operator was
increased to as many as twelve thousand threads. Improve-
ments were also made in weaving, the most important being
tlie ])ower loom, invented by an P^nglish clergyman named
Kdmund ('art wiiglit. about 1785; but hand-loom weaving was
usual until about IS 10.

Both spinning and weaving were long carried on as house-
hold employments by independent hand workers, who bought
the raw material and themselves disposed of the finished

SiMXMxc Jenny

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT (1770-1830) 497

product ; this is called the " domestic system " of manufacture.
Toward the close of the eighteenth century the "factory sys-
tem " arose in England, by which many workpeople were
brought together under the same roof, to work up raw factory-
materials supplied by the owner of the factory, who paid • ^^^^^
them wages, superintended the manufacture, and received the
finished goods. Water power for a time was used to turn
machinery; but steam soon became the favorite power. For
three quarters of a century rude steam engines had been em-
ployed for pumping water out of coal mines; then James
Watt began, about 1769, a series of inventions by which the
consumption of fuel was lessened, the power increased, and
the engine adapted to all sorts of work. Improvements in the
sinelting of ore, about the same time, gave a larger and cheaper
supply of iron to meet the new needs.

The most important industrial development of the early
nineteenth century was the invention of the locomotive engine
and the construction of steam railways. Horse "tram- 430. steam
ways '' had been built in England as early as the latter railways
part of the seventeenth century to transport coal short dis-
tances to the sea. At the beginning of the nineteenth century,
Richard Trevithick !,.»— — =— ^1

devised a steam loco- IM"^"^^^ m fl

motive engine of a l^kt-^J&JI

gine" was the work

of George Stephen- < Puffing Billy.

son, the self-taught son of a poor English collier, who in 1814
produced his first locomotive, familiarly called " Puffing Billy."
In 1825 a railway for passengers and freight was opened be-
tween Stockton and Darlington, for which Stephenson con-

HARDING's M. & M. HIST. — 29

41)8

REVOLUTION AND REACTION

struct<*(l an engine which drew ninety tons at the rate of ten to
twelve miles an hour. In I80O the Liverpool and Manchester
railway was opened; for this, Stephenson submitted, in suc-
cessful competition Avith three others, an engine called the
*' Kocket," which attained a speed of thirty -five miles an hour.
With this event begins the modern railway era.

Railways of Eiuopk in HKH).

In America, and in certain countries of Continental Europe,
railway construction began almost immediately after this.
By the middle of the nineteenth century the basis of the exist-
ing network of roads had been laid, linking together distant
parts of Europe, and leaving few of those centers of barbarism
which survived in the iMiddle Ages in the heart of the most
civilized countries. The chief economic result of the railway
was a great cheapening in price of bulky commodities, thus
l>ermittiiig a higher standard of comfort for the poor.

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT (1815-1830) 499

The application of steam to navigation preceded the loco-
motive. Several Englishmen and Americans shared the attempt
to solve the problem of steam navigation. The most 431 . The
famous of these was the American, Kobert Fulton, who steamboat
in 1807 launched the Clermont, which ran successfully on the
Hudson Biver from New York to Albany. But it was not
until 1837 that vessels under steam power began to cross the
Atlantic.

Improved communication made possible a wider circulation
for books, pamphlets, and newspapers ; and about 1814 the
steam printing press made printing quicker and cheaper. ^gg r^^
But European governments, by stamp taxes and other re- press and
strictions, long attempted (though in vain) to keep news-
papers and political publications from reaching the multitude.

As the people increased in numbers and wealth, and politi-
cal agitation was carried to them by the press, the demand
began to be heard that they should be admitted to a share in
the government. Everything made for a growth of democracy
in the new era ; but the rulers of the allied nations of Europe
shut their eyes and ears to the signs of the times, and sought
to bring their peoples back to the bondage of the eighteenth
century. As a result, the history of the quarter of a century
following the downfall of the Napoleonic empire is largely
made up of a conflict between the forces of progress and those
of reaction.

Napoleon's overthrow at Waterloo was the work of Russia,
Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain, united in a Quadruple
Alliance. In November, 1815, these four powers re- ^gg ouad-
newed their alliance, with the object of watching over rupleAUi-
France and enforcing the treaties of Vienna. Its pur- ^oiy AUi-
pose was to give Europe peace ; but it developed into a ance

league for putting down liberalism all over the Con-
tinent, and for a decade it succeeded in this design. Its chief
statesman was Prince Metternich of Austria, a polished but

500

DEVOLUTION AND REACTION

cynical diplomat, who continued to be a powerful factor in
Europpan jtolitics until the middle of the century. The Alli-
ance occupied French ter-
ritory with foreign troops
imtil 1818, when it was de-
cided, at a congress held
at Aix - la - Chapelle, that
France was sufficiently re-
covered from revolutionary
ideas, and the garrisons
were withdrawn.

The members of the
Quadruple Alliance, except-
ing Great Britain, were also
the chief members of a
Holy Alliance, formed in
September, 1815, by the
mystically religious czar
Alexander I. Its object was
to establish a compact of
Christian brotherhood
among European rulers, with which to oppose the revolution-
ary fraternity of their peoples ; it pledged the signers to rule
according to the teachings of Christianity and the precepts of
justice, cliaiity, and peace, and on all occasions and in all
places to '' lend each other aid and assistance." Practically all
the ])ow(M-s of Europe signed the Holy Alliance except three:
(heat l^iitain publicly excused herself for vague constitutional
reasons ; the Pope denounced it because of its supposed liberal
and heretical tendencies ; the sultan of Turkey was deliberately
excluded because of his religion.

Though the Bourbon monarchy was reestablished in France,
in 181/), the old regime was not restored. France kept the
social system of the Revolution and the governing machinery

Mkttek.vk H.
From tlu' paiutiiij? by T. Lawrence.

POLITICAL REACTION (1815-1830) 501

and code of Napoleon. Louis XVIII. began his reign witli
a charter setting up a constitutional monarchy of the English
type, with a legislative assembly of two houses, a respon- 434. France
sible ministry, irremovable judges, freedom of religion and under Louis
of the press, and personal liberty ; even the imperial nobil- (1814-1824)
ity and the Legion of Honor were preserved. Three questions,
however, remained to be solved : What should be the relation
between the king and the elected chamber of the Assembly ?
How should the elections take place, and who should have the
vote? How should the liberty of the press be regulated?
Controversies over these questions at last brought the Bourbon
monarchy to an end.

The Hundred Days for a time suspended the charter of
Louis XVIIL, and the second restoration, following the
battle of Waterloo, brought a violent royalist reaction, ^gg French
Marshal Ney, one of the chief "traitors" of the Hun- political
dred Days, was condemned by the House of Peers, and ^ ^^^^ ^^
shot. In the south of France royalist mobs rose and mas-
sacred all who were suspected of Bonapartist sympathies;
but the north escaped this "White Terror." An "Ultra"
party, "more royalist than the king," wished to overthrow
the charter, destroy the religious Concordat of 1801, and-
restore the confiscated estates to the clergy and nobility;
opposed to these were the Liberals, who took as their emblem
the tricolor of the Revolution, and began to view Napoleon
no longer as a tyrant, but as a patriotic ruler of France, who
was pursued by the allies because he loved France too well ;
between these two extremes were the Constitutional Royalists,
who declared that France wanted " the king, but not the king
without conditions," The Ultra control of the Assembly was
strengthened in 1820 by the reaction following the assassina-
tion of the Duke of Berri, nephew and heir of Louis XVIIL
The Liberals then gave up working by legal methods, and
began secretly to incite revolution; but the monarchy rested

502 REVOLUTION AND REACTION

secure, with the Ultras in control, until the king's death in
1824.

The national uprisings which caused the downfall of Napo-
leon were directed against the rule of a foreign power, not

486. Spread against the liberal ideas of the French Revolution; and

of constitu- ^y]-,^>j^ ^Y^Q allied powers it^nored national sentiments

tional prm- ^ ^

ciples and insisted upon absolute governments, they came into

collision with the very force which had enabled them to tri-
umph over the French Empire. In the ten years following
the treaties of Vienna, liberal princi})les spread all over west-
ern Europe, largely through the efforts of secret societies. The
chief of these was the Carbonari {" charcoal-burners "), first
organized in Italy to expel the French, but later working for
the freedom of the land from Austrian rule, and for a united
Italy with a constitutional government ; the number of mem-
bers of the society, after 1816, was estimated at sixty thousand.
Germany was by the treaties of Vienna organized into a
loose confederation (I)eutscher Bund, or German Confedera-

487. Ger- tion) with a federal Diet so weak and dilatory as to be
ti^s^ ^° ^ ^^^^ laughing-stock of Europe. Austria had a traditional
(1816-1830) leadership in German affairs, but its ascendency was

weakened by the growth of Prussia. The German govern-
ments were of three ty})es: (1) absolute governments like
Austria and Prussia; (2) monarchies tempered by traditional
assemblies of estates, such as Hanover, and the majority of
North (Jerman states ; and (3) states like Saxe- Weimar, Baden,
and Havaria (luainly in South (Jermany), in which the princes
granted written constitutions in imitation of that of France, with
elected as.semblies. Tiie king of Saxony held so high an idea
of tlie royal ottiee tliat he never went out on foot, or spoke to
any one lieneath tlie rank of colonel. The mass of the
people were indifferent to political questions; nevertheless
small grou])s of men — enlii^diteued journalists and university
professors — conducted an agitation for a liberal and united

POLITICAL REACTION (1815-1830) 503

Germany, in the press, in university lectures, and in the

gymnastic and students' societies which sprang up all over

Germany.

In Spain the reaction was blindest, and it was there that

revolution first , broke out. When the Bourbon Spanish king,

Ferdinand VII., was restored to his throne, in 1814, he

. , ' . '. 488. Insur-

refused to sanction a constitution, and arbitrarily im- rection and

prisoned the leading liberals. He also revived the Inqui- interven-
sition, and restored the worst abuses of the old regime. Spain

"Nothing I can say," wrote an Englishman from Spain (1820-1823)
in 1818, " could convey to you an adequate idea of the Walpole,
wretchedness, misery, want of credit, confidence and England
trade which exist from one end of the country to the ^^nce ism,
other." As a result the army officers conspired and pro-
duced the military rebellion of 1820. For a time the move-
ment succeeded, and the king was forced to take an oath
to observe a constitution ; but he soon fell back on the sup-
port of the clerical and absolutist parties, and for two years
unhappy Spain was torn by civil war.

These troubles, with similar movements in Portugal and
Italy, led the allied powers to hold new congresses at Troppau
and Laybach in 1821, and at Verona in 1822. At the first of
these the principle was laid down that " useful or necessary
changes in legislation and in the administration of states
ought only to emanate from the free will and the intelligent
and well-weighed conviction of those whom God had rendered
responsible for power." Accordingly France was designated
to intervene in Spain, and in 1823 a French army restored
Ferdinand to absolute power.

The treaties of Vienna left Italy (in Metternich's language)
a " geographical expression," marked by the existence of ^gg j
many small states with absolute governments, dependent rection and
upon Austria. The example of Spain led to military tion\n Italy
rebellions in the kingdom of Naples in 1820, and in Sai'-, (1820-1821)

504 REVOLUTION AND REACTION

dinia-Piedmont in 1821. In Naples a constitution was issued
and the king swore to support it; then he repudiated his oath,
procured an Austrian army, and put down both the liberal
party and the constitution. In Piedmont tlie insurgents set
up the Italian tricolor flag (green, white, and red) and pro-
claimed as their object the establishment of a kingdom of
Italy over the whole nation; but the time was not ripe for
this, and the rebellion here also was put down with Austrian
aid.

The Spanish colonies in America, like the home nation, had
refused to accept the rule of the Bonapartes, and in 1809

>./>« T ^ revolts broke out from the Rio Grande to the Plata.
490. Inter-
vention and AVhen Ferdinand VII. was restored by the allies in 1814,

Do* trine^°* the colonies sought for a continuance of their easy-going
(1823) government; failing that, they put forth a series of

declarations of independence, beginning with that of Buenos
Ayres in 1816. The weakness of the government at home
made it impossible for Spain to put down the revolts unas-
sisted; and in America, also, the allied powers prepared to
intervene in 1823.

Two forces, however, prevented such action : Great Britain
was hostile to it, and so was the United States. Canning,
the British minister of foreign affairs, gave formal warning
that France would not be allowed to bring any of Spain's
colonies under her dominion; and when invitations were
issued for a conference at Paris to consider the question of
intervention in the Spanish colonies, he refused to take part,
and invited the United States to join Great Britain in a decla-
ration against intervention.

The United States recognized the independence of its South
American sister republics as early as 1822. In December,
1823, President Monroe, in his message to Congress, declared
that any Euroi)ean interposition in America for the purpose
of oppressing or in any manner controlling the destiny of the

POLITICAL REACTION (1815-1830) 505

new republics could not be viewed " in any otlier light than

as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition towards

the United States." These words constituted one part of the

now famous Monroe Doctrine. In the face of the hostility of

Great Britain and the United States, intervention in the

Spanish colonies had to be given up. "I resolved that if

France had Spain," said Canning, " it should not be Spain with

the Indies. I called the New World into existence in order to

redress the balance of the Old."

The attitude of Great Britain threatened the policy of the

European alliance ; the alliance got its deathblow as a result of

the Greek revolt from Turkish rule, which broke out in 491. Greek

1821. By Greeks and Turks alike the war was waged ^ ^^""f '^■
'' ® dependence

with great ferocity. The educated classes of England (1821-1829)
and France strongly favored the Greeks, and many (like the
poet Byron, who gave his life for the cause) aided them with
money and arms ; but Metternich was opposed in principle to
rebellion. The czar Nicholas, however, threatened to treat the
troubles in Greece as "the domestic concerns of Kussia,"
and to intervene on his own account. To prevent Russian
aggrandizement, Great Britain and France joined the czar in
an effort to secure for the Greeks the status of a self-governing
people paying tribute ; but Austria, under the influence of
Metternich, encouraged the sultan to resist.

At the Bay of Navarino, in the Peloponnesus, a Turkish
and Egyptian fleet was destroyed (in 1827) by the allied
French, British, and Eussian squadrons; then, in two hard-
fought campaigns, a Russian land force, operating in the
Danube provinces, forced the sultan to submit. The treaty
of Adrianople (1829) recognized the independence of Greece ;
and in 1832 its government was settled by the choice of Otho
I., a prince of the royal house of Bavaria, as its first king.

In France the reaction against liberalism, which began in
the reign of Louis XVIII., grew stronger under his brother.

506

REVOLUTIOX AND REACTION

Charles X. (1824-1830). He allowed the Ultra royalists, and
the Ultramontane or strongly papal party among the clergy, to

492. France have full swing ; and the emigres of the devolution were
n?^^^ V compensated for the confiscation of their estates by a
(1824-1830) vote from the Assembly of two hundred million francs.

The exasperation of the middle classes against the government

led to the election of an opposition majority to the lower

chamber in 1827. After some
vacillation, the king placed in
office men whose choice could
only mean a direct attack upon
the parliamentary system. At
the head of the new ministry
was Polignac, a reactionary
wlio long refused to swear
obedience to the charter be-
cause it granted religious free-
dom to non-Catholics. " There
is no such thing as political
experience/' wrote Welling-
ton, in view of these events;
Chaklks X. "with the warning of James

From a paintiu,^ in Versailles. ^^ ^^^ England] before him,

Charles X. was setting up a government by priests, through

priests, for priests."

Charles X. relied u})on his close alliance with the other

absolutist powers, and also on an active foreign policy which

493. Alge- should turn his people's minds from domestic politics,
naannexed \j^ opportunity for action abroad appeared in Algiers in
(1830) ls:;(), when the half-piratical dey (ruler of Algeria), in

a fit of i)assion, struck the French consul. A French expedi-
tiou scut tliithcr met with speedy success: within two months
AlL,Mcrs o])rucd its .i^'atcs, aud the dey gave up his city, his
.Lrovernmcnt, anil his treasure. In spite of previous pledges to

POLITICAL REACTION (1815-1830) 507

the contrary, the French then announced their intention to

annex the country, and by 1847 the conquest was completed.

The " glory " which the army was winning in Algeria failed

to reconcile the people to the arbitrary course of Charles X.,

and the Assembly demanded the dismissal of the new

494. French
ministers. A dissolution of the chamber was followed crisis of

by gains of the opposition party at the polls. The czar ^^^^

and Metternich then advised Charles to make a virtue of

necessity and to adopt a conciliatory course ; but the king

replied that "concessions were the ruin of Louis XVI."

Belying upon a clause in the charter which gave the king
power to make "such ordinances as are necessary for the
execution of the laws and the safety of the state," the min-
istry on July 26, 1830, published four ordinances which
practically suspended the charter : they suppressed the liberty
of the press, dissolved the newly elected chamber, remodeled
the electoral law, and ordered a new election. The govern^
ment had so little expectation of resistance that only four-
teen thousand troops were at hand, and that day the king went
shooting on one of his estates.

Members of the chamber united with Parisian journalists in
declaring the ordinances void, and the leading newspapers dis-
regarded the laws concerning the press. Rioting and 495. Revo-
street fighting began on July 27, when the police sought j i"*i83?
to destroy the presses of the offending papers. The in France
nucleus of the resistance was an organization of students and
laborers which for some time had secretly nourished republi-
can ideas and hatred of the Bourbon rule. Three things aided
the rising : (1) the flintlock muskets of the soldiers were no
better than the arms of the rebels ; (2) in the narrow, crooked
streets which then existed it was easy to erect barricades of
paving stones; (3) the soldiers were loath to fire upon the
people, because the insurgents hoisted the tricolor flag, which
many even of the army regarded as the national colors.

608

REVOLUTION AND REACTION

During July 28 the fighting continued. On the 29th the
king sought to retrieve his mistake by withdrawing the hated
ordinances ; but it was too late. The riot had now become
a revolution. Soon the palace of the Tuileries and the city
hall were taken by the insurgents ; and resistance by royal
troops was practically at an end. Charles X. abdicated in
favor of his young grandson ; and when this act failed to win
over the people, he set sail for England — never to return.

A provisional government was set up at Paris, with Lafay-
ette, now an old man, as commander of the National Guard.
496. Louis The revolution was chiefly the work of the republicans,
^ th^^^d composed largely of uneducated workmen who had no
(1830) vote; but the profit of the rising went to the liberal roy-

alists, made up of the boiuyeois, or well-to-do citizens. For some
time their minds had been turning toward Louis Philippe,

Duke of Orleans, who was de-
scended in the fifth generation
from Louis XIIL, from whom
the reigning branch of the
Bourbons also traced their
title. After fighting for the
French cause in the early cam-

paigns of the Revolution, he
led the life of an exile for
twenty-one years in Switzer-
land, America, and England;
but at the Restoration he re-
turned to France, and favored
the liberal cause.

In 1829 a party had been

secretly formed, largely under

the guidance of the veteran intriguer Talleyrand, to push Louis

Pliilipjtc's cUiinis to the throne; and when the revolution of

July drove Charles X. from France, Louis Philippe's adherents

Louis Philippe.

DEVOLUTIONS OF 1830 509

were ready to put him forward as a new William of Orange
(following the analogy of the English revolution of 1688), who
was to save the nation from despotism on the one side, and
from republican anarchy on the other. First proclaimed lieu-
tenant general of the kingdom, he soon accepted the throne
itself ; and on August 9 was by the chambers proclaimed Phillips,

king — not of France, but "of the French." Thus be- Modem

Europe,
gan the reign of the Citizen King, who, " with ostenta- i8i5-i899,

tious humility, walked the streets of Paris, clad in the ^- ^^^

modest frock coat and stove-pipe hat of the ordinary bourgeois,

sent his sons to the public schools, or enrolled them as privates

in the National Guard."

Every great political movement in France had a reflex in
the other states of Continental Europe. The Belgians disliked
the union with Holland in the kingdom of the Nether- 497. Revo-
lands : they had three fifths of the population, yet the Belgium
king, most of the officials, and the official language were (1830)^

Dutch, and the seat of the government was in Holland. The
revolution in France gave practical direction to their discon-
tent, and on August 25, 1830, a revolt began against Dutch
administration. When Brussels was bombarded by royal
troops, the Belgians declared that the blood which was shed
dissolved every tie with Holland, and they set up a provi-
sional government of their own.

Russia was too busy with trouble in Poland to help the
Dutch, and Louis Philippe, with British sympathy, actively
aided the Belgians. The offer of the crown for the second
son of Louis Philippe was declined because of the opposition
of the other powers; but in July, 1831, the crown was ac-
cepted by a German prince, Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. The
next year the new king of the Belgians was recognized and
the neutrality of Belgium guaranteed by the Great Powers.
Finally, in 1839, the Dutch king recognized the independence
of his former subjects, and the Belgian question was settled.

510 REVOLUTION AND REACTION

In several states of Germany the movement started by the
revolution in France resulted in slight reforms. In Italy
498 Ee- there were risings in Modena, Parma, and in the papal
volts in territories, which called for the intervention once more of
Pol^d Austrian troops. In Poland a formidable insurrection

(1830) broke out. The Polish provinces which Napoleon had

torn from Prussia (in 1807) to form the grand duchy of War-
saw had been granted by the treaties of Vienna to the czar as
a separate kingdom with a constitutional government. With
expectation of aid from France, England, and Austria, the
nobles in November, 1830, rebelled and proclaimed Poland's
independence. The movement, however, was in the interest
of the nobles only, who refused to make concessions which
might have won the peasants to their support : the rising
was hampered also by weakness, disunion, and treachery on
the part of the leaders ; and the foreign aid on which they
rashly counted was not forthcoming. Though outnumbered
three to one, the Poles made a heroic resistance ; and it was
only after they were defeated in five battles, and Warsaw was
bombarded, that the rebellion came to an end (September,
1831). The constitution of Poland was then abolished, and
the kingdom absorbed into the Russian Empire ; but thereafter
an iron rule was needed to keep in check its disaffection.

The nineteenth century was marked off from the eighteenth
])v profound differences in material conditions due to the
499. Sum- Industrial Revolution, and by differences equally great
^^^ in political, social, and economic ideas. In both lines

the world was transformed in the first third of the new cen-
tury. Im]Hovements in manufactures and in transportation
weut on rapidly ; at the same time the ideas of the French
Revolution were spread abroad — ideas of the sovereignty of
the people, of nationality as a basis for common government,
of personal and individual liberty. The principles of popular

DEVOLUTIONS OF 1830 511

sovereignty and of nationality were condemned by the pro-
visions of the treaties of Vienna, and the European alliance
seemed a means devised for their repression. The first move-
ments for their application, in Spain and in Italy (1820), were
foiled by the interference of members of the alliance. Every-
where in Europe — even in England — reactionary ideas pre-
vailed. Then came a gradual triumph of liberal government
over absolute government. Great Britain and the United
States together prevented intervention to coerce the South
American republics (1823). The Greeks, with British, French,
and Russian aid, established their national independence
(1821-1829). The French revolution of 1830, which followed
next, was based on the rejected principle of the sovereignty of
the people ; that of Belgium, on the principles of popular sover-
eignty and national independence. In Italy the revolutionary
movement failed, mainly because the Austrians intervened ; in
Poland, because of incomplete national union, and the attention
which the liberal powers had to give to other affairs. In spite
of these failures the revolutions of 1830 broke the strength
of absolute government ; and further triumphs of personal lib-
erty, of nationality, and of the sovereignty of the people only
awaited the larger growth of the people in wealth and intelli-
gence which would follow the progress of science and invention.

TOPICS

(1) "What connection was there between the rise of the factory Suggestive
system and the application of water power and steam power to topics
manufactures? (2) What did the working people gain by the
substitution of the factory system for the domestic system ?
(3) What did they lose ? (4) How did the locomotive and steam-
ship help on the Industrial Revolution? (5) Did inventors like
Cartwright, Watt, and Stephenson, or generals like Napoleon and
Wellington do more for the good of mankind ? (6) How did the
Industrial Revolution aid the growth of political democracy ?
(7) What reforms of the French Revolution survived the Bourbon
restoration ? (8) Why did rebellion come first in Spain ? (9) Was

512

hevolution and reaction

Search
topics

Geogrraphy

Secondary
authorities

Sources

niustrative
works

the intervention of the allies in Spain and in Italy justifiable ?
(10) Why did Great Britain oppose intervention in Spanish
America? (11) What interest had the United States in the
question? (12) What effect did the Greek revolt have on Euro-
pean politics ? (13) Compare the French revolution of 1830 with
the English revolution of 1688. (14) Why did the Belgian revo-
lution succeed ? (15) Why did the Polish revolt fail ?

(1(5) Inventions in spinning and weaving. (17) The invention
of the steam engine. (18) Invention of the locomotive engine.
(19) Spread of railways over Europe. (20) Early European
attempts at a steamboat. (21) Czar Alexander I. and the Holy
Alliance. (22) Prince Metternich. (23) The Carbonari. (24) Re-
action in Germany. (25) Spanish revolt of 1820. (26) Italian
revolts of 1820-1821. (27) George Canning and the proposed inter-
vention in Spanish America. (28) Greek revolution. (29) French
conquest of Algeria. (80) Causes of the French revolution of 1830.

REFERENCES

See map, pp. 488, 480 ; Putzger, Atlas, maps 28, 29 ; Poole,
Ilistrmral Atlas, map xiii. ; Dow, Atlas, xxvii.-xxix.

Duruy, France, Appendix, ch. i. ; Judson, Europe in the Nine-
teenth Century, chs. xxviii. xxix. ; Henderson, Short History
of Germany, II. 324-o89 ; Fyffe, History of Modern Europe
(Popular ed.), 419-429, 432-438, 446-466, 472-480, 486-488,
493-510, 548-557, 567-576, 585-596, 601-602, 604-630; Seignobos,
Political History of Europe since 1814, 115-130, 289-293, 326-
333, 374-;!89, 648-652; Miiller, Political History of Becent Times,
1-42 ; Phillips, Modern Europe, chs. i. ii. viii. ix. ; Seeley, Life
and Times of Stein, II. 317-478 ; Probyn, Italy, chs. i. ii. ; Thayer,
Dawn of Italian Independence, bk. ii. chs. v. vi. ; Lebon, Modem
France, ch. viii. ; Coubertin, France since 1814, chs. i.-iii. ; Gib-
bins, Industrial Ilistonj of England, 154-165 ; Cheney, Indus-
trial and Social History of England, 199-223 ; Spencer W^alpole,
History of England siyice 1815, I. 50-93; Cunningham, Groioth
of English Industry and Commerce, bk. viii. chs. iv. ix. ; Toynbee.
Industrial RevohUion. 85-93; Baines, History of the Cotton Mann-
fact urc, ch. ix. ; Smiles, Life of George Stephenson, chs. viii. ix.
xxii. ; Historians' History of the World, IX. 578-587, XIII. 9-53.

Piiiv. of Pa., Translations and Reprints, I. No. 3; Metternich,
Memoirs, II. .55.3-559 ; F. M. Ander-son, Constitutions and Docu-
ments, iios. 101, 104, 105.

Jane Porter, Thaddeus of Warsaw; E. A. Milman, The Way-
side Cross ; T. Moore, The Fudge Family in Paris.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

THE ORLEANS MONAKCHY AND THE UPHEAVAL OF
EUROPE (1830-1848)

The monarchy of Louis Philippe began with a promise that

the constitutional charter should thenceforth ^^ be a reality " :

he accepted the English parliamentary system, including 500. Mon-

tlie choice of ministers from amon^ members of Parlia- archy of

., .,. T T , Louis Phi-

ment, their responsibility to Parliament, and annual vot- uppe

ing of supplies. But only the pays legal (large property (1830-1848)

owners, numbering about two hundred thousand in a popu-

latioii -pf thirty millions) had the right to vote — a limitation

of the representation which proved a source of danger to the

" July monarchy."

The French government had to meet conspiracies of the

Legitimists (supporters of the dethroned Bourbons), who, how-

f)W>^^Wftle popular support.

iUQHaii*^"^]^ous were the plots of the republicans, who had little

]^ had young, resolute, and intrepid leaders, who

with the people. They formed powerful secret

^odeled on the Carbonari), such as the " Society

ids of the People," the " Society of the Seasons,"

■^Jj^ciety of the Rights of Man " ; the government in

^ft ^^9iE>iiluted these societies, for as fast as one was destroyed

ftli#'#*ced by another.

2^jg^h]gjf|*jepublican demand that Prance should aid Italy and

Utoiki -to gain their liberty, the government wisely re- 501. Ee-

fgjg^j^^ listen ; but the demand for a broader franchise societi^

k^'j^^ji^fused. "Prance has made a revolution," said and plots

Harding's m. & m. hist. — 30 513

514

REVOLUTION AND HE ACTION

Guizot, who was one of the ministers; "but she had no inten-
tion of placing herself in a permanently revolutionary state.''
Nevertheless the growth of industry steadily enlarged the
real influence of the people, while the press aroused them to it
consciousness of their wrongs. The republicans constantly
attacked the king with caricatures, one of the most fa^ttoua.ol;

opejui
Holy

Caricatuke of Louis Philippe. tj -^^'

which represented him with a stupid face shaped like dl'^ftif?
in four years one paper was prosecuted more than a ifliftdred
tinu's for political libel. ^ ^^'■

nisputcs l)etween employers and workmen soon hi^tii' i6
take on a ])!)litical color, and strikes against long hounS and
low j)ay were transformed into risings against a gov#i4in«ftt
which was controlled by the capitalist class. In^^J^JTO tl8Sif

aj^'ain in 1.sr)4 insurrections broke out at Paris and^i

There were six attempts to assassinate the king;'5i

Corsican discharged at him an infernal machine w'UWMnMHftff

or wounded at least sixty persons, though the kill^ ^mSSff^

escaped. Tliese disturbances led to severe repre^f^M^

directed especially against the press ; and for a tiije-^raMft^

publican party was broken up. oft«i)t^Urliiy

An attack on the monarchy then followed f roi?/"^ TOmf

502. Bona- quarter. The son of the great Napoleon iAxB^^^if^^

tempts ^ T^ouisa, called the Duke of Reichstadt, was brouglirttp^

(1836-1840) his grandfather's court in Vienna ; and until "Iii^^d^fR-J

in 1832, there was nothing that could be called a Nkpfe%6^i^

THE ORLEANS MONARCHY (1830-1848) 515

party in France. In 1836 Louis Napoleon, the nephew of
Napoleon I., and now heir to his cause, made an adventurous
attempt to win over the garrison at Strassburg to revolt, but
was taken prisoner, and was allowed by Louis Philippe to
withdraw to America without trial. Four years later he made
a second, atteaapt. at Boalogne, with even less success, and was
thereupon iijiprisoaecl oitJUuui until 1846, when he made his
escape. .OCh^efiforts -•<?►£ -Louis Napoleon excited only ridicule
at the time,, but later. I bt)re fruit. The Napoleonic sentiment
was not;(ieady^srfil^a^.iSiiown by the enthusiasm aroused when
the gov«jf^iftent; in 1840, brought back Emperor Napoleon's re-
mains to France for honorable burial in the Hotel des Invalides
in Paris.

After frequent changes of ministry, two statesmen, each
eminent for his historical writings, gradually came to dispute
the leadership : Guizot upheld a system similar to that 503. Guizot
maintained by the Tories in Great Britain, under which minister
the king, subject to the limitations of the constitution, (1840-1848)
should actually rule; Thiers summed up his views in the
maxim, "The king reigns, but does not govern." In 1840
Guizot secured an ascendency over his rival which for seven
years he preserved unshaken. A steady majority upheld his
measures in the legislative chamber, but it was a majority
secured (as were those of the British House of Commons be-
fore 1832) by grants of offices and other favors to various
members. The country prospered, and the monarchy of Louis
Philippe seemed secure.

As events proved, this security rested on no solid basis.
The nation as a whole chafed at what was called spiritless
yielding to England on questions of foreign policy ; the .q. _ ,
Catholic party resented the- control of the state over edu- revolution
cation ; the moderate Liberals were angered by the ^
refusal of auy electoral reform ; the working classes were
exasperated by the leaning of the government to the capitalist

51G REVOLUTION AND REACTION

classes. In this condition of general discontent, a slight con-
flict between the people and the government sufficed to bring
on the revolution of February, 1848. __

The trouble began with a government edict agaiiM* the
holding of a reform banquet at Paris on February 22;'6ligllt
riots of students and workingmiEii*ilWWd,J^|Wldi-«iHging of
the Marseillaise and plundering (ii^'gua shops. TheiiNational
Guard of Paris, composed chiefly of suiall shopkiBepei?*^ re*-
fused to march on the insurgents. The troubles thi^'^gte>'#
graver; "the first day's outbreak was a riot by thei^efotM
party against Guizot; the second^Wa^^jT'^eVoltrfeif AevTepub-
licau parties against the monarchy.*'' Some twenty of thfe
rioters were kiHcd, and the bodies of the slain, inclucMii^' ttiftfc
of a young girl, were paraded through the streets and ex-
hibited to the people with demands for vengeance.

In tlie face of these events, Louis Philippe could not make
\ip his mind whether to give way or to resist, until it was too
late for either. He dismissed Gnizot, and then abdicated in
favor of his inf;nit grandson — both in vain. Under pressure
of the Parisian mob, excited by republican newspapers, a
Republic was i)roclaimed on February 24; a provisional gov-
ernment was established; and a National Assembly elected
by universal suffrage was called to draw up a constitution.
The revolution was accepted by the provinces without a mur-
mur; and T.ouis Philippe retired ingloriously to England,
where he died two years later.

Thus the re})ublic'ans profited by a movement started by

the lii)eral monarchists, V)ut they were far from constituting

505. Social- ^ niajority of France or being united among themselves.

ism and the Socialism was now making progress in France, and

Secoiid

French divided the republicans into opposing camps. Its prin-

Republic cipffs arc the outGjrowth, in i)art, of the new social

world produced by tlic Industrial Revolution and the growth

of the factory system ; in part they are a development of the

THE UPHEAVAL OF EUROPE (1848) 517

ideas of the French Revolution, with its ideals of freedom,
equality, and fraternity.

socialism began in Great Britain with the noted manu-
md philanthropist Robert Owen (1771-1858) ; and
-^ it was furthered by the writers St. Simon (1760-
id Fourier (1772-1837). With the publication (in
Luuis Blanc's book entitled The Organization of
ferfj^^Hfe movement became practical and political. The
&^^^^B!P protested against the hard life of the working
^JfE?&'^f With its excessively long hours of labor, low wages,
Kv ' . ful lodgings, and unwholesome food; their remedy

»'aS^'t«^do avvay with the capitalist class. They demanded a
§lffil:^jitic organization of the state as a preparation for a
reorganization of society. The state when thus reformed was
to form associations, which Louis Blanc called " social work-
shops," in which cooperative production was to be carried on
by the workmen, the government supplying the capital and
directing the enterprises.

After 1848, the Socialists for a brief time were in control ;
and the provisional government issued a decree reducing the
working day to ten hours, and another decree recognizing g^g -, .j
the obligation of the state to provide work for its citizens, ure of the
and undertaking to establish "national workshops" in -vyorkshops
accordance with the socialists' demand. These, however, Encydo-

were really "a travesty of Louis Blanc's proposals, in- psediaBn-

•^ '^ x- x- 7 tannica,

stituted expressly to discredit them " : instead of setting xxil. 209;

the unemployed to work, each at his trade, all were Ehj, French

^ '^ ' ... "^^ German

employed with pick and shovel at making fortifications. Socialism,
Thousands of persons who had been thrown out of em- 112-113

ployment by the revolution flocked to Paris from all directions,
and the number employed in the "workshops*" increased in
two months from 6000 to 100,000. To meet the increased
expenditure, new and unpopular taxes were imposed, while
the work was cut down to two days a week.

518 UK VOLUTION AND REACTION

Finally (in June) it was decided to close the *' workshops "
and send the workmen back to the provinces. The Soicialisto
thereupon erected barricades, and bloody street
lowed ; and it Avas only after four days' fighting ^
government under General Cavaignac was victorious
11,000 captured insurgents were shot or transport^
(H)l()iiies, and as an organization the Socialist pj
temporarily to an end. The result of these confli
bitter legacy of hatred, existing to the present da]
tlie working class in France, who lean to socialisn
boirnjeoisie, or middle class, composed largely of si
and small capitalists, who are very conservative and(
On X()vend)er 4, 1848, the National Assembly pi
tlie new constitution. This provided for a president
507 Louis ^^^' ^^'^^' years by universal suffrage, and a single legisla-
Napoleon tive chamber. Everything depended on the character of
president tlie president ; yet the Assembly did not take the simple
(1848; ])i('caution of declaring ineligible members of the families

wliicli bad reigned over France. Louis Napoleon sat as a mem-
ber of the Assembly, and he was the only presidential candidate
known to thousands of those who were suddenly given the
franchise. When the election was held (December 10, 1848),
he received 0,500,000 votes; while Cavaignac, his nearest
competitor, received only 1,500,000.

The el(H'tion of Naj)oleon as president by so overwhelming

a vote excited in sincere republicans fears which his course in

office did not allay. "The name of Napoleon," he declared in

^ ^^ ^^ October, 1S49, " is of itself a programme signifying order,

Mniirrn authority, religion, and the prosperity of the people at

home, with national dignity abroad. This is the policy —

inaugurated by my election — which I wish to see triumph."

In the tours which the prince president took into the provinces,

he was occasionally greeted with the cry, "Long live the

Kinperor.'^^ Meanwhile the Assembly lost popularity by so

THE UPHEAVAL OF EUROPE (1848) 519

regulating the suffrage in Paris that sixty-four per cent of the
former voters were disfranchised.

..fli^ decisive struggle between Napoleon and the republican
Agsenjbly came on a proposition to revise the constitution so

as.'jlK> ^opake the pi^sident eligible for a second term. The ^^^ „

a. - ^ oOo. Napo-

j?eqj4§i^ , threQ; f(^]3rths majority of the Assembly could leon's coup
x\jQt ]^ obtaine^l-|^ the change, and the friends of the d'6tat(1851)
preSiid^tjflpHeg^:^^..^ talk of a coup d'etat. The command of
the a,i;^3f:^i I!.ayi^ was put in the hands of officers devoted to
N^pQle9%^,uafD^^f(9J^f the night preceding Decemlaer 2, 1851,
the leading republican and royalist deputies (members of the
Asseiubiy; were aneyted in their beds. The people awoke to
find decrees posted on the walls, which declared the Assembly
dissolved and universal suffrage restored, and called upon the
voters to ratify the action of the president. Those who
resisted were shot down, transported, or exiled.
^, By a vote of 7,400,000 to 647,000 the coup d'etat was rati-
fied by ti^ people. Napoleon formed a new constitution, mod-
eled on that of the Consulate
of 1799, which provided for a
ten years' term for the presi-
dent, with practically all
power in his hands. Exactly
one year after the coup d'4tat
the last step was taken, and
by a popular vote of 7,800,000
to 253,000, the prince presi-
dent assumed the title "Napo-
leon III,, Emperor of the

Frencn"— the Duke of Reich- Napoleon III.

stadt being reckoned as Napoleon II. Again the wheel of
revolution had swung around, and once more a democratic and
military despotism ruled over France.

Elsewhere, also, the year 1848 saw many revolutionary move-

520 REVOLUTION AND REACTION

ments, due largely to the advance of the people in material
prosperity and to their progress in knowledge.

For ten years after the failure of the risings of 1821 Italy
lay crushed at Austria's feet; but in 1831 the levulution^y

509. Con- movement was revived by Giuseppe ^3ifeizzini, a <

Italy lawyer, long an exile in various lands,- who foui.acu a

(1821-1848) revolutionary association called " Youlig Italy.'' ' Iti the
next fifteen years many books spread the tlfe^ii^ for national
independence and for liberal institution^, '^^J)'ecially amoilg
the professional and well-to-do classes. ''Differences arose,
however, both as to the form of goveriitti^sJiitl-iiij'l tlip sort
of union desired — whether a limited moi:e(ftf<iliy'^ 'a democratic
republic, wlietlier a union of all Italy •"'ttpdfcifViWl^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ -
federation of the existing states against foreign ride.

In 1846 rius IX., a liberal Pope, ascended the paiifi^J throne.
ISIany li()})ed that the union of Italy would be acc^ymplished
under his leadership, and that there would begin a ueA«r ^rtt ifor
Italy and tlie worhl; and tliese expectations were eSwbiiraged
by the release of a nundjer of political prisoners, and some
slight liberal measures of reform. In the same year Charles
Albert, king of Sardinia-Piedmont, took steps of concession to
his subjects, and of peaceful' resistance to Austria.

The revolutions of 1848 began, however, in Sicily and
Naples, when the liberals rose in arms and forced the king

510. Revo- to issue a constitution (Januarv, 1848). Their success
Italy aroused the patriots throughout the peninsula: Milan,
(1848-1849) \'enice, and other Austrian possessions in Italy revolted ;

and Charles Albert of Sardinia-Piedmont, influenced by the
Italian journalist and statesnuin, Cavour, declared war on
Austria. Tuscany, Naples, and the Papal States sent troops
to fight under the Italian tricolor raised by Piedmont; but
soon jealousies ;ind differences of opinion arose, and Naples
and the Pojk' withdraw their forces. At Custozza (July 25,
1818 ; map, p. 5.')1), the Piedmontese army was defeated by the

THE UPHEAVAL OF EUROPE (1848) 521

Austriaiis. A serious revolt in Hungary (§ 512) seemed to offer
a favorable occasion for a renewal of the war ; but at Novara
(March 23, 1849) the untrained Piedmontese were again defeated.

Charles Albert then abdicated, and his son, Victor Emman-
uel, secured peace by paying a heavy war indemnity. The
Austrian rule in Lombardy and Venice was speedily restored.
In Naples the king overthrew the constitution he had granted,
and crushed the revolution. In the Papal States revolutionary
violence forced Pius IX. to flee, and in February, 1849, he was
declared deprived of all temporal power, and a Eoman Kepub-
lic under Mazzini was set up ; but in June a French army, sent
by Louis Napoleon, defeated the Roman republicans under
Garibaldi, and the absolute power of the Pope was restored.
Everywhere in Italy the revolution failed. Sardinia-Piedmont
alone preserved a liberal constitution and the tricolor flag —
both to become, in later days, the possessions of united Italy.

In the Austrian Empire the revolutionary impulse from
Paris was combined with (1) resistance of liberals to the iron
rule of Metternich, and (2) movements of different peoples g^ Condi-
of the empire for separate nationality. A glance at the tioiis in the
map on page 523 will show how numerous were the Empire

peoples — separated by differences of race, language, (1814-1848)
religion, and culture — whom the accidents of history placed
under the rule of the Hapsburgs. The Slavs were a ma-
jority of the population, but through the presence of the
Magyars in Hungary and the Germans in Austria they were
geographically separated into two branches — the northern
Slavs and the southern Slavs — each composed of several na-
tional groups. The Germans were the ruling element of the
empire, giving to it the capital (Vienna), the royal family, and
the official language. Society was still feudal and mediaeval :
the nobles were free from the jurisdiction of the ordinary
courts; the peasants were still in a state of serfdom. An
absolute but inefficient government was kept in power by a

622 REVOLUTION AND REACTION

system of press censorship, passports, and government spies.
In Hungary, which had a separate administration, an active
agitation had begun in 1830 for a liberal political constitu-
tion and the official use of the Magyar tongue. The Slavic
peoples also had set on foot national and liberal movements
— the Bohemians for the revival of the Czech language, and
the Croats for a union of the southern Slavs in opposition
to the Magyars.

The news of the French revolution of February, 1848,

caused a riot of students and citizens at Vienna, with de-

612. Revo- inands for freedom of education, of religion, of speech,

lutions in and of the press, with representative government. This

trian Em- slight uprising exposed the hollowness of the imperial

pire (1848) government, and caused the downfall and flight, after

many years' rule, of Prince Metternich (March 14). Hungary,

under the lead of Louis Kossuth, a brilliant journalist and

orator, now insisted on liberal reforms and a constitution

which should make Hungary a sovereign state, independent

of the rest of the empire. In Bohemia the Czechs fought

the Germans in the streets of Prague. Among the Poles of

Galicia, and the Croats and other South Slavs, similar national

movements broke out. Everywhere appeared a frenzy of

liberalism and local national sentiment.

Yet the revolution in the Austrian Empire failed com-
pletely — in large part because of class, religious, and race hat-
reds among the different groups. The Magyars, while seeking
national independence for themselves, tried to stifle such
aspirations on the part of the South Slavs; and the Vien-
nese wished to continue German rule over Slavic Bohemia.
The result was an alliance between the government and the
Slavs, against the Magyars and German democrats, for which
the narrow Wews of Kossuth were partly to blame. In Bohemia
the revolution was ended by June, 1848; and October saw
Vienna reduced to submission.

523

524 REVOLUTION AND REACTION

Hungary, which had gained a separate army and administra-
tion, was not so easily dealt with. To permit of a new regime,

613. Hun- the emperor Ferdinand resigned in December, 1848, and
^*bi'* '^' ^^^ nephew, Francis Joseph, ascended the throne. April
(1849) 19, 1849, the Hungarians issued a formal declaration of

independence from Hapsburg rule, and formed a republican
government with Kossuth at its head. For a time they almost
completely freed their land of Austrian troops ; and the rebellion
was ended only by the intervention of the czar of Russia, who
in June, 1849, sent an army of two hundred thousand men to
aid his Austrian brother ruler. By the middle of August the
revolution was crushed : Kossuth and other leaders escaped to
Turkey, where the sultan, with British and French support,
gave them refuge. Bloody punishments awaited those who fell
into Austrian hands, and a rigid repression of all liberal and
national aspirations followed. The one lasting reform brought
about was the sweeping away of the remains of feudalism in
the Austrian Empire.

The German revolutionary movements in 1848 were directed
not only to liberal and democratic reforms in the separate

614. Kevo- German states, but also to uniting them in a national
Germanv^ union. The Diet of the German Confederation was only
(1848) a council of the federated princes, under Austrian influ-
ence, and in no way represented the sentiments of the German
people. Hence movements for reform centered in the universi-
ties, for which Germany was famed. Prussia, moreover, and
not Austria, was the state to which Germany looked more and
more for leadership. The accident that Prussia ruled many
scattered territories, with a thousand miles of frontiers, made a
zoUverein (customs tariff union of the German states) a matter
of importance for her, and she succeeded before 1854 in includ-
ing in it the whole of southern and central Germany ; this
proved a powerful factor in finally bringing about the political
union of Germany under Prussian headship.

THE UPHEAVAL OF EUROPE (1848)

625

NORTH SEA

lo loo So 23o

WM ZoUverein in 1834
I Additions up to 1854

German Zollverein (1834-1854).

The news of the February revolution of Paris, and the fall
of Metternich in Austria, caused great excitement in Germany.
At once risings occurred in the great cities, particularly Mu-
nich and Berlin. At Berlin barricades were erected, and street
fighting occurred which caused the death of several hundred
citizens (March, 1848). The kind-hearted but arbitrary and
vacillating king, Frederick William IV., then ordered the
soldiers to withdraw from the city; and donning the revo-
lutionary colors (the old imperial black, red, and gold), he
summoned an assembly which drew up a conservative Prus-
sian constitution.

A meeting of liberals from different German states, mean-
while, arranged for a "constituent parliament," chosen 515. The
by direct popular elections, to draw up a constitution parSament
for a united Germany; and in May, 1848, the "parlia- (1848-1849)
ment," or national assembly, began its sessions in the city of

r)2(5 REVOLUTION AND REACTION

Frankfort. Its members were chiefly university professors, law-
yers, and journalists; and four precious months were wasted in
endless debates over the " fundamental rights of the German
people." A war with Denmark, waged by Prussia and the par-
liament to resist an attempt to make Danes out of the German
inhabitants of Sleswick-Holstein, was stopped by the interven-
tion of the Great Powers. This check caused the parliament
to lose prestige, and in Frankfort a republican rising marked
the dissatisfaction of the radicals with the course of events.

The parliament was also distracted because the Austrian
government refused to come into the new arrangement with-
out their non-German provinces, which would enable them
with their thirty-eight millions of population to overbalance
the tliirty-two millions of Germany proper: this would have
meant an end to all hopes of real German unity. At last the
parliament voted for the exclusion of Austria from the pro-
l)osed German Empire, and offered the crown to Frederick
William IV. of Prussia (^rarch, 1849). Acceptance of the
offer Avould have meant war with Austria ; Frederick William
was willing to accept an imperial crown if offered to him by
the united voice of the princes, but he rejected with scorn one
" l)icked up out of the mud."

This refusal wrecked the whole new constitution and caused

the l)reaking up of the Frankfort parliament. The democratic

516. End of V^'^'^Y ^^''^^ P^^^' down, and German unity was postponed for

the revolu- twenty years. To escape punishment, many of the radi-

many ^"^1 h'n.(lers fled to foreign lands, and the United States

(1849-1850) thus gained many valuable citizens. Austria, backed by

Kussia, sjx'edily regained her lost ascendency; and at Olmiltz,

in 18.")(), Prussia made a humiliating submission, by which

Sleswick-Holstein was delivered to the Danes, and the old

Confederation of 1815 was restored, with its Frankfort Diet

completely under Austrian influence.

THE UPHEAVAL OF EUROPE (1848) 527

The Revolution of 1848 was a widespread movement which
affected all the principal countries of western Europe. In
France it established for a time the democratic system, 517, gum-
with universal suffrage, liberty of the press, and freedom mary

of political action. In Italy, in the Austrian Empire, and in
Germany the revolution was partly democratic and partly
nationalist. After a temporary triumph in these countries,
there came a reaction, supported by the armies, which were
still at their masters' service. The restoration began in Aus-
tria, where the Slavs aided the imperial government against
the Germans and Magyars; it was continued by the king of
Prussia, first in his own territories and then elsewhere in Ger-
many; it was completed in Italy by Austrian and French
armies, in Hungary by Russian forces.

In France the reaction brought Napoleon III. to the imperial
power (1851), and restored a military and absolute government, -
which, however, preserved in name universal suffrage and the
doctrine of the sovereignty of the people. " The govern- seujnohos,
ments having learned a lesson from revolution, organized Political
an alliance of all conservative forces, including the hour- Europe since
geoisie [capitalist class], which was disturbed by the ^^^^* P- ^^^
socialist movement, and the Pope, who was alarmed by the
Roman Republic. The repressive measures taken against
the revolutionary parties and their instruments — the press
and public meetings — deprived all the parties of political
power, even the parliamentarians. The absolutist system then
extended all over Europe, except Switzerland and the coun-
tries which had remained outside the Revolution of 1848, —
England, Belgium, Holland, and Norway."

TOPICS

(1) Compare the government under Louis /Philippe with that Suggestive
under Charles X. (2) Compare Guizot with Polignac. (3) Was ^^^^^^
the justification for revolution in France in 1848 as great as in

528

REVOLUTION AND REACTION

Search
topics

1830 ? (4) Why did the French provinces play so little part in
the Revolution of 1848 ? (5) What ideas of the French socialists
seem to you good ? (6) Did France really v^ish a republic in
1848? (7) Was the coup d'etat of 1851 justifiable? (8) How
do you explain the wide spread of the revolutionary movements in
1848? (9) What special causes were there in Italy? (10) In
Austria? (11) In Bohemia? (12) In Hungary? (13) In Ger-
many? (14) Compare the movement in Italy with the revolts
there in 1820-1821 and in 1830. (15) To what extent were causes
for revolution in the Austrian Empire removed by the revolution ?

(16) Why should Russia intervene to aid Austria in Hungary?

(17) Why did the movement for German unity fail in 1848-
1850? (18) What gains did Germany make by the revolution?

(19) Character of Louis Philippe. (20) Guizot as a statesman
and as an historian. (21) Teachings of St. Simon and Fourier.
(22) Life of Louis Napoleon to 1852. (28) Mazzini. (24) Piedmont
in the Revolution of 1848. (25) Pius IX. and the revolution.
(26) Revolution in Naples. (27) Revolution in Vienna. (28) Kos-
suth. (29) The revolution in Hungary. (30) Revolution in Prussia.
(31) Sleswick-Holstein question. (32) War of the Sonderbund in
Switzerland.

REFERENCES

Geogrraphy

Secondary
authorities

Sources

niustratlTe
works

See maps, pp. 488, 523, 525 ; Putzger, Atlas, maps 28 6, 29 ;
Poole, Historical Atlas, map xiii. ; Dow, Atlas, xxviii. xxix.

Duruy, France, Appendix, chs. ii. iii. ; Henderson, Short His-
tory of Germany, II. 344-369; Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth
Century, chs. vii.-xi. ; Fyffe, Modern Europe (Popular ed.), 674-
742, 746, 757-759, 764-768, 771-774, 790-795, 816-823; Phillips,
Modern Europe, chs. xi.-xiii. ; Miiller, Political History of Becent
Times, 150-169, 172-253 ; Seignobos, Europe since 1814, 132-173,
389-396, 412-423, 718-746 ; Lebon, Modern France, chs. ix.-xi. ;
Probyn, Italy, chs. vi.-viii. ; Bolton King, History of Italian Unity,
I. chs. ix.-xvii. ; Latimer, Italy in the Nineteenth Century, 64-78,
80-91, 103-113 and ch. vii. ; Cesaresco, Liberation of Italy.

Mazzini, Life and Writings, I. 1-5, 15-38, 97-112, 182-183, XL
85-94, 113, 143 ; Delia Rocca, Autobiography of a Veteran; F. M.
Anderson, Constitutions and Documents, nos. 107, 110-112 ; Bis-
marck, Beflections and Reminiscences, ch. ii.

Erckmann, A Man of the People ; Spielhagen, Through Night
to Light ; Miss Manning, The Interrupted Wedding ; Wallace,
Strife-, De Mille, The Babes in the Wood; Miss Roberts. Made-
moiselle Mori ; G. D. Ruffini, Dr. Antonio.

CHAPTER XXIX.

in.

NAPOLEON III. AND THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND
GERMANY (1851-1871)

The Second Empire in France, which be-
gan with the coup d^4tat of December 2, 1851,

lasted for almost nineteen years. The _,„ ^ ,.

•^ 618. Policy

new emperor. Napoleon III., lacked of Napoleon

the great Napoleon's genius, and the
^l^rench author, Victor Hugo, nicknamed
him "Napoleon the Little." Failing to
secure a bride from any of the princely
houses of Europe, Napoleon in 1853 mar-
ried a beautiful Spaniard of noble but not
exalted birth, who as the Empress Eugenie
gave a charm to the imperial court, but ex-
ercised a harmful influence in politics. The
whole administration was honeycombed
with corruption, which in the final crisis
greatly weakened the empire.

The policy of the emperor, as well as the
economic tendency of the time, combined
to produce great material prosperity. Be-
fore 1850 little progress was made in rail-
way building; in the next twenty years
nearly ten thousand miles were built in
France alone. Manufactures increased rapidly; and foreign
commerce grew, largely because of liberal commercial treaties
with Great Britain and other countries. The Suez Canal,

529

Suez Canal.

530 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

completed in 1801) by I)e Lesseps, a French engineer, revo-
lutionized the commerce of the world. Joint stock com-
panies were formed to use the savings of small investors in
carrying on industrial enterprises, and these further increased
wealth. The streets of Paris were widened and improved so
that broad boulevards, spaxjious squares, and imposing build-
ings took the place of wretched houses: thus the city was
made more healthful and beautiful, the working classes had
employment, and insurrection was made more difficult through
the widening of the narrow streets in which barricades had so
easily been erected. The industrial progress of the world at
large was revealed at the first " universal exhibition," or world's
fair, held at London in 1851 ; similar exhibitions, held at Paris
in 1855 and 18G7, gave France an opportunity to show her
material growth and artistic excellence.

Napoleon III. declared that "the Empire is peace"; but the

times and his own policies made his reign a period of European

519 Euro- ^^'^^* ^^^^^' forty years of peace came live important

pean wars wars : the Crimean War (1854-1856), the Franco- Austrian
(1854-1871) T

War in Italy (1859), the war of Austria and Prussia with

Denmark (18G4), the Austro-Prussian War (1866), and the

Franco-German War (1870-1871). In the first, second, and

hfth of these France played a leading part; in the other two

her interests were vitally concerned.

The Crimean War arose out of the Eastern Question — that

is, the question of the political status and future of the lands

520. The included in the Turkish Empire. The czar Nicholas I.

QuesUo'ii (1*^25-1855) believed that Turkey was "the Sick Man"

(1844 1853) of Europe, and that arrangements should be made by

Cheat P>ritain and Russia, the two powers most interested, for

the division of the inheritance; but the British saw in this

only a sclieme of the czar to secure Constantinople, and refused

coliperation. Ill feeling arose between Napoleon III. and the

czar, because Nicholas addressed the French emperor in letters

NAPOLEON HI. (1851-1871)

531

as "My good friend," instead of "My brother" as was cus-
tomary between sovereigns. There was also a quarrel con-
cerning the custody of the " holy places " in Jerusalem between
the French, as the official protectors of the Eoman Catholic
clergy, and the Russians, as protectors of the Greek clergy.
The dispute over the holy places was adjusted ; but a further
claim of Russia, to a protectorate over all Greek Christians
living under the sultan's rule, could not be admitted by the
Great Powers.

In June, 1853, war began between Russia and Turkey on
this issue. To gain strength at home the emperor Napoleon
(in 1854) took up arms in aid of Turkey ; and Great Britain
did the same, because a Russian triumph would endanger her
interests in Asia. Austria and Prussia remained practically
neutral. With the hope of gaining prestige, Sardinia-Piedmont
sent her troops (1855) to fight side by side with those of Great
Britain and France. Thus Russia found arrayed against her
not only the troops of Turkey, which defended the Danube
lands, but also the fleets and armies of France, Great Britain,
and Sardinia.

The chief seat of the war proved to be the peninsula of the
Crimea. There, in the strongly fortified harbor of Sebastopol,

where enormous war 521. The
supplies were stored, Crimean
the Russian Black (1854-1856)
Sea fleet took refuge ; and
to reduce that fortress,
France and Great Britain
landed a force of sixty
thousand men (September,
1854). For nearly a year
The Crimea. Sebastopol held out, while

cholera, famine, and the winter weather — " Generals January
and February" — terribly thinned the besiegers' ranks. For

^^^^^M^

SEA OF

H) 60 §0

HARDING'S M. & M. HIST.

532 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

the first time war correspondents kept the people at home
informed of events, and profoundly moved the English by-
describing the sufferings of the army — many of which were
charged to administrative mismanagement. Miss Florence
Nightingale, an English gentlewoman, gained undying fame by
the zeal and devotion she showed in organizing the nursing of
the sick and wounded ; and her work led to the Geneva Con-
vention of 1864, which provides for the protection of hospitals
and ambulances under the red-cross flag in time of war.

In a battle at Balaklava, in the neighborhood of Sebastopol
(October -^5, 1854), occurred the charge of the Light Brigade,
celebrated by Tennyson, in which, owing to a misunderstand-
ing of orders, six hundred and seventy-three men charged the
Russian batteries with heroic courage. Czar Nicholas died of
chagrin in 18.");"), and was succeeded by his son Alexander II.
In September, 18r)o, after a long bombardment and many
bloody en.uageinents, Sebastopol was taken by assault.

Peace was iinally agreed to in a congress held at Paris in

March, 18r)(). Turkey was left intact, and the sultan promised

certain reforms in the treatment of his Christian subjects

uZi. x63,C6

of Paris — ])roniises wliich he did not keep. Russia's claim to a
(1856) protectorate of the Christian populations of Turkey was

disallowed. The Danube was declared open to navigation; but
the Black Sea was closed to the war vessels of all powers, and
Russia agreed not to maintain arsenals on its shores. After
peace was signed, the congress drew up four important rules of
maritime law, by which privateering was declared abolished,
blockades were recpiired to be effective in order to be valid, and
greater protection was given to private property on the high
seas (other than contraband) in time of war. These rules were
accepted by the European states and became part of interna-
tional law; the United States, remembering the excellent
service rendered by privateers in her wars, refused to agree,
though in practice this country also has observed them.

UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (1851-1871) 533

Another interruption to European peace grew out of the
condition of Italy. The failure of the Eevolution of 1848 left
that land divided and garrisoned by foreign troops — 523. Italy
Austrians in the northeast, and French troops, supporting *^*®^ ^^^^
the papal monarchy, at Rome. The kingdom of Sardinia-Pied-
mont alone clung to liberal ideas, a constitution, and the
tricolor flag — emblem of Italian unity; and it was to King
Victor Emmanuel that Italian patriots thenceforth turned their
eyes. Unfortunately his subjects numbered less than five mil-
lions as against the thirty-seven millions of Austria ; and his
kingdom was divided into four separate parts : (1) the malarial
island of Sardinia, where there was no political life ; (2) the
coast land about Genoa, a seat of republicanism and disaffec-
tion to the dynasty; (3) Savoy (the home land of the royal
house), a district French in speech, and controlled by the
nobles and clergy ; and (4) Piedmont, a land without industrial
activity, and with only one large city, Turin, the residence of
the court. Victor Emmanuel's subjects, however, had three
important political advantages over all other peoples of Italy :
(1) they had a patriotic and able king ; (2) they had an army
that could fight; (3) above all, they had in Count Cavour a
minister — one of the greatest modern statesmen — whose life
was devoted to the work of freeing and uniting Italy.

For a time Cavour was the most unpopular man in Turin,
hated by radicals for his moderation, and by reactionaries for
his liberalism. Gradually, Mazzini, the leader of the gg^ Poiicv
visionary republicans, lost ground, and the true great- of Cavour
ness of Cavour was recognized. From 1850 until his
death, in 1861, he was, with one short interval, prime minister
and almost dictator of the kingdom. In addition to remodel-
ing taxes, he reformed the clergy. The number of monasteries
and of ecclesiastics was excessive : there were 604 monaster-
ies, and a priest to every 214 inhabitants ; while Belgium and
Austria, two strongly Catholic countries, had respectively only

534

DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

Lal^of S W ITZERLAND

Piedmont in April, 1850

(Jkowth ok thk Italian Kingdom.

one in 500 and one in ()10. After a hitter fight, Cavour carried
through a moderate reform, abolishing the religious orders not
engaged in public teaching, preaching, or nursing the sick.
His farsighted statesmanship led the Sardinian troops to take
part in the Crimean War, a step which was described as " a
pistol shot in Austria's ear." Then, in the congress of Paris,
Cavour was enabled to bring the cause of Italy before the
diplomats of Europe and to pave the way for action later.

UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (1851-1871) 535

Great Britain was, in general, favorable to Italian hopes, but
feared to see the peace of Europe again disturbed. Napoleon
III., during his adventurous career as a young man, had 525. Atti-
taken an active part in the plots of the Carbonari to free ^^ *^^®
Italy, and still favored that cause ; but the Catholic party III.

in France, which supported hira, violently opposed any action
which might endanger the Pope's temporal power. While
Napoleon hesitated, a fanatical Italian patriot hurled three
bombs at his carriage in the streets of Paris (January, 1858),
by which 256 persons were killed or seriously wounded. Al-
though the emperor and empress escaped unharmed, this at-
tempt convinced him that his life would not be safe unless
he redeemed his early vows. In July, 1858, he secretly agreed
with Cavour to attack Austria at a fitting moment with
200,000 men, while Piedmont was to furnish half as many.
Austria was to be entirely expelled from Italy, and her pos-
sessions there, together with some of the Papal States in the
north, were to be annexed to Piedmont ; in return, France was
to be given Savoy, and possibly Nice, thus extending her terri-
tory to the Alps, her " natural frontier " on the southeast.

A plausible pretext for war with Austria Was needed, and the
months which followed were the most trying of Cavour's life.
His skill, working on Austrian stupidity and pride, ggg ^
brought it to pass that Austria issued an ultimatum in north
(April, 1859), demanding that Sardinia disarm, on pain ^ ^ ^
of war. Cavour was radiant with joy : Austria was put clearly
in the wrong ; Napoleon would now be obliged to help ; the
other Great Powers would remain neutral.

The war proved short and decisive, lasting less than three
months. On April 29, 160,000 Austrians crossed the Ticino
Eiver, which separated Austrian Lombardy from Piedmont.
But the French army had already begun to pour over the
Alps, and in May the French emperor arrived to take com-
mand in person. The allies then drove the Austrians out of

53G DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

l*iedmont, aud at Magenta (June 4, 1859) inflicted upon them
a severe defeat. This was soon followed (June 24) by a
second victory, after a fiercely fought battle, at Solferino.

The complete expulsion of Austria from Italy now seemed
certain. But suddenly, in July, Napoleon III., alarmed at
the attitude of Prussia, deserted his allies and entered into
negotiations for peace at Villafranca. When Victor Emman-
uel found that he was deserted by the French, he could only
resign himself to join in " the infamous treaty," which was
signed at Zurich in November, 1859. Lombardy was annexed
to Piedmont, but Yenetia was left to Austria ; the rest of Italy
was to be restored to the condition in which it was at the
opening of the war, and a scheme of Italian confederation was
proposed under the presidency of the Pope.

The last provision could not be carried out. All central

Italy had revolted from its rulers and sought union with Pied-

527. King- mout ; and after the peace, Napoleon, who had his eye

f°°^d d ^ °'^ ^Savoy and Nice, connived at the Piedmontese annexa-

(1860-1864) tion of Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and the northernmost

of the Papal States.

The annexation of the kingdom of Sicily and Naples fol-
lowed soon after, as the result of a successful revolution
carried out (with Cavour's secret assistance) by Garibaldi, an
adventurous knight-errant of Italian liberty. With a thousand
" red shirts '' he landed in Sicily (May, 1860), and was received
by the people with open arms. In August Garibaldi passed
over to the mainland ; by September Naples was in his hands,
and lie was planning to march upon Rome and overturn the
temporal power of the Pope. The sound statesmanship of
Cavour saw that Europe was not ripe for this step, and he
sent Piedmontese troops to check his too zealous ally. In
February, 18(>1, the struggle came to an end with the sur-
render of Francis II., the last of the Bourbon kings of Naples.
Aheady Sioily and Naples had declared, by overwhelming votes.

UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (1851-1871) 537

for union with. Piedmont; and in March Victor Emmanuel
was proclaimed king of Italy.

Except Venetia and the Patrimony of St. Peter (as the dis-
trict immediately about Eome was called), the whole of the
peninsula was at last consoli-
dated under one rule. Italy
ceased to be a mere " geograph-
ical expression," and took
its place as one of the nations
of Europe. To this end many
persons contributed, with he-
roic courage, high endeavor,
noble sacrifice; but the gen-
ius which mastered all and
brought the work to comple-
tion was that of Cavour. Three
months later, in June, 1861,
he died, worn out before his
time by his labors for Italy. Victor Emmanuel.

At the end of 1859 the reputation of Napoleon III. was
at its highest point, and the world for a time "learned to
look to Paris, as it had once looked to Vienna, as to the 528. Decline
political oracle which should pronounce its fate." This ^m^g p^e^
proud position did not long continue, for a succession tige

of causes contributed to Napoleon's decline. In 1863, the
Poles again revolted against Russian absolutism and demanded
a national government. Napoleon III., as the champion of the
principle of nationality in Europe, sought to intervene in their
behalf; but he only succeeded in mortally offending Eussia.
without in any way helping the Poles.

An interference in the affairs of Mexico led to equally bad
results. President Juarez had secured power there and 529. The ex-
was pursuing a vigorous anti-clerical policy. Unfortu- ^^ ^^exico
nately for him, Great Britain, Spain, and France had (1861)

538 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

claims against his country ; and when the Mexican Congress
voted to suspend all payments to foreign creditors for three
years, these three powers (in 1861) joined in a coercive expe-
dition. Napoleon went far beyond his allies in this matter;
and to please the Catholic party at home, he took up the cause
of Juarez's clerical enemies, and joined in a plan to make the
archduke Maximilian — brother of Francis Joseph of Austria
— emperor of Mexico. Thereupon Great Britain and Spain
withdrew; but French troops for several years maintained
Maximilian upon his throne. When the Civil War came to
an end in the United States, a demand was made for the evac-
uation of Mexico, and in 1867 the French troops were with-
drawn. Maximilian was then overthrown and shot, and public
opinion rightly held Xapoleon III. responsible for his tragic
fate.

In France itself, meanwhile, important changes in the gov-
ernment took place. After 1859 the Catholic party turned
530. The against Xapoleon, and to please the liberals he began

Liberal Em- a series of changes which revolutionized the constitution.

pire in

France The legislative chamber received the privilege (as was

(1859-1870) j^i^Q practice in Great Britain) of drawing up an address
in answer to the speech from the throne, thus giving the depu-
ties an annual opportunity to express their opinions of the policy
of the government. Xext was granted the right of discussion
at any time. Publication of the debates in the chamber,
formerly prohibited, was allowed soon after this; and the gov-
ernment also repealed the laws hampering the press, and
those forbidding the organization of trades unions and the
holding of political meetings. Finally (in 1869) it was de-
creed that the ministers, who carried on the government in
the emperor's name, should be responsible to the chamber.
By these measures, from a practical absolutism there developed
a parliamentary monarchy, sometimes called the "Liberal
Empire."

UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (1861-1871) 539

The decline of the French Empire was hastened and its fall
finally brought about by the growing power of Prussia, which
was largely the work of a single statesman of genius and 531. Policy
relentless will — Otto von Bismarck. "From the begin- ^^J^^^^
ning of my career," he once said, " I have had but the marck

one guiding star : By what means and in what way can I bring
Germany to unity ? and in so far as this end has been attained:
How can I strengthen
this unity and increase
it and give it such form
that it shall be enduringly
maintained with the free
consent of all cooperating
forces ? " Long service
as the Prussian envoy at
the Diet of the German
Confederation at Frank-
fort taught him that Aus-
tria was the chief enemy
to Prussian greatness and
to German unity, and that
ultimately Prussia would
have to fight her. In
1862 Bismarck became
the chief minister of Prus-
sia, and from that time until his dismissal from office, in
1890, he played the largest part in shaping German destinies.

Frederick William IV. died in 1861, leaving the throne to his
brother, William I. : the new king heartily agreed with Bis-
marck's ends, but had scruples at times about the policy 632. Acces-

of "blood and iron" with which his minister carried them "2S-?t f

William I.

out. In order to secure a reorganization of the Prussian (1861)

army, Bismarck for four years waged an unceasing conflict with
the short-sighted liberal majorities of the Prussian Diet,

Bismarck.

540 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

In 1864 occurred the third war of this period, successfully
waged by Prussia and Austria jointly against Denmark to pro-

533. The tect the Germans of Sleswick and Holstein, who were
(isel) under Danish rule. The two duchies were taken tem-
porarily under the joint rule of the victors; and from this
situation the adroit and unscrupulous diplomacy of Bismarck,
by steps too intricate to be here related, succeeded (in June,
18G6) in bringing forth his long contemplated war with Austria.

In this contest Austria was supported by all the South
German states (including Saxony) and by Hanover and other

534. The states in North Germany. To Napoleon III. and to other

?T^/^° .T,r observers it seemed that Prussia must surely be crushed.
Weeks War '^

(1866) Italy, however, had secretly promised aid to Prussia in

return for a promise of the Austrian province of Venetia.
The Prussian army was armed w^th breech-loading "needle
guns '" ; while the Austrians, in common with the rest of
Europe, still used muzzle-loaders, in which no improvement
had taken place since the beginning of the century, except the
substitution of the percussion cap for the old flintlock. Above
all, the Prussians had in Poon, the minister of war, who
organized the army, and in jVIoltke, the general who directed
operations in the field, men who in their spheres were as able
as Bismarck was in diplomacy.

The thorough preparations of the Prussians gave them from
the beginning the advantage over their opponents. Within
three days the Prussians occupied three hostile German states,
and within seven weeks the war was over. On the eve of the
decisive battle, Moltke joined the army in Bohemia, together
with the king, liismarck, and Roon. On July 3 the Austrians
were overwhelmingly defeated in the battle of Koniggratz, or
Sadowa. '' Youv majesty has won not only the battle," said
Moltke to King William, " but the campaign."

With wise moderation Bismarck checked the demands of
the military authorities, and offered Austria a liberal peace,

UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (1851-1871) 541

Venetia alone was taken from her, to be given to Italy. Prus-
sia made no territorial gains from Austria, but did annex Sles-
wick-Hol stein, together with the North German states 535. Reor-
which had sided against her — Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, of Germany
Nassau, and the free city of Frankfort (map, p. 547). (1867)

Austria was obliged to pay a large war indemnity, and to consent
to a reorganization of Germany with Austria left out. For a.
time this took the form of a North German Confederation,

Parliament Buildings of Hungaky at Budapest.
Erected in 186(5.

centering about Prussia, with permission to the four states of
the south (Bavaria, Wtlrttemberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darm-
stadt) to enter into alliances with the northern Confederation.
The new Confederation was organized with a strong federal
government, radically different from the old Diet.

At last the objects of Bismarck's policy were recognized, and
from being the most hated man in Germany he became the
most popular. The paramount influence which for centuries
Austria had exercised in German affairs was gone forever, and
Prussia was becoming the heart and the head of a new and
united German nation. Austria saved herself from impo-

542 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

tence only by converting the Austrian Empire into the dual
monarchy of Austria-Hungary, with a separate" Hungarian -
parliament and ministry (1867),

Napoleon III. in this crisis had committed " every error
which it was possible to commit." Counting on making his
636. Atti- own profit out of the war, he allowed Prussia to crush
tude 0^ Na- .^^^stria and unite Germany, only to find every attempt
(1866-1867) at French ''compensation" foiled by Bismarck's diplo-
macy. Napoleon's prestige thus suffered further decline. The
French army took the victories of the Prussians as a personal
affront, and demanded that they be allowed to "avenge Sa-
dowa." French statesmen now saw in Prussia a rival for
that ascendency in Europe which France had enjoyed for two
hundred years. The imperial throne was shaken to its
foundations.

In 1866 the French army was too unprepared and too dis-
organized by the Mexican expedition for Napoleon to go to
war; hence his demand that France be allowed to seize terri-
tories on the left bank of the Ilhine belonging to Bavaria
wiis refused, and by publishing the project Bismarck drew the
South German states to Prussia. Then Napoleon proposed
that France l)e allowed to conquer Belgium ; and Bismarck,
after getting the French envoy to write out a draft of a
treaty to that effect, broke off negotiations, and later pub-
lislied the treaty during the Franco-German War to win the
sympathy of Europe. In 1867 Napoleon again sought "com-
pensation " in the annexation of the duchy of Luxemburg,
which belonged to the king of Holland, but was garrisoned by
Prussia ; here, too, Bismarck interfered. Cajoled, thwarted,
humiliated, France burned to avenge herself on the " upstart
Prussians," and what seemed a fitting occasion was soon at
hand.

The final breach between France and Prussia grew out of
events in Spain. There Ferdinand VII. (§ 488) had been sue-

UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (1851-1871) 543

ceeded in 1833 by Ms daughter, Isabella II., against the pro-
tests of her uncle Carlos, who claimed the throne; and her
reign was filled with intrigues and civil war on the part 53^. Q^es-

of the Carlists, with factional fights among her own sup- tion of the

Spanish
porters, and with misgovernment, superstition, and intol- crown

erance. In 1869 a liberal revolution under General Prim (1869-1870)
brought the reign of the dissolute queen to an end, and it then
became necessary to find a ruler to take her place.

After repeated attempts. Prince Leopold of HohenzoUern-
Sigmaringen, one of the petty princes of southern Germany,
was induced (in July, 1870)
to become a candidate, sub-
ject to approval by King
William as head of the
Hohenzollern house. This
choice caused a storm of in-
dignation in Paris. Gra-
mont, the French minister
of foreign affairs, represented
it in the French Chamber as
a proposal which would " put
in peril the interests and
honor of France," and he
added that the government
"would know how to fulfill
its duty without hesitation
and without feebleness."

This threat of war naturally inflamed the people of both Ger-
many and France. The French government demanded that
King William should induce Prince Leopold to withdraw his
candidature. The king refused to force him ; but a few days
later the prince publicly withdrew his name. Gramont next
required a promise from the Prussian king, through the French
ambassador, that he would never in the future permit the

William I.

544 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

prince to renew his candidature. This request was presented

to the king at Ems, and was politely but firmly refused.

In all this there was no real cause for war. But Bismarck

was anxious for war, believing that a struggle with France was
538 Out- certain, that the union of Germany depended upon it,
break of ^nd that Prussia would never be better prepared. The
man War telegram which stated the facts of the interview reached
(July, 1870) iJisniarck at Berlin, while he was at dinner with Moltke

and Koon. Bismarck later said : —

" As I read it to them, they were both actually terrified, and

Moltke's whole being suddenly changed. He seemed to be

, ,,. quite old and infirm. It looked as if our most gracious
Busch, Bis- ^ °

marck, I. majesty might knuckle under after all. I asked him
304; II. 1.4 |-^^[(^)]|3]^g-] jf^ ,^^ things stood, we might hope to be victo-
rious. On his replying in the affirmative, I said, 'Wait a
minute I ' and, seating myself at a small table, T boiled down
those two hundred w^ords to about twenty, but without other-
wise altering or adding anything. It was the same telegram,
yet something different — shorter, more determined, less dubi-
ous. 1 then handed it over to them, and asked, ' Well, how
does that do now ? ' • Yes,' they said, ' it will do in that
form.' And Moltke immediately became quite young and
fresh again. lie had got his war, his trade."

Tlie (lisi)ateh, tlius altered, was interpreted in the Prussian
j)ress to mean that the king had been insulted and had snubbed
the French envoy, which was not the case. In both Berlin
and Paris the war spirit rose to fever heat. To Thiers and
others who opposed war on the ground that France was not
sufficiently prepared, the French government gave the assur-
ance that the army was '• ready to the last gaiter button."
The declaration of war was delivered by France to Prussia on
July 11), the French prime minister declaring that he accepted
the responsibility ^' with a light heart." Never did a state
rush more blindly to its own destruction.

UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (1851-1871) 545

France stood alone in the war, in spite of promises of aid
from Austria and Italy; while Prussia was assisted by the
South German as well as the North German states. The ggg -
Prussian armies showed the same thorough preparation riority of
and energy which had brought success in 18G6 ; but the
French, when put to the test, were found greatly lacking. In
arrangements for supplying and transporting troops, in gener-
alship, and in the spirit which animated officers
and men, the Germans were superior. In courage
the French equaled them, and they had equally
good breech-loading rifles (chassepots) and the first
of machine guns (the mitrailleuse). These advan-
tages could not make up for their other weak-
nesses; and it was France instead of Germany
that was invaded, Paris instead of Berlin that was
taken.

Hostilities began August 2, 1870. On August 6
the French were defeated at Worth, after a bloody

contest, and were forced to fall back from the _ .. „ ,

' 540. Sedan

frontier. A series of battles followed, ending campaign
with a desperate struggle at Gravelotte (Au- ^ ^

gust 18), with the result that the French armies
under Bazaine and MacMahon were prevented from
uniting, and Bazaine with one hundred and seventy
thousand men took refuge in the strongly fortified
Chassepot. city of Met'z. Leaving a force to besiege him, the
main German army turned westward after MacMahon, whom
they found at Sedan. There, on September 1, was fought
"one of the decisive battles of the world — a battle that re-
sulted in the surrender of the largest army ever known to have
been taken in the field, a battle that dethroned a dynasty and
changed the form of government in France." MacMahon was
defeated and surrounded by an overwhelming force ; and next
day his army of one hundred thousand men, together with the

546 DEMOCRACV AND EXPANSION

emperor Napoleon, surrendered. France was left without an
army in the field.

The news from Sedan caused an insurrection at Paris which
overthrew the Second Empire (September 4, 1870). Under
541. Fall of ^^^^^ pressure a republic was proclaimed, and a Govern-
the Second ment of National Defense was formed, of which the chief
Empire members were Jules Favre and L^on Gambetta. Em-
(1870j press Eugenie, who had acted as regent since the begin-

ning of the war, fled to England, where she lived more than
thirty years in lonely widowhood. Napoleon III. was de-
tained in the German chateau of Wilhelmshohe until the end
of the war; he died an exile in England in 1873. Their only
son, the Prince Imperial, was slain in Africa in 1879, while
fighting as a volunteer in one of Great Britain's petty wars
with Zulu tribes.

Leaving an army to continue the siege of Metz, the Germans
advanced on Paris, and began the siege of that city Septem-
542 Sieee ^'^'^" ^^"^^ 1^^70. The French capital was one of the most
of Paris strongly fortified cities in the world, and great efforts
had been made to provision it. During the siege of five
months, communication with the outside world was kept up
by means of carrier pigeons and balloons. Gambetta escaped
from the city in a balloon, and at Tours worked with
fierce energy, but in vain, to organize new armies and to
rescue Paris. Bazaine, who was incompetent and disloyal,
surrendered ^letz on October 27, thus setting free a large num-
ber of German troops to use about Paris. On December 27,
after long delays, the bombardment of the city's defenses
began, and fort after fort was silenced. The sufferings of the
Parisians during the siege were appalling. When the city
was face to face with actual starvation, Paris surrendered
(January 28, 1871).

Before peace could be concluded, a recognized government
was needed in France ; to furnish this a National Assembly

548 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

was called at ]>()r(leaiix, and the aged Thiers was chosen as head
of the executive governnieiit. At Versailles (February 26,

543. Peace l<S71j the preliminaries of peace were signed. France
°^ .y®'^' agreed to cede to Germany the greater part of the prov-
(Feb. 1871) inces of Alsace and Lorraine, including the fortified

cities of .Met/ and Strassburg, and to pay a war indemnity of
Jit>l,0()0,(>00,0()(). On :\rarch 1 the Germans entered Paris in
triumph. The result of the harsh terms of peace was a French
hatred for Germany, which has scarcely yet lost its bitterness.
The victory over J^'rance was the last step needed to complete
the nnion of Germany. After much negotiation Bismarck's

544. Ger- skillful diplomacy overcame alike the disinclination of

manEnipire ^|,^, y ^^^ I'.avariaand Wiirttemberg to surrender their

proclaimed ....

(Jan. 1871) indep(Mi(lence, and objections raised by his Prussian

nuister to some details. January 18, 1871, in the hall of the
old royal i)alace at Versailles, the result of the negotiations
was nuid(^ known by the proclamation of King William as
hereditary "(rerman FiUiperor." The constitution of the new
empire was ])ractically that of the North German Confedera-
tion, with the addition of the four South German states.

At Paris revolutionary unrest, socialist agitation, fears of

a monarchist reaction, and economic distress led a portion

545 Com ^^^ ^^'^^ Xational (ruard to rebel against the government

munein wliich IMiiers (established at Versailles. The rebels set

Paris (1871) • • i ^ ^^ ^ .^ r^ ^

Up a municipal government called the Commune, and
ado])ted the I'ed tiag of the socialists. The revolt broke out
on ISIarch 18, 1.S71. and lasted until May 28, the government
laying siege to the city, while the German troops remained
neutral.

On .May LM the government troops entered the city, and
there followed a week of the fiercest civil warfare that history
records. Insurgents taken with arms in their hands were shot
down without c(u-einony. Materially aiul politically Paris suf-
fered UK tie injury from the Commune than from the Germans.

UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (1851-1871) 549

The Column Vendome, erected in 1814 to commemorate the
victories of Napoleon I., was wantonly destroyed, together
with many public buildings. Erance was in no mood to show
mercy; the Communards were hunted down relentlessly, and
more than seven thousand were sent as convicts to New Cale-
donia, in the South Pacific Ocean.

The Franco-German War gave the opportunity for King
Victor Emmanuel to complete the union of Italy by seizing
Eome, which for a thousand years had been ruled by the 546. Italian
Popes ; for the French troops which had supported ^""' ^iq^^
the papal rule were now withdrawn. September 20, (1870)

1870, the Italian troops, after a feeble resistance from the
papal garrison, marched into Kome amid the cheers of the
people; and not one of the
Great Powers raised its voice
in serious protest. Thence-
forth Rome was the capital of
the kingdom of Italy. An at-
tempt was made to come to a
friendly arrangement with tlie
Pope, and a liberal annuity
was offered him, together with
the right to keep up in the
Vatican the rank of a sover-
eign prince. But Pius IX.
could not consent to the loss
of the temporal power of the

papacy. Throughout the rest ^^^ ^^"•

of his life he remained a voluntary "prisoner" in the Vati-
can; and the policy he began was closely followed by his
successor, the liberal and enlightened Leo XIII. (1878-1903).
In spite of the loss of its temporal power, the position of the
papacy has never been higher than it is to-day ; and to many
minds this seems partly due to the fact that the Pope's posi-

HARDING'S M. & M. HIST. 32

550 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

tion is no longer complicated by the local cares and ambitions
of an Italian prince.

The third quarter of the nineteenth century, which coincides
roughly with the reign of Napoleon III. in France, was a
547 Sum- Period of great development alike in industry, science,
niary and politics. The rapid spread of railroad and telegraph

lines, the linking of continents by the submarine cable (after
1866), the increased use of steam navigation, the growth of
manufactures and commerce, all increased material prosperity
and changed the conditions of human life. In physical
science the nature of light, heat, and electricity was more
clearly ascertained, and the doctrine of the " conservation of
energy " was developed ; in biology the publication of Dar-
win's Ori(j(u of Species (1859) gave scientific standing to the
doctrine of evolution, and greatly changed many lines of
thought.

In political history the period saw five wars, growing out of
the ambitions of Russia and France, and the national hopes
of Italy and Germany. Russian designs upon Turkey were
checked in the Crimean War (18r)4-1856), and the rule of the
Turk in Europe, with all its evils, was allowed to continue.
The statesmanship of Cavour, aided by Xapoleon III., laid the
foundation of the union of Italy under the king of Sardinia
(18r)9), which was completed during the Austro-Prussian and
Franco-German wars (18()() and 1870-1871). Germany, too,
was united by the genius of Bismarck, through war with Aus-
tria and with France ; and the new German Empire was created
(1871). Before such statesmanship as these men displayed,
the glory of Xai)oleon III. gradually paled ; prematurely old,
infirm of body and of will, he let the direction of affairs slip
from his hands, and foolish counsels hurried France into ruin-
ous war. The empire fell, and on the ghastly ruins of the
Commune was erected the present Third Republic.

UNIFICATION OF ITALY AND GERMANY (1851-1871) 551

TOPICS

(1) Was the domestic policy of Napoleon III. wise or unwise ? Suggestive

(2) Why could not Great Britain and France permit Russia to
exercise a protectorate over the sultan's Christian subjects?

(3) How did the progress of arts and science make the conditions
of the Crimean War different from those of Napoleon I. ? (4) Did
the Crimean War help in any way toward a settlement of the
Eastern Question ? (5) Why did Napoleon III. aid Sardinia-
Piedmont against Austria in 1859? (6) Did he entirely keep
his promise to Cavour? (7) Why did the United States demand
the withdrawal of the French troops from Mexico ? (8) How
was the Sleswick-Holstein question finally settled ? (9) Which
side was responsible for the Austro- Prussian War? (10) To
what was the Prussian success due? (11) How did this success
help the cause of German unity ? (12) Why was France angered
by it ? (13) Which side was responsible for the Franco-German
War ? (14) Was Bismarck's alteration of the Ems dispatch justi-
fiable? (15) Where should the blame lie for the failure of the
French in the war ? (16) How did the war enable Bismarck to com-
plete the formation of the German Empire ? (17) Granting that
those who set up the Commune at Paris were honest in their views,
was their action patriotic ? (18) Why did Victor Emmanuel seek
to win Rome for his capital ? (19) Why did the Pope resist ?

(20) Personal character of Napoleon III. (21) The Empress
Eugenie. (22) De Lesseps and the Suez Canal. (23) The first
world's fair. (24) Facts concerning the charge of the Light Bri-
gade (Kmg]2Lk.e''s Invasion of the Crimea). (25) Florence Nightin-
gale. (26) Cavour. (27) Napoleon Ill.'s'reasons for aiding Italy.
(28) Victor Emmanuel. (29) Maximilian in Mexico. (30) Bis-
marck. (31) Moltke. (32) King William I. (33) Causes of the
Franco-German War. (34) Reasons for the South German aid to
Prussia. (35) The Sedan campaign. (36) Incidents of the siege
of Paris. (37) Gambetta. (38) The Commune. (39) Rebuilding
of Paris. (40) Proclamation of the German Emperor at Versailles.
(41) Vatican Council of 1869-1870. (42) Loss of the Pope's tem-
poral power. (43) Progress of science, 1850-1876.

topics

Search
topics

REFERENCES

See maps, pp. 488, 534. 547, 576 ; Putzger, Atlas, maps 29 6, 30, Geographj
30 a ; Gardiner, School Atlas, maps 62, 69 ; Poole, Historical Atlas,
maps xliii. Ixx.

552

DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

Secondary
authorities

Sources

Illustrative
works

Bryce, Holy Eoman Empire (Revised ed.), ch. xxiii. ; Duruy,
France^ Appendix, cli. iv. ; Lodge, History of Modern Europe^
ch. xxvii. ; Henderson, Short History of Germany^ II. chs. ix. x. ;
Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth Century^ chs. xii.-xiv. ; Phillips,
Modern Europe, chs. xiv.-xviii. ; Fyffe, History of Modern Europe
(Popular ed.), 826-838, 844-8(32, 868-908, 914-920, 926-927, 936-
944. 952-965, 968-1019 ; Muller, Political History of Recent Times,
253-292, 294-299, 306-308, 326-368, 409-471 ; Seignobos, Political
History of Europe since 1814, 173-184, 346-372, 590-597, 813-
833 ; Murdock, Reconstruction of Europe, chs. iii.-viii. ; Lebon,
Modern France, chs. xii.-xiv. ; Probyn, Italy, chs. ix.-xi. ; Stillman,
Union of Italy ; Latimer, Italy in the Nineteenth Century, chs. ix.-
xvi. ; Bolton King, History of Italian Unity, I. pt. ii. chs. xxiv.-
xxxix. ; Thayer, Throm -Makers (Cavour, and Bismarck); Mazade,
Cavour ; Countess Cesaresco, Cavour ; Headlam, Bismarck, —
Foundations of the German Empire, 1815-1871.

Whitman, Personal Reminiscences of Prince Bismarck ; Bis-
marck's Table Talk (edited by Charles Lowe) ; Bismarck: The
Man and the Statesman (edited by A. J. Butler) ; Busch, Bis-
marck : Some Secret Pages of his History ; Von Moltke, Franco-
German War; Cavour, Letters (Butler's trans.) ; Garibaldi, Auto-
biography.

G. A. Henty, The Young Franc-Tireurs, — Out with Garibaldi,
H. Kingsley, Valentin; Bulwer, The Parisians; J. Cobb, Work-
man and Soldier ; Tighe Hopkins, For Freedom ; M. Jdkai,
Manassek ; Captain Brereton, A Gallant Grenadier ; G. Samarow,
For Sceptre and Crown ; J. Oxenham, John of Gerisau ; Dr. "William
Barr>', The Day spring ; Robert W. Chambers, The Red Republic \
Paul and Victor Margueritte, The Disaster.

CHAPTER XXX.
GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

Great Britain is " the only state ' in Europe which has
gone through the nineteenth century without a revolution ' ;
yet though the framework of her constitution remained g^g j^^^.^,
unaltered, its practical operation was profoundly changed. ductory
At the beginning of the century the government was survey

entirely in the hands of the aristocracy, composed of Europe since
large landowners and of members of the established ^^^^' P- ^^
church; at its end, power was shared with the middle class,
the industrial democracy, and the agricultural laborers, and all
religious disabilities were abolished.

Until the close of the gigantic struggle with Napoleon,
all projects of reform were stopped by the fear lest Great
Britain might, like France, be led into revolution; when
that contest was over. Great Britain soon resumed her natural
development. Nowhere was the Industrial Eevolution more
marked. The north of England, where manufacturing centered
because of its supplies of iron and coal, became the most
populous, the wealthiest, and the most influential part of the
kingdom. " A new England was added to the old," Boutmy,
says a French writer; "it was as if a new land had Comtitu-
been upheaved from the sea, and joined on to the shores tion, ise
of some old-world continent." The leaders of this industrial
north, acting with the old Whig aristocrats, then began a
series of political and humanitarian reforms, in the reigns
of George IV. (1820-1830) and William IV. (1830-1837),
which were continued in the long and beneficent reign of
Queen Victoria (1837-1901).

553

5o4

GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 555

Freedom of worship had been granted to dissenters {i.e. Prot-
estants not members of the established church) by the Tolera-
tion Act of 1689; but it was not until 1828 that the 549. Ee-
laws forbidding dissenters to take political office were ^^ous<Hs-
repealed. Jews were not permitted to sit in Parliament abilities
until 1858. The most severe of the anti-Catholic laws were
repealed in the latter part of the eighteenth century; but
Catholics were still shut out of office because of the scruples
of George III., who insisted that his coronation oath to defend
the English Church would not permit him to assent to any
law admitting Catholics to Parliament.

His successor, George IV., was a man of low moral character,
and his scruples were disregarded. Daniel O'Connell, an
eloquent Catholic lawyer, organized a widespread Catholic
Association in Ireland, and was elected to the House of
Commons with the purpose of testing the right of a Catholic
to sit in that body. To avert imminent danger of revolution,
the Duke of Wellington and Sir Robert Peel, who were the
Tory leaders of the government, gave way ; and in 1829, to the
great disgust of their Tory followers, they secured the passage
of a bill admitting Catholics to seats in Parliament and to
nearly all offices in the state.

For the union of the British Isles under one Parliament, the

first step had been taken in the Act of Union with Scotland

in 1707 (§ 359). The second was taken in 1800-1801, 550. Parlia

when, as the result of a recent rebellion in Ireland, the mentary

' ' union

Irish Parliament was cajoled and bribed into merging its (1707-1801,

existence in that of the Parliament of the "United King-
dom of Great Britain and Ireland," sitting at Westminster.
Thenceforth (until the apportionment was changed by the
Reform Acts) Ireland had 100 members in the House of
Commons, to 45 for Scotland and 513 for England and Wales.
The members of the House of Commons were of two sorts, —
county (or shire) representatives and borough representatives.

556 dp:mocracy and expansion

Almost every county, large or small, had two members; and
the right to vote was restricted to " freehold " tenants holding
661 Parlia- ^^-iids worth at least forty shillings per annum rental,
mentary xiie Scottish county of Bute, with a population of four-
tion before t^^^ thousand, had only twenty-one electors; and it is
1832 related that at one time only one elector appeared, who

fortliwith took the chair, moved and seconded his own nomi-
nation, cast his vote, and declared himself unanimously
elected.

The boronglis were represented usually by two members
each (a few had only one), and there had been practically no
(change in th(^ list of boroughs since the days of Charles 11.
^lany populous manufacturing towns, like Birmingham, Man-
chester, and Leeds, were without representation. On the
other liand, many places whicli had lost their former con-
sequence, or even (like Old Sarum) were without any inhabit-
ants at all, continued to return members to Parliament. The
seats of such " rotten "* or '• i)ocket " boroughs were often pub-
licly sold by the landlord, or in some boroughs by the voters
themselves. The qualifications for the franchise varied greatly
in different boroughs, in some only the small governing body
— a close eor])oration — having the right to vote. Not merely
were large parts of the kingdom unrepresented (according to
American ideas of representation), and the majority of the
adult male population without votes; but in a House of Com-
mons of six hundred and fifty-eight members, not more than
one third w(U'e the free choice even of the limited bodies of
electors that had the franchise.

After many attempts at partial reform. Lord John Russell

carried a general Reform Bill through the House of Commons

552 The Re- ^^' ^^'^^- '^^^^ strong Tory majority in the House of Lords,

form Acts of after once rejecting the bill, yielded to the threat of the
1832-1884

ministers to require the king's consent to the creation of

enough new peers to overcome the opposition (June, 1832), The

GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 557

act took away one hundred and forty-three seats from small bor-
oughs, and used these to increase the representation of the more
populous counties and to give representation to the unrepre-
sented manufacturing towns of the north. The purpose of
the bill may be described in language which Russell used of
one of his earlier measures : " My proposal took away Russell,
representation from the dead bones of a former state of Dispatches,
England, and gave it to the living energy and industry ^' ^o

of the England of the nineteenth century, with its steam
engines and factories, its cotton and woolen cloths, its cutlery
and its coal mines, its wealth and its intelligence/' The
franchise for both county and borough electors was at the same
time made more liberal, and uniformity of qualification was
introduced among the boroughs.

The reform of 1832 substituted the rule of the middle classes
— of the small farmers and shopkeepers — for the rule of
the aristocracy. The further step of making the government
democratic was accomplished by the Eeform Acts of 1867 and
1884. The first of these was passed by the Conservatives (as
the Tories were now called) while Disraeli was leader of the
House of Commons ; it about doubled the number of voters by
giving workingmen the franchise. The second was passed while
Gladstone, the Whig or Liberal leader, was prime minister, and
added about two million persons, mostly rural laborers, to the
voting body. Since the passage of the latter act, the franchise
has remained almost as widely distributed in Great Britain as
it is in the United States.

A reform of the criminal law began even before the passage
of the first parliamentary Reform Act. At the beginning of
the century, two hundred and twenty -three offenses were -co -on
punishable with death : these included such slight crimes manitarian
as hunting in the king's forests, injuring Westminster " ^^^^
bridge, and shoplifting to the value of five shillings. With
the efforts of Sir Samuel Rom illy there began a reform of the

558 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

criminal laws, which did not stop until murder and treason
were left the sole capital crimes.

In 1772 the courts declared that a slave brought to England
became free. Clarkson, Wilberforce, and others then carried
on agitation which led Parliament, in 1807, to abolish entirely
the slave trade by British ships or to British colonies. Finally,
in 18.*>.'^, Parliament passed an act abolishing slavery itself in
the colonies and appropriating £20,000,000 to compensate the
masters.

St(^ps were also taken to improve the lot of free laborers.
In manufacturing establishments men, and even women and
children, at times worked as many as eighteen hours a day.
Tlic first general l'\actory Act, })assed in 18.>3, prohibited the
eniployment of children under nine years, and limited the hours
of labor for tliosc between nine years and thirteen years to nine
hours a day, and for "young persons'' between thirteen and
eighteen to twelve hours. Subsequent acts further limited the
employment of cliiklren, provided for better sanitary surround-
ings and education, and prohibited the employment of women
in mines.

A reform of tlie Poor Laws was one of the acts of the re-
formed Parliament. During the distress caused by the war
554. Re- witli Tv(^vohitionary P^rance, the local authorities had be-
Poor Laws^ gun the practice of giving " out-door relief " to able-bodied
(1834) ijoor, i.p. without making theui inmates of workhouses.

Euiployers took advantage of this support to cut down wages ;
laborers wcn^ i);iu])erizcd by the knowledge that they would
be maintained whether they worked or not; and local taxes
rose to ruinous lates. In 1S34 the demoralizing practice was
stopped by a new l*n()r Law, wliicli abolished out-door relief
for the ablc-l)0(li('(l. uiaih^ a willingness to go to the workhouse
a test of the luM'd of aid, and established a department of the
central u'"v»M-!iiiieiit lo supervise the system.

Queen N'ictoria succ.c.lcd her uncle, William IV., while she

GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 550

toria (1837)

was still a girl of eighteen.^ She had been prudently trained
by her mother, the widowed Duchess of Kent, and from the

beginning of her reign 555 j^^^^^_
showed intelligence and sion of Vic-
goodness of heart. The
crown of Hanover, which had
been joined in personal union
with that of Great Britain
since 1714, passed to her
uncle, the Duke of Cumber-
land, as the nearest male heir ;
but throughout her life Vic-
toria took a keen interest in
German affairs. In part this
Victoria in 1897. was due to her mother's Ger-

man birth, to her own happy marriage, in 1840, to Prince
Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and to the marriage of her eldest

1 The following table shows the family of George III. and of Queen
Victoria : —

(1) Georc.e III. (1760-1820)

(2) Gborge IV.
(1820-1830)

^ ^ ^ 1

Frederick, (3) William IV. Edward, Ernest,

Duke of York (1830-1837) Duke of Kent Duke of Cumberland,

(d. 1827) ..~-..~N^ ^^j -,320) (K. of Hanover

-^ I 1837-1861)

(4) Victoria
(1837-1901),
m. Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (d. 1861)

1 i \ \ \ \ \ \ [

Victoria, (5) Edward VII. Alice, Alfred, Helena, Louise, Arthur, Leopold, Beatrice,

m. Freder-
ick, Crown
Prince of
Prussia,

later
German
Emperor

(1901- ), m. Duke of m. m. Duke Duke

m. Alexandra Prince Edin- Prince Marquis of Con- of

of Denmark of burgh, of of naught Albany

Hesse and Angus- Lome,

later tenburg later

Duke of Duke of

Saxe- Argyle
Coburg

m.
Prince

of
Batten-
berg

Oeorjf* Frederick, Prince of Wales, Louise, Victoria Maud,

m . Victoria Mary of Teck m . Duke of Fife m . Prince Karl of Denmark

Edward Albert Albert Frederick Henry William George Edward

500 BEMOCKACY AND EXPANSION

daughter to the crown prince of Prussia, later himself Ger-
man emperor and father of the emperor William II.

At first the Tories felt doubtful of influencing the young
queen. " 1 have no small talk," said the Duke of Wellington,
in explaining why the Tories could not compete with the
Whigs, "and Peel has no manners." But the queen loyally
played the part of a constitutional sovereign, calling to the
head of the administration the leaders of the Whigs (or
Liberals) at one time, and the Tories (or Conservatives) at
another, according as the one party or the other had a majority
in the House of Commons.

Early in the queen's reign (1839), a measure was carried by
which the high rates of postage on letters were reduced to the
656 Penny i^iiiift>i'ii^ rate of one penny for all places in the United
postage Kingdom, and adhesive stamps were introduced with
which to prepay postage. This reform enormously increased
the amount of mail carried, and greatly helped social progress ;
and it was soon adopted by all civilized countries.

Another important ineasure was the abolition of the import
duties on "corn," i.e. grain, which was carried through Par-
557. Repeal liament while Sir liobert Peel, the Tory leader, was
Corn Laws P^'i^i^^ minister. The Corn Laws imposed duties calcu-
li 846) lated to keep the price of wheat uniformly high, for the
benefit of the landlords. Manufacturers protested, because such
laws made living dear and compelled the payment of higher
wages. An Anti-Corn-Law League was organized (in 1838)
under Kichard Cobden and «John ]>right, to procure the repeal
of these duties ; and in 1845, as C'obden said, " Famine itself,
against which we had warred, joined us." In Ireland a disease
attacked the ])otato, which was the chief article of food of the
peasantry ; two million persons ai'e said to have died of starva-
tion and want, and within four years another million emi-
grated to America. The Whig leader, Russell, took up the cry
for the repeal of the corn laws, on the ground that they had

GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 561

"been proved to be the blight of commerce, the bane of agri-
culture, the source of bitter divisions among classes, the j^, .
cause of penury, fever, mortality, and crime among the Life of Riis-
people." In January, 1846, Peel, with the assistance of *^ ♦ •
the Whigs, carried through both houses of Parliament the re-
peal of the obnoxious laws. This measure completed a series
of changes in the customs laws which committed Great Britain
to the policy of free trade. To Peel it brought political down-
fall, for the Tory protectionists, hating and repudiating their
former leader, soon joined the Whigs in overthrowing his
government.

In the thirty-five years following the Eeform Act of 1832,
the Conservatives were in office less than seven years al-
together; in the next thirty-five years (1868-1903) they
were in office twenty-three years, principally because stone and
(1) they adopted a liberal policy with respect to domestic Disraen
reforms, and (2) they gave more prominence than Liberals to
foreign and colonial affairs. The Conservative leader who did
most to educate his party on these lines was Disraeli, later
made Earl of Beaconsfield. In 1868 for the first time he
became prime minister ; and Kussell surrendered the leader-
ship of the Liberal party, then in opposition, to Gladstone:
from that day until BeaQonsfield's death, in 1881, there was
a prolonged political duel between these two great statesmen.
Gladstone entered Parliament in 1833 as an extreme Tory,
became a Peelite, then an out-and-out Liberal, and after more
than sixty years of active political life ended his parliamentary
career in 1894 as a Radical.

In December, 1868, Disraeli was supplanted by Gladstone
as prime minister on the question of the continuance of the
established Protestant Episcopal Church in Ireland, to 559. Irish
which at the time of the Reformation had been assigned ^^?'^J ?^
the former position and property of the Roman Catholic (1869)

Church. Nine tenths of the people, however, held to the old

562

DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

faith, and in 1835 it was reported that in one hundred and
fifty-one parishes there was not a single Protestant. The
conscience of England, and especially that of Gladstone,
gradually awoke to the injustice of taxing the Irish people
for the support of a faith professed by so small a minority ;
and as the first act of his first premiership he introduced and
carried through Parlia-
ment, in 1869, a measure
which disestablished
and partly disendowed
the Protestant Irish
Church.

Gladstone was re-
sponsible for a host of
other reforms in

Gladstone.

560. Other

reforms his hrst premier-

(1869-1874) .s]iipri8(;9-1874),
among ^vhi(•h were: an
act cstablisliing in
England, for the first
time, a state system of
elementary education
(1870) ; the abolition
of all ivligious tests at
the universities of Oxford and Cambridge (1871) ; an act intro-
ducing secret voting by baHot (1872): an act reorganizing and
unifying tlie great law courts (1873); and an Irish Land Act
(1870), whi(!h attenipte<l to remedy some of the economic evils
which weijjfhed upon tlie Irish peasantry.

In later years (rladstone was foi'ced more and more to con-

561 Th ^i<l<'i" Irish questions. With the general development of

Irish land the sj»irit of nationality in the nineteenth century came
a desire for the restoration of the Irish Parliament,
and this led, in 1870, to the formation of an Irish Home

question

GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 563

Rule League. Agriculture and grazing were almost the only
industries in Ireland, and yet the soil belonged chiefly to ab-
sentee landlords, whose titles went back to confiscations in
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ; their main concern,
usually, was to get as much rent from their peasant tenants as
possible. Except in Ulster, tenants who made improvements
in the lands they tilled ran the risk of having their rents
raised as a result of their own industry. Evictions (the turn-
ing out of tenants for failure to pay the rent demanded) were
common ; these led to cattle maiming, arson, and murder by
way of revenge ; then, to put down these " agrarian crimes,''
Parliament passed coercive laws.

In 1879 a National Land League was formed, under Parnell,
the leader of the Irish party in Parliament, whose demands
were summed up in the " three F's " : (1) fixity of ten- gg2 Par-
ure, (2) free sale, and (3) fair rent. In 1880 the "boy- nellandthe
cott " (so called from Captain Boycott, the first notable League

victim of the system) was devised as a means of com- (1879-1886)
bating those who violated these principles. In Parliament,
Parnell at the head of a solid Irish party adopted the policy
of systematically "obstructing" all business until Irish griev-
ances should be redressed. Gladstone's second administration
(1880-1885) passed a second Irish Land Act (1881), which did
much good, but fell short of the demands of the Irish party.

In his third administration (1886) Gladstone went further,

and announced his conversion to the cause of Home Kule.

following their official leader, while a minority, of whom stone's

'^ Home Rule

Chamberlain was the most important, formed the Liberal- policy

Unionist party, and thereafter acted with the Conserva- (1886)

tives. Gladstone's first Home Eule Bill, introduced in 1886,

. was defeated in the House of Commons by 341 to 311 votes.

Under the parliamentary system of government, a prime

minister whose measures are defeated in the Commons must

504 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

either resign, or dissolve Parliament and appeal to the country

in a general election. Gladstone chose the latter course, with

the result that in the new House of Commons he had only 276

supporters against 394, and a Conservative ministry, under

Lord Salisbury, was formed.

Lord Salisbury's (second) administration lasted from 1886 to

1802. Some further steps were taken toward solving the Irish

564. Weak- land question, but nothing was done toward giving Home

enmgofthe h^^Iq ^q Iceland. The Irish cause was weakened by a
Irish party "^

(1886-1892) split in the Home Kule party, a portion of the Irish

members repudiating Parnell (who died in 1891) on personal
grounds. Under the Pritish constitution the members of
Parliament are not chosen for any definite period, but no
Parliament may sit for more than seven years. Under this
j)rovision Lord Salisbury, in 1892, dissolved Parliament and
appealed to the country. The Liberals, under Gladstone,
adopted a platform demanding Home Rule for Ireland, the dis-
establishment of the Anglican (Protestant Episcopal) Church
in Wales, the "ending or mending" of the House of Lords,
payment for members of l*arliament, and other Radical meas-
ures. The result of the elections was a House of Commons
containing a Gladstonian majority of forty.

Thus for the fourth time Gladstone, " the Grand Old jNfan,"

became })rime minister, which position he held until his resig-

• h ^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ account of ill health, in his eighty-fifth year,

questions in 1894. The second Home Rule Bill, which was intro-

^ ^~ ^^ duced in 1893, passed the House of Commons, but was

defeated in the House of Lords by a vote of 419 to 41 . When

it is evident that the House of Commons has the nation behind

it, the Lords will not venture to reject important measures, for

fear the sovereign may be forced to create enough new peers

(as was threatened in 18.32) to overcome the opposition; but

in 1898 it was not certain that if the simple issue of Home

Rule for Ireland were presented to the electors a majority would

GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 565

be in its favor. Gladstone himself seems to have had his
doubts, for instead of dissolving Parliament and holding a new
election on this issue, he let Home Eule drop for the time,
and carried through other measures to which he was pledged.
After that time the cause of Home Rule languished.

The Irish land question was practically settled by an act
passed, in 1903, by the Conservative government in agreement
with the Irish party. The main feature of this act was a pro-
vision for a government loan to Irish tenants of £100,000,000
to be used in purchasing their holdings, repayment to be dis-
tributed over a long period. The peasant will thus at last be-
come the owner of the land he tills, and the chief source of
Ireland's ills will be at an end.

The British Parliament not only rules directly the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, but is also the supreme
lawmaking body for a vast colonial empire. By 1825 566. Colo-
most of the Spanish, French, and Portuguese colonies ^ia-l empire
had been lost — partly by revolts, partly by British conquests ;
the present colonial empires of France and of Germany date
only from the nineteenth century. The British colonial em-
pire, despite the loss of the thirteen American colonies in

1783, is "the only considerable survivor of a family of Seeley, Ex-
pansion of
great [colonial] empires," which arose in the seventeenth England, 43

and eighteenth centuries out of the geographical discoveries

which ushered in modern history.

At the close of the wars with Napoleon, in 1815, the British

Empire included, outside of Europe, five great groups of

territory: (1) British North America — mainly wrested „ b "f h

from the French in the war which ended in 1763; colonies in

1815

(2) Jamaica and other islands in the West Indies,
together with British Honduras and British Guiana — for
the most part taken from Holland, France, and Spain in the
wars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries ; (3) Cape
('olony (Cape of Good Hope) in South Africa — conquered

568 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

fioin Holland, in 1806, while the latter was under Revolu-
tionary France; (4) British India — acquired as a result of
dive's victory at Plassey in 1757 ; and (5) Australia.

Australia was the last of the continents to be discovered and
colonized. Its existence was already known when the Dutch-
juen Torres (1606) and Tasnian (1642) and the English bucca-
neer Dampier (1669) touched portiens of its coast ; it remained,
however, for Captain Cook, under the auspices of the British
government, in 1769, 1772, and 1776, to open these shores,
as well as those of New Zealand, to European enterprise.
Botany Bay, in New South Wales, was founded in 1788 as a
liritish convict station, and New Zealand was settled in 1815
as a center for missionary work. Australia's rapid develop-
ment was due to tlie introduction of wool growing, and to the
discovery of gold in 1851.

Under the rule of the Liberals, in the middle of the nine-
teenth century, the colonies were lightly valued, and states-
568 B 'tisli "^^^^ ^^^^^ looked forward to the time when they might
colonial be lost. '^ We know," said Gladstone, in 1864, " that
^° ^^ British North America and Australia must before long

be independent states ; we have no interest except in their
strength and well-being." But since submarine cables and
regular steamsliip lines have made communication less diffi-
cult, there is no longer talk of letting the colonies fall "like
v\Y>e fruit from the tree " ; on the contrary, efforts have been
made to unite them firmly to each other and to their imperial
mother by ties of loyal affection and interest.

An important step was taken in 1867, when Parliament

passed an act which resulted in the federal union (by 1873)

569. Colo- of all British North America, except Newfoundland,

Imperial ^"ider the name of the Dominion of Canada. In 1901,

Federation after some years of negotiation, a similar federation was

formed of tlie five colonies of Australia and Tasmania into

the Commonwealth of Australia.

GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 569

In 1887, in connection with tlie celebration of the comple-
tion of fifty years' rule by the queen, a Colonial Conference
was called at London, which was attended by leading states-
men from all the self-governing colonies : this was the first
step toward what is called Imperial Federation, i.e. giving to
the colonies a share in the government of the British Empire.
Several such conferences have since been held ; and while no
workable scheme for admitting the colonies to partnership has
yet been devised, the ties have been drawn closer between
Englishmen at home and their brethren "beyond seas."

The colonies in which the British population is greatly out-
numbered by native races (mainly within or near the tropics)
are governed as crown colonies, through officials appointed ^„q „ .
chiefly from England. Where the population of British nial gov-
origin is relatively large and permanent, self-government ®^^™®^ s
has been granted, with representative legislatures and respon-
sible ministries, and the home government rarely asserts its
right of veto over colonial laws. The federal governments also
of Canada and Australia are of the parliamentary type, with
responsible ministries. Colonial governors are usually sent out
from England, but except in the crown colonies they have little
real power.

India, whose population is alien in race, religion, and modes
of life, remains in a class apart. The rule of the East India
Company, under a Board of Control appointed by the
British government (§ 393), continued until the Indian India

Mutiny in 1857. This was a revolt of the native Sepoy (1857-1877)
troops, due to uneasiness created by the rapid progress of
British ways and rule; its immediate occasion was an un-
founded rumor that the new cartridges furnished to the troops
were greased with a mixture of hog and beef fat — the one
animal an object of loathing to Mohammedans and the other
of religious worship to the Hindus. The movement was con-
fined to the army and to a few provinces ; it brought terrible
Harding's m. & m. hist. — 33

570

DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

suffering to many of the English, including women and chil-
dren, but was put down in 1858. After the Mutiny, the
British government took over the rule of the British posses-
sions in India, and the East India Company came to an end.
A further step was taken in 1877, when the queen was pro-
claimed by a new title, that of "Empress of India."

South Africa was the region which, in the latter part of the

nineteenth century, gave Great Britain most trouble. When

TT, slavery was abolished by the act of the British Parlia-

Ola. 1116

Boer Wars ment in J 833, many Dutch inhabitants (" Boers ") of Cape

(1880-1902) QQJQ^^y a trekked " northward to escape British rule, and

founded Natal, the Orange Free State, and the South African

Republic (Transvaal). Natal was annexed by the British in

1843. The attempt
to bring the Trans-
vaal under British
rule led to a war with
the Boers in 1880-
1881, in which the
British were defeated
at Majuba Hill. In
1881 peace was made
by Gladstone on the
agreement that the
Boers were to have

CAPE TOWN

C. of CcH/J Uupt

200 300

The Boer RKprBLics (IH<)<>)-

self-government in internal affairs, but in external affairs were
to be under the "suzerainty" of Great Britain. This agree-
ment (modified somewhat in 1884) worked well until, in 1885,
the discovery of rich gold deposits brought a flood of British
miners and adventurers into the Transvaal; then friction fol-
lowed between the Boers and these " uit-landers."

The result was the Second Boer War (1899-1902), with the
Transvaal and the Orange Free State. Great Britain was suc-
cessful, and both Dutch states were made British colonies. The

GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 571

BuKR Artillery im War of 1899-1902.

war revealed great defects in the administration of the British
army, while the gallant fight made by the Boers aroused much
sympathy. A policy of conciliation was now adopted ; local self-
government was given to the conquered territories ; and in 1909
they joined Cape Colony and Natal in forming a federal union.

When Gladstone retired, in 1894, his ministry was continued
(until June, 1895) by Lord Eosebery. Then the Conserva-
tives came into power, first under Lord Salisbury 573. Acces-
(1895-1902), and later under Mr. Balfour; in both ^}^l°^^^'
administrations Mr. Chamberlain, the Colonial Secre- (1901)

tary, played a conspicuous part, until his resignation in 1903.
Gladstone died in 1898, and Salisbury in 1903.

More important than the death of either was the death,
in 1901, of Queen Victoria. The loyal affection felt for her
throughout the empire was shown at her jubilees, in 1887
and in 1897, on the completion of her fiftieth and sixtieth
years of rule. Her reign will go down in history as one of

572 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

the most glorious in the annals of England — glorious not by
reason of conquests and wars, but by reason of the progress
of peace, enlightenment, morality, and of the uplifting of the
people. In English literature it was an important epoch,
liurns (17r)l)-179()), Byron (1788-1824), and Scott (1771-1832)
belong to an earlier period ; but Wordsworth (1770-1850),
:Macaulay (1800-1859), Browning (1812-1889), and Tennyson
(1809-1892) were of the Victorian era. ]\Iany forces combined
to produce the greatness of England in this period ; but among
these nuist be reckoned the good Queen Victoria, whose '- noble
life and beneficent influence," to use the language of President
Mclviuley, " have promoted the peace and won the affection of
tlie world." The Prince of Wales, at the age of sixty, suc-
ceeded her as Edward VII.

(ioor-c III. (17()0-182O), Ids sons George IV. (1820-1830)
and William IV. (1830-1 837), his granddaughter Victoria
574. Sum- (1837-1901), and Edward VII. followed one another on
™^ry {\^Q English throne. Under tlie Cabinet system of gov-

ernnu'nt the real ])()W('r was wielded by great party leaders,
who successively became prime ministers through the posses-
sion of a majority in the House of Commons. The chief Tory
or Conservative prime ministers were Peel, Disraeli (or Bea-
c()iisfi('l(l), Salisbury, and Balfour; the chief Whig or Liberal
I)r(Muiers w<mv IJussell, Gladstone, and Rosebery. Parliament
was reformed in 1832, in 1867, and in 1884-1885. Catholics
were admitted to Parliament and to other offices in 1829.
Free trade was adopted in 1846. The Protestant Episcopal
Church Avas disestablished in Ireland in 1869; and in 1870,
1S81, aiul 1903 Pailiament took steps toward ending the Irish
land trouldes; Gladstone failed, however, in 1886 and 1893,
in his attein|)t to pass a Home Rule bill. A series of humane
r.'forms. the giowth of P»ritish manufactures and commerce,
and a great colonial expansion complete the list of the more

GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 578

important facts in this period of Great Britain's internal
history.

" England in the nineteenth century," says a Erench his-
torian, " has served as a political model for Europe. The
English people developed the political mechanism of Seignobos,
modern Europe, — constitutional monarchy, parliamen- Europe

tary government, and safeguards for personal liberty. p, lo

The other nations have only imitated them." England got
along without revolution because of two things: (1) she had
an established constitution under which much political freedom
was already enjoyed, together with a liberty of speech and of
writing which made peaceable movements for reform possible ;
(2) the English are a conservative people, preferring to " mud-
dle along " with existing conditions so long as they are endur-
able, and to change cautiously when change is necessary. Most
reforms — religious emancipation, parliamentary reform, fac-
tory legislation, colonial union — have come gradually and as
a result of compromise; thus Great Britain has escaped the
see-saw of revolution and reaction, and each step in advance
has been permanent.

TOPICS

(1) Which contributed more to the advancement of the people, Suggestive
the gradual reforms of Great Britain or the revolutions of France ?
(2) How do you account for the conservative character of the
English people ? (3) Was it just to exclude Protestant dissenters.
Catholics, and Jews from Parliament while taxing them ? (4) Do
the same reasons apply to the unrepresented towns and classes
before the reform of Parliament ? (5) What changes did the
parliamentary reform acts make in the political control of Great
Britain ? (6) Which party profited most by the Reform Act of
1832? (7) Why did that advantage not continue ? (8) Compare
the abolition of slavery in the British Empire with that in the
United States. (9) Which seems to you the greater statesman,
Gladstone or Disraeli ? (10) If you were English-, would you be
a Conservative, a Liberal, or a Liberal-Unionist? (11) What
arguments may be urged for giving Home Rule to Ireland ?

topics

674

DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

Search
topics

(12) What arguments may be urged for not doing so ? (13) Why
did Great Britain win in the contests for colonial empire ? (14) By
what right did she gain Australia? (15) In what respects was
Queen Victoria a great ruler? (16) What differences are there
between the position of a British prime minister and that of an
American president ? (17) What resemblances ? (18) Compare
the House of Commons with our national House of Representa-
tives. (19) Compare the House of Lords with our Senate.

(20) Daniel O'Connell. (21) Incidents of the parliamentary
reform of 1832. (22) Circumstances of the reform of 1867.
(23) British agitators for the abolition of slavery. (24) The fac-
tory acts. (25) Poor Law reform, 1834. (26) Richard Cobden
and the repeal of the Corn Laws. (27) Irish famine of 1845.
(28) Sir Robert Peel. (29) John Bright. (30) Lord John Rus-
sell. (31) Lord Palmerston. (32) Disestablishment of the Irish
Church. (33) Gladstone's growth in liberal opinions. (34) His
personality and character. (35) Disraeli. (36) The Irish land
question. (37) Charles Stewart Parnell. (38) The Home Rule
movement. (39) Lord Salisbury. (40) The acquisition of Great
Britain's colonial empire. (41) Government of the Dominion of
Canada. (42) History of the federation of Australia. (43) The
Indian Mutiny. (44) The private life and character of Queen
Victoria. (45) English literature in the Victorian era.

Geogrraphy

Secondary
authorities

REFERENCES

See maps, pp. 554, 566 ; (iardiner. School Atlas, maps 54, 61, 65 ;
Poole, Historical Atlas, maps xxiii. xxiv. ; Dow, Atlas, xxii.

Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth Century, chs. xviii.-xxi. ;
Seignobos, Political Jlistonj of Europe since 1814, chs. ii.-iv. xxiv. ;
Ransonie, Advanced History of Entjland, bk. viii. chs. v.-viii. ;
Gardiner, Student's History of England, chs. Iv.-lx. ; Terry, His-
toi-y of England, pt. iv. chs. vii.-ix. ; Montague, Elements of
English Constitutional History, 188-193, 203-211, 2ir)-218 ; Mc-
Carthy, Epoch of lieform ; Thursfield, Peel ; McCarthy, Sir
liohrrt Peel ; Roid, Lord John Pussell ; Froude, Earl of Beacons-
field ; Russell, W. E. (rladstone ; McCarthy, Story of Gladstone's
Life ; Lecky, William E. Gladstone ; Bryce, William Ewart Glad-
stone ; Morley, Life of (Hadstone, bk. ii. ch. vi., bk. ix. chs. v.-vii.,
bk. X. chs. vii. x. ; Marquis of Lome, Viscount Palmerston ; Lee,
Queen Victoria ; Traill, Marquis of Salisbury ; Lawless, Ireland,
377-385, 396-402 ; Traill, Social England, VI. ; Cheney, Introduc-
tion to the Social History of England, chs. viii.-x. ; Historians''
History of the World, XX. 593-653, XXI. 451-661.

GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 575

More extended accounts will be found in the following: J, F.
Bright, History of England^ IV. V. ; Spencer Walpole, History of
England since 1815^ — History of Twenty-five Years, 1S56-1S80;
W. N. Moleswortli, History of England, 1830-1874 ; Harriet Mar-
tineau, History of the Thirty Years'' Peace, 1815-1855] Justin Mc-
Carthy, History of Our Own Times.

Kendall, Source Book, chs. xx.-xxi. ; Colby, Selections from the Sources
Sources, nos. 113-117 ; Adams and Stephens, Select Documents,
nos. 259, 261-208, 270, 275 ; Adams and Alden, Representative
British Orations, IV. ; Clarke, Political Orations, 281-295.

G. A. Henty, In Time of Peril; W. H. G. Kingston, The Young Illustrative
Bajah ; Colonel Chesney, The Dilemma ; Fenn, For the Old Flag. "^^"^^^

A Sheep Farm in Australia.

r)7r.

CHAPTEE XXXI.

NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND THE NEW CONCERT OE THE
POWERS (1871-1900)

(A) General History of the Period

Out of the opposition aroused by the French Revolution

and the aggressions of the first Napoleon. (1792-1815) came

the idea of a confederation of Europe (an idea foreign to 575 Qygj..

the older diplomacy) in which the sovereigns should tlirow of old

^ , , . . . , Concert of

make common cause to combat revolutionary principles Powers

and to regulate matters of common interest ; and the em- (1822-1871)
bodiment of that idea was seen in the Holy and Quadruple
alliances (§ 483), and the resulting congresses. Great Britain's
opposition to intervention in the domestic politics of Spain and
Italy int was made a living reality by the submission to it of
several troublesome cases. Its creation stands as a marked
event in recent history.

A second Hague conference, in 1907, laid down additional
rules governing war and neutrality, and further advanced the
cause of peace. A third conference was provided for, which
is expected to meet in 1914.

NATIONAL lilVALlUES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 587

(B) Internal History of the Chief Continental States

The internal history of the several European states must
now be briefly sketched, beginning with that of France. The
government under Thiers, which made peace with Ger- gg^ Estab
many in 1871, was only provisional, and for five years the lishing the
future form of the French constitution was not fixed. A public

majority of voters wished to maintain theKepublic; but (1871-1874)
the National Assembly was monarchist, had been elected with-
out limit of term, and there was no legal method of compelling
it to lay down its power. Thiers was a constitutional monar-
chist, but loyally upheld the Eepublic as "the system that
divides us least." Under his rule, France recovered rapidly
from her disasters ; the war indemnity was paid ; and in Sep-
tember, 1873, the last German soldiers withdrew.

In May, 1873, Thiers was forced to resign and was succeeded
by Marshal MacMahon, who was elected president with the
express purpose of restoring monarchy. Of the three monar-
chical parties (Imperialists, Legitimists, and Orleanists), the
Imperialists were so weak that they could be neglected; the
two others came to an agreement by which the National Assem-
bly was to recognize as king the head of the " legitimate," or
elder branch of the Bourbons (the Count of Chambord, known
as " Henry V. "), while the Count of Paris as head of the
Orleans branch was recognized as his successor. At the last
moment the restoration failed, because the Count of Cham-
bord declared that he would restore the white flag of the
Bourbons, while the Orleanists insisted on the tricolor with
which so many patriotic memories were intertwined.

The Assembly, in 1875, then passed a group of "organic
laws," which are the basis of the present French consti- ggg j,^ ,
tution. The legislature consists of a Chamber of Depu- constitution
ties elected by universal suffrage every four years, and a
Senate elected by secondary electoral bodies for nine years.

588

democra(;y and expansion

The two chambers voting together elect the president of the
republic, whose term is seven years. The president's position
is simihir to that of a constitutional king : he can perform no
executive act except through responsible ministers ; but he has
the power (with the cooperation of the Senate) of dissolving
the Chamber of Deputies and appealing to the country in a
new election. In practice the Chamber of Deputies, like the
British House of Commons, is the more powerful body of the

Facadk of the Chamber of Deputies, Paris.

Erected 1804-1807.

two, makiu,!^ and unmaking ministries by its votes, and even

compelling the i)resident to resign. The social organization

created by the first Revolution was preserved, together with

the administrative system of the first Napoleon; and to these

was now^ added a i)olitical constitution based on the sovereignty

of the people, universal suffrage, and liberty of the press.

For a score of years after 1875 the monarchists looked upon

589. Party the republic as provisional, and worked for its over-

stmcTfirlBs

in France throw. MacMahon resigned in 1879, and was succeeded

(after 1875) by Jules Grevy, a radical republican, who served till 1887.

NATIONAL RIVALKIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 589

He was succeeded by Sadi Carnot, wlio was assassinated by
an anarchist in 1894. Next came Casimir Perier, who resigned
the next year; he was followed by Felix Faure, who died in
office in 1899; and Faure was succeeded by fimile Loubet,
seventh in the list.

A portion of the Catholic party (which had agitated for a res-
toration of monarchy in France and of the Pope's sovereignty
at Eome) through the influence of Pope Leo XIII., " rallied "
to the support of the Republic in 1892 ; but to offset this gain,
the Socialist party became a political factor again after those
who had taken part in the Commune were pardoned (in 1879).
By the close of the century, however, policies were controlled
by the more conservative sections of each party.

The last fourteen years of the nineteenth century saw three
important political "affairs" in France. (1) In 1887-1889
Boulanger, a popular general, attempted unsuccessfully to alter
the constitution in the direction of a dictatorship. (2) The
"Panama scandal" of 1892-1893, growing out of the bank-
ruptcy of a French company organized to construct a Panama
canal, revealed much corruption among journalists and high
French officials, and discredited the chiefs of the Republican
party. (3) In 1897-1899 political interest centered in the
attempts made, especially by the novelist Zola, to show that
the condemnation of the Jewish army officer Dreyfus, on the
charge of revealing military secrets to Germany, was the result
of an anti-Semite army plot : on a retrial of the case much of
the evidence was shown to be forged ; nevertheless Dreyfus was
again condemned, but received a pardon from the president.

Under the constitution of the German Empire, completed

in April, 1871, the direction of military and political 590. Ger-

affairs is placed in the king of Prussia as hereditary i^iany: the

^ "^ constitution

German Emperor. The legislative power is m the Bun- of the Em-

desrath (Federal Council) and Reichstag (Imperial Diet). Pire(1871)
The Bundesrath represents the individual states of the em-

HARDING's M. & M. HIST. — 34

;90

DEMOCTJACY AND EXPANSION

pire, l)ut (unlike our Senate) unequally : Prussia, which
contains tlii-ee liftlis of the population of Germany, has 17
votes out of a total of 58 ; Bavaria has 6, Saxony and Wurt-
temberg 4 each, and the other states less (p. 547). The mem-
bers of the Bundesrath are appointed by and are responsible
to their respective governments. In the Keichstag, Prussia
has 2:)() members out of a total of 397 ; the members are
elected by manhood suffrage for a term of five years, but
with the consent of the Bundesrath the emperor may

Kkkhstac^; (Parliamknt) Bfildino, Berlin.

dissolve the lleichstag and order new elections. Unlike the
ministers of true parliamentary governments, the German
miiiist(M-s, headed by the imperial cliancellor, are regarded as
tlie servants, not of the legislative chamber elected by the
l)e()plc, but of tlie emperor, who may appoint and remove
tliciu at pleasure.

From 1871 until 1890 the post of imperial chancellor and
591. The chief Prussian minister was held by Bismarck. In the
kampf ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ period occurred the " Kulturkampf," a

(1871 1890) conflict ])etween the Roman Catholic Church and the

NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 591

Prussian government over the control of education and eccle-
siastical appointments. Similar conflicts occurred in Bavaria,
Austria, Switzerland, France, and Belgium ; they were occa-
sioned in part by the action of the church Council of the Vati-
can, in 1870, which proclaimed as a dogma of the church the
infallibility of the Pope in the definition of doctrines concern-
ing the faith and morals. Bismarck expressed his confidence
of victory in the sentence, '^ We shall not go to Canossa ; " and
laws were passed to expel the Jesuits and other orders, and to
transform the bishops and priests into state officials. A power-
ful " Center," or Catholic party, was formed to combat these
measures in the Reichstag ; Bismarck at length wearied of the
contest, and after the accession of Pope Leo XIII. (1878-1903)
the obnoxious laws were gradually repealed.

Other important features of Bismarck's administration were
the passage of laws directed against the Socialists, who were

beginning to show marked strength in Germany; and

592. vvorK-
tlie enactment of a series of measures (designed to draw ing-class

off the working classes from socialism) which provided legislation
for pensions under government control to laborers disabled by
accident, sickness, or old age. The laws against the Social-
ists failed of their object; the measures to aid the working
classes have had much success.

In March, 1888, the emperor William I. died, at the age
of ninety -one, and was succeeded by his son Frederick ; the
latter, however, was suffering from a mortal disease, and 593. Acces-
lived only until June, 1888, when his son, William II., -ofiil^^^^ll
ascended the throne. William II. soon showed great (1888)

energy and self-confidence, a high sense of the imperial office,
and a capacity for astonishing the world by feats of brilliancy.
He wished to take a larger personal part in the administration
than his predecessors, while Bismarck insisted on the observ-
ance of the practice under which ministers of departments
communicated with the emperor only through the chancellor.

;90

DEMOriJACY AND EXPANSION

pire, ])ut (unlike our Senate) unequally : Prussia, which
contains tln-ee Hftlis of the population of Germany, has 17
votes out of a total of 58 ; Bavaria has (), Saxony and Wiirt-
temberg 4 each, and the other states less (p. 547). The mem-
bers of the Bundesrath are appointed by and are responsible
to their respective governments. In the Reichstag, Prussia
has 2'M\ members out of a total of 397; the members are
elected by manhood suffrage for a term of five years, but
with the consent of the Buudesrath the emperor may

Kki(hsta(; (Parltamknt) Biildino, Berlin.

dissolve the lioichstag and order new elections. Unlike the
niinistei's of true parliamentary governments, the German
ministcis, headed by the imperial chancellor, are regarded as
the servants, not of the legislative chamber elected by the
])»*opl»', but of tlie emperor, who may appoint and remove
them ;it })leasure.

1^'roiu 1S71 until 1890 the post of imperial chancellor and
591. The chief l*russian minister was held by Bismarck. In the
ksumpr ^^'^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ period occurred the " Kulturkampf," a
(1871 1890) conHict between the Roman Catholic Church and the

NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 591

Prussian government over the control of education and eccle-
siastical appointments. Similar conflicts occurred in Bavaria,
Austria, Switzerland, France, and Belgium ; they were occa-
sioned in part by the action of the church Council of the Vati-
can, in 1870, which proclaimed as a dogma of the church the
infallibility of the Pope in the definition of doctrines concern-
ing the faith and morals. Bismarck expressed his confidence
of victory in the sentence, " We shall not go to Canossa ; " and
laws were passed to expel the Jesuits and other orders, and to
transform the bishops and priests into state officials. A power-
ful " Center," or Catholic party, was formed to combat these
measures in the Reichstag ; Bismarck at length wearied of the
contest, and after the accession of Pope Leo XIII. (1878-1903)
the obnoxious laws were gradually repealed.

Other important features of Bismarck's administration were
the passage of laws directed against the Socialists, who were

beginning to show marked strength in Germany ; and

592. w^orK-
tlie enactment of a series of measures (designed to draw ing-class

In March, 1888, the emperor William I. died, at the age
of ninety -one, and was succeeded by his son Frederick ; the
latter, however, was suffering from a mortal disease, and 593. Acces-
lived only until June, 1888, when his son, William II., Yrmi^ll
ascended the throne. William II. soon showed great (1888)

594 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

colonial ventures, and the Triple Alliance. Since 1896 the

crushing burden of public debt has led to soberer policies. The

problem of "making Italians" out of citizens of the former

states was hampered by widespread political indifference and

ignorance. The percentage of adult male illiterates decreased

in twenty years (following 1861) from sixty-five per cent to

fifty-three per cent, and has since continued to decline. King

Humbert T. (1878-1 *.)00) was assassinated by an anarchist, and

liis son, Victor Emmanuel III., then came to the throne.

The dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, after its creation in

18G7 (§ 535), remained politically in "unstable equilibrium."

597. Aus- Austria and Hungary had each a separate constitution,

tna-Hun- parliament, and administration; but had the same sov-

gary ^ ' '

(1867-1900) pi-eign, the same ministers for war, finance, and foreign

affairs, and sent the same number of persons (sixty) to a joint
council for the whole realm (the " Delegations "). In Austria,
German was the official language ; in Hungary, Magyar ; but in
each kingdom there were a number of other peoples with sepa-
rate national tongues and national aspirations, and the "lan-
guage question " threatened each with disruption ; in Austria,
the oath of office at the opening of the Reichsrath (Parliament)
was administered in eight different tongues. Except a few
outlying districts, Austria had lost her Italian possessions, and
looked for territorial gains to the Balkan peninsula.

Tlie czar Alexander II. (1855-1881) converted Russia into a
modern state by emancipating (against the passive resistance
598 In- ^^ ^^'^ nobles) its 2.3,000,000 serfs; but the scanty lands
ternal his- which they received were charged with heavy annual
Kussia ])ayments to indemnify their former masters. Disap-

(1855-1900; pointed at the failure to obtain a political constitu-
tion from Alexander II., an opposition arose, principally
among yoimg university students, which gradually became
revolutionary. To a policy of arbitrary arrests, imprisonment
in fold diuigeons, and transportation to Siberia, the secret

NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 595

societies (" Nihilists ") replied by a policy of terror based on
assassination. In March, 1881, the czar himself was assassi-
nated by the hurling of a nitroglycerine bomb against his car-
riage. That very day he had signed a " ukase," or decree,
which would have laid the foundations of constitutional gov-
ernment by establishing a consultative assembly. His son,
Alexander III. (1881-1894), revoked this decree ; and during
the whole of his reign, and the first ten years of that of his
son Nicholas II., a reactionary policy prevailed in which exile
to Siberia was freely used to check liberal opinions.

The chief episode, however, of the history of Russia in the
latter part of the nineteenth century was its systematic
advance in Asia. Seven great wars, from the time of 599. rus-

Peter the Great to the Congress of Berlin (1711-1878), ^ian expan-

^ ^' sion in

brought in Europe only meager results : a frontage on the Asia

Baltic and Black seas was acquired, but the outlets of (1554-1895)
these waters remained under the control of other powers.
Russia then turned from European projects to Asia, where her
policy was twofold: (1) an advance to the Persian Gulf and
Indian Ocean, causing numerous wars and treaties with Persia,
Afghanistan, and Great Britain ; and (2) an advance to the Pa-
cific, through Siberian colonization, the Trans-Siberian railway,
^ and intervention in China and Korea (see map, pp. 600, 601).

Russia's southward expansion in Asia began as early as
1554, when a foothold was gained on the Caspian Sea about
the lower Volga River. By 1803 Georgia (in the Caucasus
Mountains) was annexed, and the way along the west side
of the Caspian secured. By 1828 the beginning was made
of an ascendency in Persia, which has since been strengthened
by diplomacy, financial loans, and railway building.

In the middle of the nineteenth century the vast plains of
Turkestan were reached, and a design of conquering India was
resumed. Khiva finally submitted in 1873 ; Bokhara was
forced to recognize a Russian protectorate in 1868 ; Merv

596 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

(against an express promise made by Russia to the British gov-
ernment three years before) was acquired in 1884 ; and half of
the Pamir plateau — the " roof of the world/' which commands
the ramparts of India — was secured in 1893. The threat to
r.ritish India is serious, for the Russian frontier and railway
terminal at Kushk are but seventy-five miles from Herat, long
regarded as " the key of the Indies."

Th(; Russian colonization of Siberia, like the settlement of
tlio western parts of the United States, has been really a natu-
600 Siberia ^'^^ expansion. '' To become a colonist, there is no ocean
and the to cross, no steaml)()at fare to pay. The poorest peasant,
(1584-1902, '^ ^^^^^ i'l l^i'^ hand, an ax at his belt, his boots slung
RiiinJxnui, froiii a cord over his shoulder, can pass from one halting
in infn'na- i ^^^ another, until he reaches the ends of the em-
M»vthiii,ll. pi re.'' To the early brigands, and later gold hunters,
'^''''' t rappers, fur traders, and fugitive serfs, were added trans-

ported criminals (i)olitical and others). A treaty with China
in KISII lixcd the boundaries of the two lands till 1858, when
Russia extorted the cession of northern ^lanchuria and the
wlioh' h'ft bank of the Amur River; maritime Manchuria (in-
cludin.LT Vhvdivostok) was accpiired in 1860. In 1895-1902 the
Russian _L,a)vernment constructed the Trans-Siberian railway,
nearly r)()()() miles long. Wholly apart from its military value,
it is estimated that in the commerce of the world this

Ramhau'l

(as (ihorr), road " will work as important a revolution as did the dis-

I'.joi covery of the Cape of Good Hope in the fifteenth cen-

tury, or the construction of the Suez Canal in the nineteenth."

In spite of the Kusso-Turkish war (1877-1878) and minor

conflicts in the Ralkan lands, Europe as a whole experienced

601. Sum- '^'^ uneasy sort of a peace after 1871, partly due to the

°^^ry Trij.leand Dual alliances. Out of the dangers of national

rivalries came a new ('oncertof the Rowers, most strikingly

shown ill the establishing of the Hague international court of

NATIONAL RIVALRIES AND CONCERT OF POWERS 597

arbitration. The scope of international politics was widened
by the growth of colonies, by the partition of Africa, by the
expansion of Europe in Asia and of the United States in the
Pacific. The rule of the Turkish sultan in Europe was saved
from overthrow by the jealousies of the Powers. Internally the
states of Europe progressed: France, after prolonged struggles,
firmly established a parliamentary republic; Germany organ-
ized a federal empire dominated by the Prussian king ; Italy
partly solved the problems connected with her unification;
Austria and Hungary maintained their unstable connection ;
Spain, deprived of its colonies, began to revive. Especially
did science, invention, industry, and commerce progress in this
period with unparalleled rapidity.

TOPICS

(1) Why did Russia go to war with Turkey in 1877 ? (2) Suggestiv
Which was better for the peace of Europe, the treaty of San ^°^^^^
Stefano or the arrangements made by the Congress of Berlin ?
(3) What territorial changes have since been made in the Balkan
lands ? (4) What effects do the great armaments of European
states have upon their populations ? (5) Which state has derived
the greatest advantage from the Triple Alliance ? From the Dual
Alliance ? (6) Was Great Britain justified in intervening alone
in Egypt ? (7) Why did not France act with her in 1882 ? (8)
Are the British justified in remaining indefinitely in occupation
of Egypt? (9) Why did the partition of Africa come when it
did ? (10) Of what value to European powers are their African
possessions ? (11) Of what value to Africa is European coloniza-
tion ? (12) Why did not the European powers agree to dis-
armament at the Hague Conference ? (13) Why was the Third
French Republic so insecure during its early years ? (14) What
enabled it to outlive this insecurity ? (15) What incidents illus-
trate the saying that the Bourbons "learn nothing and forget
nothing"? (16) Compare the government of the French Re-
public with that of the United States. (17) Compare the govern-
ment of Germany with that of the United States. (18) What
arguments can be advanced for the German laws favoring the work-
ing classes ? (19) What arguments can be advanced against them ?
(20) Was the emperor William II. justified in dismissing Bismarck

598

DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

Search
topics

from office ? (21) Was Crispi's policy for Italy wise or unwise?
(22) Why is Austria less important in the world's history now
than formerly ? (23) Did Russia make better or worse provision
for her emancipated serfs than the United States for our emanci-
pated slaves ? (24) Why are the Russians better fitted to rule the
interior of Asia than other powers ? (25) What event in United
States history parallels the building of the Trans-Siberian railway ?
(20) Incidents of the Kusso-Turkish War. (27) The Congress
of Berlin. (28) The war between Servia and Bulgaria in 1885.

(29) Insurrection and intervention of the Powers in Crete, 1896.

(30) The Triple Alliance. (31) The Greco-Turkish War of
1897. (;]2) The British in Egypt. (33) Dr. Livingstone. (34)
Stanley's explorations. (35) Partition of Africa. (36) Kongo
Free State. (37) The Hague Peace Conference of 1899. (38)
Organization and workings of the Hague tribunal. (39) The
French •' Panama Scandal." (40) The " Dreyfus Affair." (41)
The '• Kulturkampf " in Germany. (42) Dismissal of Bismarck.
(43) Character of Emperor William II. (44) Spain since 1871.
(45) Crispi. (40) Political parties in Austria-Hungary. (47)
Emancipation of the serfs. (48) The Trans-Siberian railway.

Geogfraphy

Secondary
authorities

Sources

Pictures

REFERENCES

Sec maps, pp. 576, 578, 585, 600 ; Poole, Historical Atlas, maps
xiv. Ixxxix. xc. ; (jardiner. School Atlas, maps 63, 65, 66 ; Putzger,
Aflds, map 38 ; Dow, Atlas, xxix. xxx. xxxii.

-ludson, Europe in the Nineteenth Century, chs. xvi. xvii. xxv.
xxx. ; Phillips, M(,(hrn Europe, chs. xix.-xx. ; Midler, Political
llistin'ti ofllecent Times, 408-476, 493-576, 611-652 ; Fyffe, History
of Modern Europe (Popular ed.), ch. xxv. ; Seignobos, Political
History of Europe since ISI4, chs. vii. xvi. xxviii. ; Lebon,
Modern France, chs. xiv.-xv. ; Spencer Walpole, TTie History of
Tirifitij-jirr Years; Wilson, The State; Lowell, Governments and
Parties of Modern Europe ; Johnston, Cedonization of Africa,
chs. xi. xii. ; Stanley (and others), Africa: Its Partition and its
Future; Villari, llw Balkan Question; Reinsch, World Politics;
Wallace, The Pro(/ress of the Century. Consult also the maga-
zines, using Poole\s Index to Periodical Literature, and Supple-
ment, under the different topics.

Anderson, Constitutions and Docurneyits, nos. 130-137 ; The
Annual Per/ister; Appleton'^s Annual Cyclopedia; annual alma-
nacs published by the New York World, New York Tribune, etc.

If'/rpcr's Weekly ; Frank Leslie's Illustrated Weekly ; London
lllustratid News; London Graphic, etc.

CHAPTER XXXII.

THE AWAKENING OF THE EAST, AND THE TWENTIETH
CENTURY

The far East is now, and is likely for some time to remain,
the chief storm center of world politics, taking the place occu-
pied in the nineteenth century by Turkey and the nearer 602. Mon-
East. Until about 1840, the history of this part of the ^chin^^e
world ran in a separate channel from that of Europe. (1200-1840)
Hordes of Asiatics — Huns in the fifth century, Bulgarians in
the seventh, Magyars in the tenth, and Turks later — invaded
Europe ; and Jenghiz Khan (died 1227) and his successors
established a Mongol empire which stretched from Poland to
the Pacific Ocean, and held Russia in subjection from 1241 to
1480. Now, however, the tide of invasion is turned the other
way, and Europe is transforming Asia.

China is one of the most ancient and highly civilized
countries of the world; its great religious teacher, Confucius,
flourished five hundred years before Christ. The Mongol rule,
established by Jenghiz Khan, lasted until 1368 ; *"'hen for
three hundred years China was ruled by emperors of the Ming
dynasty. In 1644 the Manchu Tartars overthrew the Ming
dynasty and seized the throne ; the Taiping Eebellion (1850-
1865) was an unsuccessful movement for the restoration of
native rule. After the accession of the Ming dynasty, China
shut her doors to other nations ; and although in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries some commerce was established with
Europeans, it remained on an uncertain basis.

The first effective breach in the barrier with which Chin^,

602 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

surrounded herself was made by the unjust "Opium War"
waged by Great Britain, in 1840-1842, to compel tho admis-

603. Open- sion of opium from India. By the treaty which ended
ing up of ^|j^^ ^^,^^.^ Canton, Shanghai, and some other ports were

1840-1884) oi)ened to British trade, and the island of Hongkong
was ceded to Great Britain. Commercial treaties with the
United States and France followed in 1844. In 1857-1860
the British in alliance with the French waged a second war
upon China, and Peking was taken; this secured the toleration
of Christianity and the admission of resident ambassadors to
the Chinese capital.

New troubles for Cliina developed in the south, where the
Frencli established themselves. In 1862, to avenge the murder
of Frencli missionaries, they seized Saigon, in the kingdom of
Aiiain (over which China claimed suzerainty), and set up the
FreiK'li colony of Cochin China. In 1884 France annexed
Toukin, and forced China to sign a treaty opening up the
three neighboring provinces to European trade.

Ecpially important with the opening up of China was the
awakening of Japan. The emperor of Japan (sometimes called

604. Closing -^'i^^'"^'^'!) ^^3,d gradually lost much of his power to the

of Japan Sliogun (hereditarv commander of the army), and a sort
(1637)

of feudal system had arisen in which local authority

was vested in lords called (Jai/nios, who were practically vas-
sals of tlie Shogun ; while the emperor was reduced to a part
similar to that of the faineant ("do-nothing") kings of France
in tlie time of the mayors of the palace (§ 14). Christianity
was introduced in tlie sixteenth century, but its followers were
suspected of political aims, and in 1637 it was prohibited ; at
the same liiii,. natives were forl)idden to leave the country
under penalty of death, and for two centuries thereafter Japan,
like China and Kon^a, was practically a "hermit nation."

The credit of oi)ening Ja]»an to Western commerce and ideas
belouL^^s to Commodore l*erry, of the United States nav^, who

THE AWAKENING OV THE EAST

. 608

in 1854 induced the Shogun to conclude a treaty opening up
Yokohama and two other ports to trade. Great Britain,
Kussia, and France quickly followed with similar treat- 605. Awak-
ies. For a time there was trouble, growing out of Jap- ^^i^^ °^
anese conservatism and hatred of foreigners, but this (1854-1895)
speedily died down. In 1867 the progressive emperor Mutsu-
hito came to the throne, and soon after the Shogun was over-
thrown, and the feudal system entirely suppressed. Swarms
of Japanese students were sent to Europe and America for
education, and showed a remarkable power to assimilate
Western culture in all its branches. Under their influence
Japan was revolutionized in its government, its industry, and
its educational and military systems. A constitution was pro-
claimed in 1889 by which the administration was placed in a
cabinet of ministers responsible to the emperor, and the legis-
lative power was vested in an Imperial Diet of
two houses.

The first test of Japan's new military insti-
tutions came in 1894, when war broke out with
China through rival pretensions over the gOG. War

kingdom of Korea. The Japanese navy, between

Japan and

built in the best shipyards of Europe, China

speedily sank the Chinese fleet; and the (1894-1895)
Japanese army, drilled and equipped in Euro-
pean fashion, was completely victorious over the
antiquated forces of China. All Korea was oc-
cupied; Port Arthur and Weihaiwei, on oppo-
site sides of the entrance to the Gulf of Pechili,
were captured ; and Peking itself was threatened.
China then (April, 1895), through Li Hung
Chang, the great viceroy and diplomat, made peace, renounc-
ing its claims over Korea, paying an indemnity, opening new
treaty ports, and ceding to Japan Port Arthur and the island
of Formosa.

Japanese
Soldier.

604 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

This treaty was too favorable to »]a})an to suit the European
l*()wers wliich had their own designs ui)on Chinese posses-
607. Euro- sions. Russia, France, and Germany joined in forcing
?*p??°^^^^ Jai)an to give up her conquests on the mainland, and
(1895-1900) to content herself with Formosa and an increased in-
demnity. Then Germany, to obtain "satisfaction" for the
murder of German missionaries, seized the port of Kiauchau,
in 1897, and forced its lease from China as a coaling and
naval station for ninety-nine years, with the grant to German
subjects of a first right to construct railroads, open mines, etc.,
in the adjoining province of Shantung. Early in 1898 Kussia
similarly secured Port Arthur by lease for twenty-five years,
thus obtaining a port on the Pacific which was free from ice
the year roinid ; she also received a concession to build a rail-
road from l^ort Arthur to join the Trans-Siberian railway, thus
giving her a pretext to treat Chinese Manchuria as practically
Rnssian territory. To restore a balance of power in the Gulf
of I'echili, Great Britain leased Weihaiwei; she also secured a
grant of about two hundred square miles on the mainland oppo-
site Hongkong. France seized a port (Kwang-chau-wan), in
1S9S, and extorted concessions for the development of the
southern provinces.

One result of the w\ar between China and Japan was the
awakening of the Chinese from their sleep of centuries, and
the adoption of many of the material improvements of the
West. Concessions to foreigners multiplied rapidly after that
war. A railroad from Peking to Tientsin was built by the gov-
ernment, and arrangements were made for the construction
with foreign ca})ital of other lines thonsands of miles in length.
Telegraph lines were extended ; electric roads, electric lights,
and telephones were introduced in the chief cities; and the
principal rivers and canals were opened to Western commerce.
The young emperor (Kuang-Hsu) seemed to favor the intro-
duction of Western ways. His aunt, the empress dowager,

THE AWAKENING OF THE EAST 605

opposed this, and in 1898, by a coup cfetat, she resumed the
power she had exercised during the emperor's minority. In
1900 occurred a widespread rising against foreigners, g^g _
headed by the "Boxers," one of the many Chinese War in

secret societies. Christian missionaries and their con- ^

verts were massacred, and the foreign embassies in Peking
were besieged. To rescue them, a joint army was formed by
the Great Powers of Europe, together with Japan and the
United States, which fought its way to Peking and released
the legations. The empress dowager was forced to make peace,
with abject apologies, and to pay large money indemnities.^

ff%

Japanese Battery at the Battle of Liao-Yang.

At the time of the Boxer troubles, Eussia took possession of
Chinese Manchuria, under pretext of safeguarding lier rail-
road and other interests there, promising to evacuate it 609. Russo-
when peace should be restored. Failure so to do led to war^bmm
long negotiations ; then came a solemn agreement (1902) (1904)

to evacuate, which was broken in 1903. Instead, the Russian
hold was strengthened, and a disposition was shown also to

1 The emperor and dowager empress died in November, 1908, within a few
hours of each other. The three-year-old Pu Yi then became emperor, under
the regency of his father, Prince Chun.

606 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

bring Korea under Russian control. Such an extension of
Russian power menaced Japanese prosperity and independ-
ence; and after the faihire of long diplomatic negotiations
Japan resorted to war.

On February 8, 1904, the Japanese surprised the Russian
fleet at Port Arthur, torpedoing two battleships and two cruis-

610. Fall ^^^ 5 ^^^^ t^^® blockade of Port Arthur " bottled up " the rest
of Port ii^ that harbor. These exploits gave the Japanese the com-
(Jan. 1, mand of the sea — an advantage which they thenceforth
1906) retained. Korea was occupied, and the Russians driven

from the Yalu River. By May 28 the Japanese lines had been
drawn across the Liao-tong peninsula, cutting off Port Arthur
on the land side ; and there followed a seven months' siege of
that fortress, terminated on January 1, 1905, by its capitulation.
Meanwhile Kuropatkin, the Russian commander, was disas-
trously defeated at Liao-Yang in September, and forced to fall

611. The ^^'^^'^ upon ]\[ukden ; and a great Russian attack in Octo-
Mukden her was re})ulse(l. The winter was passed by both armies

intrenched amid snow and ice, amid conditions of great
suffering, especially for the Russians, for whose supply the
sin ^de-track line of the Trans-Siberian railway proved inade-
quate. The arrival in the Japanese camp of the Port Arthur
army, with its heavy siege guns, enabled the Japanese general,
Oyama, after fifteen days' severe fighting, to drive Kuropatkin
from ]\Iuk<lon (March 10, 1905), the Russian losses in killed,
wounded, and captured numbering more than one hundred
thousand. Their broken and disorganized army was then
forced back toward Harbin, the junction point with the main
line of the Trans-Siberian railway. The land campaign of
1005 was thus lost almost before it was begun.

A second and a third Russian fleet, meanwhile, under the

612. Battle chief command of Rojestvensky, made the long voyage
of Japan. ^''^"^ ^^^^ Baltic ; but the vessels were ill equipped through
(May, 1905) corrupt administration, and the crews were mutinous,

THE AWAKENING OF THE EAST 607

demoralized, and ill led. The fleets were annihilated (May
27-29) by the Japanese under Admiral Togo in the battle
of the Sea of Japan, one of the greatest naval battles in
history: without serious damage to a single Japanese ship,
some nineteen vessels of the enemy were sunk or captured.
Russia's naval power was thereby destroyed, and her cause
was rendered hopeless. Soon after, the Japanese reoccupied
the island of Sakhalin, from which Russia had driven them in
1875, and began to close in upon Vladivostok.

The efforts of President Roosevelt brought about a meet-
ing of representatives of the two powers at Portsmouth, New
Hampshire, in August, 1905, to discuss terms of peace. g^g j^g.
Russia agreed to surrender Chinese Manchuria and the suits of
Port Arthur railway to China, to cede its leases of the
Liao-tong peninsula to Japan, to recognize the preponderance
of Japan in Korea, and to grant to Japanese citizens special
fishery rights on the Siberian coast. The further demands of
Japan for the cession of Sakhalin Island and for the payment
of an indemnity to reimburse her for the cost of the war
threatened to break up the conference; but the energetic ap-
peals of President Roosevelt to the two powers finally brought
about a compromise on these points. Japan abandoned the
claim for indemnity, but gained half of Sakhalin and all the
points for which she had undertaken the war.

The Russo-Japanese War was an event of very great impor-
tance not only for the powers immediately concerned, but for
China, America, and the whole world : it involved the future
fate of China and the control of the Pacific, questions of vital
importance to America and Australia, as well as Asia and
Europe. The unexpected ability displayed by the Japanese
insures for the "yellow peoples" of Asia the prospect of an
independent future, parallel with that of the white races. It
may prove that the recent development of China and Japan
is of more importance in the world's history than any events

608

DEMOCRACY AND KXPANSION

which have occurred since Greece saved Europe from Persian
conquest, more than two thousand years ago.

The war revealed glaringly the corruption and incompe-
tence of the autocratic rule in Russia, and caused a marked
614. Russia revival of revolutionary movements. In the early

months of 1905, wide-

in revolu-
tion (1905- ^"^"^"^ "" ■""""'
1907) cal disturbances broke

ants, and leading to politi-

repression by Cossack

burg, Odessa, and in

forced mobilization of

breaks, and the

spread industrial and politi-
out, involving even stolid peas-
cal assassinations and to bloody
soldiers, especially at St. Peters-
inany towns of Poland. The
new troops led to frequent out-
army in the far East was reported
to be full of disaffection. A serious
blow came when the crew of the
warship Kniaz J^otemkine, the most
powerful vessel of the Black
Sea fleet, mutinied, slew
their officers, and for
twelve days terrorized
Odessa and other ports,
while the crews of
other war vessels re-
fused to fire a shot
against their comrades.
Under promise of pro-
tection, the mutineers (July 8) surrendered their vessel to the
Koumaiiiau government, which turned it over to Russia.

The widespread disaffection and the outspoken demand of
tlie educated classes forced the government to adopt a policy
of conciliation. Tlie separate constitution of the grand duchy
of Finland, whieli liad been practically annulled since 1899,
was restored ; and the long attempt (since 1863) to force Rus-
sian s])eech ui)on the Poles was given up. Even the demand
of a constitution for Russia received attention, and on March 3,

Cossack.

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 609

1905, the czar promised to convene an assembly ; but liberals
were disappointed at the ways in which representation was
hedged about, the lack of independent powers given, and the
failure to grant a written constitution. The Duma, or assem-
bly, met for the first time in 1906. It demanded a general
amnesty for political offenses, universal suffrage, a responsible
ministry, and the compulsory sale of lands to the peasants.
On account of its radical composition and demands it was soon
dissolved; but a second Duma was called together early in
1907. This also proved too radical for the czar's government,
and it was dissolved after sitting three months. A warfare
followed between terrorists, on the one hand, and reaction-
aries, on the other, in which the advantage rested with the
latter. By arbitrarily changing the election law, and exclud-
ing the radical leaders of the earlier bodies, the czar in No-
vember, 1907, got a third Duma of much more moderate type.
It has been called the " Landlords' Duma," because it is under
the influence almost exclusively of this class; but even this
body voted to reject the title "autocrat" as applied to the
czar. Liberals are disappointed at the slow progress which
the movement for constitutional government is making; but,
as one of the czar's ministers has remarked, "To jump from
the sixteenth century to the twentieth is not easy, especially
with twenty-eight unassimilated and illiterate nationalities
within the empire." It is evident that the absolutism of the
czars is at an end, but the exact nature of the government
which will take its place remains undetermined.

France, Russia's ally, was deterred from actively aiding
Russia in the war by an alliance of England with Japan, which
would become effective in case Japan were attacked by 615. France
more than one power; also troubles with Germany over "^^t^^®^"
Morocco (§ 585) tied her hands. In the twentieth cen- tury

tury France occupies a place of less political importance than
formerly, because of the more rapid development of the rest of

HABDING'S M. & M. HIST. — 36

610 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

Europe. Under Louis XIV. her population was forty per cent
of t])at of the Great Powers of Europe; in 1789 it had fallen
to twenty-seven per cent ; in 1900 it was barely ten per cent.
The practically stationary population of France, due to a low
birthrate, is the great cause of her relative weakness.

The most important event in her recent history is the end-
ing of the religious concordat (§ 449) and the separation of
church and state. In 1901-1904 " association laws " were
passed which closed the greater number of the 16,468 religious
(Catholic) establishments, and caused the expulsion of the
teaching and preaching orders of clergy. This step was fol-
lowed in 1905 by the passage of a bill providing that after the
death of the clergy now receiving pay from the state, all such
state aid shall cease ; the churches and cathedrals are to
belong to the state, but will be leased to the different congre-
gations. Thus the separation of church and state will not be
so comi)lete as in the United States, but will be greater than
ever before in French history.

Another political change of some importance is the separa-
tion of Norway from Sweden. In 1814 the two countries were
616. Sepa- nnited under the same king (§ 474) ; but the peoples are
ration of dissimilar in many ways, and dissensions shortly sprang
Sweden nj) over Norwegian demands for a place of equal impor-

(1905) tance with Sweden on the seal of state, for a separate

flag, and for a Norwegian governor over Norway. These
demands, after long resistance, were granted. Then came a
demand that the Norwegians be allowed to conduct their own
foreign affairs. Finally, in 1905, the Norwegian Storthing
(parliament) unanimously passed a bill for a separate consular
service; and when King Oscar II. vetoed it, the Storthing
declared the union between the two countries dissolved — a"
ste]) ratified by 868,200 votes against 184 in a plebiscite taken
on August 13, 1905. King Oscar was deeply hurt by the
action of his Norwegian subjects, but was disposed to let them

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 611

go in peace ; and a treaty of separation was soon ratified. The
Norwegian Storthing then chose as king Prince Charles of Den-
mark, who was crowned in June, 1906, as King Haakon VII.

The revolution in Russia had the unexpected eifect of stimu-
lating movements for constitutional government in two 617. Eevo-
other absolute monarchies — Turkey and Persia. ^^rkev

The sultan Abdul-Hamid II. had granted a liberal con- (1908-1909)
stitution at the beginning of his reign, in 1876 (§576), but
after two sessions of the Turkish Parliament, in 1877, that
body was dismissed and the constitution suspended. The
Turkish government remained a despotism of the worst sort.
Modern improvements, such as the telephone, were forbidden on
the ground that they might be used to cover conspiracy ; a strict
censorship was maintained over all printed matter, whether
issued in or imported into the country ; and government spies
were everywhere. In the latter part of his reign the sultan
retired more and more behind the triple wall of his palace, and
left the government to swarms of greedy and self-seeking min-
isters. The more liberal elements among the European Turks,
who are largely of Slavic blood, thereupon organized a vast
secret society, directed against the misrule of the Tartar Turks
of the capital. They styled themselves the Young Turks, took
for their password "Freedom," and aimed at modernizing and
liberalizing Turkey. They had their agents among civilians,
in the customhouses, and among the police. The Armenians,
Greeks, and other subject Christians threw in their lot with
the Young Turks. Finally the army, rank and file and officers
alike, were won over to the cause, because of the misgovern-
ment and the arrears in their pay, and the movement became
a national one, with one of its objects expressed in the sentence
" Turkey for the Turks."

When all was ready the word was given, in July, 1908, and
a successful revolution was carried out. From Albania to
Bagdad, from Adriauople to Yemen, there was a united re-

612 DEMOCRACY AND EXPANSION

sponse. The sultan was obliged to restore the constitution of
1876, which provided for security of personal liberty and prop-
erty, freedom of the press, the abolition of torture, equality of
Mohammedan and Christian subjects, a parliament of two
houses, and the responsibility of ministers to Parliament. In
April, 1909, the sultan made a last desiderate effort to regain
power by stirring up a counter revolution, carried out by his
palace guards and a few regiments at the capital which re-
mained loyal to him, and aided by a carefully fanned hatred
of old-fashioned Turks for the new equality of Christians.
For a moment the attempt was successful. But within a few
days the well-disciplined troops controlled by the Young Turk
party fought their way into the capital, and bombarded the
palace into surrender. On April 27, 1909, Abdul-Hamid II.
was deposed, and was succeeded by his younger brother
Mohammed V., who by INIohammedan law was heir apparent
in preference to the sultan's own children.

The task of the Young Turks in curbing fanaticism and

introducing modern institutions, auiong an untrained people,

was made much luore difficult by the facts that Bulgaria seized

this occasion to throw off its vassalage to Turkey, and that

Austria now definitely incorporated Bosnia and Herzogovina,

which had been hers to administer since 1878 (§ 578). The

efforts of the Powers, liowever, prevented war. Turkey was

prevailed Tipon to accei)t a money compensation in each case,

and Young Turkey is thus left free to work out, undistracted

by European war, the hard problems of internal transformation.

In Persia a constitution was granted in January, 1906, in

response to a demand by the priests, supported by the people.

618. Bevo- In January, 1907, the old shah died, and was succeeded

Persia ^^^ ^^^ ''^^"' Mohammed Ali, who adopted a reactionary

11906-1909) policy. Organizing a body of Cossacks, he sought to

arrest tlie leaders of the new Parliament in June, 1908; and

when the attempt was resisted he bombarded the Parliament

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 613

house, and its members were forced to seek refuge in the house
of the British minister. A revolt followed in a number of
the provinces. The success which this had, together with
pressure from Great Britain and Eussia (who had reconciled
their conflicting interests in Persia), finally forced the shah, in
May, 1909, to restore the constitution. This was followed, in
July, 1909, by his own deposition, and the seating on the Per-
sian throne of his young son, the crown prince.

Whether Persia is ripe as yet for constitutional government,
time alone can tell. At all events, these movements in Eussia,
Turkey, and Persia are among the most interesting happenings
of a century ; and should they prove permanently successful,
it will mean the practical disappearance of absolute govern-
ment from the world.

China and Japan, after centuries of hermit seclusion, were
opened to Europeans in the middle of the nineteenth century.
Japan overthrew her feudalism, established a constitu- 619. Sum-
tional monarchy, and rapidly assimilated western civiliza- mary

tion, while China remained im potently hostile to the ways of
"foreign devils." War between the two nations (1894-1895)
showed immeasurable superiority on the part of the Japanese,
but Eussia, Germany, and France intervened to rob them of
the fruits of victory. A seizure of Chinese ports by European
powers then threatened the dissolution of the Chinese Empire,
and contributed to the Boxer outbreak against Europeans in
1900 ; but the firm stand of Great Britain and the United
States for the policy of the "open door," and the brilliant
success of Japan in her great war with Eussia (1904-1905),
averted the danger. This war seriously impaired Eussia's
prestige, it established Japan as the dominant power of the
far East, and it insured to the "yellow peoples" a position of
continued independence of Europe. These events mark a
great change in the center of world history. Says the French

614

DKMOCUACY ANt) EXPANSION

historian Ranibaud, "The importance that in ancient times the
Mediterranean had for mankind, and which the Atlantic pos-
sessed from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century, seems to-
day to be shifting to the Pacific Ocean."

Also of great importance are the political changes which the
twentieth century has seen in Europe and in Western Asia.
France adopted radical measures in the attempt to solve the
relations of church and state. Norway seceded from union
with Sweden. Finally, in Russia, Turkey, and Persia, revolu-
tions liave taken place, which wrought changes of ruler in the
last two, and in all three a beginning of the transformation of
absolute into constitutional monarchies.

TOPICS

Suggestive (1) What proofs are there that China possessed from ancient

topics days a highly developed civilization ? (2) To what class do the

Chinese seen in this conntry usually belong ? (3) Were the West-
ern powers justified in forcing China to open her ports to foreign-
ers ? (4) Compare the Chinese with the Japanese. (5) How
do the Japanese look upon Commodore Perry ? (6) How do you
account for the rapid development of Japan since 1854 ? (7) Has
the introduction of Western civilization been wholly a blessing for
Japan ? (8) Did Russia, Germany, and France treat Japan justly
after her war with China ? (9) Compare the Boxer rising with
anti-Cliinese movements in this coimtry. (10) Was Japan in the
right in going to war with Russia when and in the manner she
did'.' (11) Of what advantage was it to the Japanese to shut up
the liussian fleet at Port Arthur ? (12) Compare the siege of Port
Arthur with that of Sebastopol in the Crimean War. (13) What
reasons can you give for the success of the Japanese ? (14) Com-
pare the number of men engaged in Manchuria on each side with
the numbers in Napoleon's campaigns, and in our Civil War.
(15) Compare the internal conditions in Russia at the close of the
war with those in France just before the French Revolution.
(K)) What motives led to the dissolution of the religious orders in
France? (17) Was the secession of Norway from Sweden politi-
cally justifiable ? Was it expedient ?
Search (18) Chinese contributions to civilization. (19) Teachings of

topics Confucius. (20) Chinese " treaty ports." (21) Japanese feudal-

THE TWENTIETH CENTURY

615

ism. (22) Position of the Shogun. (23) Perry's expedition to
Japan. (24) The constitution of Japan. (25) The war between
China and Japan. (26) Russian occupation of Port Arthur.
(27) Causes of the Russo-Japanese War. (28) The siege of Port
Arthur. (29) Incidents of the Mukden campaign. (30) The
battle of the Sea of Japan. (31) The negotiations for peace.
(32) Effect of the war on Russia. (33) Separation of church and
state in France. (84) Secession of Norway from Sweden.

REFERENCES

See the annual almanacs issued by the New York Worlds the Year-books
New York Tribune^ and other metropolitan newspapers, to be
obtained for twenty-five or fifty cents. The following are more
elaborate : The International Year-Book^ The Annual Begister^
The Politician''s Handbook, The Statesman'' s Year-Book.

Consult especially The Beview of Beviews, The Outlook, Public Periodicals
Opinion, etc. See Annual Literary Itidex, and similar publications,
for guide to special articles on various topics in the general
magazines.

P. L. Beaulieu, The Awakening of the East : Siberia, Japan, Special
China ; Colquhoun, Awakening of China ; Weale, Manchu and works
Muscovite ; Hearn, An Interpretation of Modern Japan ; Okakura-
Kakuyo, The Awakening of Japan ; A. M. Knapp, Feudal and
Modern Japan ; Schierbrand, Bussia, her Strength and her Weak-
ness \ Rambaud, The Expansion of Bussia \ Shoemaker, Tlie Great
Siberian Bailway ; S. W. Perris, Bussia in Bevolution ; Asakawa,
The Busso-Japanese Conflict ; T. Cowen, The Busso-Japanese
War ; Seaman, From Tokio through Manchuria ; Frederic Villiers,
Port Arthur, Three Months with the Besiegers.

APPENDIX A

BRIEF LIST OF BOOKS

(These books, costing about $25.00 if purchased on a single order, form a
good basis for a school library in Mediaeval and Modern History.)

I. Works covering the Whole Period

James Bryce, The Holy Boman Empire. Enlarged and revised edition.

Macmillan, N.Y. $1.50.
Victor Duruy, History of France. Translated <by Mrs. M. Carey, with

an introduction and a continuation to 1889 by J. F. Jameson,

Crowell, N.Y. $2.00.
E. r. Henderson, A Short History of Germany. 2 vols. Macmillan.

$4.00.
Carl Ploetz, Epitome of Ancient^ Mediceval, and Modern History.

Translated by W. H. Tillinghast, Houghton, Bost. $3.00.

II. Works on the Medieval Period

G. B. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages. Scribners, N.Y.

$2.50.
Charles Bdmont and G. Monod, Medieval Europe, 395-1270. Holt,

N.Y. $1.60.
Eginhard (Einhard), Charlemagne. American Book Co. $0.30.
Ephraim Emerton, MedicBval Europe, 814-1300. Ginn. $1.50.
Frederic A. Ogg, Source Book of Mediaeval History. American Book

Co. $1.50.
J. H. Robinson, Headings in European History, vol. I. Ginn, Bost.

$1.50.
Charles Seignobos, The Feudal Begime. Translated by E. W. Dow.

Holt. $0.50.
J. A. Symonds, A Short History of the Benaissance in Italy. Edited

by Alfred Pearson. Holt. $1.75.

III. Works on the Modern Period

Walter Besant, Gaspard de Coligny. American Book Co. $0.30.
August Fournier, Life of Napoleon the First. Translated under editor-
ship of E. G. Bourne. Holt. $2.50.
Gustav Freytag, Martin Luther. Open Court Co., Chic. $0.25.

HARDING'S M. & M. HIST, — 36 1

APPENDIX A

Bertha M. Gardiner, The. French Bevolution, 1798-1795. (" Epochs.")

Longmans. $1.00. Or,
W. O'Connor Morris, The French Bevolntion and First Empire.

(''Epochs.") Scribners. $1.00.

S. R. Gardiner, The Thirty Years' War. ("Epochs.") Longmans.

$1.00.
H. P. Judson, Europe in the Nineteenth Century. Scribners. $1.25.
Richard Lodge, History of Modern Europe, 1453-1878. (Student's

Series.) American Book Co. .^1.50.
F. W. Longman, Frederick the Great and the Seven Years'' War.

("Epochs."') Longmans. $1.00.
T. B. Macaulay, Frederick the Great. Maynard, Merrill & Co., N.Y.

$0.25.
J. L. Motley, Peter the Great. Maynard, Merrill & Co. $0.25.
Alison Phillips, Modern Europe, 1S15-1S99. ("Periods.") Mac-

millan. 81.40.
Frederic Seebohm, The Era of the Protestant Revolution. (" Epochs.")

Longmans. $1.00.
J. 11. Robinson, Headings in European History, vol. IL Ginn. $1.50.

OUTLINE MAPS

Excellent outline maps of Europe and of France may be obtained of
the Superintendent of I'ublications of Harvard University, Cambridge,
Mass., at the rate of 3 for 5 cents. Series of outline maps are also pub-
lished by the following firms : —

American Book Company (Eclectic Map Blanks). N.Y.

Atkin.son, Mentzor & Grover(lvanhoe Historical Note Books). Chicago.

D. C. Heath & (^o. Boston.

Rand. McNally & Co. Chicago.

The McKinley Publishing Company. Philadelphia.

APPENDIX B

GENERAL BIBLIOGKAPHY

(Titles marked with an asterisk (*) denote books especially desirable for a
school library, besides those mentioned in the Brief List.)

* Adams, G. B., Growth of the French Nation. N.Y.

Adams, G. B., and Stephens, H. Morse, Select Documents of English
Constitutional History^ N.Y.

Addis, W. E., and Arnold, Thomas, A Catholic Dictionary, containing
Some Account of the Doctrine, Discipline, Bites, Ceremonies, Coun-
cils, and Beligious Orders of the Catholic Church. Lond.

* Airy, Osmond, The English Bestoration and Louis XIV. (" Epochs.")

N.Y.
Alzog, John, Manual of Universal Church History. 3 vols. Cincinnati.

* Anderson, F. M., Constitutions and Other Documents illustrative of

the History of France, 1789-1900. Minneapolis.
Andrews, C. M., Historical Development of Modern Europe. N.Y.
Annual Begister, The. (Issued annually since 1758.) Lond.
Appleton'^s Annual Cyclopoedia. (Issued annually, 1861-1884.) N.Y.
Archer, T. A., The Crusade of Bichard I. ("English History from

Contemporary Writers.") N.Y.

* Archer, T. A., and Kingsford, C. L., The Crusades. (" Nations.") N.Y.
Armstrong, Edward, The Emperor Charles V. 2 vols. N.Y.
Asakawa, K., The Busso-Japanese Conflict. Bost.

Ashley, W. J., Edivard III. and his Wars. ("English History from
Contemporary Writers.") N.Y.

* Aucassin and Nicolelte. (A twelfth-century tale.) Portland, Me.
Bain, K. N., Charles XII. (" Heroes.") N.Y.

Bain, R. N., Scandinavia, (" Cambridge Historical Series.") N.Y.
Baird, H. M., Bise of the Huguenots of France. 2 vols. N.Y.

* Balzani, Ugo, Tlie Popes and the Hohenstaufen. (" Epochs of Church

History.") N.Y.

* Beard, Charles, Martin Luther and the Beformation in Germany until

the Close of the Diet of Worms. Lond.
Beaulieu, P. L., The Awakening of the East : Siberia, Japan, China.

N.Y.
Bees\j, 'E. S., Queen Elizabeth. (" English Statesmen.") N.Y.
Beesly, A. H., Life of Danton. N.Y.
Belloc, H., Danton. N.Y.
Belloc, H., Bobespierre. N.Y.

Bismarck, Otto von, Beflections and Beminiscences. 2 vols. N.Y.
Bismarck^ s Table Talk. Edited by Charles Lowe. N.Y.

iii

iv APPKNDIX B

Bourrienne, A. F. de, Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte. 4 vols. N.Y.

* lioulell, Charles, Arms and Armour in Antiquity and the Middle Ages.

Translateil from the French of M. 1*. Lacombe. Loud.

* Koyisvu, U. U., Xorimy. (''Nations.") N.Y.

BoyU', G. 1)., Characters and Episodes of the Great Behellion, selected
from the History and Autobiography of Edward^ Earl of Clarendon.
Oxf.

Bright, J. P\, History of England. 5 vols. N.Y.

* Bright, J. F., Maria Tlieresa. ("F'oreign Statesmen.") N.Y.

* Bright, J. F., Joseph II. (" Foreign Statesmen.") N.Y.

Bultinch, Thomas, Charlemagne, or Romance of the Middle Ages.

Edited by A. R. Marsh. Bost.
Burckhardt. Jacob. The Civilisation of the Henaissance in Italy. N.Y.
Busch, Moritz. Bismarck : Some Secret Pages of his History. 2 vols.

N.Y.
Butler, A. J., Bismarck, the Man and the Statesman.

* Butler, Isabel (translator). The Song of Rohtnd. Translated into

English jn-ose. ("Riverside Literature Series.") Bost.
Cambridge Modern History. (Planned by Lord Acton, and written by

associated scholars.) 8 vols. N.Y.
Carlyle, Thomas, The French lievolution. Edited by J. H. Rose.

8 vols. N.Y.
Carlyle, Thomas, History of Friedrich II. of Prussia, called Frederick

the (ireat. 6 vols. Lond.
Cellini, Benvenuto, Life of [autobiography]. (Translated by J. A. Sy-

monds.) N.Y.

* Cesaresco, Countess E. ^L, The Liberation of Italy, IS 15-1870. N.Y.
Cesarcsco, Countess E. M., Cavour. ("Foreign Statesmen.") N.Y.

* Clit'vncv, Edward P.. Industrial and Social History of England. N.Y.

* Chronicles of the Crusades. (" Bohn.") N.Y.

Church, A. J., The Beginning of the Middle Ages. ("Epochs.") N.Y.

Colby. C. W., Selections from the Sources of English History. N.Y.

Commines, Philip de. Memoirs, containing the Histories of Louis XI. and
Charles VIII, Kings if France, and Charles the Bold, Duke of Bur-
gundy. (" Bohn.") 2 vols. N.Y.

Compayr^', (Jabriel, Ahelard. N.Y.

* Cornish, F. \V., Chivalry. N.Y.
Coubertin, Pierre de, France since ISI4. N.Y.

Coubertin, Pierre de, Evolution of France under the Tliird Republic. N.Y.

Cov^ren, T., The Russo-Japanese War. Lond.

♦Cox, G. W., The Crusades. ("Epochs.") N.Y.

Creighton, Mandell (Bishoj)), History of the Papacy from the Great

Schism to the Sack of Rome. vols. N.Y.
Creiu'htoii, Mandell, Elizabeth. N.Y.

* Cn-ighton, Mandell, lite Age of Elizabeth. ("Epochs.") N.Y.
Creighton, Louise, The Duke <,f Marlborough. N.Y.

Cunningham, William, (rrow'th of English Industry and Commerce.
2 vol.s. N.Y.

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INDEX

Diacritic marks: a as in laU \ a as mfat ; a as in far ; 4 as in last ; k as in care ; a as
in fall ; e, eh, as in cask, chasm ; p as in ice \ e as in me ; e as in met, herry ; g as in i^eil ;
S as in term ; e as in ^Aere ; e as in novel ; g as in gem ; g as in g-o ; g, German ch ; I as in
ice ; 1 as in tin ; i as in police ; k, German cA ; n as \n finger ; n, the French nasal ; o as in
note ; o as in wo< ; 6 as in son ; 6 as in for \ o as in c?o ; 9 as in wolf', s as in news ; ii as in
<wie ; u as in mit ; ]; as in rwcZe (= Q) ; u as in full ; ii, French u\ y as in my ; y as in
lady. Single italic letters are silent.

Aachen (a'Ken), 89, 40.

Abbots, 87, 88, 108.

Ab-dHl-X-ziz', 579.

Ab-dul-Ha-mid' II., 579,

Ab'elard, 92.

A-bQw-kir' Bay, battle of, 465.

Absolution, 80.

Abyssin'ia, 586.

Aca'dia, 357, 861.

Acre (a'ker), in Crusades, 184, 185, 140.

Napoleon besieges, 466.
Addison, Joseph, 428.
A'dolf of Nassau, 246.
A'drian IV., Pope, 152.
Adrian VI., Pope, 306.
Ad-ri-an-6'ple, conquered by Turks, 260.

treaty of (1829), 505.
Af-g7i,an-is-tan', 118, 595.
Africa, partition of, 583-586.
Agincourt (a-zhaN-koor'), battle of, 239.
Agrarian crimes in Ireland, 563.
Agriculture, mediaeval, 178, 179.

Black Death aflfects, 233.

Crusades influence, 142.

Mohammedan, 117.

monks influence, 87, 89.
Aids, feudal, 56.
Aix-la-Qha-pelZe', and Charlemagne, 39-41 .

Congress of (1818), 500.

peace of (1668), 351.

peace of T:1748), 407,418.
Al'aric, 21.
Alba'nia, 580.

Albert I. (of Austria), Emperor, 247.
Albert II., Emperor, 258.
Albigen'seg, 216,217,219.
Al'cuin (-kwin),38.

Alexander I. of Russia, 476, 480, 481, 500.
Alexander II. of Russia, 582, 594.
Alexander III. of Russia, 595.

Alexander III., Pope, 153, 154, 156.

Alexander V., Pope, 267.

Alexander VI., Pope, 270, 271.

Alexandria, bombarded, 582.

Alex'ius Comne'nus, 114, 120, 123.

Alfonso X., of Castile, 246.

Alfonso XII., of Spain, 592, 593.

Alfonso XIII., of Spain, 593.

Alfred the Great, of England, 198.

Alge'ria, annexed to France, 506, 507.

Al-gierg', taken by France, 506.

Allodial estates, 52, 56.

Alps, 16, 17, 14.

Al-saffi', 888, 548.

Al'va, Duke of, 327.

Am-a-de'us I. of Spain, 592.

A-mal'fi, early commerce of, 186.

Amboy'na, massacre at, 418.

American colonies, 869, 416-418, 420, 421,425.

American Independence, War of, 426.

Amiens (a-me-fiN'), cathedral, 90.

treaty of, 468.
Am'sterdam, attacked by Louis XIV., 858.
A-mur' River, 596.

Anagni (i-nan'ye). Pope seized at, 228.
A-nfim', acquired by France, 602.
Anath'ema, 81.

An'gevin kings of England, 200.
Angles, 21, 191.
Anglicans, 874.

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 193.
Anjou (aN-zhoo'), Charles of, 168, 169, 221.
Annals, 19, 37.

Anne of Austria, queen of France, 343, 847.
Anne of Beaujeau (France), 255.
Anne of England, 887, 388.
An'ti-oM, in Crusades, 123-126, 129.
Ant'werp, commerce of, ISO, 824.

Spaniards in, 328, 329.
Ap'en-nine§, 17.

Xll

INDEX

Aijui'nas, Thomas, 94.
Aquitain*', 49, 200, 204, 213, 237, 242.
Aqiiita'nians, 32, 71.
A-ra'bi, 582.

Ar'abs, 23, 116, 117, 118.
Ar'agon, 162, 221, 266.
AreA-an'gel, 395.
Archbishops, sl-S3, 86.
Archdeacon, 81.
Architecture, 89-91, 275.
Arcot', siege of, 419.
A'rian Christians, 22. 84.
Ar'lstotie, 94, 118,276.
Arkwright, Richard, 496.
Aries, 49; see Rurgundy.
Arina'da, Spanish, 319.
Armagnacs (fir-rn^n-yak'), 239, 240.
Armed Neutrality of the North, 425.
Armed [leace, 581.
Arnu'"nia, mas.'iacres in, 581.
Arinin'ians, 330, 371.

Arms and armor, 57, 58, 117, 197, 230, 231,
277, 314, 3*i, 349, 540, h^, 581.

influence <if Crusades on, 140.
Army, feudal. 58.

Franks', 62.

in Thirty Years' War, 333, 336.

under Louis XIV., 349.
Arnrft, Ernst Moritz. 483.
Arnold, abbot of Citeaux, 216, 217.
Arnold of Brescia, 162.
Ar'nulf, 49.

Anjues (ark), chateau of, 171, 172.
Art, 91, 2T.\ 276,341,364.
Artois (ar-twii'), 239.
Aryan peoples. 13.
A.«ca'nian house, 157.
As.sembly, in French Revolution, 441-448.

later, .^<11, 616-619, 687.
As.-iembly of Notables, 440.
A.>;signats (A-si'-nya'), 444.
Astrak//ati'. ;i92.
As'trolabe. introduction of, 277.
Astronomy, 276.
At'abek, 131.
At'tila, 22.
Augs'burg, commerce of, 186.

Confession, 295.

League. 366.

|»eace of, 296.

population in Thirty Years' War, 888.
Augus'tus IL of Saxony, 396-398.
Aus'terlit/., battle of. 475.
Australia, .S6s. .V.y, .MS.
Austria, beginnings of, 6.6, 152, 246, 259.

Bohemia ami, 29^, .622.

France and (1766), 413; (1792-1801), 446,
4.'Xi, 4.%^, 462, 46;i, 466, 467 ; (1806-1814),
476, 476, 479, 483, 4>>4.

U*p»burgs acquire, 246.

Austria, Hungary and, 298, 522, 624, 642, 694.

Italy and, 361, 362, 413, 490; (1820-1867),
504, 510, 520, 521, 533-536, 541.

Napoleon and, 462, 468, 467, 475, 476, 479,
483,484.

Poland and, 412, 413, 423, 424.

Prussia and (1740-1763), 405-407, 418-416,
421 ; (1866), 540, 541.

Quadruple Alliance, 499.

races in, 521-523, 594.

revolution of 1848 in, 521-624.

Seven Years' War, 413^16, 421,

since 1867, 580, 581, 686, 594.

Turkey and, 423, 580.
Austria-Hungary, 542, 580, 581, 686, 594.
Austrian Empire (1804-1867), 477, 490, 526,

542.
Austrian Succession, War of, 405-407.
Autun (o-tuN*), 54.
.\uxerre (o-sar'), 54.
A'vars, 32, 63.

Avignon (u-vGn-yON'), 208, 224, 264,266, 294.
A'zof, 394, 398.
A-zort'§', discovery of, 257.

Babylonian Captivity, 224, 264.

Bii'den, .W2, 541.

Bag-dad', 116, 118.

Balakla'va, battle of, 532.

Balance of power, 358.

Baldwin of Flanders, 138.

Bal'frtur, Arthur J., 571.

Balkan' states, 578-581.

Bank of England, 491.

Baptism, 79.

Bar'di, commercial company, 187.

Barebone's Parliament, 379.

Ba'ri, captured by Normans, 73.

Bar'ne-veWt, Jan van Olden, 829, 830.

liarons, in England, 198, 205, 206.

Barry (b^-nV), Madame du, 412.

Bii'sel, Council of, 269, 270.

peace of (1795), 465.
15asques (bdsks), 71.
Bas-til/e', destruction of, 442, 448.
Bata'vian Republic, 455, 476.
Bava'ria, and Charlemagne, 32, 85.

Austrian Succession War, 405, 406.

early history, 65, 148, 152, 157.

Napoleon and, 477.

since 181.6, 502, 541, 547.

Spanish Succession War, 360.

Thirty Years' War, 332, ;^36, 838.
BA-yoiiHe', English possession, 288.
Ba/a/n*'', (leneral, .%4.6.
!{.•</ 'eonsfleld. Earl of (Disraeli), 557, 561.
Beaucaire (bo-kar'), fairs at, 187.
Beaumarchais (bo-mar-sha'), 429.
Beauvais (bo-va'), bishop of, 242.
Becket, Thom« 6, 201.

INBEX

Xlll

Bedford, Dtiko of, 240, 242.

" Beggars" of Netherlands, 326, 827,

Belfry, 181, 182.

Belgium, and France, 448, 463.

since 1815, 490, 50», 584.

See also Netherlands.
Belisa'rius, 22.
Ben 'edict. Saint, 86.

Benedict XIII., Avignon Pope, 26&-268, 294.
Ben-e-dic'tine monks, 87, 88, 89.
Ben'e-fife, 51-53.
Benefit of clergy, 78.
Bfingven'to, battle of, 167.
Bengal', 419, 420.

Ber-g-§i'na Elver, Napoleon at, 482.
Ber'gamo, in Lombard League, 155.
Ber'gen, Hanseatic station in, 188.
Berlin, burning of, 415.

conference (1884-1885), 584.

Congress (1878), 580.

decree, 477.

Napoleon takes, 476.

peace of (1742), 405.

population in Thirty Years' War, 838.

Eevolution of 1848, 525.
Bern, joins Swiss Confederation, 249.
Ber-na-d6t<e', 478.
Bernard, Saint, 89, 92, 131.
Ber-nTs', quoted, 421.
Bgr-rT', Charles of, 251.
Berri, Duke of, 501.
Bill of Rights, 385.
Bir'ming-Aam, 556.
Bishops, 80-88, 86, 94, 95, 806.

investiture question, 104-108.
Bis'marck, Otto von, 588-544, 548, 580, 581,

590^92.
Black Death, 232-234.
Black Prince, 231, 234, 235, 23T.
Black Sea, closed, 532, 579.
BlaNC, Louis, 517.
Blanche of Castile, 219.
Blen'Acim, battle of, 860.
Bloody Assize, 383. •

Blu'cher (-Ker), Marshal, 486.
Boc-ca'ccio (-cho), 274.
B06r Wars, 570, 571.
Bohemia, and Austria, 298, 522.

early history, 63, 60, 247, 248.

electorate, 248.

Hussite revolt in, 258, 268, 269.

Reformation in, 801, 381, 332.

revolution of 1848, 522.

Thirty Years' War, 381, 382, 386.
Bo'he-m6nd, 122.
Bohmerwald (be'mer-valt), 17.
Bo-K^a'ra, 595.
BQl'eyn, Anne, 814, 815.
Bolog ia (bo-lon ya), 92, 149, 155.
Bom- jay', 418.

Bo'na-part^, Jerome, 477.
Bonaparte, Joseph, 477, 478, 479.
Bonaparte, Louis, 476.
Bonaparte, Napoleon, see Napoleon.
Bon'i-face VIII., Pope, 169, 222.
Bor-deaux' (-do), 238, 242.
Bor'gia, Caasar, 271, 272.
Borodi'no, battle of, 481.
Boroughs, in England, 556.
Bo§'nia, 260, 580.
Bog 'well, James, 428.
Bog' worth, battle of, 256.
Bothwell, Earl of, 318.
Bott-liiN-ger' (-zha'), 589.
Bow-lo^n*', Napoleon at, 474.
Bowr'bon, house of, 311, 484, 485, 490.

Neapolitan, 418, 536.

Spanish, 858, 859, 413.
Bourgeois (boor-zhwa'). Bourgeoisie (boor-

zhwa-ze'), 508, 518, 527.
Bourges (boorzh), French court at, 240.
Bow-vines', battle of, 163, 204, 214.
Boycott, 563.
Boyne, battle of the, 386.
Bragan 'za, house of, 341.
Braman'tg, 275.
Bran 'den-burg, 65, 248, 400, 401.

in Thirty Years' War, 334, 385, 338.

See Prussia.
Brei'ten-feld (-felt), battle of, 335.
Brem'en, 187, 547.
Brenner pass, 17, 186.
Brescia (bra'she-a), Arnold of, 152.
Bretigny (br6-ten-yi'), treaty of, 237.
Bretons (brit'unz), 82, 71.
Bri-en7Je', Napoleon at, 460.
Bright, John, 560.
Brill, capture of, 327.
British, see Great Britain.
Britons, Celtic, destruction of, 191.
Brittany, relations to France, 254.
Browning, Robert, 572.
Bruce, David, 229.
Bru'geg, 182, 186, 188.
Brung'wick, duchy of, 157, 547.
Brussels, 325, 509.
Buck'ing-Aam, Duke of, 370-372.
BH'da, taken by Turks, 295.
Buenos Ayres (br)'nus a'riz), 504.
Bul-ga'ri-a, 27, 114, 260, 579, 580.
Bun'dfis-ratA. of German Empire, 589, 590.
Bunyan, John, 882.
Burgr^'ley, Lord, 316.

Burgun'dian party, in France, 289, 240, 242.
Burgundians, 21, 35.
Bur'gundy, Charles of, 251-254, 262.
Burgundy, duchy seized by king, 254,

dukes of, 238-242, 251-254.

kingdom of, 49, 99.
Burke, Edmund, 449.

XIV

INDEX

Burns, Robert, 428, 572,
Byron, Lord, 505, 572.
Bj--zan'tinf architecture, 89.
Byzantine Empire, see Eastern Empire.

Cabinet government in Enjfland, 887, 888.

Cabochiens (kfi-bo-shi-fiN'), 239.

Ca'dlz, Drake at, 819.

€ar ro, 116, 117.

Ca-la//«', 232, 237, 242, 316.

Calcut'ta, 418, 420.

Cal'der-on, 341.

Calendar, 19, 20.

French revohitionary, 451, 452.
Ca'liphs, 24.

Calix'tus III., Pope, 270.
('Srmar, Union of, 3^34.
Cal'vin, John, 304, 305, 302.
Cal'vini.sm, 305.
Cam'perdown, battle of, 404.
Carn'po For'mi-o, treaty of, 463.
Cana<la, 35<l. 420, 5(>8, 5t)9.
Canning, George, 504, 505.
Cannon, 232, 242, 277.
Canon law, 78, 150.
Canons (clergy), 81.
Canos'sa, Henry IV. at, 105, 106.
Canterbury, 83.

Cantun', <»pened to British trade, 602.
Ca-nut6', 195, 190.
t^ape Colony (Cape of Good Hope), 490, 565

570.
CA'i.et, Hugh, 71, 211,212.
Ci-pO'tian (-shan) kings, 211, 311.
Capit'ularios, 19, 35, 36, 38, 51.
Cap'pel, battle of, 304.
Carbonii'ri. 50'2, 513, 5:^5, 548.
Cardinals, M, 102.
Car'is-brooke Castle, 377.
Carllsts, in Spain, 592.
Carno/', Lazare, 451, 466.
Carnot, Sii-di', 589.
Carolin'gian Empire, 32-5*).
Carolingians, 25, 32-rH}, 42, 44, 70, 71.
Car-ro'ccio (.-cho), 155.
Carthu'sian (zhun) monks, 89.
Cartwright, Edmund, 496.
Castile' and Leon, 25(5, 2-37.
Ca.stles, 171, 172, 174, 175, 50, 200, 365.
Cath'a-ri, 210.
Cathedrals. S\, ls2.
Catherine of Aragon, 314.
Catherine of France. 240.
Catherine dj;' Mfi'dl-ci (-che), 809, 810.
Catherine II. of liussia, 399, 416. 423, 426.
Catholic Association in Ireland, 5.'>5.
Catholic League in France, 310-312.
Catholic League of Germany, :W1.
Catholics, nee Ileformation, Church. I'o|>e.
hi England, 314-3H, 369, 382, 388, 555.

Cavaignac (ka-van-yftk'), General, 51 S.

Cav-a-lter' Parliament, 381.

Cavaliers, 374.

CA-vowr', Count, 520, 534-587.

Celibacy of the clergy, 78, 98, 99, 269.

Celtic Church, 191.

Celts, 18.

Cervan'tgg, 841.

Cs-ven»e«', 17.

Cey-lon', 468, 490.

Chamber of Deputies, French, 587, 588.

Cham'ber-lain, Joseph, 563, 571.

Chambers of Reunion, 356.

Chambord (shiix-bor'). Count of, 587.

(^ham-payn*"'. Count of, 54.

Champ (shaN) de Mars, 445.

Chapter, cathedral, 81.

■Charis'mians, 139.

(^har'le-mac^ne, 32-^2.

descendants of, 44.
Charles 1V„ Emperor (Charles of Bohemia),,

248, 257.
Charles V., Emperor, 290-292, 294-299, 325.

Charles VI., Emperor (Charles of Austria),
359, 360, 404.

Charles VII., Emperor, 405, 406.

Charles of Anjou, 168, 169, 221.

Charles L of England, 370-378, aS4.

Charles II. of England, 378, 880-388, 353.

Charles IV. of France, 224.

Charles V. of France, 237, 238.
as Dauphin, 235-237.

Charles VL of France, 238, 240.

Charles VII. of France, 240-248, 251.

Charles VIII. of France, 254, 255.

Charles IX. of France, 309, 310.

Charles X. of France. 506-508.

Charles I. of Spain (Charles V., Emperor),
290-292, 294-299, 325.

Charles II. of Spain, 357-359.

Charles III, of Spain, 426.

Charles XII. of Sweden, 39&-898.

Charles Albert of Sardinia, 520, 521.

Charles Martel', 24, 26, 52.

Charles the Bald, of France, 46, 46.

Charles the Bold, of Burgundy, 251-254, 262.

Charles the Fat, Emperor, 48, 49.

Charles the Simple, of France, 48, 49.

Charter, Great, 205, 206.

Charter of Henry I. of England, 199,

Charters, town, 180, 181.

Chassepots (shds-p6'), 54.5,

Chateau Gaillard (shfi-to ga-ySr'), 172, 214.

Chflt'Aam, Earl of, 417, 420,

Chaucer, Geoffrey, 274.

China, 599-605, 118, 696.

Qhivalry, 173, 174.

Cho-tH'§itz (Kr>-). battle of, 405.

Christian IV. of Denmark, 383, 334.

Christianity in 800, 27, 28.

INDEX

Christianity, spread of, 62, 75.

See Church, etc.
Chronicles, 19.
Church, mediaeval, 77-96.

buildings, 89-91, 182, 215, 275.

councils, 84, 264-270.

Eastern and Western, 109, 78, 84, 261.

feudalism and, 51, 58.

reform in, 98-108, 268, 269, 271, 806, 307 ;
see Eeformation.

services and worship, 91, 92.

See Pope, Reformation, etc.
Church, modern Catholic, 306, 545, 591.

France and, 354, 453, 468, 609.

Germany and, 590, 591.

See Pope.
Cisal'pine Eepublic, 463, 474.
Cister'cian (-shan) monks, 89.
Citeaux (se-to'), 89.
Cities or towns, mediaeval, life in, 180-189. <^'

in France, 180-183, 214, 215.

in Germany, 158, 186-188.

in Italy, 149, 153-156, 186.
Civil law, 149, 150.
Civil War, in England, 874-378.
C'lair-vaux' (-v6'), monastery, 89.
Clarkson, Thomas, 558.
Clement VII., Avignon Pope, 265, 294.
Clement VII., Pope, 294, 314.
Clergy, 77-83. 86, 92, 94, 95, 806.

celibacy of, 78, 98, 99, 269.

feudalism and, 52-65.

investiture of bishops, 104-108.
Cle'ri-ciH Ld'i-cos, 222.
Clerks (clergy), 78.
Cler'mont, council of, 120.
Clermont, steamboat, 499.
Cleve§, acquired by Prussia, 400.
Climate of Europe, 12, 18, 16.
Clive, Robert, 419, 568.
Clo'vis, 25.

Cluny (klu-ne'), order of, 88, 89, 94, 95.
Cobden, Richard, 560.
Co 'chin China, 602.
Code Napoleon (na-po-la-oN '), 469.
Go\-UTt\ 849, 350.
Col'et, John, 279.

Coligny (ko-len-ye'). Gas-parti' de, 809, 810.
Co-lo^ne', 187, 248.
Colonies, of Belgium, 584.

of England, 869 ; see Great Britain.

of France, 414, 41C-422, 565, 584, 602, 604.

of Germany, 584, 604.

of Great Britain, 414, 416-421, 425, 426, 565-
571, 584, 602, 604.

of Italy, 584.

of Portugal, 584.

of Spain, 420, 421, 504, 584, 598.
Columbus, Christopher, and Spain, 257.
Comets in Middle Ages, 189.

Commendation, 51.
Commerce, and colonies, 422,

Crusades influence, 141.

early routes of, 184-186.

East Indian, 418.

mediaeval, 183-188.

Mohammedan, 117.

Napoleon and, 477-479.

Netherlands, 824, 852.
Committee of Public Safety, 451-455.
Commons, House of, 207, 564.

contest with king, 368-380,

representation in, 555-557.
Commonwealth, English, 378, 379.
Commune of Paris, 548, 549.
Communes, of France, 181.
Communes, of Italy, 148, 149, 153-156.
Compass, mariner's, introduction of, 277.
Compurgation, 195, 203.
Concert of the Powers, 577, 578, 586.
Concor'dat, Napoleon's, 468, 609.

of Worms, 108.
Concordats of 1418, 268.
CoN-dg', Louis I. of, 309.
c:onde, Louis II. of, 337, 848.
Confederation of the Rhine, 477.
Confu'cius (she-us), 599.
Conrad I. of Germany, 65.
Conrad II., 99.
Conrad III., 132, 145-148.
Conrad IV., 167.
Con'ra-din, 167, 168.
Conservatives, in Great Britain, 557, 560-565,

571, 572.
Con 'stance. Coun