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SENTIALS OF
NGLISH SPEECH

ANK H.VIZETELLY

ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH

SPEECH AND LITERATURE

AN OUTLINE OF THE ORIGIN AND GROWTH
OF THE LANGUAGE, WITH CHAPTERS ON THE
INFLUENCE OF THE BIBLE, THE VALUE OF
THE DICTIONARY, AND THE USE OF THE GRAM-
MAR IN THE STUDY OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE

FRANK H. VIZETELLY, LITT.D., LL.D.

Managing Editor of the "Funk & Wagnalls New Standard Dictionary of the

English Language," Author of "A Desk-Book of Errors

in English," etc.

FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY

NEW YORK AND LONDON

1915

;>u

'8S3

FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY

Printed in the United States of America

Published, February, 1915

I V *• /S,

? "

B. M. V.

MY STAR OF HOPE IN A NEW LAND

TO WHOSE ENCOURAGEMENT AND DEVOTION

THIS BOOK OWES ITS ORIGIN

IT IS DEDICATED

IN LOVING APPRECIATION

AND GRATEFUL ACKNOWLEDGMENT

F. H. V.

PREFACE

To acquire a knowledge of the essentials of English speech
and literature is an accomplishment which should commend
itself to all who speak the English tongue. From the point
of view of this book, these essentials are indicated by the
following questions: (1) How did the language come into
being? (2) Who was responsible for its origin? (3) What
changes have taken place in its orthographical develop-
ment? (4) To whom is this development due? (5)
Through what media has it been attained? (6) What were
the refining influences that have brought it through its
crude original forms to the plastic medium for expressing
thought which we have to-day?

To present these essentials in concrete form is the purpose
of this book, which records the chief facts concerning the
historical and ethnological development of the language,
and which shows, by illustrative examples from different
periods, the progress made therein. Therefore, the aim has
been: (1) To trace the evolution of English speech. (2)
To describe the development and growth of English litera-
ture. (3) To direct attention to mutations in English
orthography and syntax. To this end the following pages
combine the history of the English language with that of
English literature to the time of Milton, whose orthographic
and syntactical forms approximate closely to our own. It
tells, in brief, the story of the language from the dawn of
civilization in Britain practically to our time, so that the
reader may be said to have before him a conspectus of the
different stages of assimilation through which it has passed.

vi PREFACE

As a correct knowledge of the use of English words is
based chiefly upon the forms established by that which is
best in English literature, brief accounts of the lives and
works of the chief writers of English — the Masters of the
English tongue — are included, and these are supplemented
by short extracts from their works to illustrate characteris-
tics of style and of spelling, and show the progress made in
the different periods into which the chapters are subdivided.
As an aid to the student interested in a comparative study
of English, the extracts from Anglo-Saxon, Old English,
and Middle English are accompanied by translations into
Modern English, or by explanatory notes that elucidate the
original text.

It is hoped that this book will prove of service to those
persons who wish to inform themselves on the history,
orthography, and literature of the language which they
speak. To those who have already acquired this knowledge,
it may serve to refresh the memory about facts and things
long forgotten or out of reach. Be that as it may, the book
is so planned as to enable the student to determine with
ease the different periods in the evolution of the language,
and it provides him with a succinct guide to the important
writers of each period. The names of the later or lesser
lights in literature, together with the dates of their births
and deaths, and the titles of their principal works are
recorded in an appendix.

In addition, chapters on the influence of the English
Bible — our great standard of purity and exactness — the
Drama, and the Periodical Press have been included, and
these are supplemented by others pointing out the functions
of the English Grammar and of the English Dictionary, and
the benefits that may be derived by a systematic consulta-

PREFACE . vii

tion of both. The greatest text-book to knowledge is the
dictionary, but its systematic study has been so long
neglected that many people do not know how to draw from
its pages the large fund of useful information that it con-
tains. A chapter is devoted to explaining how this may be
done. Suggestions on the benefits to be derived from read-
ing, and by writing for publication are also included, to-
gether with a comprehensive list of the world's best books
in English, where they can be obtained, and the prices of
each, if known.

The man and woman who devote themselves to the study
of the English language have a large and fruitful subject
for investigation — one so exhaustless that it is impossible of
completion. This book makes no pretense to exhaustiveness.
The following pages are offered with the hope that within
their limits they may serve adequately the purpose for
which they have been written, and prove acceptable to all
persons interested in the study of the glorious English
tongue.

E. H. V.

NEW YORK, February, 1915.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

PREFACE v-vii

I. ENGLISH: ITS ORIGIN 1

II. ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 11

1. The Anglo-Saxon Period : The Dialects of

the Tribes 12

2. The Early Middle English Period: the

Minstrels and the Monks 23

3. The Late Middle English or Chaucerian

Period 34

4. The Modern Period: the Invention of

Printing 49

(A) The Early Modern or Tudor
Period : the Mystery-Play and the
Moralities 54

1. The Influence of the Drama . 89

2. The English Bible .... 116

(B) The Modern Period: the In-
fluence of the Press 124

III. SOME MUTATIONS OF FORM AND SENSE .... 139

IV. THE FOREIGN ELEMENT IN ENGLISH .... 159
V. LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 174

VI. THE FUNCTION OF THE DICTIONARY .... 212

x CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

VII. THE DICTIONARY AS A TEXT-BOOK .... 233

VIII. THE FUNCTION OF GRAMMAR 259

IX. PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING . 270

1. Phonetics and Pronunciation .... 270

2. On Reading 304

X. WRITING FOR PUBLICATION 314

XI. INDIVIDUALITY IN WRITING 325

XII. ON THE CORRUPTION OF SPEECH .... 332

APPENDIX 349

INDEX 387

ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH

SPEECH AND LITERATURE

English: Its Origin

THE first race to inhabit Albion of which we have any
reliable records was that of the Celts. ' * Albion, ' ' as Britain
was originally called, or as it is sometimes rendered, "Al-
bin," has been variously explained. Dr. W. F. Collier1 is
authority for the statement that the Cassiterides, or Tin
Islands, as Herodotus called them, were placed by Aristotle
as "beyond the pillars of Hercules, " and described by him
as "two islands, which are very large, Albion and lerne,
called the Britannic, which lie beyond the Celtae." Albion,
says Collier, is explained to be a Celtic word meaning
"white island/' used by the Gauls to describe the chalk-
rocked land that lay to the north of them, but Dr. Isaac K.
Funk, in his "Standard Dictionary," states the word is
Latin, perhaps derived from the Gaelic Alp, meaning
' * height " — a view which is accepted by most lexi-
cographers.

Whatever may have been the origin of the name of the
land which the Celts inhabited, the fact remains that they
were found there, together with the Belgse, by the Romans
when they descended on British shores. The Belgae were a

1 "History of the British Empire."

2 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Teutonic tribe whose people in Caesar's time possessed the
mainland of Europe from the Rhine to the Seine. This
tribe, crossing the channel, settled in the southern part of
Britain, inhabiting that region which to-day comprises
Hampshire, Wiltshire, and Somersetshire. But over the
rest of the land, even to the adjacent country lerne (modern
Ireland), the Celtic was the dominating race. Certain Gal-
lic tribes inhabited eastern Britain, and to the north con-
trolling the basin of the Clyde and its vicinity, lived the
Cymry, a Bryttuonic branch (Welsh-Breton) of the Celts.
Possibly a few Saxons, or Frisians, also dwelt on the eastern
shores of Britain.

The descent of Csesar's troops upon the southern shore
brought about a confederation of these tribes to repel the
Roman attack, but to little purpose. Csesar had come, had
seen, and had conquered.2 For nearly five hundred years
thereafter Roman arms and Roman civilization controlled
Britain.

Perhaps the most extraordinary thing about this Roman
occupation is that the language, the law, and the literature
of the Romans left only slight traces in the land. A cor-
rupt Latin was spoken, no doubt, in towns under Roman
control. It may even have displaced the native tongue in
Kent, yet it is not to this period, but to a much later one,
that we must trace the infusion of Latin words into our
language. The final establishment of Roman law in the

2 The words "Veni, vidi, vici" are frequently misstated to have been applied
by Caesar to his expedition to Britain in B.C. 55. There is no basis for the
statement. According to Suetonius, the words were displayed before Caesar's
title, at the public celebration, in Rome, of his victories in Pontus, not as a
record of the events of the war, but as illustrating the rapidity with which the
campaign was carried on. The words are not ascribed to Caesar by Suetonius.
Plutarch, in his Life of Caesar, says that in describing to Amintus the rapidity
of his campaign against Pharnaces in Pontus (B.C. 47) Caesar used only three
words — "Veni, vidi, vici."

ENGLISH: ITS ORIGIN 3

land is not to be traced to this time, although it is possible
that the British people owe the organization of municipal
institutions and town governments to the Romans.

The withdrawal of the Roman soldiery by Honorius
practically left the natives to defend themselves against the
Picts and the Scots, who, scaling the walls that had been
built to keep them out, swarmed across the northern border,
and attacked the Cymry, whom they drove upon the Gaels
in North Wales. The Gaels withdrew to the fertile midland
region, and destroyed the towns of the Roman provincials
as they went. There are two accounts of what followed —
the Celtic and the Saxon. The 'commonly accepted account
is the Saxon story related by Bede and the ' ' Saxon Chron-
icle. "

Vortigern, a British chieftain, himself unable to cope with
the Picts and Scots, sought the aid of the Ethelings, Hengest
and Horsa, to repel them. These princes, giving heed to
Vortigern 's call for help, set sail for Britain in three
chiules or war-keels. Aboard of these were warriors repre-
senting three tribes — the Jutes, the Angles, and the Saxons
— who, soon after landing (A.D. 449), routed the invading
hordes, and settled down to enjoy the fruits of their victory.
The Jutes established themselves in Kent, and new arrivals
rapidly increased their ranks. This incursion so alarmed
the Britons that they refused to provide food for the in-
vaders, who, joining forces with the Picts, turned against
the Britons, and gained their first victory over them by
forcing the passage of the Medway at Aylesford. This
defeat was followed by another at the passage of the Cray,
when the Britons were driven back and fled in terror to
London. Then, collecting their scattered forces, they re-
newed the attack and soon regained much of the land that

4 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

they had lost, but not before the invaders had firmly
established themselves in the north of Kent and on its
eastern and southern shores. On the arrival of reinforce-
ments, Hengest and Aesc, taking the aggressive, attacked
and totally defeated the Britons at Wippedesfleot (identi-
fied as Ebbsfleet in Thanet). So overwhelming was this
defeat that the Britons found it impossible to save Northern
Kent, and, abandoning it, withdrew to the southern shore,
where for a time they held their own.

In 477 Ella, or, as his name is sometimes written, Aelle,
accompanied by his three sons, Cymen, Whencing, and
Cissa, landed at Cymenesora, in Sussex, a place which G.
M. Lappenberg3 identifies with Keynor in Selsea. He fought
a hard but indecisive battle with the Britons, which led him
to send for reinforcements. On their arrival he attacked
and captured the Roman fortress, Anderida, and burned the
town (491). " Aelle and Cissa beset Anderida, " so reads
the chronicle of the conquerors, "and slew all that were
therein, nor was there afterwards one Briton left." With
this pitiless victory Ella broke the British power in Sussex
and founded the kingdom of the South Saxons. This king-
dom had scarcely been established when another band of
Saxons, the Genissas, tinder the leadership of Cerdic, and
his son Cymric, landed (495) at the place which is called
Cerdicesora, placed by Green "on the shores of Southamp-
ton water. ' '4 Cerdic 's proposed campaign of conquest was
not immediately successful. He had made a landing and
held it, but before victory crowned his arms he was com-
pelled to seek alliance with Aesc and Ella. The defeat of
the Britons followed and culminated in a decisive victory

8 "History of England Under the Anglo-Saxon Kings."
4J. R. Green, "A_ Jtistory of the English People," chu i«

ENGLISH: ITS ORIGIN 5

for Cerdic at Charford in 519. This ended the struggle,
and * ' Cerdic and Cymric obtained the kingdom of the West
Saxons. ' '

There are no records of the time or manner of the in-
vasion of Essex. Its reduction is attributed to a prince of
the Uffingas, a descendant of Uffa, King of Ea*st Anglia,
from whom all the kings of the East Angles are said to have
been descended.5 Notwithstanding the active and vigorous
part taken by the Jutes and the Saxons in the subjugation
of Britain, the chief part fell to the Angles (Engles) , a tribe
that was destined to absorb both the Jutes and the Saxons,
and so to impress itself upon the descendants of the union
of the three tribes as to leave an indelible impression on the
history of the world.

The exact date when the Angles settled on the shores of
Northumbria is not known, nor are the details of the in-
vasion that led to this settlement. Green says : ' c The Engle
had probably been settling for years along the coast of
Northumbria and the great district which was cut off from
the rest of Britain by the Wash and the Fens, the later East
Anglia." The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" relates of the
northern part of Northumbria, that Ida the Torch-bearer
assumed the kingdom of Northumbria (Bernicia) in the
year 547. Bernicia lay between the Forth and the Tyne,
and embraced the eastern coast land. The Angles who had
migrated there steadily pushed their way westward, but the
progress made was slight, for the winning of the west
proved slow work. It was not until Ida united the various
settlements of that region into one kingdom that the Angles
made headway. But no sooner had they subdued the
Britons than they turned their attention to the subjuga-

6 Bede, "Historia Ecclesiastica."

6 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

tion of their fellow countrymen who had settled in Deira,
which lay to the south of them,

Deira, which ultimately became a part of Northumbria,
extended from the Tees, or the Tyne, to the Humber, and
spread inland to the borders of Strathclyde. It was
colonized probably by several tribes, each under a different
leader. These tribes, uniting eventually, formed the King-
dom of Deira, to the throne of which Ella came in 560.
He reigned for twenty-eight years, and extended his do-
main to the very border of Bernicia, but at his death
Ethelric (JEthelric6) of Bernicia drove Ella's son Edwin
out of Deira and usurped the country (588). Edwin then
sought refuge with Redwald, King of the East Angles, who
subsequently (617) helped him to defeat Ethelric and re-
gain his territory. But it was not until the reign of Oswy,
a son of Ethelfrith (JEthelfrith7) that the two kingdoms,
Bernicia and Deira, were permanently united, being
merged into Northumbria (670). The union seems to have
lasted until the appearance of the Danes, among whom
Deira was partitioned in 876. As a political division, Deira
became extinct with the Norman Conquest.

Mercia was the name of a great Anglian kingdom in the
midlands of Britain. The exact date of its settlement is
unknown, but has been approximated to the latter half of
the sixth century (582). Its first king, Cridda, died in
600. The original Anglian settlers, owing to their proxim-
ity to the unconquered Welsh, received the name of Mer-
cians, or "Men of the March." The Mercians were as suc-
cessful in their military activity as in their industrial
progress, and at one time Wessex, Kent, Essex, and Sussex

• Green's "A History of the English People."
7T. A. Archer, "Dictionary of English History."

ENGLISH: ITS ORIGIN 7

acknowledged their supremacy, but the death of Offa,
King of Mercia, in 796, marked the decline of Mercian
power. Four years later Egbert, King of Wessex, who
had been deprived of his kingdom and driven into exile
by Offa, returned to Britain, and was restored to his throne
by the West Saxon people (Collier, 800; Green, 802). He
signalized his return by a march into Cornwall, the pur-
pose of which was the subjugation of this remnant of the
British in the southwest. This accomplished, he turned his
attention to the Mercians, who had advanced into the heart
of Wiltshire, and defeated them at Ellandum (modern
Allington or Wilton), in 825,8 after which Kent, Essex,
Northumbria, and East Anglia submitted to his sword;
then, for the first time, the whole English race was united
under one king.

Dr. 0. F. Emerson,9 quoting Kluge's "History of Eng-
lish Speech,"10 says that Kluge "sums up the whole, as
it relates to settlement in these words: 'The Jutes settled
Kent, the Isle of Wight, and the neighboring parts of
Hampshire. The Saxons occupied the banks of the Thames
and the remaining portion of England southward. The
rest of England was possessed by the Angles.' '

The facts relating to the settlement of England, as here-
inbefore shown, may be summarized as follows:

A.D.

Reputed Landing of Hengest and Horsa 449

The .Kingdom of KENT, founded by the Jutes under

Hengest 457

The Kingdom of SUSSEX (embracing Sussex and Sur-
rey) founded by the South Saxons under Ella . . 491

8 Green's "A History of the English People," p. 65.
• "History of the English Language," p. 42.
10 "Geschichte der englischen Sprache."

8 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

A.D.

The Kingdom of WESSEX (embracing Hants, Wilts, Dor-
set, and Devon), founded by the West Saxons under
Cerdic . . 519

The Kingdom of EAST SAXONY (embracing Essex and
Middlesex), founded by the East Saxons under
Ercenwin 527

The Kingdom of BERNICIA (called also NORTHUMBRIA)

was founded by the Angles under Ida 547

The Kingdom of DEIRA, founded by the Angles under

Ella 560

The Kingdom of EAST ANGLIA (embracing Norfolk, Suf-
folk, and Cambridge), founded by the East Angles
under Uffa 575

The Kingdom of MERCIA (embracing the Midland

counties), founded by the Angles under Cridda . . 582 ( ?)

BERNICIA and DEIRA (the eastern shore of Britain, from

the Humber to the Forth), finally united . . . . 670

The foregoing has been written to familiarize the reader
with the distribution over Britain of the tribes whose lan-
guage formed the nucleus of our own — the Anglo-Saxon
tongue. Marsh11 tells us that, while we have no historical
proof by which, we can identify the Anglo-Saxon language,
and the people who spoke it, with, any dialect and nation
of Continental Europe, we have linguistic evidence of a
commingling of nations in the body of intruders, yet that
there is no proof that Anglo-Saxon was ever spoken any-
where but on the soil of Great Britain. Therefore, he ex-
plains that Anglo-Saxon was a new speech resulting from
the fusion of many elements rather than a transplantation
of the Heliand and other remains of Old Saxon.

Originally the Germanic tribes that inhabited Britain
were known by various names, according to the region from
which they came. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes were in the

11 "Lectures on English Language," by George P. Marsh, p. 35.

ENGLISH: ITS ORIGIN 9

majority, but the terms "Angle" and "English" were not
used to designate them until later. Ethelbert, King of
Kent, styled himself and his people as Angles. Dr. Free-
man12 claims that the term "Anglo-Saxon" is a mere con-
traction of the phrase "Angles and Saxons," but other
authorities,13 who preceded him, assert that the term was
used to distinguish the Saxons of England from the Sax-
ons of the Continent. The preponderance of authority is
in favor of the latter explanation, for in English we have
the forms Angul-Seaxna and Ongol-Saxna, while in Latin
we have Angul-Saxones and Angli-Saxones. If the Old
English ' ' Angel eyn, ' ' or, as it is sometimes written, ' ' ongol
eyn," renders "English kin" as it is commonly tran-
scribed, it is evident that "Angul-Seaxe," or "Ongol-
Saxe," must be transcribed into "English Saxons." Yet
Freeman's explanation, if supported by the language,
would be more satisfactory, especially when the term Anglo-
Saxon was applied to the ruler of the land — the King of
the Angles of the North and of the Saxons of the South.
The term "Anglo-Saxon" is not found in the "Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle," which refers to the five languages in use in
Britain as "English, British, Scotch, Pictish, and Latin,"
nor is it in the "Latin Chronicle of the Anglo-Saxon
Kings" by Ethelward (Fabius Quaestor Ethel werdus), a
work which consists mainly of a condensation of Bede's
"Ecclesiastical History" and the "Anglo-Saxon Chron-
icle."

The people ruled by Edgar and Harold called themselves
"English kin." King Alfred, although only King of the

12 Edward Augustus Freeman, "History of the Norman Conquest."
"William Camden's "Britannia, or a Chronological Description of England,

Scotland, and Ireland," and John Mitchell Kemble, "Remains Concerning

Britain."

10 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

West Saxons, is referred to in the " Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"
as "King of all the English kin except the part that was
under the wield of the Danes."

In the languages of the world the English tongue may
be classified as belonging to the West Teutonic branch of
the Teutonic sub-family in the Indo-European ' division.
It is regarded as belonging to the Low Germanic group of
the Gothic languages. "What is now called the German
language, therefore, though of the same Gothic stock, be-
longs to a different branch from our own. We are only
distantly related to the Germans proper, or the race among
whom the language and literature now known as the Ger-
man have originated and grown up. We are, at least in
respect of language, more nearly akin to the Dutch and the
Flemings than we are to the Germans. It may even be
doubted if the English language ought not to be regarded
as having more of a Scandinavian than of a purely Ger-
manic character — as, in other words, more nearly re-
sembling the Danish or Swedish than the modern German.
The invading bands by whom it was originally brought
over to Britain in the fifth and sixth centuries were in all
probability drawn in great part from the Scandinavian
countries. At a later date, too, the population of England
was directly recruited from Denmark, and the other re-
gions around the Baltic to a large extent. From about the
middle of the ninth century the population of all the east-
ern and northern parts of the country was as much Danish
as English. And soon after the beginning of the eleventh
century the sovereignty was acquired by the Danes."14

14 G. L. Craik, "English Literature and Language," Vol. I, p. 49.

English: Its Growth

OF all the languages of the earth English, in its vocabu-
lary, is the most heterogeneous. Almost every nation has
contributed to it until words from the Hebrew, Celtic,
Latin, Greek, Saxon, Danish, French, Italian, Spanish,
Portuguese, Dutch, German, Arabic, Persian, Chinese,
Japanese, Hindu, Maori, Hawaiian, Russian, Turkish, and
even American-Indian may be found in one great agglom-
eration in the English dictionary.

In the history of the language and its literature there
are four periods :

(1) The first, commonly spoken of as the Anglo-Saxon
period, and more recently sometimes termed Old English or
Oldest English, dates from the earliest Teutonic speech in
England, A.D. 450 to A.D. 1150. This was the period of full
inflection.

(2) The second, designated as the Early Middle English,
during which French words in large numbers, were intro-
duced into the language. This period extended from A.D.
1150 to A.D. 1350, which should be divided into two separate
periods (a) 1150 to 1250, during which the inflections were
broken up; and (b) 1250 to 1350, which marked the intro-
duction of French words.

(3) The third, or Chaucerian Period, better known as the
Old English of literature, now commonly called the Late
Middle English, during which the Saxon and Norman and

12 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Angevin French elements were formed into a new literary
language. This period extended from 1300 to 1477.

(4) The fourth, which dates from 1477 is called Modern
English, and extends to the present time. During this
period foreign words in very large numbers were borrowed
and have since been assimilated. The vocabularies of the
French, the Spanish, the Portuguese, the Scotch, the Dutch,
the Germans, the Italians, the Turks, the Hindus, the
Russians, the Persians, the Chinese, the Japanese, the
Arabs, and even the Sudanese have been drawn upon for
terms with which to enrich the English tongue. Originally
merely borrowed, many of these terms have now passed into
our language as Anglicized, and it should not be a matter
of surprize if this, the present so-called Modern English
period, is eventually so divided as to mark the dates of
each distinct stage of this assimilation.

1. THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD : THE DIALECTS OF THE TRIBES

The language of the different Teutonic tribes that in-
vaded Britain was not common to all. Each tribe spoke a
dialect which differed more or less from that of its neigh-
bor. But once the tribes settled down upon the land,
speech was divided into four dialects: (1) The North-
umbrian, which was spoken from the Humber to the Forth :
(2) the Mercian, which was spoken from the Thames north-
ward through the Midlands to Cheshire; (3) the Kentish,
spoken in the regions now known as the counties of Kent
and Surrey; and (4) the West Saxon, spoken in all counties
south of the Thames and west of Kent and Surrey. East
Anglian dialects were spoken in Norfolk and Suffolk, but
not much is known of these. The northern group, or
Anglian, consisted of the Northumbrian and Mercian dia-

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 13

lects, while the southern group comprised Kentish, as the
language of the Jutes, and West Saxon, that of the Saxons.

Until comparatively recent times the study of the early
English texts seems to have been neglected by the British.
So low was the standard of linguistic science in England in
the early decades of the second half of the last century that
Marsh,1 in writing on the subject, said: " British scholars
have produced few satisfactory discussions of Anglo-Saxon
or Old English inflectional or structural forms, and it is to
Teutonic zeal and learning that we must still look for the
elucidation of many points of interest connected with the
form and the signification of primitive English. A large
proportion of the relics of the Anglo-Saxon and of early
English literature remains yet unpublished, or has been
edited with so little sound learning and critical ability as
to serve less to guide than to lead astray. . . . But a better
era has commenced. The recent admirable translations of
Layamon, of the Ormulum, and of the Wycliffite transla-
tions of the Scriptures, are exceedingly valuable contribu-
tions to English philology, and in the highest degree credit-
able to the critical skill and industry of the eminent schol-
ars who have prepared and published them."

The conditions to which Marsh refers were due probably
to the fact that in England interest in matters of English
philology is restricted to the few private individuals of
independent means rather than distributed among the
public at large. To cite an instance of this state of things
no better example can be given than the vicissitudes from
which the "New English Dictionary," still in course of
production at Oxford University, has suffered. Sir James
Murray's experience, and that of his assistants, was at one

1 "Lectures on the English Language," introd.

14 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

time almost on a par with that of his famous predecessor in
lexicography, Dr. Samuel Johnson, who produced his dic-
tionary "with little assistance of the learned." This is
not strange, however, in a land where national recognition
of literary talents is restricted to the appointment of a
poet laureate. It is to be regretted that this land, that gave
birth to so noble a tongue as our own, has not yet estab-
lished as a concrete part of its national organization a
department of public printing and another of literature and
art.

Dr. Emerson2 traces the first official use of English words
to a Kentish charter of the year 679, and of West Saxon
words to a charter dated 778.

The Old English tongue was highly inflectional, but it
was a homogeneous language which had very little of the
foreign element in it. Its derivatives and compounds it
formed from its own resources.

The Anglian or northern dialect was the first to produce
a literature. This was fostered probably by Ionian scholars
under the Northumbrian Kings who reigned from 616 to
685. Caedmon, or as it is sometimes spelled Cedmon, said
to have been a cowherd belonging to the monastery at
Whitby in Northumbria, and "even more ignorant than
his fellows/' was the first English poet to sing in Anglo-
Saxon of whom we have any knowledge. He flourished
about 650 (died about 680), and sang "verses which he had
never heard or learned, praising and magnifying the
Creator who made heaven and earth for the children of
men."3

Although the authorship of the poems commonly at-

2 O. F. Emerson, "History of the English Language," page 45.

8 Dr. Thomas Arnold in "Encyclopedia Britannica," ninth ed., s.v.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 15

tributed to Caedmon has been disputed, modern scholars
generally concede that he was responsible for that part of the
"Paraphrase," a collection of separate Bible stories which
concerns the book of Genesis, and forms one of the Scrip-
tural narratives to be found in a tenth century manuscript
in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, England. The narra-
tives form two series, the first comprising "Genesis,"
"Exodus," and "Daniel"; and the second, collectively
called, "Christ and Satan," consists of the "Fallen
Angels, " the " Harrowing of Hell, ' ' and the ' ' Temptation. ' '
The second series is believed to be of too late a date to be
by Caedmon. In Milton's "Paradise Lost" there are some
passages that closely resemble those of Caedmon 's "Gene-
sis" both in thought and language. Editions of these poems
were published at Amsterdam in 1655; in London, under
the auspices of the Society of Antiquaries, by Benjamin
Thorpe — the only complete one issued and now out of print
—and at Elberfeld in 1847 and 1848.

The following lines cited from that part of the "Para-
phrase" which treats of the "Song of Azariah," and accom-
panied by an extract from Thorpe 's translation, afford
opportunity for the comparison of Anglo-Saxon with
Modern English.

Caedmon Thorpe's Translation

J?a of roderum waes. Then from the firmament was

Engel selbeorht. An all-bright angel

Ufan onsended. Sent from above,

Wlite scyne wer. A man of beauteous form,

On his wuldor-haman. In his garb of glory:

Se him cwom to f rofre. Who to them came for comfort,

& to feorh-nere. And for their lives* salvation,

Mid luf an & mid lisse. With love and with grace ;

Se )?one lig tosceaf. Who the flame scattered

ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Caedmon

Halig and heofon-beorht.
Hatan fyres.

Tosweop hine & toswende.
J?urh J?a swij?an miht.
Ligges leoma.
j?at hyra lice ne wa3s.
Owiht geegled.

Thorpe's Translation
(Holy and heaven-bright)
Of the hot fire,
Swept it and dashed away,
Through his great might,
The beams of flame;
So that their bodies were not
Injured aught.

The fragment of Caedmon reproduced below was first
printed by Wanley from an ancient manuscript. It is
accompanied by one printed by Hickes from Beda Hist.
Eccl., 4, 24, and by a translation. The first of the three
has been said to represent the Northumbrian dialect of
Caedmon 's time.

Wanley
Nu scylun hergan

Hefaen-rieaes uard,
Metudes maecti,
End his modge}?anc.
Uerc uuldur fadur,

Hickes

Nu we sceolan

herigean
Heofon-rices weard,

Metodes mihte,
And his modgethanc.
Weorc wuldor-faeder,

Sue he uundra
gihuaes,
Eci drictin,
Ord stelidse.

Sva he wundra
gewaes,
Eee drihten,
Ord onstealde.

He aerist scopa,
Elda barnum,
Heben til hrofe;
Haleg scepen :
j?a mittungeard,

Ne ae'rest scop,
Eorftan bearnum,
Heofon to rof e ;
Halig scyppend :
Da middangeard,

Translation.

Now we should
praise

The heaven-king-
dom's ward,

The might of the
Creator,

And his mood-
thought.

The glory-father of
works,

As he, of wonders,
each

Eternal Lord,

Originally estab-
lished.

He erst shaped,

For earth's bairns,

Heaven to roof;

Holy shaper;

Then mid-earth.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 17

Wanley Hickes Translation

Moncynnaes uard, Moncynnes weard, Mankind's home,

Eei drictin, Ece drihten, Eternal Lord,

JEfter tiafcae, u3Efter teode, After formed,

Firum foldu, Firum foldan, For the homes of men,

Frea allmectig. Frea almihtig. Lord Almighty.

To the student of the English language the most precious
relic of Anglo-Saxon speech is the epic of ' 'Beowulf" which
dates from the sixth or seventh century. This famous
poem, which is considered "the most important surviving
monument of Anglo-Saxon poetry, ' ' has been declared to be
of West Saxon origin. It relates the exploits of Beowulf,
son of Ecgtheow, the nephew of Hygelac, King of the
Geatas,4 or ancient people of Gotland, and affords a stirring
picture of life among the Norsemen.

"Many episodes that have nothing to do with Beowulf
himself have been inserted. They include many particulars
of what purports to be the history of the royal houses, not
only of the Gautar and the Danes, but also of the Swedes,
the continental Angles, the Ostrogoths, the Frisians, and
the Heathobeards, besides references to matters of un-
localized heroic story such as the exploits of Sigismund.
The Saxons are not named, and the Franks appear only as
a dreaded hostile power. Of Britain there is no mention;
and though there are some distinctly Christian passages,
they are so incongruous in tone with the rest of the poem
that they must be regarded as interpolations. In general,
the extraneous episodes have no great appropriateness to
their context, and have the appearance of being abridged
versions of stories that had been related at length in poetry.
Their confusing effect, for modern readers, is increased

4 "Encyclopedia Britannica" (1910), Vol. III., p. 758.

18 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

by a curiously irrelevant prologue. It begins by celebrating
the ancient glories of the Danes, tells in allusive style the
story of Scyld, the founder of the 'Scylding' dynasty of
Denmark, and praises the virtues of his son Beowulf. If
this Danish Beowulf had been the hero of the poem, the
opening would have been appropriate; but it seems
strangely out of place as an introduction to the story of
his namesake. ' ' The poem consists of more than 6,000 lines,
of which the four given below may serve as a specimen of
the language of the time.

Beowulf Translation

J?a com of more Then came from the moor,

Unter mist-bleodhun Under mist-hills,

Grendel gongan ; Grendel to go ;

Goddes yrre bar. God's ire he bare.

Caedmon was followed by Cynewulf, whom Kemble
identified with an abbot of Peterborough, who flourished in
the eleventh century, but Dr. Arnold suggests he was prob-
ably a "West Saxon writer of the first half of the eighth cen-
tury. Cynewulf was a poet of no mean order and in his
" Crist, " which contains nearly 1,700 lines, revels in the task
of expressing in his mother tongue the new religious ideas
which had come to his race.5 He wrote, among other
poems, "Elene," a legend of the finding of the Cross at
Jerusalem, and " Juliana/' a tale of the martyrdom of a
saint bearing that name.

Cynewulf has been identified as a Northumbrian church-
man, and as "Cynulf," a priest of Dunwich, whose name
figures on a decree of the Council of Clofesho in 803.6 Pro-

8J. M. Kemble, "The Saxons in England."

•A. S. Cook, Introduction to "The Christ of Cynewulf" (1900).

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 19

fessor M. Trautmann identifies him as the bishop of Lindis-
farne, who died in 783.7

Beda, sometimes called Bede, who on account of his
learning and piety was surnamed "the Venerable," was the
most distinguished scholar of his time and the greatest
writer of the early literature of Britain. He was born in
672 and died in 735. Bede was a prolific author, and in
the course of his career wrote homilies, hymns, lives of
saints, and works on chronology and grammar. When
fifty-nine years old he produced his most valuable work,
"Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum," an ecclesias-
tical history of England, in five books, which furnished
almost all of the information we have of the early history
of England down to 731. Near the close of his life he was
engaged on a translation of the Gospel of St. John into
Anglo-Saxon, which he lived to complete, and died with the
praise of God on his lips as the last sentence was penned.

With the rise of the West Saxon kingdom in the early
years of the ninth century the dialect of the West Saxons
came to the front, and it established its supremacy over all
other Old English dialects about the middle of that century.
Its ascendency was complete and it became the standard
language of England during the reign of King Alfred, but
to remain so only until the Danish invasion. To King
Alfred, himself a scholar, we owe, among other works,
translations of "The Universal History" of Orosius, "The
Pastoral Care of St. Gregory," and "The Consolation of
Philosophy" by Boethius.

Alfred the Great was born in 849, and died October 28,
901. He succeeded to the crown of England on the death
of Ethelwulf, his father, in 872. His literary activity was

7M. Trautmann "Kynewulf der Bischof und Dichter" (1898).

ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

restricted to the few years that followed his defeat of the
Danes in 878. In character, his works embraced poetry,
history, geography, moral philosophy, and legislation, and
they form a valuable part of our Anglo-Saxon literature.
His translation, or rather paraphrase of Boethius' "Con-
solation" he began about 884. The following lines are
among the best specimens of his work. They are from
meter VI. of the forty-seven meters into which Alfred
divided the work, and they are given side by side with a
literal translation in Modern English.

On Change
)?a se Wisdom eft
Word-hord onleac,
San so]?-ewidas,
And )?us self a ewoej? :

]?onne sio sunne
Sweotolost seine]?
Hadrost of hefone,
Hioe]?e bio]? a]?istrod
Ealle ofer eor]?an
0]?re steorran;
For]?oem hiora birhtu
Ne bi]? auht
So gesettanne
With J>oere sunnan leoht.
}?onne smolte bloewj?
Sou]?an and westan.
Wind under wolcnum,
}?onne weaxa}? hraj>e.
Feldes blostman,
Foegan ]?oet hi moton.
Ac se stearea storm
}?onne he strong1 cym)?
Nor]?an and eastan,
He genime}? hra]?e
]?oere rosen white

Translation

Then Wisdom afterward
Word-hoard unlocked,
Sang various maxims,
And thus himself expressed

When the Sun
Clearest shineth
Serenest in the heaven,
Quickly are obscured
All over the earth
Other stars ;

Because their brightness
Is not aught
When set beside
With that Sun's light.
When mildly bloweth
Southern and western
Wind under clouds,
Then wax rathly
The field's blossoms,
Joyful that they may.
But the stark storm,
When he strong- cometh
Northern and eastern,
He taketh away rathly
The roses' beauty.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 21

On Change Translation

And eac )?a ruman soe, And eke the roomy sea,

NorJ?erne yst By northern storm

Nede geboeded Of necessity bidden
]?oet hio strange geondstyred, That it be strongly stirred up,

On staj?u beatej?. On the shore beateth.

Ea la ! ]?oet on eor]?an Alas ! that upon earth

Auht foeslices Aught fast-fixed

Weorces on worulde Work in the world

Ne wunaj? oefre ! Ne'er abideth forever !

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is the most important of all
our historical documents, for it treats of the earliest part
of English history. Starting with the Christian era, it
extends, in the latest copy, to 1154. It consists of six manu-
scripts, and a part of a seventh, which are distributed (1)
in Corpus Christi College, Cambridge; (2-6) in the Cot-
tonian Collection of the British Museum; (7) in the Bod-
leian Library, at Oxford. They have been identified with
the several great religious establishments in Southern
England. The first, with Winchester ; the second, with St.
Augustine's, Canterbury; the third, with Abingdon; the
fourth, with Worcester; the fifth, with Peterborough; the
sixth, which is in Latin and Saxon, with Canterbury. The
seventh, of which only a fragment remains, is a late copy
of the first, and was printed in full by Wheloc of Cambridge,
in 1643, before it was destroyed by the Cottonian fire in
1723. A recent edition of the "Chronicle," was edited by
the Rev. C. Plummer, and issued by the Clarendon Press,
Oxford, in 1899, under the title "Two of the Saxon Chron-
icles parallel."

The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" took centuries to produce.
Plegmund, Archbishop of Canterbury, is credited with its
compilation up to the year 891. In compiling it he drew

ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

freely from Bede's History, already referred to. The fol-
lowing is an extract from "The Chronicle" (A.D., 449),
with translation.

Chronicle

Da comon J?a men of ]?rim
megSum Germanise, of Ald-
Seaxum, of Anglum, of Jotum.

Of Jotum comon Cantware
and Wihtware, ]?aet is seo
maeiab", J?e nu eardaj? on Wiht,
and )?8Bt cyn on West-Sexum Se
man gyt haet Litnacyn. Of
Eald-Seaxum comon E a s t -
Seax"an, and SuS-Seaxan, and
West-Seax'an. Of Angle comon
(se a siSSan stod westig betwix
lutum and Seaxum) East-En-
gle, Middel-Angle, Mearce, and
ealle NorSymbra.

Translation

Then came there men of
three powers of Germany,
from Old Saxons, from Angles,
from Jutes.

From the Jutes came [the
people] of Kent and of Wight,
that is, the race that now
dwells in Wight and that kin
[tribe] of the West Saxons,
the ones [those] yet called the
Jute race. Of the Old Saxons
came the East Saxons, and
South Saxons, and West
Saxons. Of the Angles, who
have occupied the waste8 be-
twixt the Jutes and the Sax-
ous, came the East Angles,
Mercians, and all the North-
umbrians.

Alfric the Grammarian, about whose identity authorities
differ, was one of the Anglo-Saxon writers of the later days.
He was the author of ' ' Eighty Homilies ' ' written in Anglo-
Saxon for the use of the common people. Besides these he
wrote a Latin grammar, whence his agnomen.

"With the passing of the glory of the West Saxon king-
dom the supremacy of the West Saxon dialect came to an
end. This was brought about by Danish incursions which
checked progress, arrested culture, and blasted all the hopes
of an advancing civilization.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 23

The Danes, or the Scandinavian pirates, as they might
perhaps better be called, came as a blight upon the land
and for nearly two and a half centuries — from the sack of
Landisfarne to the accession of Canute — they ravaged the
land, terrorized the people, burned their homes, their
churches, monasteries, and schools. Under such conditions
neither language nor literature flourished. Through the
fall of Anglo-Saxon supremacy, achieved by the Norman
conquest of England in 1066, the English language, though
still spoken to some extent, was gradually superseded by
Latin and Norman French, and by the year 1150 the Old
English period drew to a close.

2. THE EARLY MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD: THE MINSTRELS
AND THE MONKS

This period extended from 1150 to 1350, when the
Chaucerian Period began. During the first century of the
Early Middle English Period the full inflections of the
Anglo-Saxon Period were broken up, and during the second
a large number of Latin words that had been Gallicized,
and assimilated by both Norman and Parisian, were intro-
duced into English as French either through the Norman
dialect or through the Parisian speech.

Latin was the language of the scholars, and William the
Conqueror fostered this by replacing the few remaining
Saxon prelates whose scholarship was behind the times by
abler men, such as Lanfranc and Anselm. In addition to
this he built many abbeys and convents where men of
learning could study and commit their thoughts to parch-
ment in quietude and peace. He established schools and
raised the great seminaries of Oxford and Cambridge to
the rank of universities.

24 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

The eventual result of the Norman Conquest was largely
a reconstruction of the English vocabulary for, after having
adopted Gallicized Latin as English speech, the people were
not slow to convert such other words as they needed to
their use. By this means the English vocabulary was much
enlarged, and after the Renaissance — a period dating from
the accession of Charles VIII. (1483) to that of Francis I.
(1515) — a very marked increase in the number of words
obtained from the same source is to be noted.

Then, when French words of Latin coinage were used in
speech or writing they gradually passed as English cur-
rency and suffered all pains and penalties for their intru-
sion; that is, "they were subjected to all the duties and
liabilities of English words in the same position."9

During this period confusion of grammatical forms was
the rule rather than the exception. Side by side might be
seen the full inflections of the Anglo-Saxons and the broken
inflections of the Transition Period by which name this, the
Middle Period, is sometimes known. On account of these
broken inflections this period is sometimes called also the
Semi-Saxon. This breaking down or leveling of inflections
was completed by 1250.

In his "History of the English Language/' Dr. Emerson
points out that, although the introduction of Norman
French is generally credited to the Norman conquest and
its results, French influence in England dates from the
accession of Edward the Confessor (1041 ),10 and, says he,
"It is not improbable that some words appearing in the
written documents of a later time now first entered the
spoken language."

9 "Encyclopedia Britannica," VIII, 393.
"Pp. 51, 52.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 1>5

The same authority attributes the introduction of
Angevin, the dialect spoken in Anjou, into English to the
accession of Henry of Anjou, as sovereign of England.
(1154.)

Although Norman influence waned with the loss of the
dukedom of Normandy, still the influence of Parisian
French upon the English language continued during the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and it has exerted
itself more or less sporadically ever since. But the
waning of the influence referred to can not be better shown
than by citing an official proclamation of Henry III. to the
people of Huntingdonshire in 125811 — just one century
later than the accession of Henry of Anjou, perhaps better
known as Henry Plantagenet, the first English king of the
Plantagenet line. This proclamation passes as one of the
earliest specimens of official English, for that bulwark of
the British constitution, the Great Charter, sealed, but not
signed as is commonly stated, by John at "Runingmede
inter Windlesorum (Windsor) et Staines," June 15, 1215,
was drafted in Latin.

Proclamation Modern English
"Henry, )?urg Godes ful- Henry, through God's sup-
tome, King on Engleneloande, port, King of England, Lord of
Ihoaurd on Yrloand, Duke on Ireland, Duke of Normandy, of
Normand, on Acquitain, Eorl Acquitain, Earl of Anjou,
on Anjou, send I greting, to sends greeting, to all his sub-
alle hise holde, ilaerde & ile- jects, learned and unlearned
werde on Huntingdonschiere. (i.e., clergy and laity) of

"J?at witen ge well alle, Huntingdonshire.

j?set we willen & u n n e n This know ye well all, that

(grant) Ipsst ure raedesmen alle we will and grant, what our

other, J?e moare del of heom, counselors all or the more part

11 "Henry's History," Vol. VIII, app. iv.

ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Proclamation

f ae beof ichosen f urg us and
f urg fast loanctes-folk on ure
Kuneriche, habbif idon, and
schullen don, in fe worfnes
of God, and ure treowf e, for
f e freme of f e loande, f urg
fe besigte of fan toforen
iseide raedesmen, beo stedfaest
and ilestinde in alle finge
abutan aende, and we beaten
alle ure treowe, in the treowf e
faet heo us ogen, fet heo
stedefaestliche healden & weren
to healden & to swerien fe
isetnesses faet beon makede
and beo to makien, furg fan
to foren iseide raBdesmen, of er
furg fe moare del of heom
alswo, alse hit is biforen iseide

And f et aehc of er helpe f aet
for to done bif am ilche of er,
aganes alle men in alle fet
heo ogt for to done, and to
foangen. And noan ne nime of
loande, ne of egetewhere, f urg
fis besigte muge beon ilet
ofer iwersed on onie wise.
And gif oni ofer onie cumen
her ongenes, we willen &
hoaten, faet alle ure treowe
heom healden deadliche ifoan.

And for fast we willen faet
fis beo staedfast and lestinde,
we senden gew fis writ open,
iseined wif ure seel, to halden
amanges gew ine hord. Witnes
usselven aet Lundaen, faene

Modern English
of them, that be chosen through
us and through the land's-folk
of our kingdom, have done,
and shall do, to the honor of
God, and in allegiance to us,
for the good of the land,
through the determination of
those beforesaid counselors,
be steclfast and lasting in all
things without end, and we
enjoin all our lieges, by the
allegiance that they us owe,
that they stedfastly hold and
swear to hold and to main-
tain the ordinances that be
made, and be to be made
through the before-said coun-
selors, or through the more
part of them also, as it is
before-said.

And that each help the
other for to do by them each
other, against all men, in all
that they ought for to do, and
to promote. And none is to
take land, nor property where-
by this business may be im-
peded or damaged in any way.
And if any man or any woman
cometh them against, we will
and enjoin that all our lieges
them hold deadly foes.

And for that we will that
this be stedfast and lasting, we
send you this writ open, sealed
with our seal, to keep amongst
vou in store. Witness ourself

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 27

Proclamation Modern English

egeteten)?e day on the motive at London, the eighteenth day

of Octobr, in ]?e two and of the month of October, in the

£owertigj?e geare of nre crun- two and fortieth year of our

ninge." crowning.

With the accession of Edward III. (1327), the English
tongue, as then spoken, virtually deposed the French as
the official language. One of the statutes of his reign
decrees that :

"... All pleas which shall be pleaded in his courts what-
soever, before any of his justices whatsoever, or in his other
places or before any of his ministers whatsoever, or in the
courts and places of any other lords whatsoever within the
realm, shall be pleaded, showed, defended, answered, debated
and judged in the English tongue."12

. The chief writers of this period were: (1) William of
Malmesbury, who wrote in Latin a "History of English
Kings," which dates from the landing of the Saxons to the
year 1120. (2) Geoffrey of Monmouth, a Welsh monk to
whom we owe the preservation of the legends of the Celtic
race which he recorded in his "History of the Britons."
The story of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round
Table is to be found in this work. Geoffrey died in 1154.

Geoffrey's "History," which appeared in 1147, was
dedicated to Robert of Gloucester. It professed to be a
translation of an ancient history of Britain, written in the
Cymric, offered to Geoffrey by Walter Calenius. Owing
to its imaginative genius, the work proved very popular,
and was abridged by Alfred of Beverley in 1150 and trans-
lated into Anglo-Norman verse by Geoffrey Gaimar in
1154, and also by Wace in 1180. In 1718 Aaron Thomp-
son translated it into English, and a revision of this trans-

12 Statutes of the Realm, I. p. 376.

28 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

lation was made by John Giles in 1842. This forms one
of the "Six Old English Chronicles" in Bonn's Anti-
quarian Library. The following is a modernized extract
from the "History of the Britons":

Albion Divided Between Brutus and Corineus

"The island was then called Albion, and was inhabited by
none but a few giants. Notwithstanding this, the pleasant
situation of the places, the plenty of rivers abounding with
fish, and the engaging prospect of its woods, made Brutus and
his company very desirous to fix their habitation in it. They
therefore passed through all the provinces, forced the giants to
fly into the caves of the mountains, and divided the country
among them according to the directions of their commander.
After this they began to till the ground and build houses, so
that in a little time the country looked like a place that had
been long inhabited. At last Brutus called the island after his
own name Britain, and his companions, Britons; for by these
means he desired to perpetuate the memory of his name. From
whence afterwards the language of the nation, which at first
bore the name of Trojan, or rough Greek, was called British.
But Corineus, in imitation of his leader, called that part of the
island which fell to his share, Corinea, and his people Corineans,
after his name; and though he had his choice of the provinces
before all the rest, yet he preferred this country, which is now
called in Latin Cornubia, either from its being in the shape of
a horn (in Latin Cornu), or from the corruption of the said
name. For it was a diversion to him to encounter the said
giants, which were in greater numbers there than in all the
other provinces that fell to the share of his companions.
Among the rest was one detestable monster, Goemagot, in stature
twelve cubits, and of such prodigious strength that at one shake
he pulled up an oak as if it had been a hazel wand. On a
certain day, when Brutus was holding a solemn festival to the
gods, in the port where they had first landed, this giant with
twenty more of his companions came in upon the Britons, among
whom he made a dreadful slaughter. But the Britons at last,

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 29

assembling together in a body, put them to the rout, and killed
them every one but Goemagot. Brutus had given orders to
have him preserved alive, out of a desire to see a combat between
him and Corineus, who took a great pleasure in such encounters.
Corineus, overjoyed at this, prepared himself, and throwing
aside his arms, challenged him to wrestle with him. At the be-
ginning of the encounter, Corineus and the giant, standing
front to front, held each other strongly in their arms, and
panted aloud for breath; but Goemagot presently grasping
Corineus with all his might, broke three of his ribs, two on his
right side and one on his left. At which Corineus, highly
enraged, roused up his whole strength, and snatching him upon
his shoulders, ran with him, as fast as the weight would allow
him, to the next shore, and there getting upon the top of a high
rock, hurled down the savage monster into the sea; where
falling on the sides of craggy rocks, he was torn to pieces,
and colored the waves with his blood. The place where he fell,
taking its name from the giant's fall, is called Lam, Goemagot,
that is, Goemagot's Leap, to this day."

The transition of the language from Anglo-Saxon to the
English of Chaucer and Wycliffe is seen in Robert of
Gloucester's "Rhyming Chronicle," which was written
after 1278, and consists of 10,000 lines. An edition of the
"Chronicle" was issued by Hearne in two volumes in
1724, and reprinted in 1810. Of this work three manu-
scripts are extant: the Bodleian, the Cottonian, and the
Harleian. Very little is known of the author, who lived
about the time of the battle of Evesham (1265). His
work is a history of English affairs from the arrival in
Britain of the fabulous Brutus to the close of the reign
of Henry III. Its matter, in metrical verse, is drawn
chiefly from Geoffrey of Monmouth and William of Mal-
mesbury, but sheds some light on conditions in England
when the language spoken and taught was principally

30 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Norman French. This is what Robert of Gloucester tells
us about it:

Wyllam, f ys noble due, f o he adde ydo al f ys,

William, this noble duke, when he had done all this,
fen wey he nome to Londone he & al hys

Then took his way to London, he and all his [men],
As kyng & prince of lond, wyf nobleye ynou.

As king and prince of the land, with nobles enough.
Agen hym wyf vayre processyon fat folc of town drou,

Against [toward] him came the folk of the town with a fair

[fine] procession
And vnderuonge hym vayre ynou, as kyng of f ys lond.

And received him with fair [great] honor, as king of this land.
f us come lo ! Engelond into Normannes honde,

Thus came, formerly, England into the Norman's hands,
And f e Normans ne couf e speke f o bote her owe speche,

And the Normans could not speak any but their own speech,
And speke French as dude atom & here chyldren dude al so

teche.

And spake French as they did af home, and their children

did also teach.
So fat heymen of f ys lond, fat of her blod come,

So that the high [great] men of this land, that of their blood

came,
Holdef alle f ulke speche, fat hii of hem nome.

All hold [used] this speech that they from home took.
Vbr bote a man couf e French, me tolf of hym wel lute.

For but [unless] a man could [knew] French, of him very

little was cared [thought],
Ac lowe men holdef to Englyss, & to her kunde speche yute.

Anllow [humble] men holdeth [held] to English, and to their

kind [native] speech yet.
Ich wene f er ne be man in world contreyes none,

I ween there be no man, none in the world countries,
fat ne holdef to her kunde speche, bote Engelond one,

That not holdeth to their kind [native] speech, but England
alone.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH

Ac wol me wot vorto conne bate wel yt ys

And well I wot [know] for to understand both well it is,

Vor j?e more J?at a man con, ]?e more worj? he ys.13

For the more a man knows, the more worthy he is.

Of the Norman French writers Wace is the best known.
He was the author of "Brut d ' Angleterre ' ' and "Roman de
Rou. ' ' The first of these is a translation into romance verse
of Geoffrey of Monmouth's "History of Britons," and con-
sists of 1,800 lines. The second relates the history of the
Dukes of Normandy from Rollo to Henry II. The account
of the battle of Hastings is the chief feature of this poem.

Layamon, or Laweman as he is sometimes called, a priest
of Ernley (modern Arley), Worcestershire, who flourished
between 1155 and 1200, translated Wace's "Brut d' Angle-
terre" into semi-Saxon. Layamon 's work is, however, more
than double the length of that by Wace. The following is
a description of how the work was done :

Layamon

He nom )?a Englisca boc
j?a makede Seint Beda ;
An oj?er he nom on Latin,
)?a makede Seinte Albin,
And )?e feire Austin,
J?e fulluht broute hider in.
Boc he nom }>e J?ridde,
Leide J>er amidden,
]?a makede a Frenchis clerc,
Wace was ihoten,
J?e wel con)?e writen,
And he hoe yef J?are ae]?elen
Aelienor, j?e wes Henries

quene,
J?es heyes kinges.

18 "Robert of Gloucester," p. 364.

Translation

He took the English book
That Saint Bede made;
Another he took in Latin,
That Saint Albin made,
And the fair Austin,
That baptism brought hither in.
The third book he took,
[And] laid there in midst,
That made a French clerk,
Wace was [he] called,
That well could write,
And he it gave to the noble
Eleanor, that was Henry's

queen,
The high king's.

32 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Layamon Translation

Layamon leide J?eos boo, Layamon laid [before him]

these books,

And ]?a leaf wende. And the leaves turned.

He heom leofliche bi-heold; He them lovingly beheld;

Li)?e him beo Drihten. Merciful to him be [the] Lord.

Fej?eren he nom mid fingren, Feather [pen] he took with

fingers,

And fiede on boc-felle, And wrote on book-skin,

And J?a soj?e word And the true words

Sette to-ga)?ere, Set together,

And }?a J?re boc And the three books

]?rumde to ane. Compressed into one.

A work commonly assigned to the time of Layamon is
' ' The Ormulum, ' ' from its writer 's name which is variously
given as Orniin or Orm. This is a metrical work of some
length, consisting of a series of homilies based upon the
New Testament. The following lines, selected from the
Dedication to the author's brother Walter, are interlined
with Modern English as an aid to comparison.

Nu, brotherr Wallterr, brotherr min

Now, brother Walter, brother mine
Affterr the flaeshes kinde;

After the flesh's kind
Annd brotherr min i Crisstenndom

And brother mine in Christendom
Thurrh fulluhht and thurrh trowwthe;

Through baptism and through truth
Annd brotherr min i Godess bus,

And brother mine in God's house
Yet o the thride wise,

Yet of the third wise
Thurrh thatt witt hafenn takenn ba

Though that we two have taken both
An reghellboc to folghenn,

One rule-book to follow

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 33

Unnderr kanunnkess had and lif,

Under canonic's rank and life
Swa summ Sannt Awwstin sette;

So as St. Austin set
Ice hafe don swa summ thu badd

I have done so as thou bade
Annd forthedd te thin wille;

And performed thee thine will
Ice hafe wennd inntill Ennglissh

I have wended14 into English
Goddspelless hallghe lare,

Gospel's holy lore
Affterr thatt little witt tatt me

After that little icit that me
Min Drihhtin hafethth lenedd.

My Lord hath lent
Thu thohhtesst tatt itt mihhte well

Thou thought est that it might well
Till mickell frame turrnenn

To mickle15 profit turn
Yiff Ennglissh follk, forr lufe off Crist,

If English folk for love of Christ
Itt wollde yerne lernenn,

It would earnestly learn
Annd follghenn itt, and fillenn itt

And follow it, and fulfil it
Withth thohht, withth word, withth dede,

With thought, with word, with deed
Annd forrthi gerrndesst tu thatt ice

And because thou desiredest that I
Thiss werrc the shollde wirrkenn;

This work thee should work
Annd ice itt hafe forthedd te,

And I it have performed thee
Ace all thurrh Cristess hellpe;

But all through Christ's help

14 Turned. » Much.

34 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Annd mine birrth bathe tliannkenii Crist

And us two it becomes both [to] thank Christ
Thatt itt iss brohht till ende.
That it is brought to end

3. THE LATE MIDDLE ENGLISH OR CHAUCERIAN PERIOD

During the early years of the Chaucerian Period the
language of the English people was fostered by the min-
strels and the monks. In feudal times minstrels were
attached to noble houses, and as appreciated guests sang
their ballads of love and war in the dining-hall after the
meal had been served and the mead began to flow. These
men bore as a badge of office a wrest or tuning-key. There
were also minstrels of another class who roamed over the
land, spreading the language from hall to hall or from inn
to inn — singing, juggling, and miming for their bed and
board. Often they traveled in groups of two or three,
then the minstrel provided the music, the poet sang, and
the juggler (French jongleur) mimed to the great delight
of the people. Except at the monastery gates the min-
strels always found welcome. They were unpopular with
the monks because their songs often showed scant respect
for the men of the cloister, whom they decried and ridiculed
until the churchmen, roused by the vicious doggerel which
the minstrels sang or droned in the public market-places,
determined to check their pernicious influence by intro-
ducing mystery-plays — plays founded upon incidents in
the Bible. These were the earliest English plays.

In those days the monks were the scholars and monas-
teries were centers of learning. The cowled transcriber
was a silent, assiduous, painstaking worker, who spent hours
alone in the scriptorium in translating or transcribing the

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 35

Holy Scriptures, or in illuminating with brilliant colors
some Missal or Psalter which has since come down to us
as a triumph of bygone ages.

In the meantime the blending of the French and the
English tongues had progressed slowly yet steadily from
the thirteenth century, when translators began to intro-
duce in their works French words that were currently in-
telligible. It was not long thereafter • that the best of
French books issued were translated into English despite
the opposition to this course from such men as Robert
Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln, who strove, but in vain,
to have French retained as the literary language and
English relegated to the inferior position of a dialect for
use in intercourse with the common people — a language to
be shunned by the polite society of his day. To speak
French was then the "craze" of the day, but according
to John de Trevisa, after the year of the "grete deth"
(1348), there came a sudden change which was due prob-
ably to the French War, which began with the battle of
Cadsant (an islet between Flushing and Sluys), in 1337,
and terminated with the Peace of Bretigny in 1360.

Englishmen, under the command of the Black Prince,
then crossed the Pyrenees, through the Pass of Roncesvalles,
and fought the Spaniards at Navarretta in 1367. From
this event dates the beginning of the entrance of the direct
Spanish element into English. It is possible, of course,
that even before this date some Spanish words found their
way into English through the French. It is possible, also,
that the Crusades in which English soldiers took part may
have had some influence on the language. For it is in-
conceivable that any large body of men could travel to and
from the Holy Land, remain there a twelvemonth or more.

36 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

come into contact with foreigners, and not bring back with
them some terms for which they had no equivalent in their
native tongue. Certain it is that in the language to-day we
have a number of words derived from the Arabic, and
others which have been borrowed from the Turkish.

To King Henry IV. of England, who spent years of
exile in Prussia, but returned to England, deposed his
cousin Eichard II., and ascended the throne in 1399, as
well as to his retainers, we may, perhaps, attribute the
introduction of certain Prussian words into English.

The great writers of the Chaucerian Period were Jehan
de Mandeville, reputed in English literature; "Sir John
de Mandeville," described as the earliest writer of English
prose ; John de Wycliffe, translator of the Bible ; Geoffrey
Chaucer, the father of English poetry; John Gower, his
friend, and the ill-fated King James I. of Scotland.

Sir John de Mandeville, of whose identity some author-
ities express doubt, is stated to have been born about 1300,
and to have died in 1372. In 1356, or thereabouts, he is
said to have returned from a journey to distant and strange
lands on which he had set out in 1334, and written a "Nar-
rative of his Travels"16 in Latin. This work was sub-
sequently translated into French, and therefrom into
English. In the writer's own words the reader is told in
the introduction to this book that :

I have put this book out of Latin into French, and translated
it agen out of French into English, that every man of my nation
may understand it But lords and knights, and other noble
and worthy men, that con Latin but little, and ban ben beyond
the sea, knowen and understonden gif I err in devising, for for-

18 "It is in fact beyond reasonable doubt that the travels were in large
part compiled by a Jjiege physician, known as Johains a le Barbe or Jehan
& la Barbe, otherwise Jehan de Bourgogne." — "Encyc. Brit.," XVII, p. 561.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 37

getting or else; that they mowe redress it and amend it. For
thing's passed out, of long time, from a man's mind, or from
his sight, turnen soon into forgetting; because that mind of
man ne may not ben comprehended ne withholden for the freelty
of mankind.

The following is a specimen of Early English prose from
Mandeville's "Of the Pilgrymages in Jerusalem and the
Holy Places thereaboute, ' ' chapter vii., written about 1356.

After for to speke of Jerusalem the holy cytee, zee schull
undirstonde that it stont full faire betwene hilles, and there be
no ryveres ne welles, but watar cometh by condyte from Ebron.
And zee schulle understonde that Jerusalem of olde tyme, unto
the tyme of Melchisedech, was cleped Jebus: and after it was
clept Salem, unto the tyme of Kyng David, that put these two
names to gider, and cleped it Jebusalem. And after that Kyng
Salomon cleped it Jerosolomye. And after that men cleped it
Jerusalem, and so it is cleped zit. And aboute Jerusalem is
the kyrigdom of Surrye.17 And there besyde, is the lond of
Palestyne. And besyde it is Ascalon. And besyde that is the
lond of Maritanie. But Jerusalem is in the lond of Judee;
and it is clept Jude, for that Judas Machabeus was kyng of
that contree. And it marcheth estward to the kyngdom of
Arabye; on the south syde to the lond of Egipt; and on the
west syde to the grete see. On the north syde toward the
kyngdom of Surrye, and to the see of Cypre.

In Jerusalem was wont to be a Patriark and Erchebysshopes,
and Bisshoppes abouten in the contree. Abowte Jerusalem be
theise cytees ; Ebron at seven myle, Jerico at six myle, Bersabee
at eyght myle, Ascalon at xvii myle, Jaff at xvi myle, Ramatha
at iij myle, and Bethleem at ij myle. And a ij myle from
Bethleem toward the southe is the chirche of Seynt Karitot that
was abbot there, for whom thei maiden meche doel18 amongs
the monks whan he scholde dye, and zit be in-moornynge in the
wise that thei maden her lamentacon for him the first tyme,
and it is full gret pytee to beholde.

" Syria. ls Dolor, grief.

38 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

John Wycliffe or Wyclif19 was born about 1324, in York-
shire, England. He entered Queen's College, Oxford, in
1340, and in 1372 took the degree of doctor of divinity.
Wycliffe 's greatest service to literature lies in the fact that
he undertook the translation into English of the whole
Bible. This he produced between the years 1380 and 1384.
In the preface Wycliffe used a phrase that later writers
and speakers have made as familiar to us as household
words : ' ' The Bible is for the government of the people, by
the people, and of the people." (Walsh: "Encyc. of Quo-
tations," p. 323.) An edition of this work in five volumes
was printed by the University Press at Oxford in 1850.

The following section of Wycliffe 's translation of the
Song of Moses from the Book of Exodus, chapter xv, verses
1-19, will serve to show the character of English about the
year 1380.

Thanne Moises song, and the sones of Israel, this song to the
Lord; and thei seiden, Synge we to the Lord for he is magnafied
gloriousli; he castide down the hors and the stiere into the see.
My strengthe and my preisyng is the Lord, and he is maad to
me into heelthe; this is my God : y schal glorifie hym the God of
my fadir: and y schal enhaunce hym: the Lord is as a man
tizten: his name is almizti. He castide doun into the see the
charis of Farao and his oost, his chosun princes weren drenchid
in the reed see, the deepe watris hiliden them; thei zeden doun
into the depthe as a stoon. Lord thy rizt hond is magnyfied
in strengthe: Lord thi rizt hond smoot the enemye: and in the
mychilnesse of thi glorie thou hast put doun all thyn adver-
saryes; thou sentist thine ire that devouride hem as stobil:
and watris weren gaderid in the spirit of thi woodnesse ; flowinge
watir stood : depe watris weren gaderid in the middis of the

19 The name Wycliffe owes its origin to the village Wycliffe-on-Tees. He is
sometimes referred to as "John de Wycliffe" or "Wyclif." In 1365 Simon
Islip, Archbishop of Canterbury, appointed one John de Wyclif to the warden-
ship of Canterbury. — "Encyc. Brit.," XXVIII, p. 866.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 39

sec: the enemy seide, Y sehal pursue and y schal take, y schal
departe spuylis: my soule schal be fillid: I sehal drawe out my
swerde: myn hond schal sle hem. Thi spirit blew; and the see
hilide hem, thei weren drenchid as leed, in grete watris. Lord,
who is lyk thee in stronge men : who is lyk thee : thou art greet
doere in hoolynesse; ferdful and p'isable, and doyng miracles;
thou heldist forth thine hond, and the erthe devouride hem:
Thou were ledere, in thi merci, to thi puple, which thou azen
bouztest, and thou hast bore hym, in thi strengthe, to thin holi
dwellyng place: puplis stieden and weren wroothe: sorewis
helden the dwelleris of Flistiym; thane the pryncis of Edom
weren disturblid; trembling helde the stronge men of Moab:
all the dwelleris of Canaan weren starke. Inward drede falle
on hem: and outward drede in the greetnesse of thin arm. Be
thei maad unmoovable as a stoon, til thi puple passe, lord, til this
thi puple passe. Whom thou weldidist, thou schalt brynge hem
in and thou schalt plaunte in the hil of thin eritage: in the
moost stidefast dwellyng place which thou hast wrodzt, Lord,
Lord, thi seyntuarie which thin hondis made stidefast. The
Lord schal regne in to the world and fertli'e. Forsothe Farao
a ridere entride with his charis and knyztis in to the see: and
the Lord brouzte the watris of the see on him ; sotheli the sones
of Israel zeden bi the drie place, in the myddis of the see.

Translation According to the Authorized or King James Version

Then sang Moses and the children of Israel this song unto
the Lord, and spake, saying, I will sing unto the Lord, for he
hath triumphed gloriously: the horse and his rider hath he
thrown into the sea. The Lord is my strength and song, and he
is become my salvation: he is my God, and I will
prepare him an habitation; my father's God, and I
will ex*alt him. The Lord is a man of war: the Lord
is his name. Pharaoh's chariots and his host hath he cast into
the sea: his chosen captains also are drowned in the Red sea.
The depths have covered them: they sank into the bottom as a
stone. Thy right hand, 0 Lord, is become glorious in power: thy
right hand, 0 Lord, hath dashed in pieces the enemy. And in the
greatness of thine excellency thou hast overthrown them that

40 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

rose up against thee: thou sentest forth thy wrath, which con-
sumed them as stubble. And with the blast of thy nostrils the
waters were gathered together, the floods stood upright as an
heap, and the depths were congealed in the heart of the sea.
The enemy said, I will pursue, I will overtake, I will divide the
spoil; my lust shall be satisfied upon them; I will draw my
sword, my hand shall destroy them. Thou didst blow with thy
wind, the sea covered them: they sank as lead in the mighty
waters. Who is like unto thee, 0 Lord, among the gods? who
is like thee, glorious in holiness, fearful in praises, doing won-
ders ? Thou stretchedst out thy right hand, the earth swallowed
them. Thou in thy mercy hast led forth the people which thou
hast redeemed : thou hast guided them in thy strength unto thy
holy habitation. The people shall hear, and be afraid: sorrow
shall take hold on the inhabitants of Palestina. Then the
dukes of Edom shall be amazed; the mighty men of Moab,
trembling shall take hold upon them; all the inhabitants of
Canaan shall melt away. Fear and dread shall fall upon them ;
by the greatness of thine arm they shall be as still as a stone;
till thy people pass over, 0 Lord, till the people pass over, which
thou hast purchased. Thou shalt bring them in, and plant them
in the mountain of thine inheritance, in the place, 0 Lord, which
thou hast made for thee to dwell in, in the Sanctuary, 0 Lord,
which thy hands have established. The Lord shall reign for ever
and ever. For the horse of Pharaoh went in with his chariots
and with his horsemen into the sea, and the Lord brought again
the waters of the sea upon them; but the children of Israel
went on dry land in the midst of the sea.

The exact date of the birth of Geoffrey Chaucer is un-
known. On the authority of Thomas Speght, who pub-
lished an edition of Chaucer's works in 1598, his birth was
set originally in the year 1328, but as in 1386 he was des-
cribed as " forty years and upward,'' the year 1340 or
thereabouts has been accepted as the more probable date.
He was the son of a London vintner in favor at Court, and
in 1357 was a page in the household of the Duke of Clarence,

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 41

second son of Edward III. Of his early life nothing is
known. Dr. Collier20 states that a reference to Chaucer in
one of the poet 's earliest works has caused it to be inferred
that he was educated at Cambridge. Warton and others
have claimed him as an Oxford man. The point has not
been settled. In his writing Chaucer shows as intimate a
knowledge of Cambridge as he does of Oxford. Any one
who knows both places needs but to read his " Reeves Tale"
and his ' * Milleres Tale ' ' to see this. Perhaps the knowledge
may have been obtained by sojourns in the towns or visits
to the universities. However this may be, his education
was well cared for, as Nicolas21 describes him as possessing
acquaintance "with the classics, with divinity, with astron-
omy, with so much as was then known of chemistry, and
indeed with every other branch of the scholastic learning
of the age."

In the fall of the year 1359 Chaucer accompanied the
King's troops on an expedition to France. The English
army consisted of 100,000 men ; provisions were scarce ; the
weather execrable and no actual fighting occurred, never-
theless, Chaucer, who had accompanied a foraging party
which left the main body of the troops at Retiers, near
Rennes in Brittany, was taken prisoner and detained until
ransomed. Toward the sum required for his release the
King contributed sixteen pounds. Following this event
Chaucer returned to England and entered the King's
household as a yoeman of the King's chamber, where he
had "to make beds, bear torches, set boards, and apparel all
chambers. ' '22 In 1369 he again went to France, being abroad
"on the King's service from June to September," 1370.

20 "History of English Literature," p. 53.

21 "Life of Chaucer" (Aldine edition).

82 J. W. Hales in "Diet. Nat. Biog." s.v.

42 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Having learned all that France could teach him, Chaucer
turned toward Italy, whither the public service was to take
him, and in 1372 made an official visit to Genoa. He under-
took a second journey thitherward, and on this occasion
visited also Florence and Padua, returning to England in
November, 1373. As Petrarch was living at Padua, and
Boccaccio in Florence, at this time, it is not unlikely that
Chaucer met them both ; evidences of such contact, direct or
indirect, are given in his "Canterbury Tales/' the master-
piece which in the sunset of his life he produced in retire-
ment from the activities of public service at his quiet
country home in Woodstock. This masterpiece was begun
probably about 1387, for by 1393 most of the " Tales, " as
we have them, were written. He died October 25, 1400.

Of Chaucer's earlier works some are either partly, or
altogether, translations from the Latin, French, or Italian.
He described the course of true love in a glowing allegory —
* ' The Romaunt of the Rose, ' ' and in another, and still more
beautiful one, "The Flour and the Lefe," pointed out that
"They which honour the flour, a thing fading with every
blast, are such as looke after beautie and worldly pleasure :
But they that honour the life . . .are they which follow
vertue and divining qualities without regard of worldly
respects. ' '

To provide the reader with a specimen of Chaucerian
English, a part of the "Persones (Parson's) Tale," from
the Canterbury Tales, written about 1393, is given below.
The section is entitled "De Superbia" (Of Pride).

Now ben there tuo maners of pride; that oon23 is heighnes
withinne the hert of a man and that other is withoute. Of

23 The one of them.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 43

which sothly these forsayde thinges, and mo24 than I have
said, aperteynen to pride that is in the hert of a man; and that
other spices25 of pride ben withoute; but natheles, that oon of
thise spices of pride is signe of that other, right as the gay
levesselle26 at the tavern is signe of wyn that is in the celer.
And this is in many thinges; as in speche and contienaunce, and
in outrageous array of clothing. For certis, if ther hadde be
no synne in clothing, Crist wolde not so soone have notid and
spoke of the clothing of thilke riche man in the gospel. And
seint Gregorie saith, that precious clothing is coupable for derthe
of it, and for his schortnes, and for his straungenes and dis-
gisines, and for the superfluite, or for the inordinat skantnes
of it; alias! many man may sen as in oure dayes, the synful
costlewe array of clothing, and namely27 in to moche superfluite,
or elles in to disordinat skantnes.

As to the firste synne in superfluite of clothing, which that
makid is so dere, to harm of the poeple, not oonly the cost of
embrowdyng,28 the disguising, endentyng or barryng, ounding,
palyng29 or bendyng,30 and semblable wast of cloth in vanite;
and ther is also costlewe furring in here gownes, so mochil
pounsyng31 of chiseles to make holes, so moche daggyng32 of
scheris, for with the superfluite in lengthe of the forsaide
gownes, traylinge in the donge and in the myre, on hors and
eek on foote, as wel of man as of womman, that al thilke
traylyng is verraily (as in effect) wasted, consumed, thredbare,
and rotyn with donge, rather than it is geven to the pore,
to gret damage of the forsaide pore folk, and that in sondry
wise; this is to sain, the more that cloth is wastid, the more
most it coste to the poeple for the scarsenes; and forthermore,
if it so be that thay wolde give suche pounsed and daggid
clothing to the pore folk, it is not convenient to were to the
pore folk, ne suffisaunt to beete33 here necessite, to kepe hem
fro the desperance of the firmament.

84 More. » Species.

88 A bower, an arbor, a summer-house or penthouse; also, a bough used
as a sign at a tavern, whence the proverb "Good wine needs no bush."

87 Especially. •» Imitating waves. M Punching. w Supply.

88 Embroidering. 8° Imitating pales. «• Slitting.

44 ESSENTIALS OP ENGLISH SPEECH

The few lines that follow are quoted from ' ' The Romaunt
of the Rose," and express the moral and chivalrous senti-
ments of this great English poet.

To villaine speech in no degree
Let never thy lippe unbounden bee:
For I nought hold him, in good faith,
Curteis, that foule wordes saith;
And all women serve and preise,
And to thy power hir honour reise,
And if that any mis-sayere
Despise women, that thou maist here,
Blame him, and bid him hold him still.

The foreign element in Chaucer 's work is evidence of the
influence upon him of the speech of the people he visited.
Let any one consult a glossary to his works and he will
be amazed at the large number of French and Latin words
recorded there — amazed because "by the reign of Edward
III. French was so little known in England, even in the
families of the great, that about 1350 'John Cornwal, a
maystere of gramere, chaunged J?e lore in gramere scole
and construccion of Freynsch into Englysch.' "34 After
the close of the fourteenth century, the language spoken in
England was that of the Midlands; then, the southern
dialect fell to the level of a peasant's jargon.

John Gower, whom his friend Chaucer dubbed, perhaps
infelicitously, "0 moral Gower,"35 was of Kentish birth.
Of his personal history little is known. The date of his
birth has been set at about 1325. His death is stated to
have taken place in 1408. Gower has been described as

84 Sir James A. H. Murray in "Encyc. Brit.," s.v. "English Language."
86 O moral Gower ! this booke I direct

To thee, and to the philosophical Strood,
To vouchesauf there need is to correct
Of your benignities and zeales good.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 45

one of the best of our minor poets. He came of a wealthy
family, the owners of several country houses, and "seems
to have studied at Merton College, Oxford. ' '36 The position
he holds in English literature is due to his "Confessio
Amantis," which is a collection of reflections on matters
physical, metaphysical, and moral, woven in with stories
derived from "the common repertories of the Middle Ages."
His moral reflections have been declared confessedly wise,
impressive, and almost sublime. This poem which was
written almost in English, secured for him a permanent
place among British poets.

The extract from "Confessio Amantis" given below
serves a double purpose: to show the quality of Gower's
verse, and his unbroken friendship with Chaucer, to whom
he paid a graceful compliment by putting into the mouth
of Venus the following words:

And greet well Chaucer when ye meet,
As my disciple and my poete;
For in the floures of his youth,
In sondry wise, as he well couth,
Of ditties and of songes glade,
The which he for my sake made,
The land fulfilled is over all;
Whereof to him in special,
Above all other, I am most hold:
Forthy now in his dayes old
Thou shalle him tell this message,
That he upon his latter age,
To set an end of all his werk,
As he which is mine owne clerk,
Do make his Testament of Love,
As thou hast done thy shrift above,
So that my court it may record.

88 Collier loc. cit. p. 61.

46 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Gower wrote four poems in all. The first was ' ' Balades
and other Poeins, ' ' written in French ; the second, ' ' Specu-
lum Meditantis, ' ' which was written in French and treated
of the duties of conjugal life. The third, "Vox Clamantis,"
written in Latin, recounted the story of the rebellion of
the Commons in Richard II. 's time. This work is believed
to have been destroyed. To the fourth, "Confessio Aman-
tis," reference has already been made. In 1399 Gower was
struck with blindness and suffered from this affliction until
his death, which occurred at Southwark, near London.

In the Manuscript Section of the British Museum,
London, is a collection known as the Arundel MSS., number
fifty-seven of which is written in the Kentish dialect of
1340. Folio eighty-two of this MS. contains the Lord's
Prayer as written at that time :

"Pater Noster. — Vader oure thet art ine heuenes y halzed by
thi name, cominde thi riche, y worthe thi wil ase in heuene ine
erthe, bread oure eche dayes yef ous to day, and uor let ous
oure yeldinges ase and we norleteth oure yelderes, and ne ous
led nazt in to unondinge, ac vri ous uram queade. zo by hit."

To James I. of Scotland, born in 1394 and detained many
years ast a state prisoner in England, we owe the famous
"King's Quhair" (quire or book). It is a poem of about
two hundred stanzas, each of seven lines, which relates
many of the events of the King's life. For nineteen years
he lived in England, chiefly at Windsor and Nottingham,
and came under the influence of Chaucer's and Gower 's
verse, but the song he sang in "The King's Quhair" was
the inspired song of the lover.

One day while looking out of a window in the Round
Tower he saw walking in a garden below the beautiful Joan

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 47

Beaufort, daughter of the Duke of Somerset, and this
vision awakened the poetical passion within him. James
wrote also ' ' Christis Kirk on the Grene, ' ' in Aberdeenshire
dialect, and "Peblis to the Play" in that of Tweedale.
There is little doubt that these helped for a time to check
the then fast-disappearing northern English dialect from
the literature of England.

The following verses from "The King's Quhair," written
about 1420, during James's detention in England, serve to
illustrate the character of English early in the fifteenth
century.

Where as in ward full oft I would bewail
My deadly life, full of pain and penance,

Saying right thus, What have I guilt to fail37
My freedom in this world and my pleasance ?
Sen38 every wight has thereof suffisance

That I behold, and I a creature

Put from all this, hard is mine aventure.39

The bird, the beast, the fish eke in the sea,
They live in freedom everich in his kind,

And I a man, and lacketh liberty!

What shall I sayn, what reason may I find,
That fortune should do so? Thus in my mind

My folk I would arg'ue,40 but all for nought;

Was none that might that on my paines wrought.41

Among other writers of this period whose work serves
to show the growth and development of the English tongue
are Langland and Barbour.

William (sometimes styled Robert) Langland, who was
born about 1330, died 1400, was the author of "The Vision

37 Of what have I been guilty so that I should lack?

88 Since. 39 Fate.

40 Read in "with" to precede "my folk."

"There was none to work on (i.e., relieve) my pains.

ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

of Piers Plowman," an allegorical poem whose theme is
similar to that of Bunyan 's ' ' Pilgrim 's Progress. ' ' For this
reason some writers claim that it was he who struck the first
telling blow in the fight for the Reformation in England.
Be this as it may, it is certain that he never tired of un-
masking the ignorant and vicious clergy of his time.

The following lines from ' ' The Vision of Piers Plowman, ' '
written about 1362, show the alliterative character of Lang-
land's verse and the English of his day:

In a summer season,

When soft was the sun,
I shoop me into shrowds42

As I a sheep43 were;
In habit as an hermit

Unholy of werkes,
Went wide in this world

Wonders to hear;
Ac44 on a May morwening

On Malvern hills
Me befel a ferly,45

Of fairy me thought.
I was weary for-wandered,46

And went me to rest
Under a brood47 bank,

By a burn's48 side;

And as I lay and leaned,

And looked on the waters,
I slombered into a sleeping,

It swayed so mury49
Then gan I meten50

A marvellous sweven,51
That I was in a wilderness,

Wist I never where;
And, as I beheld into the east

On high to the sun,
I seigh52 a tower on a toft53

Frieliche ymaked,54
A deep dale beneath,

A donjon therein,
With deep ditches and darke,

And dreadful of sight. . . .

John Barbour, born about 1316 at Aberdeen, died 1395,
was author of a great epic poem entitled "The Bruce, " a
narrative based upon historical facts, which in style differs

42 I put me into clothes.

43 Shepherd

44 And.

46 Wonder.

46 With wandering.

4T Broad.

48 Bourne (stream).

49 Sounded so pleasant.
» Meet.
81 Dream.

62 Saw.

63 Hill.

"Well made (built).

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 49

from the English of Chaucer only in the broader vowel
sounds of the Scottish epic.

The passage cited below, describing the condition of
Scotland under Edward I. of England, illustrates the vowel
peculiarities referred to strikingly. It occurs in the earlier
part of "The Bruce,'' which was written probably about
1376.

Ah! Freedom is a noble thing!
Freedom mays55 man to have liking;56
Freedom all solace to man gives:
He lives at ease that freely lives !
A noble heart may have nane ease,
Ne elles nought that may him please
Giff freedom failye: for free liking
Is yarnit57 ower58 all other thing.
Na he that aye has livit free
May nought knaw well the propertj7,59
The anger, na the wretched doom,
That is couplit60 to foul thirldoom.61
But gif he had assayit it,
Then all perquer62 he suld it wit;
And suld think freedom mair to prise
Than all the gold in warld that is.

4. THE MODERN PERIOD: THE INVENTION OF PRINTING

Before treating this period it is necessary to consider the
conditions that prevailed shortly before its dawn, because
it began with the introduction of printing into England.
During the early years of the fifteenth century England
was at war with France; later, civil war was a disturbing

"Makes. S9 The state, condition, or quality.

66 Pleasure. *> Coupled (attached).

57 Yearned for. 61 Thraldom.

BSOver (more than). 62 Exactly.

f>0 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

element at home. Englishmen were occupied in bearing
arms for the King abroad and for his rivals at home. Under
such conditions little attention was given to the language or
the literature of the people. But the union of the White
Rose, in the person of Elizabeth of York, with the Red Rose
of Lancaster, in the person of Henry VII., brought the
War of the Roses to an end and restored peace to the land.
Then followed the introduction of printing. "At the very
epoch when the greatness of Burgundy was most swiftly
ripening/' wrote John Lothrop Motley,63 "another weapon
was secretly forging, more potent in the great struggle for
freedom than any which the wit or hand of man has ever
devised or wielded. When Philip the Good, in the full
blaze of his power, and flushed with the triumphs of terri
torial aggrandizement, was instituting at Bruges the order
of the Golden Fleece, to the Glory of God, of the Blessed
Virgin, and of the holy Andrew, patron Saint of the
Burgundian family, and enrolling the names of the kings
and princes who were to be honored with its symbols, at
that very moment an obscure citizen of Haarlem, one
Lorenz Coster,64 or Lawrence the Sexton, succeeded in
printing a little grammar by means of movable types. The
invention of printing was accomplished, but it was not
ushered in with such a blaze of glory as heralded the con-
temporaneous erection of the Golden Fleece. The humble
setter of types did not deem emperors and princes alone
worthy his companionship. His invention sent no thrill of
admiration throughout Christendom ; and yet what was the
good Philip of Burgundy, with his Knights of the Golden
Fleece and all their effulgent trumpery, in the eye of

88 "The Rise of the Dutch Republic," Vol. I., p. 45.
M Spelled also Koster.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 51

humanity and civilization compared with the poor sexton
and his wooden type ? ' '

One need not wonder that Coster's discovery sent no
thrill of admiration throughout Christendom, for Coster
was not slow to realize that his success would depend upon
the length of time he could keep his discovery secret.
Therefore, he guarded it jealously, and put all persons who
assisted him in his work under oath not to reveal any of
the secrets of his printery. But the story of his discovery
has yet to be told, and although considered legendary by
some writers — even that doyen of printers, Dr. De Vinne,
met with no little difficulty in disposing of the story — it
will serve its purpose if only to account for the existence of
the numerous printed volumes which are attributed to
him.65

The earliest evidence favoring Coster's right to be con-
sidered the discoverer of printing is "The Chronicle of
Cologne," a German book published at Cologne in 1499.
This work was printed by Ulrich Zell at Mayence. The
"Chronicle" states that "Although the art, as now prac-
tised, was discovered at Mayence, nevertheless the first idea
came from Holland, and the ' Donate, ' which had been pre-
viously printed there. Those books are therefore the origin
of the art. ' ' Laureritius, Laurens or Lorenz Coster, the dis-
coverer of movable types, was a man of means, who lived in
Haarlem, Holland. The approximate date of his discovery
was 1429 ; the origin of it was a ramble in the woods near
the city where he dwelt. On this occasion Coster cut some
letters out of the bark of a tree. By the aid of these letters

68 The reader interested in pursuing this subject further is referred to
Humphrey's "History of the Art of Printing" (London), and De Vinne's
"Invention of Printing" (New York).

52 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

he obtained an impression upon paper, but the impression
showed the letters in reverse. He continued cutting until
he had carved several lines for his own amusement and
liked the result so well that he set about to apply it in a
practical way. With the help of his brother-in-law, one
Thomas Pietrison, he made a thick, adhesive ink which he
could use to better advantage, and with it was able to
print from his wooden blocks. At the outset he printed on
only one side of the paper, and the first book he printed in
this way was a Dutch work named, ' ' Spiegal enser Behoude-
nisse." The separate leaves of this book were pasted to-
gether so that blank sides might not be seen. Coster died
in 1439. Among his assistants was a workman named John
Geinsfleisch (or Gutenberg, the Elder), who after he had
learned the art returned to Mayence, his native city, and
imparted the secret to a nephew — an artist of Strassburg,
named John Gutenberg. Uncle and nephew spent much
money and time in making experiments, in which they
were helped by a capitalist named John Fust, who advanced
the necessary funds for the carrying on of the work, but
who required that all the tools and presses of the new
craft should be pledged as security for his loans. After
two years of assiduous labor both the types and the
machinery necessary to the printing of a large work were
made. Then began the printing of the Bible, which was
not completed until 1455 or 1456. Gutenberg, while ex-
perimenting, found time to print several other works before
this, and among them were the "Donatus" (1451), the
"Appeal against the Turks" (1454), and the "Letters of
Indulgence" (1454-55). To Peter Schoeffer, another of
Gutenberg's assistants, is due the invention of cast metal
types which made the economical application of printing

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 53

possible. These metal types were made after Fust had
foreclosed the mortgage that he held against Gutenberg,
and thus secured the control of the printing establishment
and the services of Schoeffer.

For the reason that printing helped largely to establish
the forms our words were to take, the literary language
which it produced, since it had attained the almost inflec-
tionless condition of the language of to-day, became known
as Modern English. This language is commonly divided
into two periods, the Early Modern or Tudor English which
extends from Caxton to the close of Shakespeare's literary
activity, and the publication of the King James Version
of the Bible, or about one hundred and thirty years — 1477
to 1611 — and Modern English, from 1611 onward.

The influence of books on the language was immeasurable.
As they increased in number and spread throughout the
land the study of the people became the art of reading.
Printing tended to establish the forms of the written word
which, while suited to the eye, differed in sound when
pronounced to the ear. Confusion of spelling arose when
persons living in different parts of the country endeavored
to express the sounds familiar to their ears in writing
or printing. To this confusion — modified somewhat as time
passed by improvements in printing, by added facilities of
communication and the resulting increase of contact be-
tween the people — we owe the anomalies to be found in
our spelling to-day.

Although the inflections had disappeared no system to re-
place them had been devised, so that a certain looseness in
the order of using words prevailed. This was particularly
so in the sixteenth century ; then the language was the sub-
ject of syntactical license which would not be countenanced

54 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

to-day. Dr. E. A. Abbott, who in his "Shakespearian Gram-
mar" made a valuable contribution to Tudor English,
pointed out that the dropping of the inflections resulted in
the use of words in any grammatical relation as long as
they conveyed the idea of the speaker. "For then," said
he, "clearness was preferred to grammatical correctness
and brevity both to correctness and clearness." So the
practise of placing words without any regard to syntax,
in the order in which they first came to the thought, be-
came common. This produced a forcible, direct, and clear
English such as may be found in the writings of Shake-
speare and Jonson.

(B) THE EARLY MODERN OR TUDOR PERIOD: THE MYSTERY
PLAYS AND THE MORALITIES

The list of writers whose work exercised influence on the
language during the Early Modern or Tudor Period is very
large, so large that it is impossible to discuss each writer's
achievements at length ; therefore, brief biographical notices
of only a selected few are given in this book.

William Caxton, who introduced printing into England,
was born probably about the year 1423. Some writers, as
Oldys,66 whom Dr. Collier follows,67 have placed his birth
as early as 1412, but as the records of the Worshipful Com-
pany of Mercers show that he was apprenticed to one Robert
Large in 1438, he would have been twenty-six years old at
the time of his apprenticeship, which seems unlikely. For
this reason the approximate date 1423, set by his biographer
William Blades, which would have made Caxton about fif-
teen years old when apprenticed, is preferred. He was

M Biographia Britannica," s.v.

67 "History of English Literature," p. 72.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 55

born in the Weald of Kent, a region which formerly ex-
tended from the Strait of Dover (in Kent) to Beachy Head
(in Sussex) . Exactly where, within the limits of this weald
or exposed region, is not known. Caxton's master, Robert
Large, was sheriff of London in 1430, and elected Lord
Mayor of that city in 1439. This suggests that Caxton's
parents must have been people of influence, or he would
not have been able to secure apprenticeship to one of such
high distinction. Before the expiration of Caxton's ap-
prenticeship Robert Large died, and his executors decided
to send Caxton to Bruges to complete it. His parents,
whatever their names and condition may have been, gave
Caxton some education, for in the prologue to his ' ' Charles
the Grete" (1485), he says: "I am bounden to pray for
my fader and moder's souls that in my youthe sent me to
schoole, by which by the suffraunce of God I gete my living,
I hope truly. ' '

While in Europe he was appointed to negotiate the
renewal of the then existing treaty in regard to wool with
the Duke of Burgundy in 1465. Although he failed in this,
he was sent out by the Mercer's Company in 1468. When
Edward IV. was driven into exile Caxton succeeded in find-
ing favor and gaining influence at Court. In 1471 he
entered the service of the Duchess of Burgundy, and while
in her employ heard of the discovery of printing. As to
who taught Caxton the art of printing there is some un-
certainty. Wynkyn de Worde, who was one of Caxton's
assistants, claimed that Ulric Zell, of Cologne, taught him,
but an anonymous writer in the "Encyclopedia Britan-
nica"68 says "he seems rather to have had Colard Mansion
as his teacher." The exact date that Caxton brought his

68 Caxton, William, s.v.

56 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

press to England and set it up in Westminster is uncertain,
but the date is set between the years 1471 and 1478. Dr.
Funk places the date of the printing of" The Recuyell of the
Historyes of Troye" — the first book printed in England
—at about 1475.69 Caxton followed this up with the "Dictes
and Sayinges of the Philosophers, emprynted by me William
Caxton, at Westmestre, the yere of our Lord m.cccc.l.xxvij."
But Caxton had printed English books before this at Bruges,
and these were an earlier edition of "The Recuyell of the
Historyes of Troye,". printed in 1471,70 and "The Game
and the Play of Chesse, fynysshid the last day of marche
the yer of our lord god. a. thousand foure honderd and
Ixxiiii." These books, says Dr. Thomas MacKellar,71 were,
however, "printed at Bruges." "At Bruges," says the
' l Dictionary of National Biography, " " there lived a skilful
caligrapher named Colard Mansion, who set up a press in
that city for the first time about 1473. Mr. Blades states
that Caxton probably supplied Mansion with money to
carry out his enterprise, and placed himself under Man-
sion's tuition at Bruges, That Caxton and Mansion were
acquainted with one another is not disputed. But Caxton 's
explicit mention of Cologne as the place in .which he finished
his translation in 1471, and the remark of Caxton 's suc-
cessor, Wynkyn de Worde, that Caxton printed a Latin
book, ' Bartholomseus de Proprietatibus Rerum,' at Cologne
(W. de Worde, Proheme to his ed. of Bartholomaeus, n.d.),
powerfully support the conclusion that Caxton was asso-
ciated with Cologne in his early printing operations.
M. J. P. A. Madden suggests that Caxton and Mansion were

69 "Standard Dictionary," s.v. Printing.

70 Collier "at Cologne in 1471."

71 "The American Printer," p. 16.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 57

fellow students of the art of printing at Cologne some
time between 1471 and 1474, and this is very probable. For
the rest, the absence from the 'Recuyell' of many technical
points met with in Cologne books of the time, and the
presence there of most, though not all, the technical points
found in the early books of Mansion's press, point to the
conclusion that Caxton, having learned printing at Cologne,
returned to Bruges about 1474, and printed the 'Recuyell'
at Mansion's press there." Caxton died in 1491 or 1492.
Of the art of printing, the invention of which we owe to
Germany, it has recently been pointed out72 that while it
made way rapidly in Prance, its progress in England was
very slow ; in France it was introduced early and fostered
and developed on liberal lines by men of learning. Two
professors of the Sorbonne brought experts from Germany
and set up the first printing-press in Paris in 1470. From
this press in less than two years issued twenty-two volumes,
among them works of Vergil and Cicero, of Plato in Latin,
of Terence, Sallust, and Juvenal; also manuals for the
schools and books besides. By the close of the century
eighty-five presses were at work in Paris and thirty-eight
in the French provinces. In nearly all cases these presses
were owned and conducted by scholars and men of letters.
Throughout the sixteenth century in France the art of
printing was very learnedly and brilliantly carried on.

Having introduced the printer's art into England,
Caxton was not slow in pursuing it. He brought what was
necessary for the purpose from the Continent and started
a press in Westminster in 1478. This was only eight years
later than the institution in Paris, but the art expanded

72 "English Literary Debt to France" in "The Sun," New York, April 23,
1911, p. 2.

58 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

very slowly in England, and with far less than the mag-
nificence that attended it in France. By the end of the
fifteenth century, says Sir Sidney Lee,73 only three or four
presses had been set up in London, and all save Caxtoii's
were the ventures of half -educated foreign mechanics. In
Caxton's day a German printed a few books at Oxford.
He was no more than a lonely and fleeting manifestation.
The Oxford University Press can not trace its history
further back than 1585. At Cambridge a wanderer from
Cologne printed nine or ten books in 1521 and 1522, but
there was no permanent press before 1582. In London,
after Caxton's initial effort, the press was kept going in
a modest manner by foreign hands. Germany and the
Low Countries supplied the thin ranks of the London
printers.

Notwithstanding that he had set up his establishment in
London, Caxton found it necessary to enlist the aid of
French printers, and several of his books were printed in
Paris. It may have been due to this that Richard Pynson,
a native of Rouen, where he had learned "the trade,"
determined to move to England and establish himself there.
To Pynson belongs the distinction of having printed the
first Latin classic in England. In 1497 he printed the
plays of Terence. Although printing had been pursued as
an occupation for sixty-three years, when the Great Bible
was ready for composition, there was not among the London
printers one bold enough to undertake the work, which had
to be sent to Paris. Subsequently, however, owing to the
interference of the French Government, the presses were
removed to London and the work was completed there. The

""The French Renaissance in England: an Account of the Literary
Relations of England and France in the XVIth Century."

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 59

first type cast in England was cast by a Frenchman in
the year 1545.

Between the years 1478 and 1491 Caxton issued ninety-
six books from the Westminster Press, including among
others the works of Chaucer and Gower, Sir Thomas
Malory's "Morte d 'Arthur," and various translations of
more or less classical works from French, Latin, and Dutch,
together with a number of smaller books, a good many of
which are religious. His industry was very great, and he
died in the midst of his work. He was not only a skilful
master printer and publisher of books, but to some extent
a man of letters — editor, author, translator — with a certain
style of his own and a true enthusiasm for literature. His
work as writer and translator helped to fix the literary
language of England in the sixteenth century. Specimens
of his printed books exist in various public and private
libraries. The British Museum possesses eighty-three
Caxton volumes.74

The need for going somewhat at length into the discovery
of printing and into the introduction of the printers' art
to England must be self-evident to the reader who stops
to consider the natural relation that exists between our
language and literature. That relation was brought closer
by the introduction of printing and by the dissemination of
books. In the productions of Caxton 's press one can trace
the completion of the transition from the Middle English
Period to that of the Modern English and "the disappear-
ance of the final e, and of most of the syllabic inflections
of Middle English. "75 Those of us who watch with interest
the spelling reform movements of our day have some idea

74 K. M. Warren, the "Catholic Encyclopedia," Vol. Ill, p. 469, s.v. "Caxton."
78 J. A. H. Murray in "Encyclopedia Britannica."

60 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

of the trials that beset William Caxton during this period
of transition. From the fact that the earlier production*
of his press were in Middle English, and that this was
discarded in the later works, it will be seen that almost
from the beginning the printing-press has had an immense
influence on the forms of our language.

To illustrate the confusion that existed in English speech,
as much as to show Caxton 's perplexities in his own words,
Sir James Murray reproduced 'a part of the prologue to
Caxton 's translation of Vergil's "Eneydos" (1490), and
with his permission this is reproduced here :

"I doubted that it sholde not please some gentylmen, whiche
late blamed me, sayeng, y in my translacyons I had oner curyous
termes, whiche coud not be vnderstande of corny n peple, and
desired me to vse olde and homely termes in my translacyons.
And fayn wolde I satysfy euery man; and so to doo, toke an
olde boke and redde therin; and certaynly the englysshe was
so rude and brook that I coude not wele vnderstande it. And
also my lorde abbot of Westmynster ded to shewe to me late
certayn euydences wryton in olde englysshe for to reduce it in
to our englysshe now vsid. And certaynly it was wreton in
suche wyse that it was more lyke to dutche then englysshe; I
coude not reduce ne brynge it to be vnderstonden. And cer-
taynly, our langage now vsed varyeth ferre from that which
was vsed and spoken whan I was borne. For we englysshemen
ben vnder the domynacyon of the mone, whiche is neuer
stedfaste, but euer wauerynge, wexynge one season, and waneth
and dycreaseth another season. And that comyn englysshe
that is spoken in one shyre varyeth from a nother. In so
much that in my days happened that certayn marchauntes wero
in a shipe in tamyse, for to haue sayled ouer the sea into
zelande, and for lacke of winde thei taryed atte forlond, and
wente to lande for to refreshe them. And one of theym named
sheffelde, a mercer, cam in to an hows and axed for mete, and
specyally he axyd after eggys, And the goode wyf answerde,

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 61

that he coiule speke no frenshe. And the marchaunt was
angry, for he also couclc speke no frenshe, but wolde haue hadde
egges; and she vnderstode hym not. And thenne at laste a
nother sayd that he wolde haue eyren : then the good wyf sayd
that she vnderstod hym well. Loo! what sholcle a man in
thyse days HOAV wryte, egges or eyren ? certaynly, it is harde
to playse euery man, by cause of dyuersite and chaunge of
langage. For in these dayes, euery man that is in any repu-
tacyon in his countre wyll vtter his comyncacyon and maters
in suche maners & termes that fewe men shall vnderstonde
theyin. And som honest and grete clerkes haue ben wyth me,
and desired me to wryte the moste curyons termes that I coude
fynde. And thus bytwene playn, rude, and curyous, I stande
abasshed; but in my Judgemente, the comyn termes that be
dayli vsed ben lyghter to be vnderstonde then the olde and
auncyent englysshe."

Who knows but that the simplified spelling movement
now afoot may not prove another transition period for the
student of English ?

As has been stated, Caxton printed Sir Thomas Malory's
"Morte d' Arthur." It is a prose romance which was
completed in the ninth year of Edward IV. 's reign
(1470). The author has been identified by Professor
Kittridge with Sir Thomas Malory of Newbold Revell in
Warwickshire, England, who succeeded to the family
estates in 1433 or 1434. Caxton described him as "a ser-
vant of Jesus both day and night," which has led to the
conjecture that he may have been a priest, especially as
"Sir" was a title accorded to priests. Malory's work com-
bines simplicity and virility of language with an earnest-
ness and tenderness of expression which show him to have
been a master of his art. Several editions of "Morte
d' Arthur" have been printed, and the work is one that
has been recently selected for study as an English classic in

62 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

American schools. The following extract will serve to
show the quality of Sir Thomas Malory's English75*:

"0 ye myglity and pompous lordes shynynge in the glory
transitory of this unstable lyf, as in regnynge over grete realines
and myghty grete eountrees, fortyfyed with stronge castels
and toures edifyed with many a ryche cite; ye also ye fyers and
myghty knyghtes so valyaunt in adventurous dedes of armes,
beholde, beholde, se how this myghty eonquerour kinge Arthur,
whome in his humayne lyfe all the worlde doubted76; ye also,
this noble quene Guenever, whiche somtyme sate in her chayre
adourned with golde, perles, and precyous stones, now lye full
lowe in obscure fosse or pyt covered with cloddes of erth and
claye. Beholde also this myghty champyon Syr Launcelot, pereles
of knyghthode, and se now how he lyeth grovelynge upon the
colde moulde, now beynge so feble and faynt that somtyme was
so terryble how and in what maner ought ye to be so desyrous
of worldly honoure so daungerous. Therfore me thynketh this
present boke called La Mort Darthur is ryght necessary often
to be radde. For in it shall ye fynde the moost gracyous,
knyghtly, and vertuous werre of ye moost noble knyghtes of
the world, wherby they gate praysyng contynual. Also me
semeth by ye ofte redyng therof ye shall gretely desyre to
accustome your selfe in folowynge of those gracyous knyghtly
dedes, that is to saye, to drede God, and to love ryghtwysnes,77
faythfully and coragyously to serve your soverayne prynce.
And the more y* God hath gyven you the tryumphall honoure,
the meker ye ought to be, ever ferynge the unstableness of this
deceyvable worlde.

Sir Thomas More was born in London in 1480, and
suffered death on the scaffold for refusing to take the
Oath of Supremacy, by which Henry VIII. was acknowl-
edged "the only Supreme Head on earth of the Church
of England," and for opposing the King's marriage to
Anne Boleyn. More's reputation as a writer rests on two

75aW. E. Mead, Selections from Sir Thomas Malory's "Morte D'Arthur,"
Athenaeum Press Series, pp. 320-321.
76 Dreaded. 77 Righteousness.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 63

works: (1) "The Life and Reign of Edward V.," written
in 1513, which was the first specimen of Classic English
prose, and the earliest work in English wortliy the name
of history. (2 ) " Utopia, ' ' the romance of an ideal republic,
written in flowing Latin and published in about the year
1514. More ranks as the leading writer of the period in
which he lived. . " Utopia/' equivalent to "Nowhere,"
from the Greek ou, "not" and topos, "place," is an ideal
commonwealth in which vice does not flourish and where
there is no poverty because there is no personal property
and no money. Agriculture is the chief industry and
everybody works. The sanitation of cities is carefully pre-
served. The magistrates are elected. Meals are enjoyed
at a table common to thirty families. Nobody may travel
without permission from the magistrate. War is deemed
inglorious, but may be waged in self-defense. Conquest by
guile is more creditable than if by prowess. Prisoners of
war and persons guilty of offenses against morality are
made slaves. Religious toleration, with slight restriction,
prevails. The book is a keen satire of social and economic
conditions that, judged by his other writings and his prac-
tise, show More's political philosophy was not that of
Utopia. In the book itself he counsels Hythloday so to
order "that which you can not turn to good that it be not
very bad. For it were not possible for all things to be well
unless all men were good. Which I think will not be yet
this good many years."

In 1528 More wrote a "Dialogue Concerning Heresies,"
from which the following extract is made. It consists of
the fourteenth chapter of that work:

Some prieste, to bring up a pilgrimage in his parishe, may
devise some false felowe fayning himselfe to come seke a saint

04 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

in hys chyrch, and there sodeinly say, that he hath gotten hys
syght. Than shall ye have the belles rong for a miracle. And
the fonde folke of the countrey soon made foles. Than women
commynge thither with their candels. And the Person byenge
of some lame begger iii or iiii payre of theyr olde crutches,
with xii pennes spent in men and women of wex, thrust thorowe
divers places, some with arrowes, and some wyth rusty knyves,
wyll make his offerynges for one vij yere worth twise hys
tythes.

Thys is, quoth I, very trouth that suche thynges may be, and
sometime so be in dede. As I remember me that I have hard
my father tell of a begger, that in Kyng Henry his daies the
sixt cam with his wife to Saint Albonis. And there was walk-
ing about the towne begging, a five or six dayes before the
kinges commynge thither, saienge that he was borne blinde,
and never saw in hys lyfe.78 And was warned in hys dreame,
that he shoulde come out of Berwyke, where he said he had ever
dwelled, to seke Saynt Albon, and that he had ben at his
shryne, and had not bene holpen. And therefore he woulde
go seke hym at some other place, for he had hard some say
sins he came that Sainct Albonys body shold be at Colon^, and
in dede such a contencion hath ther ben. But of troth, as I
am surely informed, he lieth here at Saint Albonis, saving some
reliques of him, which thei there shew shrined. But to tell
you forth, whan the kyng was comen, and the towne full,
sodaynlye thys blind man, at Saint Albonis shryne had his sight
agayne, and a myracle solemply rongen, and Te Deum songen,
so that nothyng was talked of in al the towne, but this myracle.
So happened it than that duke Humfry of Glocester, a great
wyse man and very wel lerned, having great joy to se such a
myracle, called the pore man unto hym. And first shewing him
self joyouse of Goddes glory so shewed in the getting of his
sight, and exortinge hym to mekenes, and to none ascribing
of any part the worship to him self nor to be proude of the
peoples prayse, which would call hym a good and godly man
thereby. At last he loked well upon his eyen, and asked
why ther he could never se nothing at al, in all his life before.

78 Compare Shakespeare's "Henry VI.," Part II., act II., sc. 1.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 65

And whan as well his wyfe as himself affermed fastely no,
than he loked advisedly upon his eien again, and said, I be-
leve you very wel, for me thinketh that ye cannot se well yet.
Yea syr, quoth he, I thanke God and his holy marter, I can se
nowe as well as any man. Ye can, quoth the Duke ; what colour
is my gowne? Then anone the beggar told him. What colour,
quoth he, is this man's gowne? He told him also; and so
forthe, without any sticking, he told him the names of al the
colours that coulde bee shewed him. And whan my lord saw
that, he bad him "walke faytoure," and made him be set openly
in the stockes. For though he could have sene soudenly by
miracle the dyfference betwene divers colours, yet coulde he
not by the syght so sodenly tel the names of all these colours
but if he had known them before, no more than the names of
all the men that he should sodenly se. Lo therfore I say, quod
your frende, who may bee sure of such thynges whan such
pageantes be played before all the towne?

Another writer won his renown as a translator of the
New Testament into English. This was William Tyndale
born, according to Foxe,79 on the "Welsh border in 1484.80
Tyndale 's work (issued in 1525 or 1526) ranks with the
best of the English classics, and his style is acknowledged
to be both forceful and pure. The fame of Tyndale 's Tes-
tament spread abroad rapidly, and although the Church was
instrumental in having heavy fines imposed, and other
punishment inflicted, upon those who sold and distributed
the book, it was powerless to suppress it even though many
copies were seized and publicly burned. A second and
revised edition was issued in 1534. Tyndale also assisted
in translating from the Hebrew the "Five Books of Moses,"
which were printed in Hamburg in 1530. This work was
supplemented by a translation into English of the "Book
of Jonah/' in 1531. Tyndale suffered martyrdom "for

79 "Book of Martyrs."

60 Collier "History of English Literature," p. 84, circa 1477.

f,6 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

heresy," dying by strangulation in 1536. His last words
are said to have been, "0 Lord, open the King of Eng-
land's eyes!" — a prayer that Henry VIII. had anticipated
by declaring himself supreme head of the Church of Eng-
land in the preceding year.

The following is an extract from Tyndale's admirable
translation of the New Testament, written probably be-
tween 1526 and 1536. It consists of the parable of the
Good Samaritan, from Luke x, 30-37.

Jesus answered and sayde: A certayne man descended from
Jerusalem into Jericho. And fell into the hondes off theves
whych robbed hym off his rayment and wonded hym and
departed levynge him halfe deed. And yt chaunsed that there
cam a certayne preste that same waye and saw hym and passed
by. And lyke wyse a levite when he was come neye to the
place went and loked on hym and passed by. Then a certayne
Samaritane as he iornyed cam neye vnto him and behelde hym
and had compassion on hym and cam to hymn and bounde vppe
hys wondes and poured in wyne and oyle and layed hym on
his beaste and brought hym to a common hostry, and drest him.
And on the morowe when he departed he toke out two pence and
gave them to the host and said unto him, Take care of him and
whatsoever thou spendest above this when I come agayne I will
recompence the. Which nowe of these thre thynkest thou was
neighbour unto him that fell into the theves hondes? And he
answered: He that shewed mercy on hym. Then sayd Jesus
vnto hym, Goo and do thou lyke wyse.

A third writer of this period, also a churchman who
gave up his life for the Faith, was Thomas Cranmer, Arch-
bishop of Canterbury, by the grace of God and command
of King Henry VIII., and sometimes referred to as the
Father of the Church. He was one of the distinguished
leaders of the Reformation, probably its greatest writer.
Between the years 1540 and 1543 Cranmer headed a com-

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 67

mission engaged in revising the "Bishop's Book," or "In-
stitution of a Christian Man," and in preparing the
"Necessary Erudition," known also as the "King's Book."
This work and the translation of the Litany into English
in 1543, opened the way for the greater task which he
was to achieve in the following reign. To Cranmer's efforts
the English Reformation owes three great works — the
"Book of Common Prayer," "Twelve Homilies," or ser-
mons written under Cranmer's guidance as aids to such
of the clergy as were not able to write their own; and
Cranmer's Bible, sometimes called the Great Bible on
account of its size. Ranking next after the Bible, the
"Book of Common Prayer" contains many beautiful speci-
mens of pure English, the like of which it would be difficult
to match in the entire range of English literature. The
use of this work in Divine service in all English churches
was ordered by act of Parliament in 1548.

Cranmer's Bible, which was issued in 1540, seems to have
been based on Tyndale's version. In its production
Cranmer had the assistance of Miles Coverdale, Bishop of
Exeter. Born in 1489, Cranmer died at the stake in 1556.

"Whatever good the Reformation wrought in England, it
was at heavy cost. Stores of information perished with
the destruction of the religious houses in the reign of Henry
VIII. He who "neither spared man in his rage nor woman
in his lust," spared not the literary collections in the
libraries of the church. For though it appears that Henry
directed a commission to Leland, the antiquary, to search
for and preserve such works belonging to the dissolved
monasteries and colleges as might rescue remarkable Eng-
lish events and occurrences from oblivion, and though Le-
land acquainted Henry that he had "conserved many good

68 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

authors the which otherwise had bene lyke to have pery-
shed, to no smal incommodite of good letters ; of the which, ' '
he tells him, "part remayne in the most magnificent
lybraryes of your royal palaces; part also remayne in my
custodie"; yet he expressly recites, that one of his pur-
poses was to expel ' ' the crafty coloured doctryne of a rowt
of Eomayne bysshopps"; which too plainly indicates that
he "conserved" but little concerning ancient customs.
Strype, who praises Henry's commission to Leland, after-
ward breaks out, saying, "But great pity it was, and a
most irreparable loss, that notwithstanding this provision,
most of the ancient MS. histories and writings of learned
British and Saxon authors were lost. Libraries were sold
by mercenary men for anything they could get, in that
confusion and devastation of religious houses. Bale, the
antiquary, makes mention of a merchant that bought two
noble libraries about these times for forty shillings; the
books whereof served him for no other use but for waste
paper; and that he had been ten years consuming them,
and yet there remained still store enough for as many
years more. Vast quantities and numbers of these books,
banished with the monks and friars from their monasteries,
were conveyed away and carried beyond seas to book-
sellers there, by whole ship ladings ; and a great many more
were used in shops and kitchens." It is not surprizing,
then, that so little remains from those immense collections ;
or rather it is wonderful that so much should have escaped
the general devastation. Yet, in the economy of the Refor-
mation, the ruthless deed was, perhaps, an essential pre-
paration for the mighty knowledge that submerged the
superstition of a thousand years.81

81 William Hone, "Ancient Mysteries," pp. viii and ix, London, 1S28.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 69

To Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, the fourth of the
writers of this period, we must look to find the earliest
writer of blank verse in English. The chief characteristics
of Howard's work were elegance and refinement. He
translated into English blank verse the second and fourth
books of Vergil's "^Eneid," and wrote the first sonnets82
ever written in English. Howard was tried for treason
upon a slight pretext and beheaded in 1547.

The few lines given below are selected from his trans-
lation of the fourth book of the "^Eneid" first published
in 1557 — ten years after his execution.

But now the wounded quene with heavie care
Throwgh out the vaines doth nourishe ay the plage,
Surprised with blind flame, and to her minde
Gan to resort the prowes of the man
And honor of his race, whiles on her brest
Imprinted stake his wordes and forme of face,
Ne to her lymmes care graunteth quiet rest.
The next morowe with Phoebus lampe the erthe
Alightned clere, and eke the dawninge daye
The shadowe danke gan from the pole remove.

The following, in modernized spelling, is Howard's
" Sonnet to the Fair Geraldine. "83

Give place, ye lovers, here before

That spent your boasts and brags in vain!
My lady's beauty passeth more

The best of yours, I dare well sayn,
Than doth the sun the candle-light,
Or brightest day the darkest night.

82 See chapter v, page 200, of this book.

83 "Works of Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, etc.," ed. by Nott, — Vol. I.
p. 4, London, 1815.

70 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

And thereto hath a troth as just

As had Penelope the fair;
For what she saith ye may it trust,

As it by writing sealed were:
And virtues hath she many mo
Than I with pen have skill to show.

I could rehearse, if that I would,

The whole effect of Nature's plaint,
When she had lost the perfit mould,

The like to whom she could not paint:
With wringing hands how she did cry,
And what she said, I know it, I.

I know she swore with raging mind,

Her kingdom only set apart,
There was no loss by law of kind

That could have gone so near her heart:
And this was chiefly all her pain ;
"She could not make the like again."

Sith Nature thus gave her the praise,

To be the chiefest work she wrought,
In faith, methink, some better ways

On your behalf might well be sought,
Than to compare, as ye have done,
To match the candle with the sun.

The fifth of the great writers of the Early Modern
Period — the men whose work no less than their individu-
ality and mode of death did much to spread the language
abroad — was Miles Coverdale, whom the ' l Encyclopedia
Britannica "84 fittingly describes as "the celebrated trans-
lator of the first complete English Bible.7' Coverdale 's
Bible was published with a dedication to Henry VIII. in
1535. From this time forward his name has been im-

84 Article, "Coverdale," s.v.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 71

perishably associated with the history of the English Bible.
Coverdale was born in Yorkshire in 1487 or 1488, and died
in 1569, or thereabouts, for his remains were buried in the
chancel of the Church of St. Bartholomew, February 19,
1569.

Among other writers of this period who achieved dis-
tinction may be named John Skelton, a popular and viva-
cious, although grotesque, satirist of the clergy — author of
" Colin Clout," who lived in the reigns of Henry VII. and
Henry VIII. He died in 1529, in the sanctuary at "West-
minster Abbey, where he had taken refuge from the ven-
geance of his one-time patron Cardinal Wolsey, whom he
attacked bitterly in a satire of 1,300 lines, a few of which
are reprinted below :

But this mad Amalek He would dry up the streams

Like to a Mamelek,85 Of nine kings' reams,88

He regardeth lords All rivers and wells,

No more than potshords; All water that swells;

He is in such elation For with us he so mells89

Of his exaltation, That within England dwells,

And the supportation I wold he were somewhere else;

Of our sovereign lord, For else by and by

That, God to record,86 He will drink us so dry,

He ruleth all at will, And suck us so nigh,

Without reason or skill; That men shall scantly

Howbeit the primordial Have penny or halfpenny.

Of his wretched original, God save his noble grace,

And his base progeny, And grant him a place

And his greasy genealogy, Endless to dwell

He came of the sank royal87 With the devil of hell !
That was cast out of a butcher's stall.

85 Mameluke. ^ Realms.

88 Witness. S9 Meddles.

87 Sang royal (blood royal).

72 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Another satirist of this period was John Heywood,
styled the "Epigrammatist." He was author of short,
satirical, anticlerical t ' Interludes, ' ' and flourished in Henry
VIII. 's time. Indeed, he is credited with having enter-
tained or consoled both Henry VIII. and Queen Mary.
Heywood 's pla'ys are, however, his chief productions. He
wrote also an allegorical burlesque of the dispute between
the new and the old Faith entitled, "A Parable of the
Spider and the Fly/' wherein the spider represents the
Protestant party and the fly the Catholic. In his "Des-
cription of England, ' ' Harrison said of it : " He dealeth so
profoundly, and beyond all measure of skill, that neither
he himself that made it, neither anyone that readeth it,
can reach unto the meaning thereof."

Nicholas Udall was the writer of the earliest extant
English comedy — "Ralph Royster Doyster," in five acts.
Udall was born in Hampshire in 1506, and educated at
Oxford University. He died in 1556 or 1557. His name
has been variously written Uvedale, Owdall, Dowdall,
Woodall, and Woddell. He was a zealous Lutheran, under
whose care Erasmus's "Paraphrase of the New Testament"
was produced in 1548. At one time he was master of Eton
College, and as such was noted for his severity. In 1542
he was dismissed from his post charged with robbery, and
among the Cottonian MSS. there is preserved a letter in
his own hand which practically admits his guilt.

In character and plot "Ralph Royster Doystcr" ranks
as true comedy. It dates from about 1551, but was not
printed until 1566. The language, as will be seen from
the extract given on the following page, is somewhat racy.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 73

And I heard our Nourse speake of an husbande to-day

Ready for our mistresse; a rich man and a gay:

And we shall go in our French hoodes every day;

In our silke cassocks (I warrant you), freshe and gay;

In our tricke ferdigews, and billiments of golde,

Brave in our sutes of chaunge, seven double folde.

Then shall ye see Tibet, sires, treade the mosse so trimme;

Nay, why said I tread ? ye shall see hir glide and swimme,

Not lumperdee, clumperdee, like our spaniell Rig.

The good done to the English language by the dissemi-
nation of the sermons of John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester
(born in 1459, beheaded June 22, 1535), was incalculable,
and the example that he set is one by which the language
has greatly benefited since. In like manner the homely
and anecdotal sermons of Hugh Latimer, Bishop of
Worcester (born about 1485; burned at the stake at
Oxford, 1555), exercised wide influence on the people,
though perhaps not so potent as his memorable last words —
' ' We shall, ' ' said the dying prelate as the fire began to con-
sume him, ' ' this day light such a candle, by God 's grace, in
England, as I trust shall never be put out." Words such
as these, spread over the land by the same breezes that
fanned the flames which shriveled to ashes the mortal re-
mains of the martyrs of the early English Protestant
Church, could not but awaken the public conscience. The
deaths of Cranmer, Bonner, Fisher, Latimer, and Ridley
all helped to direct attention to the work done by these
men, who gave up their lives for the Faith, for their ser-
mons were sought, their writings scanned, their teachings
analyzed, and the stories of their lives and sufferings were
told in imperishable manner, as by John Foxe (born 1517 ;
died 1587), in his world-famous "Book of Martyrs."

The citation which follows is a part of Latimer ?s third

74 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

sermon, preached before Edward VI., at Westminster,
March 22, 1549. It is derived, with all its original spellings
and provincialisms, from Sir Henry Ellis 's "Pictorial
History of England."

Syr, what forme of preachinge woulde you appoynt me to
preache before a kynge? Wold you have me for to preache
nothynge as concernynge a kynge in the kynges sermon? Have
you any commission to apoynt me what I shall preach ? Besydes
thys, I asked hym dyvers other questions, and he wold make
no answere to none of them all. He had nothyng to say. Then
I turned me to the kyng, and submitted my selfe to his Grace,
and sayed, I never thoughte my selfe worthy, nor I never sued to
be a preacher before youre Grace, but I was called to it, would
be wyllyng (if you mislyke me) to geve place to my betters.
For I graunt ther be a great many more worthy of the roume
than I am. And, if it be your Grace's pleasure so to allowe
them for preachers, I could be content to bere ther bokes after
theym. But if your Grace allowe me for a preacher I would
desyre your Grace to geve me leave to discharge my conscience.
Geve me leve to frame my doctrine accordyng to my audience.
I had byne a very dolt to have preached so at the borders of
your realm as I preach before your Grace. And I thanke
Almyghty God, whych hath alwayes byne remedy, that my
sayinges were well accepted of the kynge, for like a gracious
Lord he turned into a nother communicacyon. It is even as the
Scripture sayeth Cor Regis in manu Domini, the Lorde dyrected
the kinges hart. Certaine of my frendes came to me wyth
teares in their eyes, and told me they loked I should have bene
in the Tower the same nyghte. Thus have I ever more bene
burdened wyth the werde of sedition. I have offended God
grevouslye, transgressyng hys law, and but for his remedy and
his mercye I wold not loke to be saved. As for sedicion, for
oughte that I knowe, me thynkes I shoulde not nede Christe, if
I might so saye. But if I be cleare in any thynge, I am clear
in thys. So farre as I knowe myne owne herte, there is no man
further from sedicion then I, whyche I haye declared in all my
doynges, and yet it hath bene ever layed to me. An othher

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 75

tyme, when I gave over myne offyce, I should have receyved
a certaine dutye that they call a Pentecostall ; it came to the
summe of fyftye and fyve pound, I sent my Commissarye to
gather it, but he coulde not be suffered. For it was sayed a
sedicion should ryse upon it. ...

The first edition of Foxe's "Book of Martyrs7' appeared
from the press of John Day in 1563. Its popularity was
"immediate and signal." The government ordered that a
copy of it be placed in each parish church throughout the
land. Its influence was by no means transient in char-
acter. From its harrowing records of persecution the
people derived much information of what had been going
on around them for nearly half a century.

Roger Ascham (pronounced as'kam), whose fame as the
author of "The Scholemaster, " which was not published
until after his death, is greater than as tutor to Princess
Elizabeth, was born at Kirby Wiske, near Northallerton, in
Yorkshire, in the year 1515. He was the son of a yeoman,
and was adopted by Sir Anthony Wingfield, who had him
well educated and then sent him to St. John's College at
Cambridge University. Taking the degree of master of
arts in 1536 he immediately began life as a tutor, and in
1544 occupied the office of University Orator. Ascham 's
first book, " Toxophilus, " was published in 1545. It was a
treatise on archery in the form of a dialogue between a phil-
ologue and a toxophilite, in which the author emphasized
the necessity of open-air pastimes for the preservation of the
health of the student. Ascham 's language is plain English
prose strong in idioms, the particular characteristics of
which were "its vigor and flexibility, and its plea for the
use of the literary 'Englyshe tonge' as opposed to Latin
or Greek." For this work he not only received the notice

76 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

of the King, Henry VIII., but was awarded a pension of
£10 a year. Being selected as private tutor to Elizabeth,
Ascham spent two happy years (1548-1550) in what proved
to him to be a delightful task — the teaching of one who
loved to learn. Later he went to Germany as secretary of
the English ambassador at the Imperial Court, and sub-
sequently related his experiences of German life in a work
entitled ' ' A Report and Discourse of the Affairs and State
of Germany."

When Queen Mary ascended the throne of England,
Ascham, who was a fervent Protestant, was temporarily
under cloud, but through the patronage of Gardiner, who
became Mary's chancellor, his pension was increased to £20
a year, and he retained his post as university orator, be-
sides being appointed Latin secretary to the Queen. When
his former pupil ascended the throne Ascham was already
an old man, but he had employed his years well and gave
us in ' l The Scholemaster ' ' the first important work on edu-
cation in English literature. In the first part of the book
the author condemns severity as a treatment for the young,
and in the second, advocates a new method for instruction
in Latin, advising that it be practised instead of compelling
pupils to first master the details of grammar.

Seized with ague while writing a New Year's day poem
in honor of his Queen and former pupil, he was forced to
take to his bed, but never recovered. He died December
30, 1568.

In his dedication of the work, "To all the Gentlemen
and Yeomen of England," he recommends to him that
would write well in any tongue the counsel of Aristotle —
"To speak as the common people do, to think as wise men
do." From this we may perceive that Ascham had a true

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 77

feeling of the regard due to the great fountain-head and
oracle of the national language — the vocabulary of the
common people. He goes on to reprobate the practise of
many English writers, who by introducing into their com-
positions, in violation of the Aristotelian precept, many
words of foreign origin — Latin, French, and Italian — made
all thing's dark and hard. ' * Once, ' ' he says, ' ' I com-
muned with a man which reasoned the English tongue to
be enriched and increased thereby, saying, Who will not
praise the feast where a man shall drink 'at a dinner both
wine, ale, and beer? Truly, quoth I, they be all good,
every one taken by himself alone ; but if you put malmsey
and sack, red wine and white, ale and beer and all, in one
pot, you shall make a drink neither easy to be known,
nor yet wholesome for the body/' The English language,
however, it may be observed, had even already become too
thoroughly and essentially a mixed tongue for this doctrine
of purism to be admitted to the letter; nor, indeed, to
take up Ascham's illustration, is it universally true, even
in regard to liquids, that a salutary and palatable beverage
can never be made by the interfusion of two or more
different kinds. Our tongue is now, and was many cen-
turies ago, not, indeed, in its grammatical structure, but
in its vocabulary, as substantially and to as great an extent
Neo-Latin as Gothic; it would be as completely torn in
pieces and left the mere tattered rag of a language, useless
for all the purposes of speaking as well as of writing, by
having the foreign as by having the native element taken
out of it.90

George Buchanan, proclaimed the greatest scholar that

90 George L. Craik, "A Compendious History of English Literature," Vol.
I., p. 443.

78 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Scotland has produced, and master of the instrument of
expression, was born in the parish of Killearn in Stirling-
shire (? Dumbartonshire), Scotland, in February, 1506.
His father, at one time owner of the farm of Moss in Kil-
learn, died at an early age, and left his widow in abject
poverty. It is said that Buchanan attended the parish
school, but little is known of his life until he was sent to
the University of Paris by James Heriot, his uncle. Heriot
died two years later and Buchanan, sick and poor, was
thrown on his own resources. He returned to Scotland,
where he suffered from a severe illness. On his recovery
he joined the French troops, which had been imported by
the Duke of Albany to make a raid into England. The
inroad proving unsuccessful, Buchanan entered the Uni-
versity of St. Andrews and took the degree of bachelor of
arts in 1525. He had gone there chiefly to attend John
Mair's (sometimes printed "Major") lectures on logic, and
when Mair set out for Paris Buchanan went with him.

In 1529 Buchanan became professor in the college of St.
Barbe, and taught there for three years. At the same time
he acted as private tutor to the Earl of Cassilis, but for five
years, and when the Earl returned to Scotland Buchanan
accompanied him. There his reputation as a teacher had
preceded him and King James V. entrusted the tuition of
one of his sons to Buchanan, but a poem which he wrote
entitled " Franciscanus, " and in which he attacked the
vices of the clergy, cost him his office. He was arrested, but
fortunately escaped and reached London in safety. Thence
he proceeded to Paris, but there found an implacable
enemy, Cardinal Beaton. Receiving an invitation from
Andrew Govea to accompany him to Bordeaux Buchanan
accepted, and was chosen professor of Latin in the College

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 79

•

of Guienne. Subsequently he returned to Paris, where
he remained three years as regent in the College of Car-
dinal le Moine. Thence (1547) he went to Portugal, where
he occupied a chair in the recently founded University of
Coimbra, which became one of the most famous seats of
learning in Europe. But his tenure of office was not to
be peaceful, for soon after the death of his friend Govea,
at whose suggestion he had accepted' the professorship, he
was subjected to persecution by the priests and was sum-
moned several times before the Holy Office, which ordered
him to be confined in a monastery. It was while in this
confinement that he made his famous translation of the
Psalms, which is said to have "a peculiar grace and
feeling" because it was freely executed so that in parts
it is really a paraphrase instead of an exact translation.
Dr. Collier declares that the 104th and 137th Psalms are
"considered the gems of this masterpiece of elegant
scholarship and poetic fire."

Buchanan returned to Scotland in 1560 or 1561, and
notwithstanding his Protestant views was appointed tutor
to Mary, Queen of Scots. In recognition of his literary
ability she subsequently gave him the temporalities of
Crossraguel Abbey, worth about £500 a year. In 1566 he
was named principal of St. Leonard's College at St. An-
drews by the Earl of Murray, and after the tragic death
of Darnley and the marriage of Mary and Bothwell, under-
took the tuition of James VI., which he accomplished so
well that James became known as the "British Solomon."
Buchanan died on September 28, 1582, so poor that he was
buried at the expense of the city of Edinburgh.

During the closing years of his career he produced two
important books — one, * ' De Jure Regni Apud Scotos, ' ' pub-

80 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

•
lished in 1579, in which lie proclaimed the doctrine that

"the source of all political power is the people, and that
the King is bound by the conditions under which the
supreme power was first committed to his hands, and that
it is lawful to resist, even to punish, tyrants."91 The book
was twice condemned, and in 1683 was burned by the
scholars at Oxford.

The second was a "History of Scotland," issued in 1582.
Its chief value lay in the record of events during the
lifetime of the author. Buchanan's influence on the lan-
guage was indirect. He wrote in Latin, of which he was
a complete master, and thus helped to develop the study
of that classic language in the land of his birth.

Sir Philip Sidney, introduced at the court of Elizabeth
as "one of the jewels of her crown," courtier, knight,
statesman, soldier, poet, was born at Penshurst in Kent,
November 29, 1554. He was educated at Shrewsbury
school and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1572 he left Eng-
land for the continent of Europe, where he spent three
years in traveling through France, Germany, and Italy.
On his return home he was presented at Court, where he
instantly won favor, possibly through the influence of his
uncle Robert Dudley, the Earl of Leicester, who at that
time was at the height of his power as royal favorite.

The brilliant pageant produced at Kenilworth in honor
of Queen Elizabeth's visit to the Earl culminated in a
masque entitled "The Lady of the May," which was writ-
ten in the Queen's honor by Sidney, who also proved him-
self an expert in horsemanship and with sword and lance
in the tournament that followed. It has been said that on
this occasion while playing at tennis he quarreled with

81 "Eneyc. Brit.," Vol. IV, s.v. "Buchanan."

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 81

the Earl of Oxford, who ordered him off the ground. Sidney
refused; swords clashed, but the Queen intervened, and
taking Sidney aside rebuked him for his behavior. Unable
to bear the rebuke so publicly administered, Sidney with-
drew from Court to Wilton, the seat of his brother-in-law,
the Earl of Pembroke, where he wrote a famous prose
romance entitled, "The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia,"
a work not published until four years after his death
which was due to a wound received at the battle of
Zutphen, September 22, 1586.

"When the Earl of Leicester set out on an expedition to
the Netherlands, Sidney accompanied him, and was ap-
pointed governor of Flushing. His death has been at-
tributed to the chivalric impulse which led him to cast
aside the greaves he was wearing because his opponent
entered the field of battle without his. Sidney thus ex-
posed received a shot that proved fatal and he died at
Arnheim two weeks later (October 7th). The truth of the
story that on the field of Zutphen he paused to pass a cup
of water to a soldier who lay bleeding to death by the
roadside as he was being carried by, while in keeping with
his character, has not been fully established. Of the effect
of his death on his contemporaries the late Professor Wil-
liam Minto92 wrote: "No poet's death was ever so lamented
by poets as Sidney's. Pastoral elegy was in fashion, and
all the numerous poets and rhymesters of the time, from
Spenser to Davison, hastened to lay their tribute of verse
on the bier of this the darling of all the Shepherds."

Sidney, besides occupying one of the most conspicuous
positions at Court, took a permanent place in English
literature as the author of the first important collection of

a- "En eye. Brit.," s.v. "Sidney."

82 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

English sonnets (issued under the title "Astrophel and
Stella") as well as of an English classic. His reputation
rests on his ' ' Apologie for Poesie, ' ' a brief treatise written
in 1581 to confute the opinions of that class of Elizabethan
Puritans which aimed to suppress literature and art as well
as many articles of adornment.

Edmund Spenser, the second of the great masters of
English poetry, was born in East Smithfield, London,
about the year 1552. The accepted date of his birth is
based upon a passage in the sixtieth sonnet of the "Amor-
etti, ' ' where he writes of having lived forty-one years. This
work was published in 1595. The place of his birth is
traced also from his writings, for in his ' ' Prothalamion "
we read:

Merry London my most kindly nurse,

That to me gave this life's first native source.

Spenser was educated at the Merchant Taylor's School
and at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, whither he was sent
through the benevolence of Robert Nowell, a London mer-
chant. Spenser was about sixteen years old when he entered
Pembroke, which he did as a sizar, and was graduated
therefrom as master of arts in 1576. How he occupied the
three succeeding years is not known, but in 1579 he issued
a volume of verse entitled "The Shepherd's Calendar."
This, it has been said, was the balm that healed a wounded
heart, for he had paid court to a lady whom he called Rosa-
lind, who, after she had tired of his attentions, discarded
him. Although this poem was begun in the North of
England it was finished at Penshurst, the home of the Earl
of Pembroke, where Spenser met Sir Philip Sidney, who
''put him in the way of preferment." The entire poem is

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 83

in reality a personal narrative of Spenser's experiences, and
it was dedicated to Sidney, who obtained for him a secre-
taryship to Lord Grey of Wilton, whom he accompanied to
Ireland when the latter was appointed Lord-Lieutenant of
that country. Outside of the charm and power of the
"Shepherd's Calendar" there is little in it to attract the
reader, for this work requires a special training to under-
stand it to the full, since its language is composite, being a
combination of Chaucerian English with North Anglian.
Nevertheless, it was received with marked enthusiasm,
chiefly because it was in a form then unknown to English
literature, and showed unmistakable command of meter and
phrase.

Spenser's greatest achievement, "The Faerie Queene,"
which he himself modestly called a "simple song," proved
to be the greatest poem that was written in England since
Chaucer wrote his "Canterbury Tales." Spenser created
the nine-lined stanza in' which this poem was penned. The
first three books of "The Faerie Queene" were written
among the green alders by the Mulla 's shore, whither Spen-
ser withdrew after the death of his friend Sidney. They
were issued in 1586. When asked to explain "the ethical
part of moral philosophy" by some of his associates then
in Ireland, he replied that he could not do so offhand, but
that he had in preparation a poem which would illustrate
it in action. Spenser was esteemed by these associates
as a scholar "not only perfect in the Greek tongue, but also
very well read in philosophy, both moral and natural."
This was undoubtedly due to the fact that Spenser, if not
actually the most learned, was one of the most learned of
the English poets. In 1596 Spenser, who had held public
office first as clerk of the council for Munster and later as

84 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

sheriff of Cork, went to England, and there published the
fourth, fifth, and sixth books of "The Faerie Queene," and
then returned home, where he hoped to live the rest of his
life in the peaceful enjoyment of that reputation which his
work had achieved for him. But he had barely settled
down there when the smoldering embers of rebellion broke
aflame, and the oppressed peasantry marched upon his
home, which they sacked and set on fire. Spenser and his
wife, who were forced to abandon their child in the haste
of their flight, barely escaped with their lives, and, crossing
to England, found shelter in King Street, Westminster,
where, three months later, the poet passed away (January
16, 1599). He died in abject poverty. Ben Jonson de-
clared that he perished for lack of bread, and that when
the Earl of Essex heard of his distress he sent twenty pieces93
to relieve his need, but the poet returned them, regretting
he had no time to spend them.

The quality of Spenser's work in "The Faerie Queene"
was uneven. The earlier books show the poet at his best ; in
the later books he seems to have striven to interweave with
allegory the history of his own time, and thereby marred
what has otherwise been described as the most exquisite
picture of chivalrous life that has ever been limned in
English words. Nevertheless, Spenser has exerted great
influence on the poetic literature of England. In his own
day he had several imitators, such as William Smith, who
wrote "Chloris" (1595), and Richard Niccols, the author
of ' ' The Beggar 's Ape " ( 1 627 ) . Milton, who characterized
him as "our sage and serious poet, Spenser,'7 considered
him a sure guide as a thinker and as a poet. Bunyan's
"Pilgrim's Progress" has been attributed to the influence

93 A piece was an English coin worth from 20 to 22 shillings.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 85

of Spenser's "Faerie Queene" on its author by Dr. Samuel
Johnson. Dryden found in Spenser a master of English
and one endowed with natural genius and a greater fund
of knowledge to support it than any other poet. James
Eussell Lowell declared that no other poet has given an
impulse to so many and so diverse minds as did Spenser,
under whose inspiration wrote such men as Thomson,
Burns, Coleridge, Wordsworth, Southey, Keats, Shelley,
and Byron. Charles Lamb gave him his just title when he
styled Spenser "the poet's poet."

Although his work ranks below that of Chaucer, Shake-
speare, Ben Jonson, and Milton, it unites rare genius with
purity, luxuriant and prolific power of imagination with
sweetness of language and elegance of expression. For ten-
derness of feeling and purity of thought Spenser's work
has possibly never been surpassed.

The following extract from the second eclogue of the
"Shepherd's Calendar," tells in part the "Tale of the
Oak and the Briar," and will serve as a specimen of Eng-
lish in 1579 :

There grew an aged tree on the green,
A goodly Oak sometime had it been,
With arms full strong and lergely displayed,
But of their leaves they were disarrayed;
The body big and mightily pight,94
Throughly rooted, and of wondrous height:
Whilom he had been the king of the field,
And mochel95 mast to the husband96 did yield,
And with his nuts larded many swine;
And now the grey moss marred his rine ;97
His bared boughs were beaten with storms,
His top was bald and wasted with worms,

94 Firm. M Husbandman.

*Much. 9TRind (bark).

86 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

His honour decayed, his branches sere.
Hard by his side grew a bragging Brere,
Which proudly thrust into th' element,
And seemed to threat the firmament;
It was embellished with blossoms fair,
And thereto aye wonted to repair
The shepherds' daughters to gather flowers,
To paint their garlands with his colours;
And in his small bushes used to shrowd
The sweet nightingale, singing so loud;
Which made this foolish Brere wex so bold,
That on a time he cast him to scold
And sneb the good Oak, for he was old.
Why stand 'st there, quoth he, thou brutish block?

When Richard Hooker gave to the world his "Laws of
Ecclesiastical Polity " he enriched English literature with
a masterpiece of philosophical thought, notable as much for
its gracefulness of style as for its nice discriminations in
the choice of words. Hooker was born at Heavitree, near
Exeter, England, in 1553 or 1554. While at school he
showed such marked aptitude and unusual facility in
acquiring knowledge that his teacher advised his parents
to educate him for the Church. This they were unable to
do, but an uncle, John Hooker, secured his admission
to Corpus Christi College at Oxford, gave him a small
pension, and secured for him the patronage of Bishop
Jewel, through whose influence he obtained a clerkship in
the college.

In 1567 Richard Hooker entered on his duties, and had
been in the University barely four years when his patron,
Bishop Jewel, died (1571). Fortunately for him, he found
another friend in Dr. Cole, then the president of the col-
lege, who offered to replace Jewel as his patron. Necessity
• compelled Hooker to accept, but he determined to secure his

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 87

independence, and devoted all his spare time to teaching.
Among his pupils were Edwin Sandys and George Cran-
mer. It was due to the influence of the former upon his
father, the Archbishop of York, that Hooker received the
Mastership of the Temple (1585). While at the University,
Hooker became so famous as a scholar in Oriental lan-
guages that in 1579 he was appointed lecturer in Hebrew,
and two years later entered the Church.

Immediately after Hooker had entered into his duties as
Master of the Temple he came into contact with his rival for
that office, William Travers, who held a lectureship in the
Temple at the time. According to custom, Hooker was
called upon to preach a sermon every morning, while Trav-
ers had to deliver a lecture every afternoon. As each man
held views diametrically opposed to the other, it was not
long before Travers, in his afternoon lectures, aimed to
refute the views expressed in the sermon delivered by
Hooker in the morning. So keen became the contest that
Archbishop Whitgift forbade Travers to preach. This
drove the rivals into print. Travers petitioned the Council
to rescind the prohibition, and Hooker published "An
Answer to the Petition of Mr. Travers." In addition, he
printed a number of sermons dealing with certain specific
points in the controversy; but realizing that he could not
treat the subject as a whole satisfactorily in this way, he
determined to write a comprehensive treatise by which its
merits might be judged. To this end he petitioned Arch-
bishop Whitgift for permission to withdraw from the Tem-
ple, begging at the same time that he might be appointed
to some country parsonage, where, as he expressed it, "I
may keep myself in peace and privacy and behold God's
blessing spring out of my mother earth, and eat my own

88 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

bread without oppositions." Hooker's wish being granted,
he withdrew in 1591 to the rectory of Boscombe, in Wilt-
shire, where he set to work to produce his ' ' Eight Books of
the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity." The first four of these
he published in 1594, and in 1595 was rewarded for the
service he had done the Church thereby with the rectorship
of Bishop's Bournes, near Canterbury, in Kent, whither
he removed, and there strove to complete the rest of the
series, but while traveling from Gravesend to London he
took a severe cold, from the effects of which he died on
November 2, 1600. The fifth book was printed in 1597, and
a volume containing what purported to be the sixth and
eighth books appeared in 1648. The authenticity of the
sixth book has been challenged, and was shown by Keble to
consist of matter totally at variance with the subject which
Hooker had designed to treat. The seventh book, which
was published in 1662, formed a part of a new edition of
the work issued by Gauden. This and the eighth book are
considered in substance the work of Hooker.

The chief charm of Hooker's "Ecclesiastical Polity" lies
in the fact that it contains no affectations of language. Its
clearness, however, is marred by such intricacies of con-
struction as the inversion of clauses and the great length of
many of its sentences, but these defects are compensated
by the moderation of its .tone and the dignity of its style.
Hallam, the historian, pronounced the first book * ' a master-
piece of English eloquence."

The following is an extract from that part of " Eccle-
siastical Polity ' ' which treats of l i the Law whereby Man
is in his Actions directed to the imitation of God ' ' :

God alone excepted, who actually and everlastingly is what-
soever he may be, and which cannot hereafter be that which

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 89

now lie is not ; all other things besides are somewhat in possi-
bility, which as yet they are not in act. And for this cause
there is in all things an appetite or desire, whereby they .incline
to something which they may be; and when they are it, they
shall be perfecter than now they are. All which perfections
are contained under the general name of Goodness. And be-
cause there is not in the world any thing whereby another may
not some way be made the perfecter, therefore all things that
are, are good. Again, sith there can be no goodness desired
which proceedeth not from God himself, as from the supreme
cause of all things; and every effect doth after a sort contain,
at least wise resemble, the cause from which it proceedeth: all
things in the world are said in some sort to seek the highest,
and to covet more or less the participation of God himself.
Yet this doth nowhere so much appear as it doth in man; be-
cause there are so many kinds of perfections which man seeketh.
The first degree of goodness is that general perfection which
air things do seek, in desiring the continuance of their being.
All things therefore coveting as much as may be to be like unto
God in being ever, that which cannot hereunto attain personally
doth seek to continue itself another way, that is by offspring
and propagation. The next degree of goodness is that which
each thing coveteth by affecting resemblance with God, in the
constancy and excellency of those operations which belong unto
their kind. The immutability of God they strive unto, by
working either always or for the most part after one and the
same manner; his absolute exactness they imitate, by tending
unto that which is most ex'quisite in every particular. Hence
have risen a number of axioms in philosophy, showing how
The works of nature do always aim at that which cannot be
bettered.

1. The Influence of the Drama

The dramatic productions already referred to as Mystery
Plays (see " Chaucerian Period," p. 34), which originated
with the monks, and usually treated religious themes, were
subsequently divided into Miracles and Moralities — the
Miracles being restricted to plays based upon Bible narra-

90 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

tive or on the legendary history of the saints, and the
Moralities being confined to the presentation of allegorical
stories designed to teach ethical or religious lessons.

The division was due chiefly to the fact that, with the
advancement of learning, there was a corresponding ele-
vation of public taste and a consequent demand for some-
thing more refined than the Miracle Plays which, by the
time of Henry VI. (1422-1461), had come into the control
of laymen, and were used by them as a means for attack-
ing the clergy. Then the most sacred themes were treated
with scandalous freedom and in the broadest manner. The
coarsest of mirth and filthiest of jokes were introduced to
cater to ' l the brutality or pruriency " 98 of the audience.

Of the Miracles, the Coventry Mysteries were, probably,
among the most famous. Dugdale in his " History of
"Warwickshire," published in 1656, states that "Before the
suppression of the monasteries this city was very famous
for the pageants that were play'd therein, upon Corpus
Christi Day (one of their ancient faires) which occasioning
very great confluence of people thither from far and near,
was of no small benefit thereto : which pageants being acted
with mighty state and reverence by the Grey Friers, had
theaters for the several scenes, very large and high, placed
upon wheels, and drawn to all the eminent parts of the
city, for the better advantage of spectators, and con-
tain 'd the story of the Old and New Testament, composed
in the old Englishe rithme, as appeareth by an ancient
MS. (in Bibl. Cotton. Vesp. D. VIII) intituled, 'Ludus
Corporis Christi, ' or ' Ludus Coventriae. ' : ' "I have been
told,'7 says Dugdale, "by some old people, who in their
younger years were eye-witnesses of these pageants so

98 Thomas Arnold, "Encyclopedia Britannica," article, "English Literature."

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 91

acted, that the yearly confluence of people to see that shew
was extraordinary great, and yielded no small advantage to
this city." The celebrity of the performances may be
inferred from the rank of the audiences ; for, at the festival
of Corpus Christi, in 1483, Richard III. visited Coventry to
see the plays, and at the same season, in 1492, they were
attended by Henry VII. and his queen, by whom they
were highly commended.

To what Dugdale tells of the Coventry Mysteries may be
added Archdeacon Rogers 's account of those played at Ches-
ter. * * The Mysteries acted there are four and twenty in num-
ber, and were performed by the trading companies of the
city. Every company had his pagiante, or parte, which
pagiantes were a highe scafolde with two rowmes, a higher
and a lower upon 4 wheeles. In the lower they apparelled
themselves, in the higher rowme they played, being all
open on the tope, that all behoulders might heare and see
them. The places where they played them was in every
streete. They begane first at the Abay Gates, and when
the pagiante was played, it was wheeled to the High Cross
before the mayor, and so to every streete; and so every
street had a pagiante playing before them, till all the
pagiantes for the daye appointed were played, and when
one pagiante was neere ended, worde was broughte from
streete to streete, that soe the mighte come in place thereof,
excedinge orderlye, and all the streetes had their pagiante
afore them, all at one time, playing together, to se which
playes was great resorte, and also scafoldes, and stages
made in the streetes, in those places wheare they deter-
mined to playe their pagiantes." (Harleian MS. 1948.)
These were performed for the last time in 1574.

The Moralities were written on a higher plane and

92 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

proved to be the medium of transition to the modern drama.
But the depicting of Virtue vanquishing Vice was not
altogether to the public taste, especially when it took as
many as nine hours to accomplish the task, and the
Moralities, unable to withstand the introduction of the
translated plays of Plautus and Terence, which were the
pioneers of a higher state of culture, gradually lost their
hold on the public. John Heywood 's * ' Interludes, ' ' to which
reference has already been made, proved another step in
advance since instead of personifications, genuine char-
acters appeared therein, not as individuals, but as types
of certain classes such as a palmer, pedler, soldier, etc.
But the molding of English drama into refined form was
done through the agency of Greek and Latin plays and
the elegant productions of Italy and Spain. With the
higher tone came greater popularity, and the demand for a
fixed home instead of a traveling one for plays and players.
Before the licensed theater was introduced the court-
yards of many of the London inns were occasionally con-
verted into temporary theaters. Among these the yards
of "La Belle Sauvage" at the foot of Ludgate Hill, of
"The Red Bull" in Bishopsgate Street, and of "The Cross
Keys" in Gracechurch Street, London, were the most
popular. Five of them were converted into permanent
playhouses between 1570 and 1630. During this period
theaters were built, and the stage became a permanent in-
stitution. So great was the demand for theatrical enter-
tainment during Elizabeth's reign that licenses were issued
to no less than 200 playhouses in different parts of London.
Then the players were under the patronage of the Queen or
of some nobleman, or they would have been unable to
pursue their calling in safety. The first licensed public

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 93

theater was opened at Blackfriars, London, in 1576, and
thenceforward the influence of the drama on the life and
manners, as well as on the speech of the people was
established. With the dawn of the Commonwealth (1649)
came the closing of the theaters, for the God-fearing Puri-
tans had no use for a stage that was steeped in shameless
vices and one where unbridled licentiousness held sway.
They were kept shut until the Restoration (1660) and
reopened with a blaze of splendor, which had a dazzling
effect on the people. Women now first impersonated the
female characters. Stage settings were changed and beau-
tifully painted scenery replaced the crude notice-boards
of the formative period. Brilliant costumes displaced the
tawdry attire of the players. The playhouses themselves
were finely decorated. No effort was spared to draw the
people out of the restraining influence under which the
Puritan government had left them. Every night they
swarmed to the play to be entertained with scenes in which
Vice attired in the garb of Virtue flaunted itself upon the
boards. The plays of Dryden and of Wycherley, those of
Congreve, Vanbrugh, and Farquhar, were all morally bad.
In fact, under the Restoration the tone of the drama was
debased by works that were a disgrace to the nation ; works
which lowered the standard of public morality so effectually
that almost half a century passed before the corrupt tastes
were corrected.

In the history of the English stage Thomas Sackville,
later known as Lord Buckhurst, ranks as the first writer
of genuine English tragedy. When a student in the Tem-
ple he collaborated with Thomas Norton in writing a play
then named "Gorboduc," but which when revised was

94 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

called "Ferrex and Porrex." By command of Queen
Elizabeth, who on her accession to the throne had selected
Sackville for "continual private attendance upon her
own person," the play was performed by some of Sack-
ville's fellow students in the Temple at Whitehall as a
part of the Christmas festivities of 1561.

Sackville was born in 1536 at Buckhurst in Sussex, Eng-
land. His father, Sir Richard Sackville, was distantly re-
lated to Elizabeth through the Boleyn family. Among his
friends he counted Roger Ascham, who may possibly have
taken some part in educating the young dramatist-poet,
who became a distinguished diplomat. A few years of
tuition at home, entrance at Hart Hall, Oxford, where he
remained only a few terms, and a continuation of his course
of studies at Cambridge led to his taking the degree of
master of arts at the latter institution. Before leaving
the university he achieved some reputation as a poet, and
subsequently wrote, in the form of an allegory, a preface
to a series of poems descriptive of the tragic fates of famous
men. This was "The Induction to the Mirrour of Magis-
trates. " The first of the series was "The Complaint of
Henry, Duke of Buckingham." The remainder, the work
of writers of lesser rank, consists of poetic histories of the
lives of the famous men who fell as martyrs during the
gloomy years of Queen Mary's reign. The Induction de-
scribes Revenge, Dread, and Remorse, ' ' within the porch and
jaws of hell" as well as other awful influences which prey
unceasingly upon human weakness. Although this poem
consists of only a few hundred lines, these show such power
and command of language as to have earned for Sackville
a high place among British poets.

As a statesman and ambassador, Sackville carried out

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 95

his instructions and all negotiations entrusted to him with
fearless fidelity and honor to his country and to himself.
It was he who, in 1586, was selected for the delicate task
of announcing her doom to the ill-fated Mary, Queen of
Scots. Again, in 1587, he was sent as ambassador to The
Hague to ' ' expostulate in favor of peace with a people who
knew that their existence depended on war." That he
discharged his duties with sagacity was shown by the his-
torian of "The United Netherlands," yet on his return
home he received no praise but incurred Elizabeth's dis-
pleasure on account of the independent course he chose to
pursue in regard to the Queen's favorite, the Earl of
Leicester, and in consequence was ordered to remain within
the precincts of his own estate for almost a year. He re-
turned to favor after the death of Leicester, and in 1588
was created knight of the Order of the Garter. When the
Chancellorship of the University of Oxford became vacant
Sackville was selected to fill it, and on the death of Lord
Burleigh, in 1599, was appointed Lord High Treasurer of
England, an office which he held till death came suddenly
upon him while seated at a council table at Whitehall,
April 19, 1608.

The following lines are from l ' The Induction ' ' and afford
a vivid picture of the author's idea of a winter's day:

The Induction

The wrathful Winter, preaching on apace,
With blustering blasts had all ybared the treen,
And old Saturnus, with his frosty face,
With chilling cold had pierced the tender green;
The mantles rent, wherein enwrapped been
The gladsome groves that now lay overthrown,
The tapets torn, and every tree down blown.

96 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

The Soil, that erst so seemly was to seen,

Was all despoiled of her beauty's hue;

And soote fresh flowers, wherewith the Summer's Queen

Had clad the earth, now Boreas' blasts down blew;

And small fowls, flocking, in their song did rue

The Winter's wrrath, wherewith each thing defaced

In woful wise bewailed the summer past.

Hawthorn had lost his motley livery,

The naked twigs were shivering all for cold,

And dropping down the tears abundantly ;

Each thing, methought, with weeping eye me told

The cruel season, bidding me withhold

Myself within; for I was gotten out

Into the fields, whereas I walked about.

When lo the Night, with misty mantles spread,
Gan dark the day, and dim the azure skies;
And Venus in her message Hermes sped
To bloody Mars, to will him not to rise,
Which she herself approached in speedy wise;
And Virgo hiding her disdainful breast,
With Thetis now had laid her down to rest.

And pale Cynthea, with her borrowed light,
Beginning to supply her brother's place,
Was past the noonsteed six degrees in sight,
When sparkling stars amid the heaven's face,
With twinkling light shone on the earth apace,
That, while they brought about the Nightes chare,
The dark had dimmed the day ere I was ware.

And sorrowing I to see Jhe summer flowers,
The lively green, the lusty leas forlorn,
The sturdy trees so shattered with the showers,
The fields so fade that florished so beforn,
It taught me well — all earthly things be born

To die the death, for nought long time may last;

The summer's beauty yields to winter's blast.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 97

In English literature the light which has shone with
the greatest brilliancy during the past three hundred years,
and burns with most luster to-day, is that which was kindled
by William Shakespeare. With a remarkably small vocabu-
lary at his command Shakespeare described or depicted
the widest variety of human experience. In his own time,
Jonson, his contemporary, "allowed him the first place
among all dramatists, including those of Greece and Rome,
and claimed that all Europe owed him homage." Of all
the great literary works the world has seen, excepting the
Bible, none have been translated more often and into a
greater number of languages than the plays and poems of
William Shakespeare. To him more than to any other
master of English we owe an everlasting debt as the su-
preme creative and poetical genius of our tongue. No writer
has ever approached him in constructive power; none
has ever shown such strength combined with such varied
imagination. In ms dramatic work he portrayed every
condition of life and almost every phase of human affairs
conceivable. Of his genius no estimate can be adequate.
His knowledge of human character, his wealth of wit, his
intensity of passion, his fertility of imagination, and his
mastery of language have never been equaled. Shake-
speare's style, if compared with that of all other authors,
will be found to be the most natural. Of the art of eupho-
nious expression he was past master. Every page of his
work contains examples of that form of intensified ex-
pression in which some well-chosen words convey a com-
plete train of ideas focused on a single perspicuous point
— words so free, so well fitted to express his ideas, and so
natural and familiar that their full meaning can be easily
understood by the simplest mind. Of his manner, the late

98 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Professor Spencer Baynes said: "He could talk simply
and naturally without a touch of patronage or condescension
to a hodman on his ladder, costermonger at his stall, the
tailor on his board, the cobbler in his combe . . . the plow-
man in his furrow, or the base mechanicals at the wayside
country inn. ... He could seize from the inner side by
links of vital affinity every form of higher character, pas-
sionate, reflective, or executive — lover and prince, duke and
captain, legislator and judge, counselor and king — and
portray with almost equal ease and with vivid truthfulness
men and women of distant ages, of different races, and
widely sundered nationalities."99

Shakespeare's wit was boundless, his passion intense and
inimitable. His thirty-seven plays are classed as comedies,
tragedies, and histories. The finest of his comedies are
"As You Like It," "A Midsummer Night's Dream," and
"The Merchant of Venice." His great tragedies are "Mac-
beth," "Romeo and Juliet," "Othello," "Hamlet," and
"King Lear," and of his histories the finest are "Julius
Cajsar," "Henry V.," and "Richard III." To have read
these eleven plays is to have read Shakespeare at his best.

Some critics have censured Shakespeare's language for
obscurity — "it is full of new words in new senses" they
say. As to this, Sidney Lee declares that "although sud-
den transitions, elliptical expressions, mixed metaphors,
obsolete words, indefensible verbal quibbles, and a few hope-
lessly corrupt readings disturb the modern reader's equa-
nimity, the glow of the author's imagination leaves few
passages wholly unilluminated."100 It is unfortunate for
the language that some persons more familiar with the

99 "Encyc. Brit." s.v. "Shakespeare."

100 "Diet. of National Biog.," s.v. "Shakespeare."

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 99

text than with the spirit of Shakespeare's writings are
given to cite him as authority in defense of illiterate Eng-
lish forms. These persons often overlook the type of
character into whose mouth Shakespeare put the words
they cite in support of their contentions. That he intended
all of his characters to be speakers of correct English is
inconceivable, and, therefore, most of the passages in his
writings which are of doubtful construction may have been
written deliberately. It is equally unfortunate for the
advocates of the phonetic forms of English spelling that
another class of persons fondly cherishes the belief that the
spellings used in the modern editions of Shakespeare's
works are ' identical in form with those which the great
writer used. The slogan of this class of persons is "the
spelling of Shakespeare is good enough for us!" Little
do they know of this spelling. Possibly, very few of them
have heard that the dramatist spelled his name in no less
than sixteen different ways.

William Shakespeare was born at Stratford-on-Avon, in
Warwickshire, England, in April, 1564. The day of Shake-
speare's birth is unknown. There is an inscription on his
monument that states he died on April 23 (new style,
May 3), 1616, in the fifty-third year of his age. Accord-
ingly, tradition has fixed on April 23rd as the day of his
birth, and if he became fifty-two on the day of his death he
may have been correctly described on his monument as in
the fifty-third year of his age.

On Wednesday, April 26, or, according to the new style,
May 6, 1564, at Stratford-on-Avon was baptized ' c Gulielmus
filius Johannes Shakspere." The plague had spread to
Stratford, but had spared the home of John Shakespeare.
Knight tells us that from June 30th to December 31st, two

100 ESSENTIALS OP ENGLISH SPEECH

hundred and thirty-eight persons, one-ninth of the in-
habitants of Stratford, were carried to the grave.

William Shakespeare probably entered the free grammar
school of his native town in 1571, and there received some
training in the Latin language and literature, which proved
of immense service to him in later life. Family reverses
caused his removal from school at an early age, and when
but thirteen years old he ''exercised his father 's trade,"
which, according to Aubrey, was that of a butcher. When
he attained the age of eighteen, Shakespeare married Anne,
the daughter of Richard Hathaway, a yeoman who dwelt at
Shottery, in the neighborhood of Stratford. Anne Hath-
away was eight years older than Shakespeare.' Early in
1585 she bore him twins, a son named Hamnet and a
daughter named Judith, who were both baptized on Feb-
ruary 2nd. Later in that year Shakespeare left Stratford,
and for the next eleven years saw very little of his family.
He set out for London, which he reached in 1586, but
what he did for a living when he first reached there is not
positively known. Tradition has it that he served an ap-
prenticeship with a printer named Vautrollier; that he
secured a position as a lawyer's clerk; that he held horses
for men of fashion who attended the theater owned by
James Burbage, who himself kept a livery stable at Smith-
field. Of the three means of securing a livelihood, possibly
the last was the one which Shakespeare adopted, as it led
to his appointment as call-boy and, subsequently, to the office
of deputy-prompter. That he prospered at whatever call-
ing he followed is known from the fact that in 1589 he
owned a share in the Blackfriars Theater, where he not
only adapted old plays, but produced new ones, and even
took part in them. Fortune continued to favor him, and

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 101

he became part-owner of the Globe Theater. During this
time he took part in Ben Jonson's " Every Man in His
Humour," and also acted in his own plays, taking such
parts as the Ghost in "Hamlet," and Adam in "As You
Like It." Although a fair actor, he was a better manager,
and at one time derived a yearly income from his various
interests which would amount to $7,500 in our own coin.
Fortunately for him, he soon found out that he could make
more money as a playwright than as a performer, and he
devoted twenty years of his life to writing.

Between his twenty-seventh and his forty-seventh years
he produced all of his plays. His poem, "Venus and
Adonis, ' ' published in 1593, secured for him a greater share
of public attention than his earlier plays. Queen Eliza-
beth signaled him out for special favor, and thenceforward
he moved among the most cultivated men of his time. After
the Queen 's death he continued in royal favor, and James
I. is said to have exceeded Elizabeth in his appreciation of
the dramatist.

The closing years of Shakespeare's life (1611-1616) were
spent at Stratford-on-Avon. He sold his shares in the
Blackfriars and the Globe theaters in 1611, and retired to
Stratford, where he settled in New Place. He took part in
the public life of his native town, sharing both its civic and
social responsibilities. In the spring of 1616 he entertained
his old friends, Ben Jonson and Michael Drayton, at New
Place, where they had "a merry meeting." He died of a
fever contracted at this time, but the exact cause of his
death has not been determined. On April 25, 1616, he was
laid to rest near the north wall of the chancel in Stratford
Church.

It is said that he was the author of his own epitaph,

102 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

which he wrote from the fear that after death his bones
would be disinterred and thrown into the charnel-house
hard by the church. The curse pronounced he thought
would prove an effective check to the disturbance of his
remains.

"Good frend for Jesus' sake forbeare
To digg the dust encloased heare :
Blest be ye man yt spares thes stones,
And curst be he yt moves my bones."

There is no question that Shakespeare is the greatest of
the English poets as well as the greatest of our dramatists.
As Dr. Craik has expressed it, "his sympathy is the most
universal, his imagination the most plastic, his diction the
most expressive, ever given to any writer. His poetry has
in itself the power and varied excellences of all other poetry.
While in grandeur, and beauty, and passion, and sweetest
music, and all the other higher gifts of song, he may be
ranked with the greatest — with Spenser, and Chaucer, and
Milton, and Dante, and Homer — he is at the same time more
nervous than Dryden, and more sententious than Pope, and
more sparkling and of more abounding conceit, when he
chooses, than Donne, or Cowley, or Butler. In whose hand-
ling was language ever such a flame of fire as it is in his?
His wonderful potency in the use of this instrument would
alone set him above all other writers.101 Language has been

1W Whatever may be the extent of the vocabulary of the English language, it
is certain that the most copious writer has not employed more than a fraction
of the entire number of words of which it consists. It has been stated that
some inquiries set on foot by the telegraph companies have led to the con-
clusion that the number of words in ordinary use does not exceed 3,000. A
rough calculation, founded on Mrs. Clarke's Concordance, gives about 21,000
as the number of words to be found in the plays of Shakespeare, without count-
ing inflectional forms as distinct Avords. Probably the vocabulary of no other of
our great writers is nearly so extensive. Todd's "Verbal Index" would not give
us more than about 7.000 for Milton ; so that, if we were to add even 50
per cent, to compensate for Milton's inferior voluminousness, the Miltonic
vocabulary would still be not more than half as copious as the Shakespearian.

ENGLISH: ITS GKOWTH

103

Vol. So farewell, to the link good you bare me.
Fare well f A long farewell to all my Great oefle.
Thu i* the ftate ofM»n \ to day h* pirn forth
The tender Leaves of hopes, to morrow BiofToaj«,
And betres hit bhifh ing Honors thicfce vpon hints
The third day. com«s a Ff eft ; a killing T-roft ,
And when he ihinkes, good eafic nua.ftill furely
Hit Greaincit* ist ripening, ntppei hurooie.
And then he fall ul do. 1 haue ventur'd
Like (itd« wanton Boy« that f**im en bladder) r
Thu many Summers in a Sea of Glory,
But fstft beyondmy depth: my h.gh-blowne Pride
At length broke vnder roe. and now ha'i left me
Weary ,»nd old with Seruic«, to the mercy
Oft rude ftr came, that muft for euer hide me.
Vnoe pompe, ind glory of thu World,, I hate ye,
I feele my he»M new open'd. Oh how wretched
If (hat poorc man, thu hangs on Pr inert fauowrt?
There it b/iwint that fmile we would afpire to»,
Thit Tweet Afpeft of Princes, and their mine,
Morepangi, and fearo then wmci, or women htue i
And when he falles.he fallei like Luofet.
Neuertohopeagame.
£nier Craa
Why how now Cnma

Cnm, 1 tuue n0 power to fpcitic >ir.

O. What.amaid

At n> y misfortune* > Canthy Spirit wonder
A grot man (Vould dcclmr. N«y .and you we»
I »n. bine indeed.

Crtm How doet youi Gract.

Card. Why well:

Newer fo truly hippy, my good CrcnrvtO.
I know my felf* now, and I feele within mo,
Apettf aboue all uiihly Dignities.
Artill,andquiciConi~clence. The KinjrUli aifdmt,
I humbly thankc bit Gf jcr and from ihcf« (holders
Theft rum'd Pillen, out of p.try, t»fcen
A lotdr, would fmke a Nauy. (coo moth Honor )

0 'in a burden Crormtl, m , burden

Too h«ioy fot a m»n, ih»t hopes for Hcjut n.

Crtm I am glad your Grace,
Ha'i made that right vfeof it.

Card. Ihopelhauei

1 am able now (mr ihioket)

(Oat of» Fo.n.udc of Soule, 1 ferlt)

To endure mart Mifenet, and greatrr fa/re

Then my We>ke he»ned Encmiei. d»re offer.

Wh.tNewe.jbro.df

Crtm. The hfiuit (1, »nd (h« v»offt,
I» your difplcafurr wiih the Kmg.

Card GodblefTehmx

Crtm. The ne»t n, that Sir 7k>rxw .V<«vUcnofi!a
Lord Cruncellor. in yout pUce

CjrJ. That i Tome what foJj.o
But hc*4 a Learned man. May he common
Long in Kit H <ghnc df ftuour, and do ! after
For Tnithv(akr,ind hn Confaence (that hn bone t,
When he ha'i nin hti cour fe, and flrepet m Blrffingi ,
V(»y haue a Tombe ofOrphantt icarei wevt on him
What more t

Cr*n. Tb»t Citnmft is rwum'd with wekomr j
ftiird Lord Arfh-byft>op ofC*nterbu,y.

C*r4. Truc'sNe wet indeed.

Crtm. Uft, that ihe L»dy Amt,
Whom the King hath m (ctren) Ion* married,
Thit day waj riew'd in open, at hit Queenc,
Going to ChapptU t tnd thcTOycett now
Onely tbouthrt Corrotvnion.

Cjrd There wjj the waight that pull'd me OOWTM. .

0 C'"n»'l,

The KmK ha'i gone beyond me i All my Clone*
In th 1 1 one woman, t fvueloft fot euer.
No Son, Adi euer Wbefforth mine Honors,
Or g»l<k againe the Noble Troopei that waighted
Vpon my fmiles. Go get th*e from me Crwmrr/,

1 am a poore falne man. vn worthy now
TobethyLord,and>la«Vr. SeeketruKmj
(That Sun, I pray nuy newer fet) I haue told him.
What, end how true thou art , he will tduancc the* :
Some lit tie memory of me, w iU (Krre him

(I know hit Noble Nature) not to let
thy hopeful! f.njtre peri(h too.. Good Crow/t
Neglea him not » make vfe now, and prouudc
Fot thme own* future fafety

Cram. O my Lord,

Mufl I then leaue you ? Muft I needet forgo
So good, fo Noble, and To true aMiOer >
Bear* witneffe, >ll i rut haue not heart! of Iron,
With what a forrow Crcmatt Icaocs hii Lord,
The King Dull haue my feruice , but*my praytet
For ever, and for euet (hall be yours.

Card. Croamn{t ] did not thinke to (bed a trare
In all my Miferie* : But tho« haA fore'd me
(Out of thy hotxR tn»ch)toplay the Woman.
Leil dry our eyei i And thui farre hcare me f><xv«xy,
And when I am forgotten, as I OiaJl be.
And flecpe in dull cold Marble, where no mention
Ofme,morcmuAbeheardof:Saytiaaghtthee;
Say Wtt/n, that once trod the wayes ofGlory,
And founded all theDeptht.and ShoalnofHonor,
Pound ihee a way (out of hi. WTacfce)torife In :
A fate, and fofe one, though thy MaAcr mirt it.
Marke but my Tall, and thai that Ruln'd me :
fnwnw/, 1 charge thee, Sing away Ambition,
By that finne fell the Angrh : how can roan then
(The Image of hit Maker )hope to win by it ?
Loue ihy felfc lafl, chetifh ihofe heart* ihat h»u triee ,
Corruption wmi oot more then Honefly.
Still in thy right hand, cany gentle Peace
To filerwr tmiiout Tongues Be KiO.and fearr not i
Let all the cndi thou aym'ft at, be thy Countries ,
Thy Godj.and Trutb*. Then if ihou fall ft(O Cr,mwtt(\
Thou falCrl > blefled Martyr.
Serue the King : And prythee leadt me 10 f
There take an I nuentory of all 1 hiur.
To the Uft petty, 'tit the Kmgt. My Robe,
And my Integrity to Heauen, u ill,
1 dare now cjll mine owne. O Croaaptl, Crtnrvd,
Had 1 but fem'd my God. withhalfe the Zole
I frtu'd my King . he would not in mine Age
Hau* left me naked lomineEnemict.

Crem. Good Sir, haue panence.

CW So I haue. Paiewell
The Hopes of Cowt, my Hopes in Heatfo do dwell.
Extuul.

104 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

called the costume of thought; it is such a costume as
leaves are to the tree or blossoms to the flower, and grows
out of what it adorns. Every great and original writer
accordingly has distinguished, and as it were individualized,
himself as much by his diction as by even the sentiment
which it embodies ; and the invention of such a distinguish-
ing style is one of the most unequivocal evidences of genius.
But Shakespeare has invented twenty styles. He has a style
for every one of his great characters, by which that char-
acter is distinguished from every other as much as Poe is
distinguished by his style from Dryden, or Milton from
Spenser. And yet all the while it is he himself with his
own peculiar accent that we hear in every one of them. ' '102
But even so great a man could not escape the gibes and
sneers of his less successful contemporaries. In 1592 in his
1 ' Groatsworth of Wit, ' ' Robert Greene thus described him :

"There is an upstart crow, beautified with our feathers, that,
with his tiger's heart wrapt in a player's hide, supposes he is
as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you;
and, being an absolute Johannes Factotum, is, in his own conceit,
the only Shake-scene in a country."

In later years Dryden decried him, and James Thomson
dubbed him, "wild Shakespeare" in "The Season's Sum-
mer " — "Is not wild Shakespeare thine and Nature's
boast?"

On page 103 is shown a photographic reproduction from
the First Folio Edition of Henry VIII., act iii, scene 2,
and it consists of Cardinal Wolsey's "Soliloquy upon his
Fall." It affords a good illustration of that orthography
which many of the opponents of spelling reform love to fall

102 "English Literature," Vol. I., pp. 591, 592.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 105

back upon when they say — "The spelling of Shakespeare
(and of Milton) is good enough for me."

Benjamin Jonson, or as he was familiarly called in his
own time arid commonly so since, Ben Jonson, was the son
of a clerg^yman. He was born in 1572 or 1573, and was a
direct descendant of the Johnston's of Annandale, whence
his grandfather set out for and settled in Carlisle. A few
days after Ben Jonson 's birth his father died; his mother
married again — this time to a master bricklayer. In those
days the bricklayer was a craftsman, and the lesser clergy
ranked as the equals of only tradesmen and servants. The
paternal home was situated in Hartshorn Lane, near Char-
ing Cross, and there Jonson was, as he expressed it, "poorly
brought up." At first he attended the parish school of
St. Martins-in-the-Fields close by, but shortly afterward,
at the instance of one William Camden, who then was second
master of Westminster school, and who undertook to bear
the expenses of his schooling, he entered the latter insti-
tution. There he proved himself an apt pupil, but was
not permitted to continue his studies any length of time,
being taken from school and put to learn his stepfather's
trade. Jonson found this occupation intolerable and ran
away from home. He escaped to Flanders, where he en-
listed with the English troops then engaged in fighting the
Spaniards. The rough life which he was forced to lead as
a soldier left a permanent mark on his character and habits.
Loud of voice, boastful, and boorish, he was ill-fitted to
mingle with the dapper courtiers in attendance upon Queen
Elizabeth and King James I., yet after he had forsaken
the trowel and the pike he took up the pen and almost im-
mediately sprang into fame. In 1595 he began to work
for the stage, driven thence perhaps by poverty, perhaps

106 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

because of an unhappy marriage, but more probably be-
cause of natural bent. He was both player and playwright
in 1597, and in 1598 gave to the world "Every Man in
his Humour, ' ' which is classed as one of our finest comedies
to-day, and which immediately placed him in the foremost
rank of the dramatists of his time. This was followed by
"The Case is Altered," which was staged in 1599. In the
same year he produced a tragedy, "Robert II., King of
Scots," in collaboration with Dekker, Chettle and one other
' ' jentellmen, ' ' and ' ' Every Man out of his Humour, ' ' which
by special command was played before Queen Elizabeth.

Jonson, as a dramatist, reached the highest point in his
career during the first half of James's reign. By the year
1616 he had written all the plays worthy of his pen. The
tragedy "Catiline" appeared in 1611, but met with in-
different success. Then followed his comedies "Volpone or
the Fox," produced in 1605; "Epicoene or The Silent
Woman" (1609) ; "The Alchemist" (1610) ; "Bartholomew
Fair" (1614) ; and "The Devil is an Ass" (1616). The
composition of court masks occupied a part of this time.
For some time thereafter he gave himself up to holiday-
making, but in 1621 produced "Gipsies Metamorphosed,"
which was so well received by the King, before whom it was
presented on three occasions, that he granted him "the
reversion of the office of master of the revels,"103 and would
have conferred upon him the honor of knighthood but for
Jonson 's respectful declination.

Jonson 's tragedies are eloquent, stately, and poetical. He
avoided the looseness of fancy which characterized much
of the work of his contemporaries that degenerated into
licentiousness. He wrote for men of sense and knowledge.

103 "Encyc. Brit.," XIII, s.v. "Jonson."

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 107

Of his prose work one piece, which has been preserved to
us, may be cited as particularly suited to a work of this
kind.

Language most shews a man; speak, that I may see thee.
It springs out of the most retired and inmost parts of us, and
is the image of the parent of it, the mind. No glass renders a
man's form or likeness so true, as his speech. Nay, it is likened
to a man ; and as we consider feature and composition in a man,
so words in language ; in the greatness, aptness, sound, structure,
and harmony of it. Some men are tall and big; so some lan-
guage is high and great. Then the words are chosen, the sound
ample, the composition full, the absolution plenteous, and poured
out, all grace, sinewy and strong. Some are little and dwarfs;
so of speech, it is humble and low ; the words poor and flat ; the
members and periods thin and weak, without knitting or number.
The middle are of a just stature. There the language is plain
and pleasing: even without stopping, round without swelling;
all well turned, composed, elegant, and accurate. The vicious
language is vast and gaping; swelling and irregular; when it
contends, high, full of rock, mountain and pointedness; as it
affects to be low, it is abject and creeps, full of bogs and holes.
And according to their subject these styles vary, and lose their
names; for that which is high and lofty, declaring excellent
matter, becomes vast and tumorous, speaking of petty and
inferior things ; so that which was even and apt, in a mean and
plain subject, will appear most poor and humble in a high
argument.

The next thing to the stature, is the figure and feature of
language; that is, whether it be round and straight, which con-
sists of short and succinct periods, numerous and polished, or
square and firm, which is to have equal and strong parts, every
thing answerable, and weighed.

The third is the skin and coat, which rests in the well joining,
cementing, and coagmentation of words; when as it is smooth,
gentle, and sweet; like a table upon which you may run your
finger without rubs, and your nails can not find a joint, nor
horrid, rough, wrinkled, gaping, and chapt; after these, the flesh,

108 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

blood,, and bones come in question. We say it is a fleshy style,
when there is much periphrasis, and circuit of words ; and when
with more than enough it grows fat and corpulent. It hath
blood and juice, when the words are proper and apt, their sound
sweet, and the phrases neat and picked. There be some styles
again that are bony and sinewy. . . .

As old age crept upon him Jonson, in receipt of a meager
salary irregularly paid, and beset with debt, became a prey
to paralysis. For the very necessaries of life he was com-
pelled to write begging letters to his affluent noble friends.
Life slowly ebbed until August 6, 1637, when he died, and
three days later was buried in Westminster Abbey, where
a square, time-worn tablet bearing the words "0 Bare Ben
Jonson7' marks his last resting-place.

OTHER WRITERS

Another soldier who won fame with the pen was Sir
Walter Raleigh, better known, perhaps, for his achieve-
ments at sea than on land. He was born at Hayes in Devon-
shire, England, in 1552, and after a brief sojourn at Oriel
College, Oxford, espoused the cause of the French Protes-
tants, enlisting in the Huguenots' army in 1569. For the
next five years he followed the calling of a soldier, but found
time to study seamanship, in which he became so proficient
as to be created vice-admiral. His achievements in Ireland
— whither he was sent to subdue the rebellious people, whom
he butchered in cold blood as if they were wild beasts —
although they did not reflect credit upon him as a humane
commander, brought him to the attention of Queen Eliza-
beth, and he received special licenses to export wool and to
sell wine. For some years thereafter he shone as a courtier
and obtained various offices, as the posts of lord-warden of

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 109

the Stannaries, and vice-admiral of Devon and Cornwall.
In addition he received a charter to develop and colonize
Virginia, and spent more than £40,000 in the venture, which
did not prove a success. Twice he sent out expeditions to
achieve this; the first settlers retired discouraged, taking
refuge on Drake's ships, but bringing back with them to-
bacco and the potato104 as the only fruits of the enter-
prise; the second batch was either exterminated by the
natives or assimilated with them.

But we are not concerned so much with Raleigh 's achieve-
ments as an adventurous courtier, soldier, and seaman, as
with the great work he began to write when confined in the
Tower of London on a questionable charge of treason. For
thirteen years he suffered solitary confinement, and these
years he devoted to making experiments in chemistry and
in writing a "History of the World" — a work which he was
unable to complete. Beginning with the creation, Raleigh
brought his achievement down to the second Macedonian
war. Then followed his release and dispatch with a
squadron of fourteen ships on an expedition to replenish
a penniless King's treasury. He captured St. Thomas,
obtained only two bars of gold, and suffering from ill-health,
with "brains broken," he set sail for home. On landing at
Plymouth he was arrested, taken to London, and on October
29, 1618, was sent to the block on the charge of treason that
still hung over him. With what composure he advanced
toward the block and faced death may be seen from his
last words as he felt the edge of the ax which was to sever
his head from his body — •' ' This is a sharp medicine, but it
will cure all diseases."

104 The introduction and cultivation of the potato in Ireland were due to
Raleigh, who assigned a part of his estates there to its cultivation.

110 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Raleigh's "History of the World" is remarkable for its
spirited narrative, eloquence, deep learning, profound
philosophy, and devout sentiment. It is cast in an antique
mold and stamped with melancholy, due, no. doubt, to the
somber surroundings of his prison chamber. To the student
of English it is notable as one of the finest specimens of
the quaint and stately old English style.

Raleigh wrote in addition "A Narrative of a Cruise to
Guiana," and a number of political pamphlets. He was
also author of pleasing poetry which won for him the praise
of Edmund Spenser, by whom he was called the "Summer
Nightingale." As a man he was master of the art and
finesse of the courtier, and as a seaman, soldier, and states-
man he stood preeminent at a time prolific of famous men.

The following extract is from Sir Walter Raleigh's Essay
on "The Sceptic." It is quoted from Oldys and Birch's
edition of the "Works of Sir Walter Raleigh" (Vol. VII,
pp. 553-54), published by the Oxford University Press
in 1829.

It is evident also that men differ very much in the tem-
perature of their bodies, else why should some more easily
digest beef than shell-fish? and others be mad for the time, if
they drink wine? There was an old woman about Arbeus,
which drank three drams of cicuta (every dram weighing sixty
barleycorns, and eight drams to an ounce) without hurt. Lysis,
without hurt, took four drams of poppy; and Demothon, which
was gentleman-sewer to Alexander, was very cold when he
stood in the sun, or in a hot bath, but very hot when he stood
in the shade. Athenagoras felt no pain if a scorpion stuns:
him. And the Psilli (a people in Libya, whose bodies are
venom to serpents), if they be stung by serpents or asps,
receive no hurt at all.

The Ethiopians, which inhabit the river Hydaspis, do eat
serpents and scorpions without danger. Lothericus, a surgeon,

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 111

at the smell of a sturgeon would be for the time mad. Andron
of Argos was so little thirsty, that without want of drink he
travelled through the hot and dry country of Libya. Tiberius
Caesar would see very well in the dark. Aristotle mentioneth
of Thratius, who said, that the image of a man went always
before him.

If then it be so, that there be such differences in men, this
must be by reason of the diverse temperatures they have, and
diverse dispositions of their conceit and imagination ; for if one
hate and another love the very same thing, it must be that
their phantasies differ, else all would love it, or all would hate
it. These men then may tell how these things seem to them
good or bad; but what they are in their own nature they
cannot tell.

If we will hearken to men's opinions concerning one and the
same matter, thinking thereby to come to the knowledge of it,
we shall find this to be impossible; for either we must believe
what all men say of it, or what some men only say of it. To
believe what all men say of one and the same thing is not
possible; for then we shall believe contrarieties; for some men
say that that very thing is pleasant, which others say is dis-
pleasant. If it be said we must believe only some men, then
let it be shewed who those men are; for the Platonists will
believe Plato, but the Epicures Epicurus, the Pythagoreans
Pythagoras, and other philosophers the masters of their own
sects; so that it is doubtful to which of all these we shall give
credit. If it be said we must credit the greatest number, this
seemeth childish; for there may be amongst other nations a
greater number which deny that very point, which the greatest
number with us do affirm; so that hereof nothing can certainly
be affirmed.

Francis Bacon, the youngest son of Sir Nicholas Bacon,
Lord Keeper of the Great Seal of England, was born at
York House in the Strand, London, January 22, 1561. He
achieved great distinction as a lawyer, but far greater
renown as a philosopher and essayist. In the law he rose

112 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

step by step from Queen 's Counsel to Lord High Chancellor
of England, with the title of Baron Verulam, and ulti-
mately became Viscount St. Albans. But the splendor of
his career was dimmed by accusations of bribery and cor-
ruption. He was impeached, tried, convicted, fined and
imprisoned in the Tower of London for two days, then set
free a disgraced and broken man. But the world is quick
to forget, and it forgot his frailties in remembering the
great service he did to the language and literature of his
native land by producing his inimitable "Essays" first pub-
lished in 1597, and his famous Novum Organum, which ap-
peared in 1620. Of him Ben Jonson, his contemporary,
wrote : ' ' There happened in my time one noble speaker who
was full of gravity in his speaking. His language, where
he could spare or pass by a jest, was nobly censorious. No
man ever spoke more neatly, more pressly, more weightily,
or suffered less emptiness, less idleness in what he uttered.
... I have and do reverence him for the greatness that
was only proper to himself, in that he seemed to me ever,
by his work, one of the greatest men and most worthy of
admiration that had been in many ages."

Bacon's "Essays" are examples of the finest work ever
done in English prose, and as such place him in the first
rank of the English Classics. It is due as much to the
excellence of their style as to the interesting character of
the subjects of which they treat that Bacon's "Essays" are
read more generally than any other of his works. So highly
were these essays esteemed by Hallam that he declared
it "would be derogatory to a man of the slightest claim
to polite letters, were he unacquainted with the 'Essays' of
Bacon."

The "Essays" were followed by a treatise on the "Ad-

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH H3

vancement of Learning," a work written in English and
issued in 1605. This was the forerunner of a far greater
undertaking styled "Instauratio Magna." In this work
Bacon aimed to produce an analytical classification of all
phases of human knowledge, and to provide a system of
logic which would supply certain deficiencies of the Aris-
totelian system. As originally planned, the work was
divided into six parts:

Part I. De Augmentis Scientiarum: This consists of a sum-
mary of human knowledge, as embraced by his "Advancement
of Learning," but deals with the undeveloped condition of
science.

Part II. Novum Organum explains his system of logic and
expounds the inductive method of reasoning which earned for
him the title of father of experimental science. Only one of
the nine sections into which this part is divided is fully ex-
plained; the remainder are only named. The Novum Organum
gave expression to matters which were then under consideration.
The period was ripe for reform. Scholasticism had begun to
decay, the authority of the church was waning. Men turned
to the study of nature and, basing their work upon theory, began
investigating the sciences.

Part III. Sylva Sylvarum was to be a complete treatise on
natural philosophy and natural history, but Bacon treated only
four of the many subjects which were to come under this head —
the history of the Winds, that of Life and Death, that of Density
and Rarity, and that of Sound and Hearing.

Part IV. Scala Intellectus. Only the Filum Labyrinthi,
which consists of but two or three pages, is extant. This, as its
main title suggests, was intended as a key to the new philosophy.

Part V. Prodromi — the forerunners of the new philosophy.
In this section Bacon purposed to present certain speculations
of his own not based upon his new method but derived from
"the unassisted use of his understanding."105 The preface of

105 "Encyc. Brit.," Vol. III., s.v. "Bacon."

114 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

this work is extant, and several miscellaneous treatises which
may have been intended for it as De Principlis, De Fluxu et
Befluxu, etc.

Part VI. Philosophic/, Secunda — the second philosophy which
results from the new method — which was never written.

Bacon's writings, although they received but scant atten-
tion in his lifetime, gave enormous impulse to scientific
thought for almost a century after his death. To the fact
that he felt the neglect of his own countrymen, or that he
realized that learning in England in his own time was not
so far advanced as on the Continent, may have been due
the prophetic lines found in his will : ' ' My name and mem-
ory I leave it to men's charitable speeches and to foreign
nations and the next ages." Among his contemporaries
both Raleigh and Jonson appreciated his genius,106 but none
expressed it so fittingly as his own friend, Sir Tobie Mat-
thews, who in an address to the Reader107 said; "A man
so rare in knowledge of so many several kinds, endued with
the facility and felicity of expressing it all in so elegant,
significant, so abundant and yet so choice and ravishing
a way of words, of metaphors, of allusions, as perhaps the
world hath not seen since it was a world." After his im-
peachment Lord Bacon retired to his country home at
Gorhambury, where he revised and enlarged his "Essays,"
wrote a "History of King Henry VII.," and a philosophical
treatise called "The New Atlantis." He was heavily in
debt and applied for the office of Provost of Eton College,
hoping to secure release from them, but it was refused. He
died from the effects of a cold taken while out for a drive,
and during which he alighted from his carriage to test if

106 See Spedding "Letters and Life of Lord Bacon," Vol. I., p. 268.

107 "Collection of English Letters" (1660).

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 115

the flesh of fowl could be preserved with snow as well as
with salt. While stuffing a chicken full of snow by the
roadside he took a chill, from which he never recovered.
He was taken to the home of the Earl of Arundel near by,
and died there April 9, 1626.

The following extract is from Bacon's work, "The Essays,
or Counsels Civil and Moral/' and treats of "Learning."
The Essays have always stood as standard English prose.

Learning taketh away the wildness, and barbarism, and
fierceness of men's minds: though a little superficial learning
doth rather work a contrary effect. It taketh away all levity,
temerity, and insolency, by copious suggestion of all doubts
and difficulties, and acquainting the mind to balance reasons on
both sides, and to turn back the first offers and conceits of the
kind, and to accept of nothing but examined and tried. It
taketh away vain admiration of anything, which is the root of
all weakness: for all things are admired, either because they
are new, or because they are great. For novelty, no man
wadeth in learning or contemplation thoroughly, but with that
printed in his heart, "I know nothing." Neither can any man
marvel at the play of puppets, that goeth behind the curtain,
and adviseth well of the motion. And as for magnitude, as
Alexander the Great, after that he was used to great armies,
and the great conquests of the spacious provinces in Asia,
when he received letters out of Greece, of some fights and ser-
vices there, which were commonly for a passage or fort or
some walled town at the most, he said, "It seemed to him that
he was advertised of the battle of the frogs and the mice, that
the old tales went of"; — so certainly, if a man meditate upon
the universal frame of nature, the earth with men upon it, the
divineness of souls excepted, will not seem much other than an
ant-hill, where some ants carry corn, and some carry their
young, and some go empty, and all to and fro a little heap of
dust. It taketh away or mitigateth fear of death, or adverse
fortune, which is one of the greatest impediments of virtue, and
imperfections of manners. For if a man's mind be deeply

116 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

seasoned with the consideration of the mortality and corrupt-
ible nature of things, he will easily concur with Epictetus, who
went forth one day, and saw a woman weeping for her pitcher of
earth that was broken ; and went forth the next day, and saw a
woman weeping for her son that was dead ; and thereupon said,
"Yesterday I saw a fragile thing- broken, to-day I have seen a
mortal thing die." And therefore Virgil did excellently and
profoundly couple the knowledge of causes and the conquest of
all fears together.

2. The English Bible

With the year 1611, which marks the close of Shake-
speare's literary activity, and the publication of the
Authorized Version of the Bible, the Early Modern or
Tudor Period may be said to close. But before then there
was a time in England when Bibles were only to burn and
not to read. The law compelled those that read them to
throw them into the flames, but the Bible survived and
was revised, translated and, finally, authorized. By royal
order a copy of it was placed in every church throughout
England in 1541, and there the people flocked to read it or
to hear it read. If naught else had been done in the reign
of Elizabeth but to establish the Bible as the great standard
of our national Faith by her command, this act alone would
have entitled he¥ to rank among the great sovereigns of
England.

Two editions of this great work appeared before that
which we commonly designate the Authorized Version.
The first was the translation by Miles Coverdale, known as
the Geneva Bible, which was completed in 1560, and which
was greatly prized by the Puritans. The second, known as
the Bishops' Bible, was translated under the supervision
of Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, by ''able

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 117

bishops and other learned men, ' ' and was completed October
5, 1568.

The Bible which Protestants still use, notwithstanding
the defects pointed out by eminent Bible scholars, was the
result of a conference between representatives of the High
Church and of the Low Church parties which was held
at Hampton Court Palace, in Middlesex, England, in 1604.
The guiding spirit of this conference was King James I.,
who himself spontaneously sketched out the plan under
which the labor was to be done. The work, once under-
taken, was subdivided among forty-seven eminent scholars
and divines who formed themselves into six committees and
were occupied in the revision for nearly five years. It took
Robert Barker, the King's Printer, two years to put it into
print, and when published it consisted of "two contem-
porary issues of folio volumes separately composed, and
printed in the year 1611. "108

What shall one say of the style of the English Bible?
A writer in "The Spectator" (London) has answered the
question thus: "It is the noblest example of the English
tongue," and will bear analysis as its subject matter has
borne criticism. As for the prose of the Bible, even its
more dominant elements are difficult to isolate. They are
as much psychological as linguistic, elements not only of
the English tongue but of the English spirit. Of the prose
of the Bible it may, indeed, be said, "Le style c'est le
peuple." For instance, there is the adaptation of Hebrew
ideas; it is an adaptation not only in expression but in
substance. It might seem inevitable that in a translation
from the Hebrew the essence of the ideas at least would
remain Hebraic. But there are good grounds, among them

108"Encyc. Brit.," VIII., s.v. English Bible.

118 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

being the influence of the Bible upon the English people,
for believing that this is not the case. A priori, of course,
the mere fact of translation proves that the ideas, in passing
from Hebrew to English words, have ceased to be Hebrew
and have become English. The remarks of Jesus, the son
of Sirach, in the preface of his translation from Hebrew
into Greek of his grandfather's "Wisdom," which we
know as "Ecclesiasticus," are very much to the point. He
says: "The same things uttered in Hebrew and translated
into another tongue have not the same force in them ; and
not only these things but the law itself, and the prophets
and the rest of the books, have no small difference when
they are spoken in their own language/'

"All wisdom cometh from the Lord, and is with Him for
ever. ' ' That contains the essence of the characteristic style
of the prose of our Bible. We select it for the interesting
contrast it presents to the preface. For, if we were search-
ing for a specimen containing the essential characteristics
of English prose, we could hardly do better than quote
the words already cited from this preface. Compare them
from any point of view, and with any qualifications, to the
already cited first words of "Ecclesiasticus." There is
clearly a profound difference.

We are not implying that these characteristics, whatever
they may be, are Hebraic. We merely suggest that they are
not the normal characteristics of English prose, either at the
period of their composition or at any other. One or two
further specimens will serve to emphasize the type and to
show how constant it is. "Thy way is in the sea, and thy
paths in the great waters ; and thy footsteps are not known. "
1 ' Such as sit in darkness and in the shadow of death, being
fast bound in misery and iron." "And there was no more

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 119

sea. " " The Lord do so to me and more also, if aught but
death part me and thee." "As rivers of water in a dry
place, as the shadow of a great rock in a weary land.''
"Rise up, ye women that are at ease. Hear my voice, ye
careless daughters." "They sold the righteous for silver,
and the poor for a pair of shoes." Clearly the passages
cited haphazard out of hundreds of thousands like them
bear a special stamp. When we consider them we find that
they have a particular appeal to the ear. And in fact, we
may take it that the first and most prominent characteristic
is a special rhythm. It is of a simple type, but as the least
study will show, it is handled with extraordinary art. It
is neither too fluent nor too slow, but it is both smooth and
weighty. It is carefully balanced in the complementary
members of a sentence, yet it never degenerates into meter.
The rhythm of many English writers tends to be either
dissipated among polysyllables or emphasized to monotony,
iambic as in Blackmore, hexametric as in Buskin. But the
rhythm of the Bible, though built of the same elements as
the verse of Shakespeare and Milton, is specifically a prose,
not a verse rhythm. The perfection of its technique is
infallible.109

In qne of his Epistles Seneca tells us that the first petition
we should make to the Almighty is for a good conscience,
the second, for a healthy mind, and the third, for a healthy
body. A perusal of the Bible will put us in the proper
frame of mind to do this better than any other work penned
by human hand. How such a practise affected Ruskin
he has told us: "Read your Bible," said he, "making it
the first morning business of your life to understand some
portion of it clearly, and your daily business to obey it in

109 "The Spectator," London, August 26, 1911.

120 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

all that you do understand. To. my early knowledge of
the Bible I owe the best part of my taste in literature, and
the most precious, and, on the whole, the one essential part
of my education. ' ' No living being can hope to achieve all
the good that is taught by the Scriptures, but he may hope
to achieve a great part of it. As Sir "Walter Scott ex-
pressed it, "the more deeply he works the mine, the richer
and more abundant he finds the ore ; new light continually
beams from this source of heavenly knowledge, to direct the
conduct, and illustrate the work of God and the ways of
men; and he will at last leave the world confessing that
the more he studied the Scriptures, the fuller conviction he
had of his own ignorance, and of their inestimable value. ' '

Ulysses Simpson Grant attributed to the influence of the
Bible all the progress made in true civilization, and be-
lieved that we must look to it as our guide in the future.
Others, too, have echoed this sentiment, for the Bible be-
longs to the world, and has outlived all other books as a
mighty factor in civilization. Eadical in its unique and
peerless teachings, identified with the promotion of liberty,
the companion or pioneer of commerce, the founder of civil
government, the source and support of learning, as both
containing and fostering literature of the noblest order, and
as the promoter and purifier of art, it is a book that has
enshrined within its many pages more specimens of genius
and taste than any other work known to man. To Napoleon
it was a living power — a book surpassing all others. 1 1 1
never fail to read it," said he, "and every day with the
same pleasure. Nowhere is to be found such a series of
beautiful ideas, and admirable moral maxims, which pass
before us like the battalions of a celestial army. . . . The
soul can never go astray with this book for its guide. ' ' If

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 121

it has taught us nothing else it has taught us the best way to
live, the manly way to suffer, and the noblest way to die.
Empires may crumble, kingdoms decay, and cities fall, but
tyranny has not been able to destroy it, traditions have
been unable to shake it, and atheism can not undermine it.
Amid the wreck of nations this work — the Word of God —
stands supreme throughout our world to-day.

. As literature the English Bible is a masterpiece. It was
of this book that Macaulay said, ' ' If everything else in our
language should perish, it would alone suffice to show the
whole extent of the beauty and power of that language."
As it has proved to others, so it has proved to me, the light
of my understanding, my consoler in sorrow, and my guide
in the hour of trial. It teaches man the most effectual way to
civilize and humanize his kind ; to elevate and purify public
morals; to efficiently maintain the precepts of law and
order, and to improve all the relations of social and domes-
tic life. " Scholars may quote Plato in their studies, " said
Con way, "but the hearts of millions will quote the Bible at
their daily toil, and draw strength from its inspiration, as
the meadows draw it from the brook. ' ' It is, indeed, a noble
Book, the Book for all men. It is not only our first and our
oldest expounder of the everlasting problem of man's des-
tiny in his relation to God, but, to borrow Daniel Webster 's
view, it is a book of Faith, and a book of doctrine, a book
of morals, and a book of religion. Horace Greeley believed
that the principles of the Bible are the groundwork of
human freedom, and Benjamin Franklin felt its influence
for good so supreme that he said: "A Bible and a news-
paper in every house, a good school in every district — all
studied and appreciated as they merit — are the principal
supports of virtue, morality, and civil liberty." Found in

122 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

the home of the poor, as well as in the halls of the rich, it
has been woven into our literature, and absorbed by our
speech. As that great American statesman, Edward Ever-
ett, once said : ' ' If it were possible to annihilate the Bible,
and with it all its influences, we should destroy with it
the whole spiritual system of the moral world, all refine-
ment of manners, constitutional government, security of
property, our schools, hospitals and benevolent associations,
the press, the fine arts, the equality of the sexes, and the
blessings of the fireside/' For our own sakes let us hope,
then, that the day of its annihilation may be far distant.

The occasion of the tercentennary celebration of the
publication of the King James Version at the Albert Hall,
London, March 29, 1911, led William H. Taft, who was
President of the United States at the time, to express the
following sentiments concerning the English Bible to the
delegates convened: "This Book of books has not only
reigned supreme in England for three centuries, but has
bound together as nothing else could two great Anglo-Saxon
nations, one in blood, in speech, and in common religious
life. Our laws, our literature and our social life owe what-
ever excellence they possess largely to the influence of this,
our chief classic, acknowledged as such equally on both
sides of the sea."

To the reader who cares to study the Bible in its relation
to modern life it is a pleasure to recommend a work bear-
ing on this subject from the pen of Joseph S. Auerbach.
In this work nothing is omitted because of difference of in-
terpretation. As the writer reads without comment, so the
student is left to connect the text according to his faith or
teaching.

The influence of the Authorized Version of the Bible

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 123

upon the English language can be measured only in part
by its influence on the English-speaking peoples. As a
literary work it has preserved to us a language peculiarly
its own. Of Anglo-Saxon words it contains 97 per cent. —
more than any other English book. Biblical English may
be archaic in form, but this archaic character was not
derived from Elizabethan or Jacobean sources. Hallam
has pointed out that it is "not the English of Daniel, or
Raleigh, or Bacon," but it may be traced back to the
language of Wycliffe, and although this "abounds with
obsolete phraseology and with single words long since
abandoned or retained only in provincial use" it has given
all men so much satisfaction that no other revision which
has succeeded it has been received with sufficient favor as
to displace the veneration in which the King James Version
is held.

In his "Introduction to the Study of the Scriptures,"
Dr. Thomas Hartwell Home gives the following statistics
concerning the contents of the Bible, the computation of
which occupied more than three years of his time.

OLD

NEW

TESTAMENT

TOTAL

Books

.... 39

Chapters . .

.... 929

260

1,189

Verses

. . . . 33,214

7,959

41,173

Words

. . . . 593,493

181,253

774,746

Letters

. 2,728,100

838,380

3,566,480

APOCRYPHAL BOOKS

Books, 14 ; chapters, 183 ; verses, 6,031 ; words, 125,185 ; letters,
1,063,876.

Another computation made by the Prince of Granada,

124 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

heir to the Spanish throne, during a period of imprison-
ment yields the following facts:

Books 66

Chapters 1,189

Verses 31,373 [ f ]

Words 773,693

Letters 3,538,483

A writer to the ''Manchester Union" (Manchester, Eng-
land) computed the number of words as 810,697. A calcu-
lation of the different words used in the Old Testament,
based on the number of Hebrew words translated into Eng-
lish, yields a total of 8,674, or about one-half the number
of English words usually credited to Shakespeare.

(B) THE MODERN PERIOD: THE INFLUENCE OF THE PRESS

In point of time the Modern Period ranges from 1611
to the present day. It embraces a vast army of writers of
every kind of literature which has appeared during the past
three hundred years. Of these writers John Milton was
unquestionably the peer. His own contemporary, John
Dryden, to whom Buckhurst, who later became Lord Dorset,
showed a copy of "Paradise Lost," exclaimed, "This man
cuts us all out and the ancients too." A tradition is pre-
served that Sir John Denham, who had been permitted to
read a sheet of this poem as it came off the press, declared
it to be "the noblest poem ever written." Macaulay in his
"History of England" described Milton as "a mighty poet
who, tried at once by pain, danger, poverty, obloquy, and
blindness, meditated, undisturbed by the obscene tumult
which raged all around him, a song so sublime and so holy
that it would not have misbecome the lips of those ethereal
Virtues whom he saw, with that inner eye which no calamity

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 125

could darken, flinging down on the jasper pavement their
crowns of amaranth and gold."

John Milton was born in Bread Street, Cheapside, Lon-
don, 011 December 9, 1608. A portrait of Milton, made
when he was ten years old, shows him to have been a beau-
tiful lad, and this likeness is borne out by a tradition which
claims that his beautiful and delicate pink and white skin,
together with his wealth of silken auburn hair, earned for
him the sobriquet of "The Lady of the College " at Christ
College, Cambridge. He received his early education at
the hands of a private tutor named Thomas Young, who
later became a famous Presbyterian divine. When about
twelve years old Milton attended St. Paul's School. From
the outset he showed a passion for study, often reading late
into the night, thereby, as he himself thought, causing the
injury to his eyes which ultimately caused his blindness.
Besides acquiring a thorough knowledge of English, Milton
learned Latin and Greek, French and Italian, and was able
to read Hebrew. When but fifteen years old he wrote two
paraphrases of the Psalms.

On attaining his sixteenth year Milton entered Cambridge
University as a minor pensioner. Owing to a quarrel be-
tween his tutor, William Chappell and himself, he is said
to have withdrawn from the University for a time, and on
his return to have been placed under the tutorship of
Nathaniel Tovey. Milton wrote the Latin verses for the
college commencement of 1628, and a magnificent "Ode on
the Morning of Christ's Nativity" in 1629. This is one
of the most noble specimens of lyric poetry ever produced.
It was followed by a sonnet to Shakespeare in 1630.
Although educated for the church, Milton refused to take
the necessary oaths, and therefore was "church-crated by the

126 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

prelates." From July, 1632 to April, 1638, Milton lived
with his father at Horton (Bucks), about eighteen miles
from London. While here, reading the Greek and Latin
poets, he produced "L 'Allegro," "II Periseroso," "Ar-
cades," "Comus," and "Lycidas." Of these poems the
first two are the most popular, and show the poet's intense
love of nature.

In April, 1638, Milton, with his father's consent, went
abroad. He arrived in Paris, but notwithstanding the fact
that there he met Hugo Grotius, the famous Dutch states-
man, found that city uncongenial ; he disliked * ' the manners
and genius" of the place and so proceeded to Nice. From
there he traveled by sea to Genoa and Leghorn, and thence
through Pisa to Florence, where he remained some time,
and visited Galileo who was detained there as a prisoner
by the Holy Office for having expressed his views about
the stars. From Florence Milton went to Rome, where he
was well received, and thence to Naples, where he met the
Marquis of Villa, the friend of Tasso. Returning to Flor-
ence he remained there for two months, then visited Venice,
Bologna, and Ferrara in turn. Leaving Italy via Verona
he crossed the Simplon Pass and proceeded to Geneva,
which he reached in July, 1639, whence he set out for home
through Paris and reached England at the end of the
month.

Milton's visit to Florence was memorable, for he was
received most cordially by all the learned men there. Among
these were Jacopo Gaddi, Carlo Diodati, Benedetto Bon-
mattei, Antonio Malatesti, and Agostino Coltellini. Milton's
chief companion when in Rome was Lucas Holste, who at
that time held the office of librarian to the Vatican. It was
while in that city that Milton attended a concert held in

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 127

Cardinal Barberini 's palace. In Naples he met Manso, the
patron of Tasso and many other men, whose names now
adorn the school of fame.

Shortly after his return to England Milton settled in
lodges in St. Bride's Churchyard, and from there moved,
for lack of space for his books, to a cosy little garden-house
on Aldersgate Street. Here he resumed his literary work
and devoted a part of his time to the tuition of a number of
pupils (1643). In that year he married Mary Powell, the
daughter of Richard Powell, a Royalist, of Forest Hill, near
Shotover in Oxfordshire. His first matrimonial venture
did not prove a happy one, and in 1644 the fruit of this mes-
alliance was a work on "Divorce." The ' * Areopagitica, "
said to be the finest of his prose compositions, he addressed
to Parliament in the same year. This work dealt with the
question of unlicensed prints. In that year there appeared
also his "Tractate on Education. " During the ten years
that followed Milton produced a number of political papers
which reflect the intense feelings which the writer held
against the crown. In 1653 he lost his wife and suffered
from paralysis of the optic nerve, which culminated in
blindness. It was under these conditions that he began to
write his immortal poem "Paradise Lost." This was not
completed until 1663. In 1667 Milton signed an agreement
with one Samuel Simmons or Symons, under which the
former was to receive five pounds down and five pounds
additional on the sale of the first three editions. Each
edition consisted of 1,500 copies, but an accounting was
to be made when 1,300 copies had been sold. Milton re-
ceived only ten pounds in all for this work, and in 1680
his widow110 settled all claims on Simmons for eight pounds,

110 Milton married three times.

128 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

then he became sole owner of the copyright. Milton's
"Paradise Regained,'' said to have originated from a re-
mark made by his friend, Ellwood,111 was published to-
gether with his "Samson Agonistes" in 1671. The latter
has a certain autobiographical value which makes it most
interesting.

Milton, spared by the Great Plague, and by the Great
Fire, passed away so peacefully that when the end came it
was scarcely perceived. Gout "struck in," and he passed
away with scarcely a pain, November 8, 1674. He was
buried in the Church of St. Giles, Cripplegate, in London.

It took Milton seven years to produce "Paradise Lost"
(1658-1665), but much longer to conceive it. While the
Cavalier poets had been stringing their garlands of arti-
ficial blossoms in the heated air of the Stuart court, Milton
had been weaving his sweet chaplets of unfading wild-
flowers in the meadows of Horton. It was not in the nature
of things that the great Puritan poet should pass through
the trying hours of conflict and triumph without many
stains of earth deepening on his spirit. To purge these
away, required suffering in many shapes — blindness, bitter-
ness of soul, threatening ruin and narrowness of means.
Yet political disgraces could not break the giant's wing;
they but served to give it greater strength. From a fall
which would have laid a feebler man in his coffin, Milton
arose with his noblest poem completed in his hand — and
Milton's noblest poem is the crown and glory of our Eng-
lish literature. What more need be said of Puritan in-
fluence upon English letters than that Puritan Milton wrote
1 'Paradise Lost!"112

111 "Thou hast, said much here of Paradise Lost, but what hast thou to say
of Paradise Found?"— "Diet, of Nat. Biog.," Vol. XXXVIII, p. 34.
»2W. F. Collier, "Hist, of Eng. Lit.," p. 180.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 129

The following lines rendered in modern spelling, are
taken from the College Exercise, and were written by
Milton in 1627. He was then in his nineteenth year.

"Hail, native Language, that by sinews weak
Didst move my first endeavouring tongue to speak,
And mad'st imperfect words with childish trips,
Half-unpronounced, slide through my infant lips:

"I have some naked thoughts that rove about,
And loudly knock to have their passage out;
And, weary of their place, do only stay
Till thou hast deck'd them in their best array.

"Yet I had rather, if I were to chose,
Thy service in some graver subject use,
Such as may make thee search thy coffers round,
Before they clothe my fancy in fit sound ;
Such where the deep transported mind may soar
Above the wheeling poles, and at heaven 's door
Look in, and see each blissful deity
How he before the thunderous throne doth lie,
Listening to what unshorn Apollo sings
To the touch of golden wires, while Hebe brings
Immortal nectar to her kingly sire:
Then passing through the spheres of watchful fire,
And misty regions of wide air next under,
And hills of snow, and lofts of piled thunder,
May tell at length how green-eyed Neptune raves,
In heaven's defiance mustering all his waves;
Then sing of secret things that came to pass
When beldame Nature in her cradle was;
And last of kings, and queens, and heroes old,
Such as the wise Demodocus once told
In solemn songs at King Alcinous' feast,
While sad Ulysses' soul and all the rest
Are held with his melodious harmony
In willing chains and sweet captivity."

130 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

The following sonnet from the first edition (1645) of
Milton's " Minor Poems," will serve to show the reader
that in some respects the spelling of Milton is not the
spelling of our day — note the italicized words:

"How soon hath Time the subtle theef of youth,
Stoln on his wing my three and twentith yeer!
My hasting dayes ftie on with full career,
But my late spring no bud or blossom shew'th.
Perhaps my semblance might deceive the truth,
That I to manhood am arriv'd so near,
And inward ripenes doth much less appear,
That som more timely-happy spirits indu'th.
Yet be it less or more, or soon or slow,
It shall be still in strictest measure eev'n,
To that same lot, however mean, or high,
Toward which Time leads me, and the will of Heav'n;
All is, if I have grace to use it so,
As ever in my great task Masters eye.

Let us now look into the state of the language at the
time of Milton's birth. It was then the practically in-
flectionless tongue which we use to-day, but its orthography
was unsettled. Notwithstanding the publication of Eng-
lish dictionaries which was begun in 1552, when Richard
Huloet issued his folio volume which gave English defi-
nitions for English words, and was continued by Robert
Cawdrey with his " Table Alphabeticall conteyning and
teaching the true writing and understanding of hard usuall
English wordes," — the first dictionary confined entirely to
the English language — the manner of spelling of English
words was not fixed. Although it has been claimed that
English spelling "did not settle down to present usage
till about the Restoration" (1660),113 it is a fact that both

m"Encyc. Brit.," VIII, p. 399.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 131

Nathan Bailey and Samuel Johnson — the first in 1721,
the second in 1755 — issued their respective dictionaries,
hoping thereby " to fix the language, ' ' but their hopes were
not realized.

tained in domestick, publick, musick, etc. ;
for "ct" in connexion; "authors" he spelled authours;
"control," controul; "expense," expence; "forborne,"
forborn; "registered," registred, "synonyms," synonimes,
etc. It is chiefly because of these attempts to establish a
standard of orthography that English spelling has become
the most perplexing problem with which every one who
learns the English language has to deal. At the very
bottom is an alphabet, the sounds of the letters of which
have been perverted by one generation after another until
it is the most unphonetic creation of the kind in existence.
It represents the 32 elementary sounds in English speech
with 26 letters, many of which are used without regard
to phonetic sounds.

It has been claimed that the letter "a" represents from
five to eight sounds. The claim is modest ; the fact is that
it may be written in its varying sounds no less than thirty
different ways : (1) o-le; (2) m-a^-d; (3) ih-ey; (4) g-ao-1;
(5) g-em-ge; (6) st-ea-k; (7) v-ei-I; (8) str-aigh-t't (9)
eigh-t; (10) d-ay -, (11) aye; (12) at-, (13) arm; (14) alms;
(15) h-ear-th; (16) 1-aw-gh; (17) ah; (18) la; (19) augh-t;
(20) b-aw-1; (21) all; (22) h-cm-1; (23) ough-t; (24) ot-r;
(25) c-are; (26) ere; (27) b-ea-r; (28) sof-a; (29) w-a-tch;
(30) extr-ao-rdinary.

By close observation one may see that "e," too, is some-
what of a usurper, for it represents at least seven dip-
thongal sounds : — ^2?sop ; peace ; flee ; seizure ; clear ; mere ;
G?dipus.

132 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

The letters "i," "o," and "u" have been used, or rather
misused in the same way, until all that remains to us is an
agglomeration of erratic symbols to indicate distinct sounds.
That the common English alphabet does not contain enough
letters has already been proved. We have twelve distinct
vowel sounds, and besides these? a large number of syllables
in pronouncing which the voice passes from one consonant
to another, barely touching the intervening obscure vowel.
The diphthongs i and u, represented by single letters, in-
crease the number to fifteen. We have but five letters, and
such help as we can get from w and y, to represent them.
Meiklejohn is authority for the statement that every printed
symbol may be sounded in from two to eighteen different
ways. For further discussion of this subject, see Chapter IX.

Although usage has determined the correct spelling of
many common words, mutations in others in daily use con-
tinue, as the spelling of such words as ax, fetish, gram,
pedler, plow (a reversion from plough to the spelling found
in the King James Version of the Bible), savior, sirup, etc.,
will serve to show, and it may be safely inferred therefrom
that as long as the language is spoken some changes in the
spelling of its words will be made from time to time.

By the year 1611 the English language had become a
plastic medium for the expression of thought. Since then
it has been enriched as occasion required by assimilation —
drawing from foreign sources such words as were needed.
Other words called for by new inventions in the arts and
sciences were coined to meet these requirements. But
greater diffusion was needed, and this the language began
to secure with the appearance of the first English
"Courant" which was issued December 2, 1620. It was
preceded by a "News Letter " printed in Dutch.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 133

There is in the British Museum, London, a volume con-
taining 24 English "Courants," the existence of which
was unknown two years ago. The Museum authorities
acquired them as recently as November, 1912. They are
single sheets folio of sizes varying from 223 millimeters to
302 millimeters. Eighteen of the twenty-four are printed in
black letter type. Sixteen were printed at Amsterdam,
thirteen by George Veseler and three by Broer Jonson ; one
at Alkamaar by "M. H."; one at The Hague by Adrian
Clarke, and six at London by "N. B." (Nathaniel Butter).

The first of these publications bears the date December
2, 1620, and announces that "the new ty dings out of Italic
are not yet com," but continues: "Out of Weenen, the 6
November," etc. This was printed at Amsterdam "the 2
of December." It was sold by Petrus Keerius, cartog-
rapher and bookseller on the Calverstreete.

The others bear the following dates : December 23, 1620 ;
January 21, 1621 ; March 31, 1621 ; April 9, 1621 ; July 5,
1621 (this number is entitled "Courant Newes out of Italy,
Germany, Bohemia, Poland, &c.") ; July 9, 1621 (this bears
the same date as the preceding but is designated "Cor-
ante, or, Newes from Italy, Germanic, Hungarie, Spaine
and France"; it was printed at "Amstelredam" by Broer
Jonson) ; July 15, 1621 ; July 20, 1621, wherein Broer Jon-
son is described as "Coranter to his Excellencie " ; July 29,
1621, which was "printed at Altmore by M. H." ; August 2,
1621, "Imprinted by Broyer Johnson Corantere to his
Excellency" (note the changes in spelling here) ; August 9,
1621, entitled "News from the Low Countries, or a Courant
from the Low Countries, or a Courant out of Bohemia,
Poland, Germanic, &c. Printed at Amsterdam by loris
Veseler"; August 10, 1621, "imprinted at the Hage by

134 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Adrian Clarke"; September 6, 1621; September 12, 1621;
another of the same date as the preceding; September 18,
1621; one dated September 24, 1621, is styled "Corante,
or, News from Italy, Germany, Hungarie, Spaine and
France. 1621. London. Printed for N. B. * * * Out of
Hie Dutch Coppy printed at Franckford" — perhaps the
11 Frankfurter Zeitung"; September 30, 1621, which be-
came "Corante, or Weekely Newes"; October 2, 1621;
October 6, 1621 ; October 11, 1621 ; October 22, 1621.

The last six were all printed in London from "the
Dutch," "the Hie Dutch" or "the High Dutch Coppy"
or "copy" as suited the whim of the printer.

With the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War in 1618 the
demand for information of its progress became so keen that
Abraham Verhoeven of Antwerp commenced the publication
of a small quarto News Letter in 1619. This consisted of
eight pages, and was issued with the approval of the
Church. Ultimately it became known as the "Gazette of
Antwerp."

The following brief extracts will serve to show the char-
acter of the "Newes" provided by the English papers:

FROM COLLEN THE 28TH OF JULY 1621

Some fewe dayes past, there came to Collen a holy Italian
Frier of the Woldoenders order of the Cormelites, whom the
common people judgeth to be a Prophet, because that hee had
fore-told the Victory of the Emperor against the King of
Bohemia, and obtained it by his fervent prayers.

He is here received with so great devotion, that it is almost
impossible to relate it, because that thorough the great presse
of people, hee could not get with his Horse-litter through the
streetes of the Citie, whereupon some rubbed their Beads to his
garments, others cut small peeces of his holy Cowle, and he
that might kisse his hand, esteemed himselfe most happy.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 135

In surnma, all those that were creeple, deafe, blinde, duinbe,
and diseased came running to him, who in time may yet be
cured. Our Elector, having knowledge of his arrival came sud-
denly to him, who with great intreatings got the staffe of the
holy man.

FROM VENICE THE !()TH OF AUGUST 1621

The famous Pirate, Samson, hath desyred of this Seigniory,
a free incoming with all his, and as some thinck : for to inhabite
to Pola in Istria: upon which condition he offers to this
Seigniory 36. wel armed shipps with one million of gold for a
gift against tyme of need: more-over two millions of gold, for
ten in the hondert, besides other conditions: the Secretary
Ancelay hath already commission to treate with him of these
things.

The foregoing affords a fair idea of the beginnings of the
English weekly newspaper which was first published irregu-
larly from December 2, 1620, to August, 1621, but which
appeared every week from September 6, 1621. Prior to
this time the publication of pamphlets, religious and politi-
cal, and therefore more or less controversial in character,
had helped to spread the language, but in popularity the
newspaper soon eclipsed them.

Under Charles II. and his brother James, newspapers
were numerous. ' * The London Gazette, ' ' a bi-weekly, was an
official and political journal, which, besides containing royal
proclamations, notices of promotion, distribution of the
forces, political addresses, notices of cock-fights, etc., gave
such items of foreign news as reached the editor's desk.
But this was the organ of the few; the " Newsletter" was
the daily of the masses. At that time the coffee-houses
were the chief centers of information and to them people
thronged at all hours of the day to learn the news. Papers
of any kind were scarce, for none could be issued without

136 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

special license before 1694. In that year the press was
freed from the restrictions which had been placed upon its
liberty, and it thereafter made great strides. Newspapers
increased in numbers as well as in popularity, and as these
were more widely read their influence became greater. It
was due to this that another check was placed upon them
by the introduction of the stamp tax in 1712. This tax not
only required a half-penny stamp on each half sheet, and
a penny stamp on every whole sheet, but in addition called
for the payment of one shilling for every advertisement
printed. This system of taxation continued until June 9,
1855, when "The Illustrated Times, " the first English
paper published without a stamp, was issued. Its editor,
the late Henry Vizetelly, was sued by the Commissioner
of Inland Revenue for penalties amounting to £12,000,
which, acting on the advice of Richard Cobden and of his
counsel, he refused to pay. The repeal by Parliament of
the impost as a tax on knowledge was then imminent, and
as other publishers, following the example set them, issued
their papers without stamps, the government passed a
measure abolishing the tax, and none of the suits instituted
by the Commissioners were presented for trial.

Periodicals of a very different kind preceded this illus-
trated paper. Two years after Queen Anne ascended the
throne of England the first English serial appeared (1704).
This was Defoe's "Review" — the pioneer of English
periodical literature. But this class of publication was not
firmly established until 1709 when "The Tatler," a tri-
weekly sheet, was started by Richard Steele. Its life was
brief — only two years — but long enough to bring to notice
the pleasing and eloquent contributions of its founder, and
of his schoolmate, Joseph Addison.

ENGLISH: ITS GROWTH 137

When "The Tatler" passed out of existence Addison
founded "The Spectator" (1711) ; and with his contribu-
tions raised it to the highest rank among the English
classics. The immense popularity of this periodical was
due to the fact that its contributions were free from
political partizanship, and were the means of disseminating
judicious teachings in manners, morals, and literary criti-
cism. To them was largely due the elevation of public
taste and the higher standard of thought attained thereby.
Following "The Spectator" there appeared at different
intervals during the eighteenth century "The Gentleman's
Magazine," "The Guardian," and "The Rambler"— the
last a bi-weekly first issued in 1750, with which Samuel
Johnson's name is inseparably associated, as he contributed
the greater part of the essays which appeared in its pages.
The life of "The Rambler" was of short duration— the last
number appeared in March, 1752 ; but six years later John-
son founded * * The Idler, ' ' and resumed the post of essayist.
Of this periodical, which was written in lighter vein than
its predecessor, only 103 numbers appeared. The standard
of English which these journals established was a high one,
and with the development of journalism it has been im-
proved until it has reached the high-water mark of purity
which characterizes the quality of English used in the repu-
table journals of our day.

The development of the printing-press has proved a most
potent factor in the dissemination of literature of all kinds,
and in the consequent spread of the language. In the
development of the language the press — daily, and period-
ical— the almanacs, annuals, keepsakes, and garlands — all
have helped to elevate the tone of thought and that of
speech. This improvement has been secured gradually,

138 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

almost unconsciously, by the labor of years, and the process
of purification still continues. Every year a large army
of new words endeavors to find a permanent home in the
language. Some of the words are of sterling quality;
others are decrepit or discarded words which some writers
have endeavored to revivify; others which knock for ad-
mission are colloquialisms or slang. They must all be tried
in the furnace of usage, and tested in the melting-pot of
human experience ; those that survive these tests are given
place in the great lexicons while the others, discarded, are
thrown into the scrap-heap. Such is the condition of the
language to-day that the process of its refinement must ever
be as "a continuous performance."

Within the limits assigned to this volume, it is not possi-
ble to include biographical notices of the principal British
and American authors of the Modern Period, for this would
necessitate the inclusion of several hundreds of these.
Each decade has produced writers whose influence has been
felt in various directions and whose contributions to litera-
ture have helped to improve or embellish the language.
For a list of authors, their dates of birth and death, and
their principal works, see Appendix.

Ill

Some Mutations of Form and Sense

THE study of the English language brings to light many
curiosities in spelling and of expression. Derived as it is
from various sources and receiving as it has many accre-
tions in its progress it, more than any other language, is
the sport of whim and caprice, and therefore, it is still far
from being completely grammaticized. Modes of speech
which were treated with contempt as evidences of vulgarity,
lack of education, or as mere colloquial barbarisms, by
past generations, are in the main permitted to pass as
of sterling value when it is shown that they are supported
by the usage of writers of reputable English. To-day the
sneer of the pedant is rebutted by the printed authority
of established forms. But the language of every country
is just as subject to change as are its inhabitants and their
dress and their environment. "All languages which are
vulgar (or living languages) are subject to so many alter-
ations, " said Bishop Wilkins, "that in tract of time they
will appear to be quite another thing than they were at
first. Every change is a gradual corruption, partly by
refining and mollifying old words for the more easy and
graceful sound."1

As it was governed in the past so orthography is governed
in the present by standards established by the literary world
of its time. Consequently, forms that were accepted as

1 Bishop John Wilkins, "Real Character," p. 6.

139

140 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

correct at the beginning of one century may be discarded
as incorrect before the dawn of another. To-day we write
public, music, physic, yet our grandfathers and their con-
geners wrote publick, musick, physick, and their great-
grandfathers wrote publicke, physicke, musicke. Innova-
tions of spelling seldom secure general approval even though
they may, after all, be but steps back to older forms for
the sake of simplicity, the differences existing between
American and English spellings excepted ; for, when a na-
tion of one hundred million souls uses the same forms, it
may be said that these forms have secured general approval.
It is more than strange that in a country so progressive
in almost everything as the United States, the efforts to
advance the language to a more efficient form in orthog-
raphy have made so little headway. It is true that some
headway has been made, and that at least 50,000 persons
are now using simpler forms of spelling, but when one
considers that the efforts to introduce these forms have
taken nearly fifty years, the advance must be characterized
as "slow." To illustrate that innovations of the kind are
sometimes fraught with serious consequences, Bishop
Fuller2 once told the experience of an under-clerk in the
royal household of his time. This unhappy being was
threatened with a summons before the tribunal of the
Board of the Green-cloth to answer for the crime of having
written the term sinapi (mustard) as it ought to be spelled,
in his official accounts, contrary to the style established by
the Court, which for time immemorial had been cinapi!

Concerning the standards established at Court, the
French etymologist Menage3 relates that in the reign of

2 Fuller's "Church History," bk. iv, p. 150.

8 "Menagiana," Vol. IV., p. 3 (Amsterdam, 1716).

SOME MUTATIONS OF FORM AND SENSE 141

Louis XIV. this monarch expressed his royal displeasure
at the frequent use of the words gros and grosse (Anglice,
"big," "fat," "great," or "gross") in such phrases as
"un gros plaisir"; "une grosse qualite"; "une grosse
beaute," etc. He feared, it was said, lest he, who had for
some time been styled Louis le Grand, might at another time
be styled Louis le Gros. It was left to the adroit Boileau
to point out to the King the absurdity of supposing that
the world would ever think of Louis le Gros in the reign of
Louis le Grand!

But it is with the vagaries of English words rather than
with those that exist in the French that we are concerned,
and, perhaps the best suited to do service at the outset is the
English word old. If Shakespeare's text may be taken as
mirroring the English of his time this word meant "great"
then, as well as "aged." In the "Merry Wives of Wind-
sor" (act i, sc. 4), we find "Here will be an old abusing
of God's patience and the King's English." Again, in
"Much Ado About Nothing" (act v, sc. 2), "Yonder's old
coil at home." He was so familiar with the force of the
word that he made a play upon it in the "Taming of the
Shrew" (act iii, sc. 1). Here Grumio enters and shouts,
"News, old news, and such news as you never heard of!"
But Baptista asks, "Is it new and old too? How should
that be?"

Of the abundance of quaint forms that have come down
to us Shakespeare has preserved many. In "All's Well that
Ends Well" (act v, sc. 3), he wrote "necessityed," while
in "Richard II." (act ii, sc. 2) he is credited with "Is all
impossible." "^partial" for "impartial" was used by
his contemporaries. The privative im — in the place of un —
is a modern refinement. Again, Shakespeare used "com-

142 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

mandement" as in the " Merchant of Venice" (act iv, sc. 1),
"Be valued 'gainst your wife's commandement, ' ' and in
"Henry VI." (pt. L, act i, sc. 3), "From him I have ex-
press commandement."

A hundred years ago such forms as pastes and posteses
for "posts" were common. They still survive in the speech
of the Sussex farm-hands, the writer having heard them
frequently during a prolonged sojourn in that English
county. Akin to these in form are ghostes and ghosteses;
beastes and beasteses. These words are ancient plural
forms preserved by old Scottish writers, as in Gawin
Douglas's translation of Vergil. The form mystes for
"mists" was used from the fourteenth to the seventeenth
century. As to posteses, ghosteses, and beast eses, these
are redundancies. The elision of the "e" in other forms
is a refinement of late date. In the early years of the
nineteenth century "Portingal" was a London corruption
for "Portugal." When Portuguese currency was common
in England, the Londoner carried "Portingal pieces" in his
pocket. According to Holinshed and Stowe, the word was
written Porting ale, but the Earl of Salisbury (1607)
spelled it Portingalls*

Another curious form is mar gent for "margin." It is
used by Milton in "Comus" and by Gray in his "Prospect
of Eton College." Shakespeare also used it in "Love's
Labor's Lost" (act ii, sc. 1) ; "A Midsummer Night's
Dream" (act ii, sc. 2), and in "Hamlet" (act v, sc. 2).
But in "Romeo and Juliet" (act i, sc. 3) we find the form
"margin."

The words respectfully and respectively were interchange-
able in the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In

4 Lodge's "Illustrations of English History," III, p. 348.

SOME MUTATIONS OF FORM AND SENSE 143

' ' Timon of Athens' ' (act iii, sc. 1) we find Lucullus address-
ing one of Timon 's servants thus familiarly: "Flaminius,
honest Flaminius, you are very respectively welcome, Sir. ' '
Again, in the ''Merchant of Venice" (act v, sc. 1) we have
Nerissa, Portia's waiting-maid, chiding Gratiano in these
words,

You swore to me, when I did give it you,
That you would wear it till your hour of death :
And that it should lie with you in your grave:
Though not for me, yet for your vehement oaths,
You should have been respective, and have kept it.

It is true, however, that in each instance the words are put
into the mouths of a serving-man and maid. Curious with
the sense of ''nice/' "severe," and "scrupulously exact,"
is recorded by Dr. Johnson in his Dictionary. It occurs in
the "Taming of the Shrew" (act iv, sc. 4), where Vincentio,
pleading the "weighty cause of love" between Bianca and
Lucentio to Baptista, says :

For curious I can not be with you,
Signior Baptista, of whom I hear so well.

In "King Lear" (act i, sc. 2), curiosity is used to mean
"scrupulousness," as when Edmund Gloster's natural son,
asks:

. . . Wherefore should I
Stand in the plague of custom, and permit
The curiosity of nations to deprive me
For that I am some twelve or fourteen moonshines
Lag of a brother?

Discommode was permissible for "mcommode" in John-
son's time; so, also, were discommodius and discommodity
for "wcommodius" and "incommodity." But of the two

144 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

privatives, dis seems the more emphatic. Colleague as a
verb occurs in " Hamlet " (act i, sc. 2, line 21), and found
favor with Johnson who noted it in his Dictionary.

Forms which we condemn in general to-day, and rule
out of court as violations of the verbal code, were at one
time common. The double negative, for instance, dates
from Chaucer's time —

So lowely, ne so trewely yow serve
Nyl non of 'hein as I shal til I sterve.

Troylus and Cryseyde, lib. v, st. 25.

Shakespeare and Roger Ascham both made use of it; the
first, frequently, as in "Romeo and Juliet" (act iv, sc. 1),

... a sudden day of joy
That thou ex'pect'st not, nor I look'd not for.

The second, in " Toxophilus, ' '5 where he makes use of the
expression, "No, nor I think I never shall." Pope's "Epi-
taph of P.P.," the parish clerk, contains an example of
this use in a derisive couplet from his pen :

Do all we can, Death is a man
Who never spareth none.

The double negative was a form once commonly used to
emphasize the thought expressed. In the Saxon tongue
this idea was carried often beyond the double to the triple,
and even occasionally to the quadruple, negative. Worser,
now characterized in the "New Standard Dictionary" as
"usually regarded as a vulgarism though sometimes used
by the best writers," is one of the forms used by Shake-
speare and Dry den. "Let thy worser spirit tempt me
again" wrote the former in "King Lear" (act iv, sc. 6) j

6 Page 123 (Bennett's ed).

SOME MUTATIONS OF FORM AND SENSE 145

the latter, we must credit with ' ' and worser far than arms. ' '
Lesser as an adverb for "less" is another comparative that
may be found in Shakespeare —

I think there's ne'er a man in Christendom,
Can lesser hide his love or hate than he.

Richard III., act iii, sc. 4.

There are still other forms of expression, at one time in
good use, that strike us as odd to-day. One's ear rebels
instantly at more better, more happier, more sharper, most
basest, etc., yet during the Elizabethan era they passed as
good English. So much can be found in Shakespeare that
is of interest to the student of English that one may draw
at will from his writings for illustration, as of these uses.
In "The Tempest" (act i, sc. 2), we find "nor that I am
more better than Prospero" ; in "Henry V." (act iii, sc. 5),
"more sharper than your swords," and in the same play
(act v, sc. 7), "ne'er from France arrived more happier
men," also in "Richard II." (act ii, sc. 1), "the envy of
less happier lands. ' '

Super-superlatives, once in frequent use, constitute an-
other form of expression which survives, but only in certain
combinations to-day. In the Psalms, the form "Most
Highest" is used as an expression of great force that may
be properly applied to the Divinity. St. Paul, according
to the language of the Acts of the Apostles (ch. xxvi, verse
5), says, "after the most straitest sect of our religion I
lived a Pharisee. ' ' Such super-superlatives as most perfect,
most excellent, etc., to which many persons take exception
to-day, enjoy a very reputable sponsorship. None who
know their Shakespeare can forget Antony's characteriza-
tion of the blow "the well-beloved" Brutus dealt— "This

146 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

was the most unkindest cut of all ! "6 In " Cymbeline ' ' (act
i, sc. 7), we find "most perfect goodness" used by lachimo
in addressing Imogen concerning Leonatus. Ben Jonson,
quoting Sir Thomas More, in his "Grammar"7 cites more
readier and most basest as examples of the usage of his
time, and then, as if to show the uncertainty of his position,
characterizes the sentence in which they occur as ' ' a certain
kind of English Atticism . . . imitating the manner of the
most ancient est . . .Grecians." John Lyly, acknowledged
as a purist in his day, made use of "most brightest," and to
this we may add two more from Shakespeare, most boldest
("Julius Caesar," act iii, sc. 1) and most heaviest ("Two
Gentlemen of Verona, ' ' act iv, sc. 3 ) .

At the time that Nathan Bailey was compiling his Dic-
tionary, the word "tax" was task, and a pretty heavy
"task" it proved later, as it has since to some of us, to
pay it. Bailey, in the earlier editions of his work, defined
task as "a pecuniary tribute" as well as "a duty per-
formed." Holinshed says "There was a new and strange
subsidie or taske granted to be levied for the King's use."
In old leases certain monetary charges were called taskes.
Cullum in his "History of Hawsted"8 cites a lease made
in 1580 in which the term used is task, but in another one,
dated 1589, the charge is contracted to tax. Shakespeare
("Henry IV.," pt. I, act iv, sc. 3), helped to prove that
tax is a perversion of task, for he makes Hotspur reproach
King Henry with having "task'd the whole state."

Sometimes one hears of persons who take pride in saying
that the English of Shakespeare and of Milton is "good

8 "Julius Caesar," act iii, sc. 2, 1. 185.

7 Page 127 (A. V. Waite's Ed. 1909).

8 Pages 233, 235.

SOME MUTATIONS OF FORM AND SENSE 147

enough for us," on the assumption that the writings of
these great lights of bygone ages are free from error.
Unfortunately, neither Shakespeare nor Milton were Super-
men, but being heirs to all the weakness that man is heir
to they erred even as other men have done. The "Swan
of Avon" used took for "taken"; mistook for "mistaken"
and overtook for "overtaken." In "Henry IV." (pt. II,
act i, sc. 1), we find, "and in his flight stumbling in fear
was took"-, and in "Henry VI." (pt. I, act i, sc. 1), "He
lives: but is took prisoner." Mistook used for "mistaken"
may be found in "Henry IV." (pt. II, act 4, sc. 2), in
"Twelfth Night" (act v, sc. 1) and in "Love's Labor's
Lost" (act iii, sc. 1). Milton wrote "to be mistook" in
"Arcades," and forsook instead of "forsaken" in "II
Penseroso" and "Samson Agonistes," and Pope in his
"Odyssey":

"Forsook by thee, in vain I sought thy aid."

Among others Swift, Bentley, and Prior are also charged
with using mistook for "mistaken."9

Other quaint forms are rose and arose for "risen" and
"arisen." To Swift we owe "the sun has rose" ] to Prior,
"have rose"; to Dry den on "Oliver Cromwell," "have
arose"; and to Shakespeare, "are arose" ("Comedy of
Errors," act v, 1. 388). Gay in his third fable used befel
for "befallen" — "Sure some disaster has befel" — and
Prior, in his most ambitious work, wrote "he should have
fell" ("Solomon," bk. iii).

Bishop Lowth, in his "Introduction to English Gram-
mar" (p. 606), pointed out that many of our best and
classical authors have written wrote for "written." He

9 Lowth's "Intro, to English Grammar." p. 108.

148 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

names among these Shakespeare, Milton, Dryden, Claren-
don, Prior, Swift, Bolingbroke, Bentley, Atterbury, and
Addison. .

The forms of the past tense of certain English verbs
have been the cause of some distraction. These forms
seem to be more firmly established to-day than they were
in the sixteenth century, yet one dare not predict what
a day may bring forth. Thus spake the Duke of Exeter
to his nephew, King Henry V., of that monarch's cousin,
the Duke of York:

Upon these words I came and cheer'd him up:
He snail 'd me in the face, raught me his hand.10

Here we have raught as the past tense of reach. In
"Romeo and Juliet" (act iv, sc. 3) and "Richard III."
(act iii, sc. 5) distraught is used for "distracted," and
in "Henry VI." (pt. Ill, act ii, sc. 2) extraught for

Sham'st thou not, knowing whence thou are extraught,
To let thy tongue detect thy base-born heart?

O'er-raught is another form that found favor with
Shakespeare :

Upon my life, by some device or other
The villain is o'er-raught of all my money.11

The changes that have been wrought in the orthography
of these words were effected gradually and are modern
refinements. Judged by the following it would seem
that Milton did not favor the use of participial inflections.

10 Shakespeare "King Henry V," act iv, sc. 6.

11 "Comedy of Errors," act i, sc. 2.

SOME MUTATIONS OF FORM AND SENSE 149

. . . But I recover breath,

And sense distract, to know well what I utter.
Samson Agonistes, i, 1555.

Who ever, by consulting at thy shrine,
Returned the wiser, or the more instruct
To fly or follow what concerned him most.

Paradise Regained, bk. i, 1. 438.

What I can do or offer is suspect.

Paradise Regained, bk. ii, 1. 399.

Among the quaint idioms that have come down to ,us one,
which seems to have passed out of literary use or common
speech (except perhaps in some provincial dialect), is fetch
a walk, sometimes rendered also fetch a turn, and often
expressed only by the word fetch. John Palsgrave is cited
by Sir James Murray12 as authority for "I fetche a gam-
bolde or a fryske in daunsyng." In "Cymbeline" the
Queen says:

I'll fetch a turn about the garden, pitying
The pangs of barr'd affections.13

And in the ''Merchant of Venice," Lorenzo, addressing
himself to Jessica, explains the power of music on

... a wild and wanton herd
Or race of youthful and unhandled colts,
Fetching mad bounds.14

The Genius of the Wood, in Milton's "Arcades" tells us
that

When evening grey doth rise, I fetch my round
Over the mount, and all this hallowed ground.15

12 New English Dictionary, Vol. IV. s.v. 14 Act v, sc, 1, 1. 71.

13 Act i, sc. 2. 15 Lines 54, 55.

150 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

The winding courses of a river were called fetches and the
rivers fetched windings, as is shown by reference to Hol-
land's translation of Pliny (i, 108) "The riuer . . .
fetcheth such windings to and fro"16; or to Benjamin
Martin's "Natural History of England" (i, 213), "the
river fetches a large winding. ' n7

But it was left to the Scotsman from Lanark who walked
himself into celebrity by covering over thirty-six thousand
miles through Europe, Asia, and Africa, to write of fetching
a walk. William Lithgow, born in 1683, in his "Rare
Adventures and Painful Peregrinations of long Nineteen
Years Travayles, etc.," explains18 that "I would often
fetch a walk, to stretch my legs." In view of the great
distance he covered, one may be permitted to indulge the
thought that stretching his legs must have been Lithgow 's
particular hobby. If we credit Congreve's and Mrs.
Delany 's use of it, the phrase was a provincialism that found
its way into literature through popular use. In Con-
greve's comedy "The Way of the World," Sir William
Witwou'd, addressing a lady of rank in the vernacular,
says : " If that how you were disposed to fetch a walk this
evening, and if so be that I might not be troublesome I
would have f aught19 a walk with you." In Mrs. Delany's
"Autobiography,"20 written in 1758, we learn that "accord-
ing to the country phrase, yesterday Sally and I fetched a
charming walk.11 Southey in his correspondence with
Bowles wrote (1829) : "I shall ... in vulgar English,
fetch a walk," and Thackeray, in "The Virginians,"21

18 1601. "1759. 18ch. v, p. 205.

19 In some editions rendered "fought." See act iv, sc. 4.

20 Edition of 1861, Vol. III., p. 508.
"Edition of 1859, Vol. I., p. 364.

SOME MUTATIONS OF FORM AND SENSE 151

"Mr. Warrington . . . was gone to fetch a walk in the
moonlight. ' '

Odd as learn for "teach" may sound to the unaccustomed
ear, time was when such use was approved as good English,
and although it is condemned by the beau monde as a vul-
garism, and a sign of want of culture among those who use
it, yet it can not escape the devout attendant at the church
service of the Episcopal or Church of England Communion.
In the Book of Common Prayer we may find the following
in the Psalms :22

"Lead me forth in thy truth, and learn me."
"Them shall he learn his way."
"Oh, learn me true understanding."

Among the reputable authors who made use of this word
now stamped as vulgar are Wy cliff e (Proverbs ix, 7),
"Who lerneth a scorner doth wrong he to himself" (1382) ;
Caxton (1480) ; Miles Coverdale (1535) ; Spenser (1590) ;
Shakespeare (1610) ; Bunyan (1666) ; De Foe (1719) ;
Richardson (1742) ; Mary Wollstonecraft (1792) ; Strutt
(1801) ; Coleridge (1801) ; Disraeli (1844), and Stevenson
(1893). Shakespeare used both learn and teach inter-
changeably, as in "As You Like It" (act i, sc. 2), where
Rosalind, speaking to Celia, says: "Unless you could teach
me to forget a banished father, you must not learn me how
to remember any extraordinary pleasure." See also "The
Tempest" (act ii, sc. 2) :

You taught me language . . . The red plague rid you
For learning me your language !

Another use that jars the sensitive modern eardrum is

-" xxv, 4 & 8 ; cxix, 66.

152 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

that of remember in the sense of " remind" or " recollect,"
yet among its sponsors was Chaucer, who used it in the
"Canterbury Tales" (See Frankelyene's Tale, 1. 515) :

This was as thise bookes me remembre
The colde frosty seson of Decembre.

Others were Shakespeare, the Earl of Clarendon, Bishop
Burnet, the authors of the Paston letters, and Sir Walter
Scott. We may find this use in the "Edinburgh Review"
for Januarjr, 1808 (p. 285) where the reader is informed
that the writer "takes care to remember us of Dr. Johnson's
saying." Rossetti, in "Dante and his Circle," issued in
1850, referring to a lady, wrote: "She remembered me
many times of my own most noble lady. ' ' Among examples
found in Shakespeare are the following:

I must remember you, my Lord,
We were the first and dearest of your friends.
Henry IV., pt. I, act v, sc. 1.

Grief fills the room up of my absent child,
Lies in his bed . . . Remembers me of all his gracious23 parts.

John, act iii, sc. 4.

It doth remember me the more of sorrow.

Richard II., act iii, sc. 4.

In "Richard III." (act ii, sc. 2), we find the following
playful allusion:

Now, by my troth, if I had been remember* d,
I could have given my Uncle's Grace a flout.

Some of our most familiar forms of expression do violence
to grammatical rule, yet these are accepted as good English
because they have come down to us supported by authorities

23 Graceful.

SOME MUTATIONS OF FORM AND SENSE 153

conceded to be of high standard. How often do we hear
used such expressions as "let him do it himself," or "let
him speak for himself" in which, but for emphasis, "him-
self" is redundant? The objective case has often been
used for the nominative, but we are none the worse for it.
Who, among the lovers of that bulwark of our Faith, the
Bible, would deny us these anomalies?

Whom do men say that I am? — Matt. ch. xvi, verse 13.

"Whom say ye that I am? — Ibid, verse 15.

Whom think ye that I am? — Acts xiii, verse 25.

Shakespeare, Prior, and Dryden may be quoted as writers
who, consciously or unconsciously, mixed their forms.
Witness the following :

Art thou proud yet?
Aye, that I am not thee!

— Timon of Athens, act iv, sc. 3.

Is she as tall as me? — Antony and Cleopatra, act iii, sc. 3.

Prior wrote "That which once was thee," and Dryden,
"Time was when none would cry, that oaf was me." In
Shakespeare's "Henry VI." (pt. II, act i, sc. 2), occurs
the line, "Here's none but thee and I," which is not much
worse than "between you and I," a form which one hears
repeatedly every day. The former is one of a number of
like forms to be found in the works of Shakespeare, whose
fame has not been dimmed, nor the character of his works
marred by small negligences due, perhaps, to inattention to
form while the attention itself was centered on the theme.
In the "Winter's Tale,"24 Queen Hermione, referring to
herself and her attendants, asks, "We are yours i' the

84 Act i, sc. 2.

154 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

garden: shaft's attend you there?" In "Othello,"25 the
Moor accuses Emilia with knowledge of the supposed in-
trigue of Cassio with Desdemona. She denies it. Then
Othello taxes her "Yes; you have seen Cassio and she to-
gether."

In our own time the need for a personal pronoun of the
singular number and common gender has led to the sug-
gestion that we adopt such forms as heer (that is, "he" or
"she"), himer (that is, "him" or "her"), and User (that
is, "his" or "hers"). These forms in themselves are
uncouth. To the modern cultivated eye they seem repul-
sive; their appearance seems to do violence to the genius
of the language, and yet like forms were in the mouths of
the common people a century ago ; in fact, they still survive
in certain English dialects. It was Dr. Wallis who observed
that while some people say her'n, his'n, our'n and your'n
for "hers," "his," "ours," and "yours," nobody would
WRITE such barbarous language. From the "Progress of
Queen Elizabeth," issued in 1575,26 we learn that a certain
Keeper of the Council Chamber, referring to another dig-
nitary, says that he "after praying for her Majesty's per-
petual felicity, finishes with the humblest subjection both
of him and hizzen!"

Ourn and yourn are Saxon pronouns of the possessive
case, for the Saxon lire (our), in the nominative, has for
its objective urne, and the Saxon pronoun eower (your)
gives the objective eowerne. Nothing is needed to warrant
the use of them but a mutation of case. Side by side with
the Saxon possessive pronouns ourn and yourn, there
flourished the auxiliary verbs aron (are) and wceron (were),

25 Act iv, sc. 2.
28 Vol. T., p. 14.

SOME MUTATIONS OF FORM AND SENSE l.V)

which had the final letter of both. These forms have been
preserved in certain of our old writers. But when the
pronouns were discarded for ours and yours, the final "n,"
supplanted in the original words in favor of "s," was re-
tained in the verbs, for am (are) and weren (were) are
found in Chaucer, and in "Selections" from the poems of
Thomas Hoccleve who flourished circa 1400.27 It is true
that the plural endings -n, -an, and -en are out of general
use, except as in "ox," "oxen/' but they have not been
lost for they still survive in the dialect of the northern
counties of England, where they may be heard in use by
the laboring classes, as, for example, in Derbyshire.

News is a word that in our time is used as a singular,
and other parts of speech, when used in connection with
it, must agree in number. Yet, custom makes words fa-
miliar with strange bedfellows. Although we say "this
news" or "that news" our great-grandparents said "these
news ' ' and ' ' those news. ' ' Shakespeare used the word news
in the singular as well as in the plural, as in "Henry VI."
(pt. II, act i, sc. 4), "Thither go these news?" and again
(pt. I, act v, sc. 2), "These news, my lords, may cheer our
drooping spirits." Roger Ascham28 wrote "there are
news," and used the forms "many news," "these be news
to you, but olds2Q to that country."

Before dismissing the subject, allusion may be made to
that modern bugbear of the purists — the split infinitive.
According to the * ' Standard Dictionary ' ' the split infinitive
is "an infinitive in which the 'to' and the verb are separ-
ated by some intervening word, usually adverbial, as in

27 See Mason's Edition, 1796.

28 Ascham, "English Letters," Bennet's Edition, pp. 372, 374, 384.

29 See references to old in this chapter.

156 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

the phrase, to quickly return." On a misreading of the
lines,

What ever have been thought on in this state,
That could be brought to bodily act ere Rome
Had circumvention1?30

Shakespeare has been charged with having made use of
this form, but an examination of the text shows that the
charge is without foundation. In the sentence cited the
word act, on which emphasis is put to prove the point, is a
noun not a verb. Nevertheless, when it suited his purpose
to use a participial adjective between the sign of the infin-
itive "to" and the auxiliary verb "be" he did not hesitate
to do so, as in his * * Sonnet CLXII, ' ' where he wrote,

Root pity in thy heart, that when it grows,
Thy pity may deserve to pitied be.

The split infinitive proper is a form to which the modern
ear is not accustomed, hence it has been condemned. But
an examination of our literature shows that it not only has
the support of usage, but of good usage through centuries
of time. Although this form of expression is a violation of
the canons of the English language as accepted by the
purists, it may be permitted because it has received the sup-
port of literary usage. The claim made by some writers
that not a grammar in existence sanctions the split infinitive
is not proof that this form of expression has no right in
the language. Mason, in the twenty-first edition of his
English Grammar, says: "The preposition 'to' is not an
essential part of the infinitive mood nor an invariable sign
of it." Another eminent grammarian31 says: "It is true

80 "Coriolanus," act i, sc. 2.

31 Goold Brown, "Grammar of English Grammars," p. 661.

SOME MUTATIONS OF FORM AND SENSE 157

that the adverb is in general more elegantly placed before
the preposition than after it, but the latter position may
sometimes contribute perspicuity, which is more essential
than elegance; as, 'If any man refuse to so implore, and
to so receive pardon let him die the death/ — Fuller, 'On
the Gospel,' p. 209."

In considering the restrictions within which the gram-
marians strive to confine language, we should remember
that the language came first and that its codification pro-
duced the grammar. Ever since the first grammarian laid
down the rules, others have set out to correct him. In the
meantime, however, usage has adjusted the language to suit
the occasion. Then, why characterize the split infinitive as
an outrage on the English language? It is nothing of the
sort ; it is but a natural arrangement of words to forcefully
express thought. Byron wrote, "To slowly trace the
forest's shady scene," and on this account was dubbed "the
father of the split infinitive" by the London "Academy";
but, before him, Burns wrote, in "The Cotter's Saturday
Night," "Who dared to nobly stem tyrannic pride."

Not so long ago Professor John Earle spoke of the split
infinitive as "a new collocation," and "a most astounding
change which has come up in our time"; but, as stated
above, it is not the modern creation it is commonly believed
to be. Professor Lounsbury has found numerous examples
of it. It may be found in Massinger, Wycliffe, Donne, Sir
Thomas Browne, De Foe, Samuel Johnson, Burke, Lamb,
Macaulay, Ruskiri and Herbert Spencer. Earle, although
he condemns it as a modern collocation, quotes an example
of it which occurs in Bishop Pecock (1450). "Forto there-
with make. ' ' It occurs also in Coleridge, Matthew Arnold,
Browning, Motley, Lowell and Holmes.

158 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

A writer, treating this subject for ' * The Christian Work
and Evangelist, ' ' said appropriately : * ' Some of us who do a
little writing generally avoid the split infinitive. But it is
certain that one can not prevent others from using it; and
a little study of the subject shows that it is not only used
by some of the best writers, but that a violation of the rule
against it often helps perspicuity, and is sometimes almost
necessary. In behalf of the fracture of the rule we may
cite the phrase justified by Professor Lounsbury 'to more
than counterbalance/ To say of the result of an act, 'it
is to more than kill her, it is to dishonor/ is, perhaps,
stronger than to say, 'it is more than to kill/ It is noted
by Professor Brander Matthews, in a recently published
brochure, that the split infinitive is a cause of pain to the
purist who finds George H. Lewis, in his 'Life of Goethe,'
saying: 'To completely understand/ This inserting of an
adverb between the to and the rest of the verb, strikes the
verbal critic as pernicious, yet the fact remains that it has
been in constant use from the days of Wycliffe to Herbert
Spencer. The split infinitive, in fact, has a most respect-
able pedigree, and it is rather the protest against its use
than the practise itself that is now establishing itself/'

Some of the examples that are recorded liere show that no
matter how much we may revere the forms that have come
down to us from the Ages, we can not afford to overlook
the age in which we live. That which in our age is accepted
as reputable English is sterling. Just as we progress in
culture, so does the language which we speak grow with us,
sometimes along strictly grammatical lines but, often, along
lines that will not be trammeled by grammar no matter who
the grammarian may be.

The Foreign Element in English 1

WHEN some of us speak of the English language as a
language we are prone to refer to it proudly as the Anglo-
Saxon tongue, and to give the credit of its making to
Geoffrey Chaucer. Why we persist in perpetuating these
anomalies it is difficult to tell. For, of the great mass of
words in the so-called Anglo-Saxon tongue which pass cur-
rent to-day as English, less than one-twentieth are entitled
to rank as Anglo-Saxon ; and, although we may refer with
pride to Chaucer as the "father of English poetry/' we
should not forget that there is a great difference between
this title and that of "maker of the English language."
Long before Chaucer's time Anglo-Saxon flourished, and
Anglo-Saxon literature — although scanty — reached its
prime when Alfred the Great was King of Wessex, five
hundred and twenty years before Chaucer wrote his
famous "Canterbury Tales."

So far is the English language from being the Anglo-
Saxon tongue that it is the most composite language known
to-day. In none other do foreign words play so important
a part, and by none other have they been assimilated in
so great a number. From the very beginning the settlers
on Britain 's shores forced their various dialects on the
natives and their conquerors were not slow in following
this example. Therefore, he who would seek the sources

1 Printed in part in "The New Age," October, 1913.

159

160 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

of the English tongue must turn to the rock-bound coasts
of Albion and stroll along the pleasant English lanes, must
tread the heather of the Scottish moorlands, and the green
fields of Erin. He must travel thence to the land of the
Vikings, those hardy Norsemen who settled on Albion's
shores and who, for centuries, became a dominant power
in that land. But before them came a mightier host — the
Romans — whose rule swayed the fortunes of Britain for
four hundred years before the descent of the Norsemen,
and left some trace, however slight, upon the speech of
the people. So, he must pass through France to reach
the Empire of the Caesars who first conquered Gaul and
then subdued the Britons.

As the land of the Angles developed so the speech of
the people grew, and he who wishes to seek that growth
must be prepared to traverse the globe. From Scandi-
navian fiords, he must sail to the shores of Denmark and,
journeying over these, must cross the frontier and pene-
trate the very fastnesses of the German Fatherland. Next
his steps must turn to the flowery fields of France whence
came the Norman Conqueror, and, sauntering along its
leafy highways, learn from his surroundings that the noble
spires which dot this land, have their very counterpart in
the cradle of the English tongue. Even here his journey
is far from ended. From the shores of sunny Spain to the
lands of the Great White Czar ; from the Crescent City on
the Golden Horn to the coral strands of India; from the
land of the Ibis and the Lotus to the sun-baked veldt of the
African Union ; from the golden shores of Australia to the
fertile fields of New Zealand ; from the Land of the Rising
Sun to the Land of the Morning Calm ; from the Flowery
Republic of China to the dreary Siberian steppes — from

THE FOREIGN ELEMENT IN ENGLISH 161

each, from every one has English speech drawn tribute.
And it did not stop there, for the islands that dot the
Seven Seas have all contributed to its needs, and nowhere
has it been fostered more tenderly; nowhere has it borne
fruit more abundantly than on the continent of America.

With their occupation of Britain the Danes brought their
language of which, although it was but a dialect of the
tongue that under different names was spoken in northern
Europe, some traces remain. With the advent of the
Conqueror came Norman French and Latin, which was
continued in use in law pleadings and statutes until dis-
placed by English under Edward III. Probably the
Lombards introduced a few of the Italian words that are
now naturalized, and these were amplified by the church-
men that went to England from Rome. Others were added
undoubtedly by merchants trading with Italy and the
Levant. Of modern Italian terms, many have been intro-
duced by travelers, by operatic stars, by actors, by musicians
and by dancers.

To England's relations with Spain and to the marriage
of Catherine of Aragon with Henry VIII., in whose court,
while Catherine was in royal favor, there were many
Spanish grandees, we may trace an influx of Spanish terms
which was increased by such subsequent events as the
marriage of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain, and the war
with Spain which culminated in the dispersion of the
Spanish Armada. For accretions of the Portuguese, we
may look to the marriage of Charles II. to Catherine of
Braganca. The Flemish and Dutch words came from
trade, immigration, and warfare.

As to the influx of Greek, this may be attributed to
scholars more than to trade, which, however, played no un-

162 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

important part through the Romans, and through those
other Latin nations that came into contact with them. It
was the opinion of Franciscus Junius that Gothic was no
more than a dialect of Greek. The Goths, whose language
is referred to here, were that branch which inhabited
Moesia, a region not remote from the northern shores of
Greece. Their language, with different dialects, may have
spread over all of northern Europe, that is, from the coast
of Norway to the Black Sea. There is no doubt that many
of the words that came to us from the Greek did so through
the Latin, as, for instance, the Greek diafioXo? ("slan-
derer," which in the New Testament is used to designate
Satan), which, originating with the Greek Christians, came
to us either from the Latin diabolus, through the spread of
Roman Christianity, or through that branch of the Goths
who conquered . Moesia in A.D. 250. The first authority for
its use cited by Sir James Murray,2 is the "Corpus Glos-
sarium" (the Old English Texts). It is assigned to the
year 800. The Christianity of the Eastern Goths was
Greek, and it is not impossible that the term was carried
by the Goths to other Germanic tribes, and finally reached
those that later descended and settled on Britain's shores.

As has already been said, scholars were largely respon-
sible for the assimilation of Greek terms into English. The
adoption of a large number of these may be traced to the
revival of the study of Greek and English classics in Eng-
land during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and
since then the language of Science has turned to Greece
for its forms.

Various estimates of the sources of English words have
been made. On the basis of the Lord's Prayer, George

2 "New English Dictionary," s.v. Devil.

THE FOREIGN ELEMENT IN ENGLISH 163

Hickes calculated that nine-tenths of our words were of
Saxon origin. Sharon Turner's estimate was that the
Norman were to the Saxon as 4 to 6. Trench computed 60
per cent. Saxon ; 30 per cent. Latin, including those re-
ceived through French ; 5 per cent. Greek, and 5 per cent,
other sources. A recent analysis of the origin of 20,000
words in the language taken from the ''New Standard
Dictionary" shows the following sources:

Anglo-Saxon and English 3,681

Low German 126

Dutch 207

Scandinavian 693

German 333

French from Low German 54

French from Dutch or Middle Dutch 45

French from Scandinavian 63

French from (1) German 85

French, from (2) Middle High German 27

French from (3) Old High German 154

French from (4) Teutonic 225

French (Romance languages) 297

French from Latin 4,842

French from Late Latin 829

French from Italian 162

Celtic 170

Latin (direct) 2,880

Provencal, from Latin 25

Italian 99

Spanish 108

Portuguese 21

Greek direct or through Latin, Late Latin, French or other

sources 2,493

104 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Slavonic 31

Lithuanian 1

Asiatic : Aryan languages, including Persian and Sanskrit 163

European non-Aryan languages 20

Semitic : Hebrew 99

Arabic 272

Asiatic : Non Aryan, not Semitic, including Malay, Chi-
nese, Japanese, Tatar, Australian 135

African languages 32

American 102

Hybrid 675

Unknown 12

Total 19,161

It was the late Professor George P. Marsh's idea that
English as spoken by the people in general was derived
from Anglo-Saxon, Latin, and French. This statement he
qualified by admitting that certain grammatical forms
adopted from the Danish passed into the literary dialect
and became established in modes of speech in English.
The Professor claimed that spoken English did not possess
any important characteristic that could not be traced to one
of these sources. In support of his claims he cited Dean
Trench's estimate of the relative proportions of the differ-
ent elements in English given above. "This estimate,"
said Marsh, "applies to the total vocabulary as contained
in the completest dictionaries." As the dictionaries of his
time did not contain more than one-sixth of the total num-
ber of words in the language, irrespective of that part of
it which is restricted to particular professions, this esti-
mate has little linguistic value. The same may be said of
all other estimates based upon selection from various

THE FOREIGN ELEMENT IN ENGLISH 165

authors. Sir James Murray said at one time of the actual
proportion of the various elements, "it is probable that
original English words do not now form more than a third
or, perhaps, a fourth of the total entries in a full English
dictionary."

Professor Marsh did not make any attempt to determine
the etymological proportions of our vocabulary because,
he said, ' ' no dictionary contains more than two-thirds or at
most three-fourths, of the words which make up the Eng-
lish language." But ever since then the growth of that
language, as recorded by the vocabularies of the different
lexicons, has been phenomenal.

As by common consent we date the beginning of literary
English from Chaucer, it is pertinent that we examine his
work with a view to determining to what extent he made
use of foreign words. The foreign element in the prologue
to Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales" has been calculated at
from 12 to 13 per cent. An examination of a glossary to
his entire works shows a much greater percentage. The
glossary compiled by Tyrwhitt gives by actual count 1,480
Saxon words, 1,376 French, 84 Latin, 3 Dutch, and 1 Ital-
ian. This serves to demonstrate the absurdity of selecting
a stanza or two of Chaucer's work and of basing upon
these an estimate of the percentage of foreign words in
his writings.

In all Middle English writings before 1250, says Dr. O.
F. Emerson, the number of French words probably does
not exceed 500; Professor Skeat, through the examination
of the thirty-one texts written before 1400, found just 3,400
words of French origin.

From the last quarter of the fifteenth century to the
seventeenth, writers often resorted to words borrowed from

1(JG ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

the older languages instead of making use of their English
equivalents. Thus it is that Latinized French, Angevin
and Latinized English words, based upon forms previously
in vogue, are to be found in abundance in our later liter-
ature— especially in that of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries — but fortunately the bulk of them were soon dis-
placed as debased currency by sterling English words. It
must not be forgotten, however, that the voyages of dis-
covery made by the great English navigators, and by for-
eign navigators sailing under the English flag, were re-
sponsible for the introduction into English of a large num-
ber of foreign words. Thus, a great many Spanish words,
and American words in Spanish dress, came into use. The
discovery of the potato and the tobacco plant, due to this
source, gave us not only the articles themselves but the
names for them. Alligator, armada, armadillo, ~bolo, cara-
bao, caravel, cargo, galleon, hidalgo, nipa, are other exam-
ples of Spanish terms which we have adopted. In like
manner, banana, binnacle, caste, cobra, coca were absorbed
from the Portuguese. How this process of assimilation
continues through the years may be seen from such words
as bodega, hacienda, junta, machete, reconcentrado, all
terms which we have appropriated in comparatively recent
times.

Of the words derived from the French which we have
appropriated, the earliest are to be found in the Saxon
' ' Chronicle. ' ' There are only sixteen of these : castle, coun-
tess, count, empress, justice, miracle, peace, prison, privilege,
procession, rent, standard, tower, treason, treasure and war.
So situated that in the arts of peace and war she was in
constant contact with her French neighbor, it is not to be
wondered at that England received a much larger number

THE FOREIGN ELEMENT IN ENGLISH 167

of French words into her vocabulary as the centuries
rolled on. Conditions such as the exile of English kings
in France, where they often were able to take refuge in
times of distress, helped to increase this process of assimi-
lation. The Restoration evidenced an intensified French
influence due to the prolonged sojourn of Prince Charles,
afterward King Charles II., in France. One has but to
examine the literature of the seventeenth century to verify
this. Dryden made use of a fair number, possibly 200 in
all. Other writers were not slow in following his example
until we appropriated such words as adroit, apartment,
bagatelle, brunette, burlesque, caprice, chignon, coquette,
cravat, crinoline, and many more. The modern tendency
to draw from the same source may be illustrated by such
words as automobile, cabaret, chassis, chauffeur, cigarette,
communique, demarche, depot, empennage, garage, grisette,
hangar, massage, masseur, masseuse, programme, sabotage,
seance, tonneau, vaudeville.

Although a few Italian words are to be found in Chaucer,
their introduction, in an appreciable number, into English
dates from a much later time. For instance, the word
pilgrim, Italian, ' ' pelligrino, " came into English before
1200. Emerson found it in Layamon's translation of
Wace 's ' ' Brut, ' ' the date of which has been placed between
1155 and 1200. The development of art, especially of
music, has given us a rich vocabulary of Italian words
besides, such as brigand, ruffian, ducat. Among art terms
we have cameo, cartoon, mezzotint, torso, virtu, while in
music there are allegro, andante, canto, concert, piano, and
the series of mezzos with the soprano and coloratura which
some of our operatic song-birds have vividly impressed
on our notice. Of words in general use from the same

168 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

source among hundreds of others we have catacomb, regatta,
dilettante, extravaganza, and the comparatively recently
acquired Camorra, Mafia and pantata.

As to the other sources from which English-speaking
people have drawn, they are varied and numerous. In the
work of adaptation the seafarer has proved his efficiency
for he has a very reputable list of terms to his credit — not
that he coined them all, but because he kept them alive.
From various sources we have bilge, brig, bunk, bunker,
burgee, centerboard, clipper, commodore, cove, cutter, dock,
donkey, fender, gig, hurricane-deck, jiggermast, list, lugger,
pancakes, peajacket, pier, poop, propeller, skiff, skylight,
skysail, steerage, stern, storekeeper, stringer, surf, tank,
tender, track, tramp, transmitter, trawl, trim, trunk, twist.
A great number of our seafaring terms we took from the
Dutch or Low German, as ahoy! boom, marline, skipper,
schooner, sloop, yacht, etc. Others are of the homemade
variety, as battleship, freighter, funnel, ironclad, lifeboat,
liner, man-of-war, searchlight, screw, steamer, submarine,
etc.

From the Dutch or Low German we have also derived
many terms used in trade, as cannikin, hogshead, holland,
spool, stoop, store, wagon. Of Scandinavian, which at one
time exerted a marked influence on the language, especially
through the settlement of the Norsemen and Danes in the
northeastern region of Britain, very few words survived
the Middle English period, but these found their way into
the dialects by which they were preserved. Thus we have
to-day from Old Norse, aloft, call, crave, fellow, husband,
knife, wrong, etc. More than 500 Norse terms have been
appropriated by the language. This process of appropria-
tion continues. Saga, slang, Valkyrie, Viking, Edda, etc.,

THE FOREIGN ELEMENT IN ENGLISH 169

came from this source. The Norse element to be found in
personal and place names is much greater. Most English
names ending with the suffix -son are of Norse origin, as
Gibson, Gilson, Jamieson, Johnson, Robertson, Thomson;
while the place-name suffixes -by, -thorpe, -toft, and -thwaite
— each one of which means "hamlet" or "village" — as in
Selby, Oglethorpe, Lowestoft, Linthwaite, came to us
through the Anglo-Saxon.

The American Indians gave us our hominy, and mocca-
sins; the tomahawk, the poiv-wow, etc. From the Hindu we
got Bahadur, khaki, nainsook. The polka we got from the
Pole, and the hussar from Hungary; jujutsu from Japan,
as well as kimona and geisha; the Chinese gave us tea and
the chinaware to drink it from. We took the caravan,
harem, and kaftan from the Turk. From the Australian
we got the boomerang and kangaroo, as well as hundreds
of other terms peculiar to the Australian continent, as
bushranger, billabong, cooey (the shrill call of the Abo-
rigines), larrikin, corroboree. To New Zealand we owe the
aweto, the kiwi, the sundowner, and many others.

A few years ago Professor Brander Matthews attributed
the injection of foreign words into the English language
to "the pedant wishing to parade his knowledge" or to "the
pretender desiring to get credit for what he does not really
possess." But the influence of individuals forming the
first class is slight ; few, if any, of their writings make per-
manent impression on the public mind, and the craze for
going abroad to acquire a European "finish" is chiefly re-
sponsible for the existence of the second.

One of the most prolific of the various sources from
which our language derives foreign words is the periodical
press. Nowadays one may take up almost any copy of a

170 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

daily newspaper and find foreign words injected into Eng-
lish sentences. Despatches from the field of war have re-
peatedly assisted in the work. Through them we learned
of the chassepot. Although known before the Franco-
Prussian War, the word mitrailleuse was not really natural-
ized until the machine-gun had revealed its terrible power
for destruction in battle, and the news was flashed over the
wire. The German landwehr and ulilan, though familiar
enough to military men, were not injected into our lan-
guage until the Napoleonic wars, and they had come to stay.
In our own times bolo, commando, communique, demarche,
khaki, trek, kopje, laager, machete, reconcentrado, taube,
and Zeppelin, have been used so often in foreign news as
to have become almost naturalized.

It seems but yesterday that the vali of the vilayet of
Monastir despatched government troops against the in-
surgents, and an irade of the Sultan called out the reserves,
and to-day hodjas and softas are leaving the city of the
Golden Gate to conquer Egypt.

Outside the military pale we are indebted as much to
travelers as to journalists for bungalow, hacienda, jin-
rikisha, pasha, porcelain, proa, for which we have no Eng-
lish equivalents. The explorations and discoveries of Speke
and Grant, of Baker, Du Chaillu, and Livingstone, of
Stanley, Selous, and Johnstone, and the experiences of
Slatin Bey, Emin Pasha, Father Ohrwalder, Charles Neufeld
and Eoosevelt gave us more. Through such sources we ob-
tained cassava, dahabiyeh, nyanza, ombeya, palaver, razzia
(French), tomtom, and a host of others. Uncommon as
many of these words may sound to the ear nowadays there
is, nevertheless, a voluminous literature where they are re-
peatedly used for lack of English equivalents.

THE FOREIGN ELEMENT IN ENGLISH 171

With the territorial expansion of the United States came
the natural expansion of the language of its inhabitants.
We obtained depot, jardiniere, levee, from the French popu-
lation embraced by the Louisiana Purchase ; banana, bronco,
burro, cafeteria, chaparral, cinch, guava, tornado, etc., from
Spanish America, and the events of the closing years of the
past century have multiplied this class. Spanish and
native terms now current in the speech of the English-
speaking peoples of the Philippine Islands are fast finding
their way into our own, as calesin, carabao, carretala, carre-
toncio, etc., and show that we have only begun to assimilate
words from this source; also from Alaska, Hawaii and
Samoa. The process of assimilation from the French still
continues. We have drawn a few words from Russia, as
droshky, moujik, ukase, and from the Mohammedan world
we have kaftan, muezzin and sura.

To-day, the total number of words in the English lan-
guage, including radicals, derivatives, participles, obsoletes,
and foreign terms, and excluding those words which Lowell
so characteristically described as * ' the sewerage of speech, ' '
is estimated at about 600,000, or nearly twenty times the
number computed by a contributor to the "Edinburgh
Review " seventy years ago. Assuming his computation
to be correct, our language has grown since that time at
the rate of nearly 5,000 words per annum. In the light
of the immense vocabularies already collected we can but
consider the computer's figures as inaccurate. Taking ac-
count of all the various sources from which the language
has assimilated words since the time of the Anglo-Saxon
Kings, it seems absurd, in the face of American and British
activities over all the world, to say (on the basis of the
analysis referred to above) that only 75,000 foreign terms

172 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

have been injected into it. If this total were multiplied by
three we would be nearer the actual number. But this
computation does not take into account the thousands of
technical terms found in text-books. In this computation
there must have been a rigid exclusion of technical terms
as those of foreign origin common to the sciences.

Take astronomy, botany, biology, chemistry, entomology,
geology, ichthyology, morphology, mycology, pathology,
physiology. Examine the text-books on these subjects and
compare them with all modern dictionaries. The result of
such a comparison in the present state of lexicology will
prove a revelation. The dictionaries of the day are made
so that they shall prove of the greatest use to the largest
number. In essential particulars they are made for the
people rather than for the scientist, who if he require in-
formation upon terms related to his particular study must
turn to his text-books to find it. This condition is due to
the fact that to produce a dictionary in which every word
used in every science is given place would prove so costly
an undertaking that no one has yet dared to embark in it.
Further, even if some one were found with sufficient capital
and enterprise to issue so comprehensive a work, that one
would find it hard to recover his investment. That such
a work as this could be compiled there is no doubt, but the
labor of producing it should be done by our great univer-
sities— it should be considered a national monument and
supported as such. In the field of lexicology the United
States leads the world, the people of America are a word-
studying people, the requisite knowledge to produce such
a magnum opus is in the American universities; all that is
needed to set it to work is the founding of a great fund
which shall be sufficient to finance it to completion.

THE FOREIGN ELEMENT IN ENGLISH 173

For some years past the French people have been en-
gaged in producing an "Encyclopedia of Science" to be
completed in one thousand volumes. The work is well
under way; more than a hundred volumes have already
appeared, but the project is not a national one ; it is merely
one of private enterprise. What the Frenchman is doing
the American can do. The question is, "Will any one give
him the opportunity?"

Literature: Its Elements

CICERO has told us that the study of literature nourishes
youth, entertains old age, adorns prosperity, solaces adver-
sity, is delightful at home, unobtrusive abroad, deserts us
not by day or by night, in journeying or in retirement. In
addition, it broadens one's horizon, develops one's mind,
and amplifies, balances, or corrects one's ideas.

Huxley defined literature as "the expression of the
thoughts of society"; Edward Everett believed it to be
"the voice of the age and the state" reflecting the character,
energy and resources of a country in the conceptions of
its great minds. Accepting both these definitions in their
broadest sense, it must follow that a country without a
national literature is an indeterminate quantity, or as Car-
lyle expressed it, ' *' an unestimated country. ' ' In the broad
expanse of the field of letters which the term Literature
embraces, there are many furrows. These have been vari-
ously classified. To De Quincey there were only the liter-
ature of knowledge and the literature of power. This
classification is too general. For the purpose of explaining
what the term Literature comprehends, the treatment ac-
corded to the word by the "New Standard Dictionary" has
been selected. According to that work Literature embraces
the written or printed productions of the human mind col-
lectively; especially, such productions as are marked by
the elevation, vigor, and catholicity of thought, by fitness,

174

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 175

purity, and grace of style, and by artistic construction. It
embraces also the portion of such writing that pertains to
any particular epoch, country, subject, or branch of learn-
ing; so that we may speak of French literature, or of the
literature of chemistry.

In a restricted sense, literature designates the portion
of literary productions that excludes the positive sciences.
In this sense it is called belles-lettres. The history of the
development of these is what is taught in the schools as
" literature. ' ' In this narrowest and strictest sense, liter-
ature belongs to the sphere of high art, and embodies
thought that is power-giving, or inspiring and elevating,
rather than merely knowledge-giving (excluding thus all
purely scientific writings) ; and catholic, or of interest to
man as man (excluding writings that are merely technical,
or for a class, trade, profession or the like, only). Such
literature is esthetic in its tone and style (excluding all
writings violating the principles of correct taste), and
shaped by the creative imagination, or power of artistic
construction (excluding all writings that are shapeless
and without essential and organic unity). Dean Stanley
understood literature to consist of "those great works that
rise above professional or commonplace uses, and take
possession of the mind of a whole nation or a whole age."

The production of literature involves (1) artistic con-
struction, or esthetic art, which is that constructive power
or process by which forms, facts, or ideas regarded as beau-
tiful are grouped and organized according to esthetic prin-
ciples, and (2) the constructive faculty, or constructive
imagination, which is the mental activity by which the
elements or single objects of perception and self -conscious-
ness are grouped into systems, scientific, artistic, and prac-

176 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

tical. In such activity both the intellect and the imagina-
tion take part.

Literature may be divided into (1) Oratory, where the
representation is for the sake of the effect of another mind ;
(2) Representative discourse, where it is for the sake of
the theme itself; and (3) Poetry, where it is embodied in
beautiful form, mainly for the sake of the form.

A very broad division of literature, on the basis of lan-
guage form, is into prose and poetry (or rather verse).
As Dr. James C. Fernald1 has pointed out, "Used abso-
lutely, the term denotes what has been called 'polite liter-
ature' or belles-lettres, i.e., the works collectively that em-
body taste, feeling, loftiness of thought, and purity and
beauty of style, as poetry, history, fiction, and dramatic
compositions, including also much of philosophical writing,
as the ' Republic' of Plato, and oratorical productions, as
the 'Orations' of Demosthenes. In the broad sense we
can speak of the literature of science ; in the narrow sense,
we speak of literature and science as distinct departments
of knowledge. Literature is also used to signify literary
pursuits or occupations. ' '

The term comparative literature connotes the study of
the literatures of several peoples as to the relations that
they bear one to another with reference to their similarity
or dissimilarity of style or thought at the same or different
periods of time; and of "light literature," meaning liter-
ature that requires little mental exertion to understand,
and is produced chiefly for amusement. The latter term
is applied usually to fiction.

In the foregoing classification, the first division of liter-
ature is Oratory, which is the form of discourse or com-

1 "Synonyms, Antonyms and Prepositions," page 319.

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 177

position, the object of which is to produce an effect on
another mind. It embraces oratory proper, which ad-
dresses present minds, and, by extension, epistolary com-
position, which addresses absent minds.

According to the Ancients, the three leading branches of
Oratory Proper are (1) Didactic or Philosophic Oratory, to
enlighten or instruct the hearer, embracing the lecture,
scientific discourse, etc. ; (2) Epideictic or Demonstrative,
to awaken feeling, especially the sentiment of approbation
or disapprobation, in the hearer, embracing the panegyric
and the eulogy, and other less serious and important forms ;
(3) Judicial or Forensic and Deliberative, the former
having the right as its governing idea, and the proceedings
of civil judicature as its chief province, the latter having
the good, the useful, the expedient as its governing ideas,
and legislative assemblies as its chief province.

Representative Discourse, the second division of liter-
ature, connotates that form of literature which, for the
sake of unfolding a theme, presents its fiction or drama in
distinction from oratory and poetry.

The essay, a comparatively modern product, is a literary
composition on some special subject. It is distinct from
biography or history. The term is sometimes extended to
poetical dissertations ; as, Pope's (( Essay on Criticism." But
the essay forms a comparatively small part of the mass of
representative discourse, which consists mainly of fiction
and drama.

Fiction is that department of literature which embraces
all fictitious narrative. Prose fiction is prose work in nar-
rative form in which the incidents, characters, and scenes
are partly or wholly imagined.

Fiction may be divided into two departments: (a) the

178 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

romance, the product of the fancy; and (b) the novel, the
product of imagination or artistic construction.

A number of terms are used to distinguish the several
kinds of fictitious writings, as allegory, fable, legend, myth,
novel, romance, story. These words Dr. Fernald2 discrim-
inates in part as follows: "Fiction is chiefly used of a
narrative designed to portray human life, with or without
a practical lesson ; a romance portrays what is picturesque
or striking, as a mere fiction may not do ; novel is a general
name for any continuous fictitious narrative, especially a
love-story. The moral of the fable is expressed formally;
the lesson of the fiction, if any, is inwrought. A fiction is
studied; a myth grows up without intent. A legend may
be true, but can not be historically verified ; a myth has been
received as true at some time, but is now known to be false.
In modern usage we may say that an allegory is an extended
simile. The allegory, parable, or fable tells its story as if
true, leaving the reader or hearer to discover its fictitious
character and learn its lesson. All these are, in strict de-
finition, fictions; but the word fiction is now applied almost
exclusively to novels or romances. An allegory is a moral
or religious tale, of which the moral lesson is the sub-
stance, and all descriptions and incidents but accessories,
as in 'The Pilgrim's Progress.' A fable is generally
briefer, representing animals as the speakers and actors,
and commonly conveying some lesson of practical wisdom
or shrewdness, as 'The Fables of ^Esop.' A parable is
exclusively moral or religious, briefer than an allegory,
with its lesson more immediately discernible, given, as it
were, at a stroke. "

The romance is a form of prose fiction, distinguished

2 "Synonyms, Antonyms and Prepositions," p. 52.

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 179

from the novel or tale because it does not bind itself to
verisimilitude or reality, but gives scope to imagination and
idealization. Examples are Sir Philip Sidney 's ' * Arcadia, ' '
Scott's "Ivanhoe," or Cervantes' "Don Quixote."

The romance proper — the product of the fancy, rather
than of the creative imagination — includes (1) the apolog,
embracing the fable and the allegory; (2) the extrava-
ganza; and (3) the sentimental romance.

The period of chivalry supplied the age of romance with
the greatest wealth of material. This was the age of
medieval legends, such as those of the Cid, Alexander,
Charlemagne, or Arthur, written originally in Old French,
Provencal, or other Romance dialect, or in late Latin, and
in metrical forms.

They were often epic, of great length, and nearly allied
to the chansons de geste of the minstrels and trouveres.
Modern imitations of this species of romance are found
in Tennyson's "Idylls of the King," Byron's "Bride of
Abydos," Scott's "Lay of the Last Minstrel," Moore's
"Lalla Rookh."

The stories of the beginnings of the modern European
literatures may be derived from accounts of the men who
produced and preserved them. These men were known by
differing names. A minstrel was originally, in the early
middle ages and before, a traveling gleeman or wandering
musician who composed and sang to the harp, and recited
in hall and castle. From almost the beginning a minstrel
here and there became attached to a court or household as
a retainer ; with greater frequency the minstrel became, in
the middle ages, a retainer whose business it was to play
musical instruments and recite poems (generally metrical
tales) for the entertainment of his lord. About the twelfth

180 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

century the multiplication of manuscript books began to
supplant the old-time minstrel in hall and palace. Then
minstrels as a class became again musical or performing
vagabonds, strolling musicians or mountebanks. In Eng-
land they were repressed by Henry IV., and classed among
* ' wasters, rimers, and other vagabonds. ' '

On the continent of Europe, from the eleventh to six-
teenth centuries, minstrels of various classes were known
as jongleurs, trouveres, troubadours, minnesingers, meister-
singers. A jongleur was one of a class of French, Prov-
encal, and Anglo-Norman minstrels who during the middle
ages visited courts and castles, composing and reciting
songs, poems, and fabliaux, becoming later mere story-tellers
and buffoons. Jongleurs were distinct from troubadours,
and trouveres.

A trouvere was one of a class of narrative poets of
northern France who wrote in the langue d'oui from the
eleventh century to the fourteenth century. The trouveres
were distinct from the troubadours, and to them are due the
gest, the fabliau, the Arthurian romance, the ''Roman du
Renart" and "Roman de la Rose," the prose chronicles,
the mystery, etc.

As Edmund Gosse has pointed out,3 the established idea
that the poetry of the trouveres was entirely founded upon
imitation of that of the troubadours has been ably corn-
batted by Paul Meyer, who comes to the conclusion that the
poetry of the North of France was essentially no less original
than that of the South.

A troubador was one of a class of lyric poets that origi-
nated in Provence, France, at the close of the eleventh
century, and flourished in southern France, and also in

3"Encyc. Brit,," Vol. XXVII, p. 312.

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 181

Italy and Spain, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.
They wrote in the langue d'oc, chiefly of love, war, and
satire. The real importance of this period in French
literature consists of its lyrical poetry written by more
than 500 poets.

The minnesinger was a lyric poet of medieval Germany
(1170-1250), who sang in the Swabian Middle High German
of love, springtime, woman, and nature; that is, he was
a German troubadour. The minnesingers were usually of
knightly rank ; their meters were most varied. One of the
principal minnesingers of the thirteenth century was
Walther von der Vogelweide,or Walter of the Bird-Meadow.
A meistersinger was one of the burgher poets and mu-
sicians of Germany who succeeded the minnesingers, in the
fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries.

The minstrel of earliest English (and German) literary
history was the scop or the gleeman who produced and pre-
served the primitive ballads that later grew into such
national epics, as "Beowulf," and "Niebelungenlied."
(See account of epics and ballads, below.)

The consideration of Eomance thus takes us back to the
beginnings of modern literatures. The other great depart-
ment of fiction, the Novel, is very modern.

The Novel is a fictitious prose narrative, now usually of
sufficient length to fill a fair-sized volume, in which char-
acters and actions typical of real life are portrayed as
through the medium of a plot of more or less intricacy. It
forms the third transitional stage in the evolution of
imaginative fiction, of which the epic was the first and the
romance the second; differing from the former in that it
deals with ordinary characters and actions, and from the
latter in that it appeals to the emotions rather than to the

182 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

fancy and love of the marvelous. The novel is dramatic,
and may be regarded as a narrative play to the extent
that its scenery, manners, surroundings, and mode of speech
all belong to the historical period in which its characters
are assumed to be living, and also because the personages
of the history are brought upon the stage by the author
to play their several parts, according to. their dispositions
and temperaments, in the development of the plot, the
action of which is merely assisted by his descriptive and
analytical interludes. Technically, the length of a novel
is from 40,000 words upward, that of a novelette being
10,000 to 40,000 words, and of a short story from 1,000
to 10,000 words.

The novel proper may be broadly divided into four
classes: (1) The novel of incident, including (a) the novel
of adventure, (b) the biographical novel, and (c) the
naval, military, or sporting novel; (2) The novel of artifice,
dependent on the cleverness of the action and ingenuity of
the plot, embracing (a) the detective novel, (b) the novel
of mystery, (c) the novel of the unknown, in which appar-
ently impossible conditions are so treated as to seem actual,
(d) the novel whose motif is fear, intrigue, etc.; (3) The
novel of ordinary life, including (a) the novel of purpose,
which points a moral or exploits a theory, (b) the realistic
novel; (4) The novel of the inevitable, dealing with the
.unescapable sequence of cause and effect, including (a)
the problem novel, which considers problems in human re-
lations or experience; and (b) the analytical novel or novel
of character, which considers events solely in their relation
to, and their effect upon, character. As Mr. Wilbur L.
Cross4 has suggested, the interest in the novel of character

4 "Encyclopedia Americana," art. Novel.

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 183

is directed to the portrayal of men and women, and the
tale is a subordinate consideration. In the novel of in-
cident, the interest is directed to what happens ; characters,
if there be any at all, come only by the way; the tale is
the main thing.

A general and philosophical division applied to all art,
and, therefore, to Literature, is that made by the terms
Realism and Idealism. "With reference to fiction, the terms
are rather Realism and Romanticism; and we speak of a
novel as realistic or as romantic.

Realism is the doctrine of the realists in literature, art,
philosophy, etc. Specifically, in art and literature, it is the
principle and practise of depicting persons and scenes as
they are observed really to exist and without attempt to
select or modify according to any ideal standard. The
term is opposed to Romanticism and Idealism.

Romanticism is the quality or characteristic of being
romantic. In literature, romanticism involves the use of
a romantic style as opposed to the classical, as well as the
embodiment of matter that is non-realistic in that it is
either idealistic or extravagant. In actual fact, roman-
ticism in art and literature is largely a revival of medieval
forms.

The birthplace of romanticism is to be found in the
chivalrous tales and ballads of the Romance literature of
the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Toward the end of the
eighteenth and in the beginning of the nineteenth a marked
change took place in intellectual life which influenced art,
music, literature, and thought, manifesting itself in Eng-
land, Germany, and France, in the romantic movement or
school which substituted for the simplicity, harmony, and

184 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

purity of the classicism of the Augustan age, the mystic,
passionate, free-spirited, and capricious standards of the
middle ages. The principal advocates of this spirit of
idealism as opposed to realism were, in France, Rousseau,
who first consistently expressed the romantic view of life ;
in Germany, Schelling, Schleiermacher, Schlegel, Lessing,
and others; and in England, Gray, Cowper, Burns, Cole-
ridge, Southey, Byron, Shelley, Keats, Rossetti, and Carlyle,
whose work "Sartor Resartus" best represents their school.

Idealism in art is the endeavor to attain perfection by
improving and uniting in one form all the best qualities
to be found in different individual forms. While in art and
literature, realism strives to portray things with scientific
accuracy and detail, allowing comparatively restricted play
for the imaginative faculty, idealism creates from the
imagination a type of beauty in conformity with a precon-
ceived ideal. Idealism will thus be seen to cover a wide
range in the field of art, from the work of pure imagina-
tion, in which no attempt is made to conform to facts, to
the representation of reality with only a slight tinge of
modifying color, introduced to emphasize certain features
or aspects of the work.

The distinctions drawn in the meanings of these three
words, and here applied to fiction, must be borne in mind
in connection with the discussion of poetry, below. A most
marked characteristic of English poetry for the century
from 1780 to 1880, was its romantic quality.

In Classical Literature (Greek and Roman) the Drama
formed one of the three divisions of poetry (see below).
In modern literatures, dramatic writings were at first
mainly in verse, but more recently are generally written
in prose. In this respect drama has drawn close to its

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 185

younger cousin, fiction. A drama is a composition, in
prose or in poetry, usually intended to be acted upon the
stage, presenting a story by means of characters speaking
and acting in situations contrived to develop a plot, and
with such accessories of scenery, stage machinery, costume,
etc., as are fitted to produce an impression of reality. A
drama is a play. "Hamlet" is a drama.

The early history of the modern drama, as of romance,
takes us back into the Middle Ages. The very beginnings
of English drama date, in reality, from the end of the tenth
century. As has already been pointed out elsewhere, the
miracle play, or mystery, formed the first stage of the
English drama. It was acted in churches and convents,
either by the clergy or by persons coached by them. Gradu-
ally by the side of the church play there was developed the
morality play, from which dates the second stage of the
drama in England.

A mystery or miracle-play treated sacred subjects; a
morality was an old form of play in which the characters
were personified virtues, vices, mental attributes, and the
like. Moralities were in vogue in the fifteenth century.

In 1902 "Everyman," an old morality, was revived on
the stage in England and Amsrica, and in 1911 "Every-
woman," a modern morality of an ethical character, was
produced in New York, and later also, in London, England.

In the "spacious" days of Praise-God Barebone, or
Barbon, the drama was declared "lewd and iniquitous,"
and under his orders all stage-plays were "absolutely for-
bidden, and the players punished as rogues and vaga-
bonds." It was characteristic of this peace-loving politi-
cian and leather-seller to condemn the orderly that they
might bestir themselves to a full appreciation of his talents.

186 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Barebone combined " preaching " with his trade as leather-
seller. In a contemporary scurrilous pamphlet entitled,
"New Preachers, New"5 reference is made to "the last
tumult in Fleet Street, raised by the disorderly preachment,
pratings, and pratlings of Mr. Barebones, the leather-
seller, and Mr. Greene, the felt-maker, on Sunday last, 19
December (1641). The 'tumult' is jocosely described, and
'1,000 persons' are alleged to have been present; but the
' tumult, ' so far from originating in the ' disorderly preach-
ment,' certainly originated in violent intrusion upon the
worshipers. Another pamphlet on the same disturbance
is entitled 'The Discovery of a Swarme of Separatists, or
a Leather Seller's Sermon. Being a most true and exact
relation of the tumultuous combustion in Fleet Street last
Sabbath day, being 29th of December (19 in text) ; truly
describing how Burboon, a leather seller, had a conventicle
of Brownists met at his house that day, about the number
of an hundred and fifty, who preached there himself about
five hours in the afternoon. Showing likewise how they
were discovered and by what means, as also how the con-
stable scattered their nest, and of the great tumult in the
street. . . . London; Printed for John Greensmith, 1641.' '
In this publication we read concerning the persecutors1
treatment of the worshipers: "At length they catcht one
of them alone, but they kickt him so vehemently as if they
meant to beate him into a jelly. It is ambiguous whether
they have kil'd him or no, but for a certainty they did
knock him as if they meant to pull him to pieces. I con-
fesse it had been no matter if they had beaten the whole
tribe in the like manner."

Evidently the players were not the only rogues and

•Dr. A. B. Grosart in "Dictionary of National Biography," Vol. Ill, p. 152.

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 187

vagabonds in England at the time. Praise-God Barebone's
point of view may have been derived from the fact that
the drama began by introducing the vices that it might
teach man how to shun them — a moral lesson too great for
men of Barebone's mental caliber to learn. The drama
teaches the virtues even when it depicts vice. Macaulay
pronounced the Old English drama as the most lucid mirror
that was ever held up to nature. To-day the purpose of the
dramatist is to present life as in a looking-glass ; to this
end he presents the best and the worst passions of the human
heart. Probably no finer estimate of the drama has ever
been made than that which Charlotte Cushman left us: "I
think I love and reverence all arts equally," she said,
* ' only putting my own just above the others ; because in it
I recognize the union and culmination of the others. To
me it seems as if when God conceived the world, that was
poetry ; He formed it, and that was Scripture ; He colored
it, and that was painting ; He peopled it with living beings,
and that was the grand, divine, eternal drama."

The Drama assumes two principal forms, Tragedy and
Comedy, the former representing some signal event or
period and generally tending to a fatal issue, the latter pre-
senting the lighter and usually humorous aspects of charac-
ter and life, individual and social. Minor forms of drama
are tragi-comedy, farce, burlesque, melodrama, etc.

Tragedy is that form of drama or of dramatic composi-
tion of which the theme is solemn, lofty, or pathetic, being
a great action or series of acts, usually presented in heroic
verse or elevated prose, and generally involving the fatal
issue of a hopeless struggle. It is the species of drama that
deals with the sad and terrible phases of life and character,
and is in its substance and spirit opposed to comedy.

188 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

The principle that rules in tragedy and brings about the
situation of extremity and desperation has Varied in differ-
ent ages and dramas. Fate and its workings are the
favorite themes of Greek tragedy, which grew out of the
worship of Dionysos. In Rome, the germ of tragedy was
found in the comcedia palliata, which was borrowed from the
Greeks, and that part of Roman tragedy which has survived
is associated with Seneca, whose plays, free adaptations of
the works of Sophocles and Euripides, were designed for
reading rather than for the stage. The great French
writers who founded the classical tragedy of France took
him as their model. Forms of the later Latin drama were
the comcedia togata, which dealt with Roman life and man-
ners ; commdia prcetexta, named from the magisterial dress
and approaching nearest to true tragedy; commdia trdbeata,
named from the equestrian dress ; and commdia tabernaria,
which treated of tavern or low life. In modern tragedy the
characteristic feature is a conflict between the forces of a
strong human nature and outside forces, either blind and
physical or moral and spiritual, affording a strong contrast
to ancient Greek conception. According to Kames,6 epic
poetry employs narration, while tragedy represents its facts
as passing before our sight: in the former, the poet intro-
duces himself as a historian ; in the latter, he presents his
actors and never himself.

Comedy is the branch of dramatic art that portrays
laughable incidents or characters, or the ludicrous, the sati-
rical, or the gay, in a familiar or humorous style. In matter
and spirit it is opposed to the tragic, serious, or ceremonial.
In a restricted sense, a comedy is an entertaining drama
less broadly humorous than a .farce. Comedy varies from

8 "Elements of Criticism," p. 414.

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 189

a story illustrating the amusing side of human life to a
serious composition depicting human existence or portray-
ing truth and ending happily. Dante called his "Divina
Commedia" a comedy because it had a fortunate ending.

Writers on the theater use the term light comedy to mean
genteel comedy exhibiting humor in refined and natural
language, dress, and action; and low comedy to mean
comedy that is broadly humorous, droll, or farcical. A
musical comedy is an extravaganza with musical accom-
paniment.

Greek or Attic comedy, the original and typical form of
the art, embraces (1) the old comedy, in which the charac-
ters of living men were satirized and given their real names,
a thing forbidden by law about 400 B.C.; (2) the middle
comedy (lasting fifty years), in which the names were ficti-
tious but the characters real; and (3) the new comedy, in
which the characters as well as the names were fictitious.

There are also such minor forms of the drama as the
tragi-comedy, a drama in which tragic and comic scenes
are intermingled.

A farce is a short comedy the humor of which is due to
exaggeration of effects and distortion of incidents. As
Saintsbury7 has pointed out, the farce deals with an actual
or possible incident of ordinary life to which a comic
complexion is given by the treatment. Farce is that style
of play-writing in which ludicrous and extravagant effects
are produced. It is distinguished from other comic com-
positions by the slightness of its thought and its extrava-
gant and ridiculous self-abandon. A farce-comedy is
properly a farcical comedy ; but the term is often applied
to a form of entertainment in which topical songs, jokes,

7 "History of French Literature," p. 117.

190 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

dances, etc., are strung on a very slender dramatic thread.

A burlesque is, in the drama, a dramatic travesty-
largely interspersed with music — of some popular legend,
custom, romance, or play. It is a dramatic extravaganza.

A melodrama is a drama with a romantic story or plot
and sensational situations. In the melodramas of Greece
the entrance of each actor was accompanied by music. In
modern times the aim of all such plays is to thrill the crowd
by a series of violent situations and unexpected happenings.

Plays are usually divided into Acts and Scenes. An
act is the largest division of a play or opera, forming an
incident or deed complete in itself. A scene is a division of
an act of a play, comprising all that passes continuously at
one time and place, or, as formerly and sometimes still, all
that passes between the same persons in the same place.

Poetry is the third, and remaining, division of liter-
ature as suggested in the initial classification.

According to Dr. Henry Van Dyke,8 Poetry is the emo-
tional interpretation of nature and life through the imagin-
ation in beautiful and metrical language. It is the type of
literature of which the ruling factor is quickened emotion,
the proper language figurative, the natural form verse, and
the chief aim to impart imaginative pleasure.

The production of poetry is classed as one of the fine arts.
All the elements of the highest type of poetry are properly
included in a general definition of this art. The most im-
portant are those that belong to its vital spirit: (1) Emo-
tional intensity ; (2) insight; (3) imagination. The charac-
teristic elements of its form are those by which the art is
most easily recognized : (1) Abundant imagery ; (2) sugges-

8 "New Standard Dictionary," s.v. Poetry.

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 191

live and revealing language; (3) a measured music of
words. Poetry of a lower type may be weak in one or other
of these elements and yet be included in poetic literature ;
but there are many critics who hold that metrical form is
indispensable.

Professor Saintsbury9 describes English poetry as con-
sisting of syllables — accented or unaccented, stressed or
unstressed — arranged on principles which, whatever they
may be in themselves, have no analogy to those of classical
feet.

A number of terms referring to poetical compositions are
more or less synonymous : meter, metrical composition,
metrical writing, poem, poesy, rime, verse. Dr. Fernald10
defines poetry as "that form of literature which embodies
beautiful thought, feeling, or action in melodious, rhyth-
mical, and (usually) metrical language in imaginative and
artistic constructions. Poetry in a very wide sense may
be anything that pleasingly addresses the imagination; as,
the poetry of motion. In ordinary usage poetry is both
imaginative and metrical. There may be poetry without
rime, but hardly without meter or what in some languages
takes its place, as the Hebrew parallelism; but poetry in-
volves, besides the artistic form, the exercise of the fancy
or imagination in a way always beautiful, often lofty or
even sublime. Failing this, there may be verse, rime, and
meter, but not poetry. There is much in literature that is
beautiful and sublime in thought and artistic in construc-
tion, which is not poetry, because quite devoid of the
element of song, whereby poetry differs from the most lofty,
beautiful, or impassioned prose."

9 "English Prosody," p. 8.

10 "Synonyms, Antonyms, and Prepositions," p. 372.

192 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

The original Greek division of poetry into lyric (express-
ing personal emotion), epic (narrative of moving events),
and dramatic (presenting the interaction of human wills),
has been enlarged by the addition of other types, as the
ballad, didactic poetry, the dramatic lyric, the idyll, the
monodrama, etc.

The elements of its vital spirit, as explained above, are
(1) emotional intensity; (2) insight; and (3) imagination.
That is to say, it must be able ( 1 ) to move us by the presen-
tation of the (2) truth which it has discovered, and to
which it (3) has given a new, .beautiful, and significant
shape.

The emotions are to be recognized as stronger than feel-
ings or sentiments.

Insight is the power or faculty of immediate and acute
perception or understanding, exercised (in poetry) in the
realms of moral truth and of beauty. It is intuition,
whether that power is regarded as a general inner faculty,
a special capacity for a particular field of view, or the gift
of mystical vision. By insight the poet discovers the
material out of which he makes poetry.

The imagination faculty is the third vital element of
poetry. This supreme power of the artist — of the human
mind, in fact — is so fundamental in the production of
poetry, or of any other form of art, and imparts to its
product so much of the fundamental and essential character
of that product, that a student of poetry or of any other
form of art must give the term Imagination very careful
and detailed consideration.

Two main aspects or functions of the imagination are to
be noticed. These are: (1) the act or power of imaging or
of re-imaging objects of perception or thought — its less sig-

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 193

nificant function; (2) the act or power of combining the
products of past experience in modified, new or ideal forms.
In the latter, its more significant function, it is the creative
or constructive power of the mind. The word has been
used in wide and various senses in common life and litera-
ture, as well as in the psychological sciences.

Professor Ladd11 defines the imagination specifically as,
(1) The picturing power or act of the mind; the formation
of mental images, pictures, or mental representations of
objects or ideas, particularly of objects of sense-perception
and of mathematical reasoning ; also, the reproduction and
combination, usually with more or less of modification, of
the images or ideas of memory or recalled facts, of experi-
ence; imaginative reproduction: embracing fantasy, fancy,
and imagination in its common acceptation ; as, the imagina-
tion rules in reverie and dreams; the imagination of the
reveler. (2) The mental representation of past knowledges
of whatever kind, especially past knowledges of external
and sense objects ; re-imaging power ; spontaneous and un-
controlled play of images in consciousness — fantasy. (3)
The act of constructive intellect in grouping the materials of
knowledge or thought into new, original, and rational
systems; the constructive or creative faculty, embracing
poetry, artistic, philosophic, scientific, and ethical imagina-
tion. This sense includes the rational and constructive
element of taste or the esthetic faculty.

It is with the first and the third of these specific defini-
tions that the student of poetry is concerned ; namely, with
imagination as "the reproduction and combination of the
images of memory, ' ' and as l ' the act of constructive intel-
lect in grouping the materials of knowledge or thought into

11 "New Standard Dictionary," s.v. Imagination.

194 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

new; original and rational systems." The poetic imagina-
tion is the creative imagination as employed in the produc-
tion of noble or elevating pictures, or of artistic literary
construction, fixed and expressed by rhythmical language.

The characteristic elements of Poetry are (1) abundant
imagery; (2) suggestive and revealing language; and (3)
a measured music of words. As among the vital elements
of poetry the imaginative element is supreme, so among
the elements of poetic form that of meter — " measured music
of words" — is the chief characteristic.

In rhetoric, imagery as an act or as a rhetorical product
is figurative description in speech. As an effect it is the
mental images produced by the use of figurative language.
The obvious means of creating poetic imagery is figurative
language — the use of figures of speech. A figure of speech
is a form of expression that deviates intentionally from
the ordinary mode of speech for the sake of more powerful,
pleasing, or distinctive effect. Figures of speech are pic-
torial or poetic language.

Rhetorical figures may be classed as follows: I. Those
depending (1) on the kind of words employed, tropes, and

(2) on the number of words employed, (a) repetition and
(b) ellipsis. II. Those depending on the representative
imagery employed. (1) Figures that consist in a change
of the presentation of the represented object — (a) in nature,
personification; (b) in relations, vision; (c) in degree,
hyperbole. (2) Those consisting in comparison or contrast.

(3) Those consisting in a deviation from the ordinary mode
of expressing the views or mental condition of the speaker ;
embracing (a) those in which another is personated, proso-
popeia; (b) those in which another is addressed, apostrophe;
and (c) those in which the conception is changed from

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 195

reality, including irony, doubt, and interrogation. (4)
Those depending on the structure of the sentence, as (a)
on its order, inversion; (b) on its connection, anacoluthon;
(c) on its completeness, aposiopesis ; (d) on its fulness,
sententiousness.

Comparison, from the point of view of rhetoric, is a set-
ting forth of the points of similarity or contrast between
one thing and another. Comparison includes (1) compari-
son proper, in which the properties of the representative
object are formally attributed to the other; (2) the simile,
which turns the mind on the representative object itself;
(3) contrast, which emphasizes points of difference; (4)
allusion, which closely approaches metaphor, comparative
words being omitted; and (5) allegory, embracing (a)
allegory proper, an extended simile, omitting comparative
words; (b) fable, a short narrative allegory with a moral;
and (c) parable, a narrative or descriptive allegory found-
ed on real scenes and inculcating religious truth.

A discussion of the individual figures of speech belongs
to rhetoric rather than to literature. By means largely of
imagery language becomes suggestive, revealing. What is
meant by this is unfolded in the treatment of the terms
suggestion and suggestive. Suggestion is the imparting or
exciting of a notion or idea in an indirect or unobtrusive
way. A suggestion brings something before the mind less
directly than by formal or explicit statement. A suggestion
may be given unintentionally, and even unconsciously, as
when we say an author has "a suggestive style." Sug-
gestive means stimulating to thought or reflection. As an
illustration of the meaning of the term a poet's and a
botanist's description of a buttercup may be cited. The one
by means of suggestive language makes the flower glow

196 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

and dance before us as in life; the other by means of ex-
plicit statement lays before us the dead husk of what once
lived.

The third element of poetic form is its Metrical Char-
acter. As stated in the definition of poetry quoted on
page 190, metrical form is by most critics considered in-
dispensable to poetry. Meter is a measured verbal rhythm.
It constitutes the structure of verse. It is a definite
arrangement of groups of syllables in a line, having a time-
unit and a regular beat. Applied to the stanza, it is a
specific sequence of such lines in a stanza. In Greek and
Latin meter the length of the syllables is the controlling
factor; in English, the stress, or metrical accent, is the
structural element. See prosody, below.

The meter of a line is named from the number and char-
acter of the feet, or measures, which it contains ; as, iambic
pentameter, dactylic hexameter. But in Latin and Greek,
verse of certain kinds is measured by double feet ; thus an
iambic trimeter — six iambs. The meter of a stanza is named
from the number and character of its lines ; as, a tetrameter
quatrain; or specific names are given ; as, an Alcaic ode, the
Spenserian stanza, ottava rima, rime royale.

In hymnology the term meter means the form of a stanza
of a certain number of lines, each of which has a certain
number of accented syllable-groups or feet. Such a stanza
is often incorrectly called a "verse." There are various
kinds of meter as the following will show: Iambic meters
are (1) common meter, in which the stanza is composed of
four lines alternately of four and of three iambic feet; (2)
long meter, in which the stanza contains four lines of four
feet each; and (3) short meter, in which the first two lines
have three feet, the third four, and the fourth three. When

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 197

the stanza is doubled the meter is called common meter
double, long meter double, etc. Sometimes long meter has
six lines to the stanza, and is then known as long meter six
lines, or long particular meter. Common particular meter
contains two lines of four iambics each, then one line of three
iambics, then two more lines of four iambics, and then one
more of three iambics. Short particular meter has two lines
or three iambics followed by one of four, and then two more
of three followed by one of four. Halleluiah meter contains
four lines of three feet or six syllables, each followed by two
lines of four feet or eight syllables. The meter tens has lines
each composed of five feet; in sevens and sixes the stanza
is composed of either four or eight lines, each of which
contains three iambics, the odd-numbered lines ending with
an added unaccented syllable. Trochaic meters are sevens,
eights and sevens, sixes, sixes and fives, etc. These names
indicate the number of syllables in the lines; lines having
an odd number terminate with an added accented syllable.
Dactylic meters, as also anapestic, are elevens, elevens and
tens, etc.

Fernald12 gives further definition of the term meter in
discriminating its synonymous terms, as, euphony, measure,
rhythm, verse. Euphony is agreeable linguistic sound,
however produced; meter, measure, and rhythm denote
agreeable succession of sounds in the utterance of connected
words ; euphony may apply to a single word or even a single
syllable; the other words apply to lines, sentences, para-
graphs, etc. ; rhythm and meter may be produced by accent
only, as in English, or by accent and quantity combined,
as in Greek or Italian ; rhythm or measure may apply either
to prose or to poetry, or to music, dancing, etc. ; meter

12 "Synonyms, Antonyms, and Prepositions," p. 328.

198 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

applies only to poetry, and denotes an orderly and meas-
ured rhythm with regular divisions into verses, stanzas,
strophes, etc. A verse is strictly a metrical line, but the
word is often used as synonymous with stanza. Verse, in
the general sense, denotes metrical writing without refer-
ence to the thought involved.

Composition written in meter is Verse. The term verse,
like the term meter, is the basis of a number of phrases
which apply to details of the form of poetry.

Verse is metrical composition as distinguished from prose.
In another sense, a verse is a single metrical line made up
of a number of feet, arranged according to a specific rule.
With an appropriate adjective the term applies to a certain
type of metrical composition as distinguished by form, or
style, or theme; as blank verse, heroic verse, hexameter
verse, etc.

Blank verse is verse without rime. Heroic verse is verse
adapted to heroic or lofty themes, and is used especially in
epic and dramatic poetry, as the hexameter in Greek and
Latin, the ottava rima in Italian, the Alexandrine in the
French drama, and the heroic couplet and blank verse, with
various other combinations of iambic verse, in English.

Epic verse is the verse employed in epic poetry. The
measures used by epic poets are various: in Latin and
Greek, the dactylic hexameter; in Italian, the terza rima
or the stanzaic measure of Tasso; in Spanish ("The Cid")
and old French, assonance; in Anglo-Saxon, alliterative
lines; in English, the blank verse of Milton and Tennyson,
the heroic couplet of Pope, the stanza of Spenser, and the
trochaic tetrameter of Longfellow's poem "Hiawatha."

The word verse is often used incorrectly to denote
stanza. A verse is a single line ; a stanza is a certain num-

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 199

ber of lines of verse grouped in a definite scheme of meter
and sequence, and usually corresponding to the other line-
groups in the same poem. It is, therefore, a metrical
division composed of lines, as the line is composed of feet.
A stanza is often incorrectly called a verse. In English
verse the structural factor of the stanza is generally the
rime, which binds the lines together. Two rimed lines
form a couplet, three a triplet. A four-line stanza is often
called a quatrain • a six-lined stanza, a sestet; an eight-lined
stanza, an octave. Favorite stanzaic forms in English are
the four-stress quatrain with alternate rimes, the rime
royal in seven decasyllabic lines (ababbcc) , the Spenserian
in eight decasyllabic lines and an Alexandrine (ababbcbcc) .
the ottava rima of "Don Juan" and Keats 's "Isabella"
(a'baba'bcc), and the ode-stanza of Gray, Wordsworth, and
others. The letters in the parentheses show the arrange-
ment of rimes.

Rime is an important though not essential element in
poetical form. As the term is now used, rime13 is a corres-
pondence of sound in the accented vowels (not initials)
and the following letters, if any, of the final feet of two
or more lines of verse. Occurring in the initial letters of
words, a correspondence of sound is called alliteration. If
it is in final syllables, and is in vowel sounds only, it is
called assonance. End-rime is usually the organizing
factor of the stanza in modern English verse, and is what
is commonly understood by the .word rime.

Alliteration and assonance were used in Anglo-Saxon
Romance, and early English verse ; end-rime is modern,

13 The spelling rhyme, although commoner in literature than the older rime,
is etymologically incorrect, having been introduced in the sixteenth century
through a mistaken connection with rhythm. The use of the older spelling
has now been revived by many writers.

200 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

and was introduced into English in imitation of Latin
hymns and French lyrics. Where the accented vowels in
a rime are followed by an unaccented or light syllable, it
is called a feminine rime; as, making — taking. Where
there are two light syllables, it is called a triple rime; as,
tenderly — slenderly. Where riming words occur at the
end of the first natural pause in a line, and at the end of
the line, it is called an internal or leonine rime. A com-
plete identity of sounds (including initials) in the members
of a rime (as fair — fare) is called a perfect rime. While
allowed in French, this is inadmissible in modern English
verse.

The fundamental divisions of Poetry are (1) lyric, (2)
epic, and (3) dramatic. To these terms further names are
added distinguishing certain forms unknown to or un-
recognized by the ancients; as, didactic poetry, the ballad,
the dramatic lyric, the dramatic monologf etc. Lyric
Poetry is that form of which the main object is to express
emotion directly and personally. It is verse of quickened
feeling and song-like form. In lyric poetry, the poet gives
vent to his personal emotions, or experiences. The term
lyric, then, as applied to poetry, does not mean specifically
11 adopted for singing to the lyre," but rather designates
the contents and spirit of the poetry so named.

Lyric poetry includes various subordinate forms, as the
sonnet and the elegy, not now set to music, and the ode,
song, psalm, and hymn, which imply or suggest a musical
setting. There are yet other forms, mostly felt as foreign
to English poetry, such as madrigal, rondeau, villanelle,
triolet, etc. These are distinguished each by its metrical
or stanzaic structure.

A sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines, usually in iambic

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 201

pentameter, riming according to a prescribed scheme. The
sonnet came into English verse from Italy in the sixteenth
century. There are two principal forms: (1) The so-
called Italian sonnet consists of 14 iambic pentameter lines,
arranged thus : an octave, riming abba, abba, and a
sestet, riming c d e, c d e, or c d e, d c d, or c d e, dee, or
c d e, e d c. A rime in the last couplet is permissible, but
disapproved by most critics. The octave is supposed to
introduce the main idea or sentiment, which the sestet
develops, or illustrates by comparison or contrast. (2) The
Elizabethan or Shakespearian sonnet consists of 14 iambic
pentameter lines, arranged in quatrains of interwoven rime
and closing with a rimed couplet.

An elegy is a lyric poem lamenting the dead, as Shelley's
"Adonais."

An ode, in ancient usage, was a lyric poem intended to
be sung or chanted; in modern usage, it is any lyric of
lofty tone dealing progressively with one dignified theme.
In ancient Greek the ode embraced the choral songs and
other lyrics in tragedy and comedy. Its principal forms
were (1) the monody, recited by the actors; (2) the par ode,
the stasimon, and the parabasis, recited by the choreutae,
or members of the chorus; (3) the kommos (a wild lament
for the dead), sung alternately by one or more of the
chief actors and the chorus.

The modern ode does not necessarily follow the classical
model, being more free in form, as Dry den's "Alexander's
Feast," Keats 's "On a Grecian Urn," and Wordsworth's
t ' Ode on Intimations of Immortality. ' ' Some English odes
are regular but somewhat intricate in structure, in imita-
tion of the classical ode ; that is, they consist of two stanzas
of like form, the strophe and the antistrophe, and a third

202 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

of different form, the epode, this combination being one or
more times repeated. But most of the English poems called
odes, as Dryden's for ''St. Cecilia's Day" or Wordsworth's
on ' ' Intimations of Immortality, ' ' are irregular in metrical
structure.

The strophe, in classical poetry, was a group of lines of
poetry, arranged in a certain order, and repeated one or
more times in an ode, or dramatic chorus. It corresponded
to the repetition of an air in music, or to the turning of the
chorus in a drama as they passed, chanting, from the cen-
tral altar to the side of the stage. As Gummere14 shows,
strophe means literally "a turning." At the end of the
strophe we turn, and repeat the same conditions. Stanza,
under another symbol means the same thing. Strictly, a
strophe was the first of a pair of such verse-groups, corres-
ponding to the second or antistrophe. To these a third
group, called an epode, was sometimes added, thus consti-
tuting a triple division of an ode. Ben Jonson rendered
these names in English as turn, counter-turn, and stand.

Other forms of the lyric, as song, psalm, hymn, are*
familiar. The dramatic lyric is a lyric poem ' ' characterized
by the action and spirit of the drama. ' ' That is, the poem
suggests vividly both the character of the speaker and the
action supposed to accompany the words.

The ballad was in origin a lyric poem ; but being narra-
tive it tended to grow by accretion and to take more and
more an objective and sometimes dramatic form. The
simple story thus grew toward epic elevation and propor-
tions.

Epic Poetry. — An epic is a poem in which actions or
events in related sequence are presented by narration and

14 "Poetics," p. 236.

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 203

description. The term applies especially to a poem cele-
brating in stately, formal verse the real or mythical achieve-
ments of great personages, heroes, or demigods. Dr. Van
Dyke15 has given us a convenient generic distribution of
epics in the wide sense, as (1) the higher epic or heroic,
narrating a great action, as of heroes, demigods, and gods ;
(2) the middle epic, or poetic tale; and (3) the mock-heroic
or burlesque. Epics are also variously classed and named,
according to their origin, special themes, etc. : (a) Epics of
growth, or collections of ballads of different authorship,
anonymous, which seem to have grown up spontaneously,
such as "Beowulf," the ' ' Mahabharata, " the ' ' Nibelungen-
lied," and the "Kalevala"; (&) The epics of art, in which
a single poet concentrates his poem about some great central
figure, as Homer's "Iliad," Homer's "Odyssey," Vergil's
"^Eneid," Milton's "Paradise Lost," and Tasso's "Jeru-
salem Delivered." (c) The mixed epic of growth and art
combined, as Firdusi's "Shah Nameh." (d) The heroic
poem, such as the ' ' Chanson de Roland ' ' and the ' * Orlando
Furioso, " describing medieval knights and heroes, (e)
Sacred epics, such as Dante's "Divina Commedia" and
Klopstock's "Messias." (/) Historical epics, such as
Camoens 's ' ' Lusiad ' ' and Lucan 's t ' Pharsalia. " (g) Mock
epics, such as Butler's "Hudibras," "Reynard the Fox,"
the "Batrachomyoraachia" (Frogmousiad) , and Pope's
"Rape of the Lock." "Paradise Lost" has been pro-
nounced the epic of English Puritanism and of Protestant
Christianity.

A sort of epic poem, or minor epic, is called the idyl,
which was originally a short poem descriptive of rustic or
pastoral life, as the "Cotter's Saturday Night" of Burns,

15 "New Standard Dictionary," s.v. Epic.

204 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

or the "Idyls" of Theocritus. By extension the term has
come to mean a short and highly wrought description, and,
more loosely, a more extended descriptive or narrative poem
of elevated and artistic style. As a narrative poem the
idyl is a minor epic with a content, spirit and style that
make it akin also to the pastoral.

Just as the origins of the Romance take the student of
literature back close to the origins of the modern European
literatures, so the Epics of Growth go back to the ballad,
the primitive folk-poem of a people. The folk-ballad ex-
panded as the legend it told grew by accretion ; and, when
several such overgrown legends collected about a national
hero or a national event, the overgrown ballads which re-
cited them coalesced into a national epic. Such is by many
supposed to have been the origin of the genuine folk epic
like the English "Beowulf," the Greek "Iliad," the Ger-
man ' i Nibelungenlied. ' ' But, of course, the welding of the
original materials into an organic whole demanded the
constructive power of an artist, and hence even these older
national epics are in some degree also Epics of Art.

The term ballad is used in two senses, wliich must be
distinguished: (1) It designates a simple lyrical poem,
telling a story or legend, usually of popular origin ; as, the
"Ballad of Chevy Chase." A writer in the "British
Quarterly Review" has pointed out that the English ballad
possesses three main distinguishing characteristics: (a)
narration in substance; (6) lyric form; and (c) traditional
origin. (2) In another sense, the term connotes a simple
popular song, amatory, proverbial, laudatory, or satirical,
usually consisting of two verses, each of which is sung to
the same melody, the musical accompaniment being invari-
ablv subordinate to the air.

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 205

The first is the distinctly literary sense; and in this
specific sense one must distinguish two kinds of ballad: (a)
the genuine folk-ballad or folk-song, originating and cur-
rent among the common people, and hence, being in a
measure of communal origin, not associated with any indi-
vidual author; and (&) the literary ballad written by an
individual author in imitation of the folk-ballad. The
folk-ballad is largely represented in Percy's "Reliques of
Ancient English Poesie."

Dramatic Poetry is the third division of poetry as the
ancient critics treated the topic. The classical drama, and
also modern drama in its earlier and greater period, used
metrical language as its vehicle. At the present time an
occasional "poetical drama" is produced; but the great
period of English drama was about the beginning of the
seventeenth century (Shakespeare and his contemporaries) ;
of French drama was toward the close of the seventeenth
century (Corneille, Racine, Moliere) ; and of German drama
was toward the end of the eighteenth century (Lessing,
Schiller, Goethe). The dramatic product of these periods
was in verse.

A special kind of dramatic composition is named dra-
matic monologue. This is a dramatic soliloquy, or a story
or drama told or performed by one person. Dramatic mono-
logue has taken three forms: (1) when the actor tells a
continuous story in which he is the chief character, referring
to the others as absent; (2) when he assumes the voice or
manner of several characters successively; (3) more re-
cently, when he implies that the others are present, leading
the audience to imagine what they say by his replies. It is
in this third form that Browning's poetic genius found
frequent effective expression, as in "My Last Duchess. "

20G ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

On the borderland between poetry and non-poetry is a
class of composition in verse to which the classical scheme
of kinds of poetry gives no place. It is one of the added
types and is known as Didactic Poetry — the form of poetry
that embodies ideas regarded as thought, rather than as
feeling or action; the poetry of the intellect. Its main
divisions are: (1) didactic poetry proper, the object of
which is to embody or teach some truth or system of truth —
including (a) moral and religious, and (6) critical, as
Pope's "Moral Essays"; (2) descriptive poetry — including
(a) descriptive poetry proper of things and events; (6)
pastoral ; (c) satirical, etc. How high such poetry may rise
in the scale of poetical quality depends upon the genius of
the author. In the treatment of the subject, the purpose
has been to be as inclusive as the importance of the theme
requires. There are some bypaths along which the reader
has not been led because they in turn lead to themes that
are not germane to the subject under consideration.

As these pages are passing through the press, the subject
of the school course in English is again receiving the
attention of educators. There is a tendency, in certain
parts of the country, to modernize the curriculum, and in
one of our central States some of the changes proposed
include such a radical substitution as the study of "Cab-
bages and Kings ' ' for that of ' ' Paradise Lost ' ' ; that is to
say, the writings of the late Sydney Porter, better known
by the pseudonym "0. Henry," are to take the place of
those of Milton. The President 's addresses to Congress are
to be studied in preference to the works of Shakespeare,
but while Shakespeare 's writings will still be used sparingly
(for which one may fte excused for offering a prayer of

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 207

thanks), the monotony of applying the mind to the Bard
of Avon's exquisite work is to be relieved by studying the
writings of Bernard Shaw and Oscar Wilde ! As an anti-
dote to Thackeray's "Vanity Fair," Kipling's "The Light
that Failed" is to be taken. In fine, it is declared that the
worth of the English classics is a negligible quantity —
teachers, we are told, are "killing the love of literature by
forcing upon pupils too much Carlyle, Scott, Thackeray,
and Dickens." As a further excuse for the substitutions
suggested, it is pointed out that the great English poets
and masters of literature did not write or speak in the
vernacular of the present day. For this weighty reason,
therefore, students of English speech and literature are to
be enticed from the classics by Shavian bait and the
brilliant but suggestive essays that compose "The Picture
of Dorian Gray!"

These proposals imply a morbid abhorrence for the study
of the accepted standards of beauty of expression and of
form so trying to the patience that one is driven to ask
whether it is not the teachers of English who are at fault
rather than the well of good English that has run dry. As
the editor of an evening paper16 recently remarked, "To
insist on diluting Shakespeare with Bernard Shaw does,
indeed, indicate a certain futility of mental process which
does not command respect. ' ' It may be pointed out that in
regard to forms of speech the present usage of society as a
whole — with its jargon and its conventionally imposed bad
grammar and vicious syntax — is not more authoritative
than the illiterate or obsolescent phrases of passed gener-
ations.

Whatever success the proposal referred to may have it

i« "The Evening Sun," New York, December 4, 1914.

208 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

can not be immediate, and there is ground for congratu-
lation that the National Conference of Associated Colleges
and Preparatory Schools of New England, the Middle
States and Maryland, the North Central States, the Central
Atlantic States, and the Southern States, has determined
that the entrance requirements in English for the years
1915 to 1919 inclusive shall embrace, in the Department of
Literature, the study of the following groups:

A. FOR READING

GROUP I. Classics in Translation: (1) The Old Testament,
comprising at least the chief narrative episodes in Genesis,
Extodus, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, and Daniel, together
with the Books of Ruth and Esther. (2) The "Odyssey," Books
VI to XIV— the others may be studied, if desired. (3) The
"Iliad," Books I to X, XII, XVI, and XVIII to XX— the
others may be studied, if desired. (4) The "^neid." The
"Odyssey," "Iliad" and "^Eneid" should be read in English
translations of recognized literary excellence. For any selection
from this group a selection from any other group may be
substituted.

GPuoup II. Shakespeare: (1) "Midsummer Night's Dream";

(2) "Merchant of Venice"; (3) "As You Like It" ; (4) "Twelfth
Night"; (5) "The Tempest"; (6) "Romeo and Juliet"; (7)
"King John"; (8) "Richard II."; (9) "Richard III."; (10)
"Henry V."; (11) "Coriolanus" • (12) "Julius Oesar"; (13)
"Macbeth"; (14) "Hamlet."

GROUP III. Prose Fiction: (I) Malory, "Morte d Arthur"
(about 100 pages); (2) Bunyan, "Pilgrim's Progress," part I:

(3) Swift, "Gulliver's Travels" (voyages to Lilliput and to
Brobdingnag) ; (4) Defoe, "Robinson Crusoe," part I; (5) Gold-
smith, "Vicar of Wakefield"; (6) Frances Burney, "Evelina";
(7) Scott's Novels, any one; (8) Jane Austen's Novels, any one;

(9) Maria Edgeworth, "Castle Rackrent," or "The Absentee";

(10) Dickens's Novels, any one; (11) Thackeray's Novels, any
one; (12) George Eliot's Novels, any one; (13) Mrs. Gaskell,
"Cranford"; (14) Kingsley, "Westward Ho!" or "Hereward, the

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 209

Wake"; (15) Reade, "The Cloister and the Hearth"; (1C)
Blackrnore, "Lorna Doone"; (17) Hughes, "Tom Brown's
Schooldays"; (18) Stevenson's "Treasure Island," or "Kid-
napped," or "Master of Ballantrae"; (19) Cooper's Novels, any
one; (20) Poe, "Selected Tales"; (21) Hawthorne, "The House
of the Seven Gables," or "Twice Told Tales," or "Mosses from
an Old Manse"; (22) A collection of Short Stories by various
standard writers.

GROUP IV. Essays, Biography, etc.: (1) Addison and Steele,
"The Sir Roger de Coverley Papers," or selections from "The
Tatler" and "The Spectator" (about 200 pages) ; (2) Boswell,
selections from the "Life of Johnson" (about 200 pages) ; (3)
Franklin, "Autobiography"; (4) Irving, selections from the
"Sketch Book" (about 200 pages), or "Life of Goldsmith"; (5)
Southey, "Life of Nelson"; (6) Lamb, selections from the
"Essays of Elia" (about 100 pages) ; (7) Lockhart, selections
from the "Life of Scott" (about 200 pages) ; (8) Thackeray,
lectures on Swift, Addison, and Steele in the "English
Humorists"; (9) Macaulay, any one of the following essays: (a)
Lord Clive, (b) Warren Hastings, (c) Milton, (d) Addison,
(e) Goldsmith, (/) Frederic the Great, (g) Madame d'Arblay;
(10) Trevelyan, selections from the "Life of Macaulay" (about
200 pages) ; (11) Ruskin, "Sesame and Lilies," or selections
from his writings (about 150 pages) ; (12) Dana, "Two Years
before the Mast"; (13) Lincoln, selections from his addresses,
including at least the two Inaugurals, the speeches in Independ-
ence Hall and at Gettysburg, the last public address, the letter
to Horace Greeley; together with a brief memoir or estimate
of Lincoln; (14) Parkman, "The Oregon Trail"; (15) Thoreau,
"Walden"; (16) Lowell, "Selected Essays" (about 150 pages);
(17) Holmes, "The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table"; (18)
Stevenson, "An Inland Voyage" and "Travels with a Donkey" ;
(19) Huxley, "Autobiography" and selections from "Lay Ser-
mons," including the addresses on "Improving- Natural knowl-
edge," "A Liberal Education," and "A Piece of Chalk": (20)
Collection of Essays by Bacon, Lamb, DeQuincey, Hazlitt,
Emerson, and later writers; (21) Collection of Letters by
various standard writers.

210 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

GROUP V. Poetry: (1) Palgrave's "Golden Treasury" (First
Series) : Books II and III, with special attention to Dry den,
Collins, Gray, Cowper, and Burns; (2) Palgrave's "Golden
Treasury" (First Series), Book IV, with special attention to
Wordsworth, Keats, and Shelley (if not chosen for study under
B) ; (3) Goldsmith : "The Traveler" and "The Deserted Village" ;
(4) Pope: "The Rape of the Lock"; (5) A collection of English
and Scottish Ballads, as, for example, some Robin Hood ballads,
"The Battle of Otterburn," "King Estmere," "Young Beichan,"
"Bewick and Grahame," "Sir Patrick Spens," and a selection
from later ballads; (6) Coleridge, "The Ancient Mariner,"
"Christabel," and "Kubla Khan"; (7) Byron, "Childe Harold,"
Canto III or IV, and "The Prisoner of Chillon"; (8) Scott,
"The Lady of the Lake," or "Marmion"; (9) Macaulay, "The
Lays of Ancient Rome," "The Battle of Naseby," "The Armada,"
"Ivry"; (10) Tennyson, "The Princess," or "Gareth and
Lynette," "Lancelot and Elaine," and "The Passing of Arthur" ;
(11) Browning, "Cavalier Tunes," "The Lost Leader," "How
They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix," "Home
Thoughts from Abroad," "Home Thoughts from the Sea,"
"Incident of the French Camp," "Herve Riel," "Pheidippides,"
"My Last Duchess," "Up at a Villa— Down in the City," "The
Italian in England," "The Patriot," "The Pied Piper," "De
Gustibus— " "Instans Tyrannus"; (12) Arnold, "Sohrab and
Rustum," and "The Forsaken Merman"; (13) Selections from
American Poetry, with special attention to Poe, Lowell, Long-
fellow, and Whittier.

B. FOR STUDY

The foregoing are supplemented by the following, intended
as a natural and logical continuation of the student's earlier
reading, with greater stress laid upon form and style, the exact
meaning of words and phrases, and the understanding of
allusions. The books provided are arranged in four groups,
from each of which one selection is to be made.

GROUP I. Drama. Shakespeare, "Julius Ca3sar," "Macbeth,"
"Hamlet."

GROUP II. Poetry. Milton, "L'Allegro," "II Penseroso," and
either "Comus" or "Lycidas"; Tennyson, "The Coming of

LITERATURE: ITS ELEMENTS 211

Arthur," "The Holy Grail," and "The Passing of Arthur";
The selections from Wordsworth, Keats, and Shelley in Book
IV. of Palgrave's "Golden Treasury" (First Series).

GROUP III. Oratory. Burke, "Speech on Conciliation with
America"; Macaulay's Two "Speeches on Copyright," and Lin-
coln's "Speech at Cooper Union"; Washington's "Farewell
Address," and Webster's "First Bunker Hill Oration."

GROUP IV. Essays. Carlyle, "Essay on Burns," with a
selection from Burns's "Poems"; Macaulay, "Life of Johnson";
Emerson, "Essay on Manners."

The pursuit of such a comprehensive yet varied course
of reading, intelligently followed, should make the study of
literature a pleasure rather than an irksome duty.

The Function of the Dictionary

STUDYING the dictionary to get the greatest advantage
out of it with the least expenditure of time is an art easily
acquired. Once upon a time there lived an old lady who,
having read Dr. Samuel Johnson's dictionary from title
page to colophon, pronounced it a very interesting book,
but lacking in continuity and connection. She epitomized
the character of dictionaries in general ; still she was doubt-
less wiser at the finish than at the start, and in most cases a
similar course of reading would produce a like result. As
an editorial writer for "The Boston Evening Transcript"1
pointed out some time ago, people appropriate their vocabu-
laries to a rather undue extent from the speech of others or
from desultory reading. This is a rather haphazard way
of acquiring the proper methods or terms of expression, to
say nothing of the formation of style. It is dangerous
unless carefully balanced and steadied by authority. The
dictionary is not only a very interesting book, but next to
the Bible it should be the one in the library most frequently
consulted. Like the Bible, it is usually the one that receives
the least attention. In these days, when modern teaching
methods turn out so many poor spellers, it no doubt invites
frequent reference for the correction of orthographical
deficiencies, but that is only one and the slightest of its
functions. It belittles its dignity to make it take the place

1 "Boston Evening Transcript," December 27, 1911.

212

THE FUNCTION OF THE DICTIONARY 213

of the old spelling-book. Many mines of learning have been
explored and exploited to furnish the information that it
has to give.

The director of an oratorical club offered a prize for the
finest collection of words beginning with the same letter of
the alphabet, for the purpose of turning the attention of
those whom he directed to the treasures of the dictionary,
and to implant or reawaken within them an interest in that
much-neglected source of knowledge. The better the dic-
tionary is understood the clearer will be the interchange of
ideas either through the spoken word or the written page.
It is the only safe guide to the finer shades of meaning.
And even that has by no means reached its limitations.
Rich as the language is, additions to it are being made con-
stantly. Some of these are in response to obvious needs.
Others creep in through mere slovenliness. Fifty years
ago "humanitarian" was employed simply as a theological
term and applied rather in the way of reproach to one who
denied the divinity of Christ. Now it more commonly
describes one who manifests the finer and more altruistic
traits of our common nature — in fact a philanthropist.

How grudgingly some words are admitted into good
verbal society. But if they possess inherent usefulness
they will in good time win their way. In the class due to
slovenliness is ' ' replica. ' ' It means the exact reproduction
by an artist or artizan of a piece of work which he has
produced before. When preparations were making for
the New York Tercentenary a great deal was printed about
the "replica of the Half Moon" that was to be one of the
features. Even were he the "flying Dutchman" himself,
the designer of the original craft could hardly have been
on hand to duplicate his work. But some writers seemed

214 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

to like the word. It kept creeping into the dispatches. It
could not be kept out and it has been traveling ever since,
and eventually its sense must be modified to permit of
acceptance by the lexicographers. We should be particu-
larly wary of words that appeal to us because of their face
value, and find out whether they are likely to fit into our
contemplated verbal structures before employing them.
The word that should have been used to describe this imi-
tation of the "Half Moon" is "ectype" — ugly but exact.

The vocabulary of the average man has often been the
subject of speculation and estimate but seldom has a system-
atic attempt to determine its actual strength in number
of words been made. For such an attempt thanks are due
to the Editor of the "Indianapolis Journal," who made
what, to all intents and purposes, may be termed a practical
study of the subject. He was led to do this by the publica-
tion of a statement that an ordinary man will say everything
that any occasion calls for with a vocabulary of 1,000
words. Of these he commonly uses but 400 or 500, reserv-
ing the remainder for the emergency of an idea out of his
usual line of thought.

In harmony with this is a statement once made by a
speaker at an educational meeting: "The best-educated
person in this room will not use more than 600 or 700
words." And he added that an ignorant man would not
use more than 300 or 400. Some years ago a writer in the
"Chautauquan" said: "It is estimated that an English
farm-hand has a vocabulary limited to 300 words. An
American workman who reads the newspapers may com-
mand from 700 to 1,000 words. Five thousand is a large
number, even for an educated reader or speaker." This
differs considerably from the statement published in a

THE FUNCTION OF THE DICTIONARY 215

recently compiled English encyclopedia2 which states that
''It has been reckoned that the agricultural laborer uses
about 1,500 words, but this is probably an over-estimate.
Intelligent artizans have a vocabulary of 4,000 words, which
educated persons are familiar with, if they do not use 8,000
to 10,000 words." This is a step forward all along the line,
but it is a long distance from Dr. Joseph Jacobs' discoveries.
In a recent review,3 Dr. Jacobs said l ' that the average well-
educated American or Englishman can control from 30,000
to 35,000 words." His own range, and it must be remem-
bered that he commands six or seven languages, he in-
adequately sets somewhat higher — 50,000 words — and adds,
"a learned jurist of my acquaintance would appear to be
fairly familiar with 55,000 words." Figures like these
leave Milton 's vocabulary of 13,000 words or 9,000, which-
ever it may be, and Shakespeare's 24,000, 21,000 or 15,000
words (as his vocabulary has been variously computed4)
far in the shade, and yet what did they not achieve with
words! Dr. Jacobs thinks that a professional dealer in
words may be able to recognize at first sight from 60,000 to
70,000 words.

But given an individual with a vocabulary of 10,000
primitive words, it is a simple matter for him to increase
his stock of words fivefold or more by the use of prefixes
and suffixes. From four to six derivatives may be formed
by the use of these from nearly every primitive word. Take,

2 "Everybody's Cyclopedia," p. 339.

8 "New York Times," Saturday Review of Books, November 16, 1913.

4 Professor Albert Cook in his "Study of English," says: "Shakespeare, it
has been estimated, employs about 21,000 words (others say 15,000 or 24,000) ;
Milton, in his verse, about 13,000. . . . The whole English Bible, if we may
trust Marsh, employs about 6,000." According to a computation made by
the writer, and based on the number of Hebrew words translated into English,
there are in the Old Testament alone 8,674 words.

216 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

for example, the words abolish, accent, accept, and access,
and note the number of their derivatives.

Abolish: — abolished; abolishable; abolisher; abolishment;
abolition; abolitional; abolitionary; abolitiondom ; abolitionism;
abolitionist ; abolitionize.

Accent: — accentor; accentric; accentual; accentualist ; accen-
tually; accentuality ; accentuate; accentuable; accentuation;
accentus.

Accept: — acceptable; acceptableness ; acceptability; accept-
ably; acceptance; acceptancy; acceptant; acceptation; accepted;
acceptedly; aceeptilate; acceptation ; acception; acceptive;
acceptor; acceptress.

Access: — accessary; accessarily; accessariness ; accessaryship ;
accessible; accessibility; accessibly; accession; accessional;
accessit; accessive; accessively; accessorial; accessoriness ;
accessorius; accessory; accessorily.

Now add to these such other forms as may be made by the
use of such common privatives as in-, non-, un-, etc. Apply-
ing these to the words cited above, we get in addition the
following : —

In: — inacceptable ; inaccessible; inaccessibility; inaccessible-
ness; inaccessibly.

Non : — non-acceptance ; non-access.

Un : — unabolishable ; unabolished ; unaccented ; unaccentuated ;
unacceptable; unacceptableness ; unacceptability ; unacceptably ;
unacceptant; unaccepted; unaccessible ; unaccessibleness ; un-
accessibly.

Thus out of four primitive words we secure a total of 74
words. If these four words could be accepted as character-
istic of the language and the same plan followed with the
10,000 primitive terms already referred to, the total would

THE FUNCTION OF THE DICTIONARY 217

be increased to 740,000 words. But all primitive words do
not have the same percentages of derivatives.

As stated above, the number of derivatives ranges from
four to six, therefore, any one having a vocabulary of
10,000 primitive words at command may be said to control
from 40,000 to 60,000 words irrespective of proper names.
If proper names be added to either of these totals they
might be increased by not less than 10,000 items from
Biblical, bibliographical, biographical, geographical and
mythological sources, and thus yield a total of 50,000 to
70,000 terms. From the foregoing it may be deducted that
"the average well-educated American or Englishman"
controls almost twice as many words as Dr. Jacobs esti-
mates. Judging the range of his own vocabulary from his
literary achievements, the writer would place it at not less
than 100,000 words. In considering the class which Dr.
Jacobs aptly characterizes as "the professional dealers in
words" it must be borne in mind that many of these have,
at one time or another, followed other vocations than that
of lexicographer. Some, for example, are not only encyclo-
pedists but lawyers ; others have followed the sciences, and
thereby may have added to their store of words the vast
vocabularies of the chemical, medical, or surgical pro-
fessions, or those of the biologist or botanist, of the elec-
trician or engineer, and so on. It naturally follows that
the wider the range of study or reading the greater the
number of words brought under control. From these
premises the conclusion of the writer is that the professional
dealer in words controls from 100,000 to 200,000 words.

To revert to the investigation mentioned above: Any
one may, with a little trouble, estimate the number of words
whose meanings would be plain to him in print or in speech.

218 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

The vocabulary of the Editor of the "Indianapolis Jour-
nal" was estimated by the aid of an abridged dictionary,
because almost all unusual words were at once eliminated
thereby.

Under each letter of the alphabet a page or more of
words was selected at random and counted. A separate
record was kept of primitive and derivative words. That
is, among the former was put "measure"; among the
latter "measureable," "measureableness," "measurably,"
"measured," "measureless," "measurement," "meas-
urer," "unmeasurable," and " unmeasured." Compound
words whose meanings were clearly indicated by their
component were omitted; as "clock-work," "draft-horse,"
"hard-earned." Counting this way, an average of twenty
primitive and thirty-five derivative words are found on
each page. This would make, there being 814 pages of
vocabulary in the dictionary, a total of 16,210 of the
former and 28,400 of the latter, or almost 45,000 in all.

Next was taken a page in each letter, and on it were
counted the words which it seemed any person of average
intelligence would be able to use and understand. On
twenty-four pages there were 268 primitive words and 221
derivative, or nearly 9,000 in all of the former, and more
than 7,000 of the latter. And, lastly, was made a count
of very common words, such as even a poorly educated
person could hardly escape knowing, and they were found
to number 5,700 primitive and 3,200 derivative. No
proper names were included in any of the countings.

It would, therefore, seem to follow, if what we are told
of the vocabularies of Shakespeare and Milton be correct,
that a person of average education to-day knows at least
as many words as did the former, and one whose school

THE FUNCTION OF THE DICTIONARY 219

opportunities have been limited is capable of walking beside
the latter in this respect. As regards ideas and ability to
express them, however, the difference may be world-wide.

The foregoing facts seem to warrant these general con-
clusions: Every well-read person of fair ability and edu-
cation will be able to define or to understand as used nearly
or quite, perhaps, more than, 50,000 words. And the same
person in conversation and writing will command not fewer
than 15,000 to 20,000, and can add 5,000 to 10,000 to these
numbers if he be literarily inclined. The plain people, as
Lincoln liked to call them, use or read understandingly
from 8,000 to 10,000 words according to their general in-
telligence and conversational power, while a person who
can not read, but who has a good degree of native mental
ability, will command about 5,000.

Professor Emerson tells us that each individual has a
vocabulary of his own, differing somewhat from that of
another individual, and largely from that of the whole race.
The child first learns only a few of the words belonging
to the locality in which he lives. As he grows older he
gradually acquires others, while he learns to use some
words which he finds in books, as well as to recognize many
which he does not actually use. Travel, or a large acquain-
tance, adds other new words to the original stock, while on
the other hand, some words used in childhood and youth
are discarded and finally lost. The vocabulary even of the
individual is, therefore, not stable, but constantly changing,
constantly suffering growth and decay. The expression
vocabulary of the individual has two distinct senses, as it
applies, first, to the words he actually uses, and second, to
the words he understands when used.5

B "History of the English Language," p. 114.

220 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

How then shall he set about to increase this vocabulary
in the shortest space of time ? Let him begin by cultivating
what may be termed a taste for the dictionary, and let him
consult the book as frequently as he comes across words
whose meanings are not known to him. There is nothing
tame or prosy about this labor. When a new word or an
unfamiliar word is found, or a word is used in a new sense,
it should be run down to its source, for if this is done it
will leave a lasting impression on the mind. Besides, the
•examples the dictionary gives from literature to illustrate
the meanings of words, if studied, enable one to see the force
of a word at once and to trace its history from remote times
to the present. Of all the tastes which may be cultivated,
none is so profitable as this one. The great Earl of Chat-
ham acquired it; Daniel Webster, the prince of orators,
formed it ; and William Pinckney, the giant of the Ameri-
can bar of his day, developed it by studying the dictionary
assiduously page after page, content with nothing less
than the complete mastery of the English tongue. The
Earl of Chatham read Bailey's folio dictionary through
twice, scrutinizing each word carefully so as to bring the
whole range of the English language under his control.
At one time in his life the dictionary was read aloud to him
once a year ; and he was wont to complain that many noble
words fell from time to time out of use.

Intelligent reference to the dictionary teaches not only
the origin and the spelling of words, but the pronunciation,
the part of speech, the meanings, and the fine distinctions.
Cicero has said, ' ' The use and the command of proper words
are the groundwork of correct speech." They give one a
thorough command of the language.

There was a time when dictionary makers and printers

THE FUNCTION OF THE DICTIONARY 221

aimed to control the language and the philosophy of its
structure. Of these men the late Professor George P.
Marsh said: "They suggest wrong etymologies and thereby
give a new shade of meaning to words, and exert over
speech a sway no less absolute or no more conducive to the
interests of good taste and truth in language than that
which the modiste possesses in the fashion of dress. " Of
the dictionaries themselves, he added: "Those selected are
often works of no real philological merit. The aim of their
authors has been, not to present the language as it is, as
the conjoined influence of uncontrollable circumstances and
learned labor has made it, but as, according to their crude
notions, it ought to be."6

"What," asked Dr. Phelps in 1884, "is the best English
dictionary for the use of an American author and public
speaker? In answer, I remark first, that, in respect to
purity of language, no dictionary now extant can be ac-
cepted as good authority. Both our standard lexicons, Web-
ster's and Worcester's, are helps ; but neither is a conclusive
authority. Both have, in their later editions, been con-
structed on principles other than those which govern a
scholar's vocabulary. They are both committed to the
search for the largest number of words in use6a ; not, by any
means, all of them in good use. Neither the scholarly
editors, nor the enterprising publishers, would venture to
commend all the words in either as pure English ; and the
distinctions they make between words obsolete, and words
vulgar, and words rare, can not always be depended on.
A scholarly writer is not safe in using every word which

a "Lectures on the English Language," p. 363.

6a The vocabulary strength of Webster's Unabridged American Dictionary
was 119,000 words, as against 117,000 words recorded by Worcester. The In-
ternational of 1890 contained only 125.000 words; but the New International
of 1909 registered 400,000 — an increase of 275,000 words in nineteen years.

222 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

these dictionaries do not condemn, or question in point of
purity. We greatly need a dictionary the equal of these
in other respects, and at the same time a perfect standard
of pure English."7

Great strides have been made in lexicography since then
and things are very different now.

The keynote which guides the new school of lexicog-
raphers that has arisen since then was struck by Dr. Isaac
Kauffman Funk, editor-in-chief of the " Standard Dic-
tionary. ' ' In the preface to his work Dr. Funk laid down
the principle that throughout the compilation of his work
it was borne in mind that the chief function of a diction-
ary is to record usage, not, except in a limited degree, to
seek to create it. The exception was rendered necessary
for the correction of the misuse of words very prevalent
in some quarters. He says: "The work of a dictionary
is to define not to advocate. It is to give accurate defini-
tions to words, and thus help advocates to discuss intelli-
gently, using with precision the terms employed. Advocacy
or comment was a common fault in early English lexi-
cography. John "Wesley defined in his dictionary : 'Metho-
dist, one that lives according to the method laid down in
the Bible, ' and Johnson, in his dictionary, did not hesitate
to rap the Scotch in his definition of oats, nor to indulge
in such pleasantry as, 'Lexicographer: Writer of diction-
aries : a harmless drudge that busies himself in tracing the
original, and detailing the signification of words.' ; "The
work of the lexicographer nowadays, " wrote Dr. Funk, "is
much more prosaic, and the glasses through which he sees
must be wholly colorless. "8

T "English Style in Public Discourse," p. 26.

8 "A Standard Dictionary of the English Language," Intro, x-xi.

THE FUNCTION OF THE DICTIONARY 223

Modesty was certainly not one of the failings of the
founder of Methodism if one may judge from the title-
page of the dictionary which he published in 1753 — "The
Complete English Dictionary, explaining most of those hard
words which are found in the best English writers. By
a Lover of Good English and Common Sense. N. B. —
The Author assures you he thinks this is the best English
Dictionary in the world."

National development causes the growth of language, and
as we advance in the knowledge of the arts and sciences
we require new words to describe new inventions, new dis-
coveries. This can not be better illustrated than by citing
the terms which the so-called "conquest of the air" has
brought into being, or those which the discovery of wireless
telegraphy has brought with it. Among words of the
former class are such as "aeroplane," "aerodrome," "bi-
plane," "glider," "helicopter," "monoplane," "or-
thopter," and "volplane"; and in the latter, "cohere,"
"decohere," "hysteresis," " marconigram, " and "radio-
gram. ' ' The development of new powers, the manufacture
of firearms, farming implements, appliances, and instru-
ments; new methods of manufacture or of handling raw
materials ; new discoveries in chemistry, medicine, and sur-
gery— all have helped to enrich our language.

The profitable study of the dictionary is an art in itself ;
for not only does it teach spelling, the pronunciation, the
meaning, and the etymology of words, but also synonymy,
which is the systematic study of synonyms, "one of the
most valuable of intellectual disciplines."9

No language can compare with English in words that
are the approximate or the precise equivalents of one

9 G. P. Marsh, "Lectures on the English Language," xxvi. pp. 507-508,

224 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

another in meaning. For this reason it is best to make a
systematic study of synonyms, and while this can be done
more or less laboriously by the aid of the dictionary, it
can be accomplished more systematically and more speedily
by consulting some work devoted to this branch of philology.
And here, a word or two of advice as to the selection of
the books to be used may not be out of place. There are,
among other books devoted to this subject, the works of
Whately, Crabbe, Roget, Smith, Fallows and Fernald.
Archbishop Whately 's work, as it contains possibly no
more than five hundred words, is of little value to-day.
Crabbe 's book, while excellent in many respects because of
the examples he cites, is marred by defects owing to the
writer's want of knowledge of the derivation of words.
Eoget 's ' ' Thesaurus ' ' has long proved serviceable to men of
large vocabularies on account of its comprehensive char-
acter, its system of classification, and its ease of con-
sultation. Fallows' work consists of little else than bare
lists of words, and is now out of date. Fernald 's "Syn-
onyms, Antonyms, and Prepositions/' is a work of a totally
different kind. The method followed, not altogether unlike
that originated by Crabbe, has been to select from every
group of synonyms one word, or two contrasted words, the
meaning of which can be settled by clear, definitive state-
ment, thus securing some fixed point or points to which
all the other words of the group may be referred. The
great source of vagueness, error, and perplexity in many
discussions of synonyms is, that the writer merely asso-
ciates stray ideas loosely connected with the different
words, sliding from synonym to synonym with no definite
point of departure or return, so that a smooth and, at first
sight, pleasing statement really gives the mind no definite

THE FUNCTION OF THE DICTIONARY 225

resting-place and no sure conclusion. A true discussion
of synonyms is definition by comparison, and for this there
must be something definite with which to compare. When
the standard is settled, approximation or differentiation can
be determined with certainty and clearness. It is not
enough to tell something about each word. The thing to
tell is how each word is related to others of that particular
group.

The book contains also more than 3,700 antonyms. These
are valuable as supplying definition by contrast or by
negation, one of the most effective methods of defining
being in many cases to tell what a thing is not. To speakers
and writers antonyms are useful as furnishing effective
antitheses.

Much valuable help is afforded by the indication of the
correct use of prepositions, the misuse of which is one of
the common errors and one of the most difficult to avoid,
while their right use gives to style cohesion, firmness and
compactness and is an important aid to perspicuity.10

We live in an age of specialization. Before the publi-
cation of Dr. Funk's dictionary the lexicons in use were
modeled upon old and irrational lines. Compiled as they
were by a handful of scholars, it was not to be expected
that the knowledge of these few men could cover such a
vast area of research and exact knowledge as was demanded
in the production of authoritative works of reference.
With the advance of knowledge came the era of special-
ization. Men who had devoted their lives to special lines
of activity, were selected as best qualified to speak on their
particular specialty. To make his dictionary authoritative
and indisputably exact Dr. Funk referred all questions that

10 J. C. Fernald, idem. pp. viii-x.

226 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

arose for answer to the men best qualified to reply to them.
Hence, he produced a work that an English critical review
declared ' ' challenges criticism and commands admiration. ' '
He blazed a path through the intricacies of lexicography
that his competitors have been quick to follow. But how
much more one may learn from the dictionary has yet to
be told, and as this has been most effectively done by De
Amicis, his views are given below.

Edmondo de Amicis, born at Oneglia in 1846; Italian
soldier, patriot, publicist and litterateur — the friend of
Theophile Gautier — won more renown with the pen than
he did with the sword. As a writer he was prolific. His
knowledge of his native tongue made him master of ex-
pression. Before his death, which occurred at Bordighera
in 1908, he told the world how he obtained the extraordinary
command of language that characterizes all his work.
Baudelaire once asked Gautier how he had learned to write
as he did. Gautier replied: "I studied the dictionary."
He read the dictionary constantly, he said, and always
with renewed pleasure. When the meaning of these words
came home to De Amicis it seemed to him that a mist had
risen from before him and had revealed to him the straight
road to the correct understanding of his mother tongue.
"I saw," said he, "in a flash that it was not merely
necessary but that it was actually a duty, a matter of con-
science for every writer, for every patriotic citizen, to
study the dictionary of his native tongue; to read from
start to finish ; to annotate it, and to draw from it constantly
the gems to be found on every page, and so by force of
habit assimilate little by little the learning it contains.
When this dawned upon me a feeling of shame that I had
not found it out before overcame me. Shaking my finger

THE FUNCTION OF THE DICTIONARY 227

at the ink-well, I exclaimed in apostrophe : ' Blush for your
ignorance.' Then I started to enumerate the various
reasons for blushing: (1) No one could with reason sup-
pose he had studied his mother tongue unless he had made
use of the simplest, quickest and surest way to learn, if
not all, almost all its elements. (2) That this way was
none other than through using the dictionary, the only
book which contains all the riches of our language and, as
it were, accept its contents entirely with a confidence on
which the intellect can rely and from which it may proceed
with greater daring to the study of books. To study a
language through books alone, or only by word of mouth,
is to study it in a haphazard way ; for books contain only a
part of it, and the people can not speak it all, not to
mention the impossibility of grasping all if all could be
spoken. Of this we have proof in the fact that no one ever
turned over even a few pages of the dictionary without
finding a good number of words that may be applied to
certain things or facts of which he had no knowledge, or if
he had it has forgotten, and for which he substituted com-
parisons, definitions, or circumlocutions. Failure to study
the dictionary has created an infinity of words which are
now seldom used or written by any one, anywhere ; for one
can never know how to use them when occasion requires,
unless one spends hours in what often proves to be futile,
weary search. In a written language, and even in one
spoken by cultured people, there is much less variety than
there might be, simply because they do not study the dic-
tionary. Everyone of a certain age provides himself with
a vocabulary which suffices to express all that he ordinarily
desires to say; to this he seldom adds except on some
extraordinary occasion. Now, by reading the dictionary

228 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

daily one might add to one's stock, and thus daily say
something more and thereby enrich our common toneue,
both written and spoken. I considered many other reasons
but never came to the conclusion that I had hitherto been
cheated into considering the dictionary merely as a book
made to answer questions when it was interrogated; that
it was a book to be read continually like a history, an essay,
or a novel; to be kept on the table by the bedside; and to
be carried in parts even on country rambles. Beginning
at A, I started to read, and did so with increasing zest. In
a few days I had devoured several hundred pages and so
covered their margins with notes that these were hidden
from sight. What else would you have? The pleasure
which I derived was so great that I could not resist my
inclination to give it expression and, pausing in my read-
ing, I wrote the following lines :

" ' Imagine a vast building in which all the articles that
could be seen at a hundred expositions are collected to-
gether and massed in inextricable confusion. To walk
through such a place must cause a similar delight to that
which I experienced by reading the dictionary. We pass
from city to country, from sea to shore, from earth to sky,
from the heavens to the bowels of the earth with the
rapidity of thought. Side by side with an article of fur-
niture we have a medieval weapon; beside the weapon a
rare fish; then an Asiatic plant; then a bit of ingenious
mechanism, a precious stone, a flower, a building, a textile
fabric. We meet with instruments, customs of every kind,
representatives of every science, costumes of every nation,
of all ages, images of every form of religious worship. We
are continually accompanied by a mingled sound of poems,
proverbs, popular concerts, expressions of amazement, in-

THE FUNCTION OF THE DICTIONARY 229

suits, compliments, jeers, and salutations. We come into
contact with a multitude of words which seem like masks
of men, scholars, dandies, spectacled professors ; antiquated
words, snuffy archeologists, snarling at modern men and
times; modern words, fresh, bold, like boys just launched
into the world with letters of recommendation from some
well-accredited author; common words, public men with a
long train of clients; sinister words, questionable char-
acters; bombastic words, the braggarts of a popular as-
sembly ; effeminate words, affected nobles of recent creation ;
indecent words, shameless women with a brand upon their
brow; foreign words, travelers who have lost their way;
diminutives, troops of tiny children in long rows with
their mothers at the head. Some of these we pass without
a glance, as members of our own household; to others we
bow hastily and indifferently; toward some we hasten as
forgotten friends suddenly sprung to life again; before
others yet we pause a moment to recall their faces to our
memory; one shows us a mistake we have made, another
gives us friendly advice ; this one treats a historic fact, that
one explains a popular tradition ; and we meditate, laugh,
dream and learn language, history, morals, poetry, science,
sports and trades, until we close the book bewildered, as if
leaving a building in which we had found at once a theater,
a college and a market. What more can be found in any
book? How can anyone deny that this is a magic book?
And who can ever say that he has had enough of it?'

" Paolo Mantegazza fails to name the dictionary in his
* Physiology of Pleasure/ and it is an omission not easily
pardoned. I remember a professor of mathematics, ar-
dently devoted to his science, who, having taken the table
of logarithms into the classroom for the first time, pored

230 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

over his book until his chin rested on its covers, and, waving
his arms exclaimed with much content: 'How sweet to
drift upon this tide!' And so it is sweet to drift in the
dictionary. We float down the columns, as if borne by
the current of a mighty stream, and the words are villages,
plants, and people scattered along the shore. Here we offer
no resistance, but glide on placidly, thinking of a thousand
things. . . . The dictionary is a fantastical book. Some
persons say that to read the 'Arabian Nights' is to unfold
a whirl of dazzling mental images which cause a sort of
inebriation which is followed by entrancing dreams. 'Fifty
pages of the dictionary produce a denser, more varied,
more dazzling host of images in my brain than fifty pages
of the 'Arabian Nights.' I close the book, close my eyes
and see a myriad of dissimilar things about me, which
moving as in a circle chase one another, appearing and dis-
appearing like a host of butterflies, and producing a
pleasant mental agitation, which follows me even in my
sleep. The dictionary excites my senses.

"Putting the pleasure aside and looking at the matter
in a somewhat pedantic way, how much this invaluable book
teaches in its familiar words and with its homely kind-
ness! "With its clear, simple, calm definitions and speci-
fication of things, it enables us to form our ideas and to
express them clearly ; so that, if after reading it for an hour,
we sit down to write, we feel as if our thoughts and our
way of giving expression to them could never be sufficiently
direct and clear ; so we no longer are satisfied with the first
form, and end by improving it. By constantly studying
its minute definitions of the vast number of things which
we usually indicate by adding gestures to words, we
accustom ourselves to exactness of description, to the use

THE FUNCTION OF THE DICTIONARY 231

of the correct word. The dictionary excites our curiosity
at every step. As we read, we wish we had at hand now
a botanist, now a mechanic, now an archeologist, now a
historian whom we may beset with questions. But they
are not available so we can not satisfy our curiosity; our
questions remain unanswered, we bide our time. Then,
again, the dictionary kindles many a spark in our brain, for
word and thought are twins of the mind. Gautier said
that some words were like diamonds, others like rubies, and
others like sapphires, and they only needed proper setting.
"We may claim more: there are words which inspire us to
great deeds ; words that awaken a thousand thoughts which
have been slumbering in the innermost cells of our brain,
and words that recall to mind some long-forgotten book.
Finally the reading of a dictionary teaches us modesty, for
no matter how well-educated we may be we can find in
every column some word which leads us to exclaim: 'I
didn't know that!' and we realize the limitations of our
knowledge. Many of us should read it if only to follow
the example of the snail and draw in our horns. "

De Amicis considers the dictionary as the most truly
"national" book. It is, he says, an agreeable useful and
moral companion to which all ages and all sorts and con-
ditions of men have contributed — scholars, clowns who did
not know a single letter of the alphabet, and children even.
It quotes a verse from every poet, and contains a sentence
from every writer of prose. Great events have left their
traces on its pages; it is the history of our language and
its battlefields, for here is arrayed a victorious army of
vigorous, living words; there lie the dead and dying — the
obsolete and the obsolescent words, the last like so many
cripples or wounded are hobbling to the rear, and there

232 ESSENTIALS OP ENGLISH SPEECH

again, is a foreign legion — words that like soldiers of for-
tune have strayed from their native land to lend us a
hand and enable us to express ourselves the more clearly
thereby. Then, like De Amicis, let us hail the dictionary
''Master, friend, all-wise counselor that answerest all
questions; faithful companion of the student, dear and
glorious teacher, we acknowledge thee ! ' '

After this should one wonder at Daniel Webster's laconic
reply to a lately elected member of the United States
Senate who inquired of him what he would need in Wash-
ington— "Dictionaries, sir, Dictionaries!" Then, let us
study the dictionary column by column, page by page,
until we have increased our store of knowledge and acquired
an adequate vocabulary of words to serve the purpose of ex-
pressing our thoughts.

VII

The Dictionary as a Text-Book

ALTHOUGH the United States is the home of the English
dictionary, inasmuch as more dictionaries are made, sold,
and used under the Stars and Stripes than anywhere else
in the English-speaking world, it is curious that there exists
but a very limited knowledge of how to draw from its pages
the jewels of speech which be-gem our language. The
average man, woman, or child, who consults the pages of
a dictionary does so in a superficial sort of way. It may
be that a discussion has arisen upon the correct way to
spell or to pronounce a word; if so, the appeal is to the
dictionary to settle the argument. Again, perhaps, but
this rarely, it is a matter of what does the word mean or
whence came it? Once more the dictionary is appealed
to as the court of last resort, and in this respect, it may be
said, the people of America fortunately differ from their
friends across the water.

In America the supreme court of language is the dic-
tionary. The people bow down to it and therefore obtain
from it much more reliable information than the average
educated Englishman, who seldom or never consults . it.
It is commonly known that in the spelling, pronunciation,
meaning, and derivation of words in England the native is
a law unto himself. Sometimes one meets the type who
spells this way or pronounces that way because his father

233

234 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

and his grandfather did the same thing before him. But
more often one meets the man, and woman too, I regret to
say, who pronounces according to the vogue, and insists
that he or she is correct. Alas ! for them, the positivists are
invariably wrong. In the great majority of cases they
have no actual knowledge of orthoepy, and although they
may have some rudiments of orthography they would con-
demn the more inoffensive simple speller to the gallows
(if they had their way) for daring to spell " check " without
the ' ' q, " and ' ' labour ' ' without the " u. " They would hesi-
tate to enter a theater because they are accustomed to the
-re and would run out at once if they found that the final
-me was dropped from their program. Yet this very class
of educated person will talk of my den lyne, where the sound
required is that of the word that designates the national
beverage — "a" as in "ale" — and talk of "goin' huntin/ or
shootin'," because some ill-bred persons set afoot a society
for the mispronunciation of English words. That we, too,
sin in the same direction, notwithstanding our wealth of
dictionaries, is in evidence in some quarters, as is shown by
the corruption of our Anglo-Saxon1 yes to "yep," "yer,"
and "yah," as if the original corruption, or refinement,
were not enough. There are also pazzaza for piazza; eats
used for food; complected for complectioned, and hundreds
of other erroneous, and many other corrupted forms of
words which are known to be incorrect, yet are fostered by
certain classes notwithstanding the opposition offered to
them by people of culture.

With the publication of the ' ' New Standard Dictionary ' '
in America, and the approaching completion of the New
English Dictionary by Sir James Murray and his asso-

1 Gese, gitte, or gyse, from gea, "yea," and swa, "so."

THE DICTIONARY AS A TEXT-BOOK 235

ciates in England, let us hope that public attention will be
directed once again to a subject which, although closer to
the English-speaking races than to any other, is still per-
sistently neglected by them. To preserve it in its native
glory requires watchful care, for its correct use is the
ineffaceable cachet to culture in social circles throughout
the English-speaking world.

If it be possible to do so, my purpose is to get the public
to look upon the dictionary as the beacon-light of knowledge
to all men. It is not merely a word-book to be consulted
fitfully, or, because of its bulk, to be used as a substitute for
the worn-out screw of a piano-stool ; it is the national key
to human knowledge. With the dictionary as one's only
text-book it is possible to impart an education that no set
of text-books, be they even fifty in number, can impart.
Therefore, it behooves all who are concerned in the educa-
tion of the young to place this book on the same plane as
the churchmen of old placed the English Bible. The dic-
tionary should be placed on a lectern in every school
throughout the land, and the teachers should be required
to instruct their pupils in the art of how to use it intelli-
gently.

The purpose of this chapter is to point to the benefits that
can be derived from consulting the dictionary ; how by con-
scientious application the teacher and student may both
profit materially through studying its pages. To demon-
strate the practical character of the study proposed can not
be done better than by stating a case.

Take, for example, the study of English as a language in
a -public school. How shall the teacher proceed ? First,
by directing the pupil called up to turn to the word l i Eng-
lish " in the dictionary used by the class. (Here it should

236 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

be stated, that only an unabridged dictionary2 should be
used on the floor of the classroom.) The pupil proceeds
to read the definition slowly while his classmates copy down
the statement which he reads. English is the language of
England, or of the English peoples, wherever spoken. In
this sense there are four periods of the history of the Eng-
lish language: (a) The period from the earliest Teutonic
speech in England, A.D. 450 to A.D. 1150, the Anglo-Saxon
period, lately often called Old English, Oldest English.
This was the period of full inflection, (b) The period
from A.D. 1150 to A.D. 1350, called Early English, during
which the inflections were broken up (1150-1250), and
large numbers of French words were introduced into the
language (1250-1350). (c) The period from 1350 to 1550,
the Chaucer period, the Old English of literature, now
often called Middle English, in which the Saxon and Nor-
man elements were shaped into a new literary language.
(d) The period since 1550, called Modern English. It con-
sists of the cultivated mixed speech of the English since
the beginning of the Chaucer period, A.D. 1350.

Now, the entire class has before it a concrete statement of
what " English, " as far as it pertains to language, actually
is. Having proceeded so far, the next word requiring
consideration is "language." You, gentle reader, Tom
Brown, Jack Smith, or Ben Tibbs, all have a general idea
of what language is, of course; but can you express that
idea concisely, yet comprehensively enough, for it to pass
muster as your contribution to a Civil Service examination ?
If you can, then, you advance one step forward in the
course of this explanation ; if not, then you are required
to step to the lectern and read to the class what the word

2 The work used in the exposition that follows is the "Standard Dictionary."

THE DICTIONARY AS A TEXT-BOOK 237

" language" means and embraces, when it is used to desig-
nate the words, written or spoken, that cqmprise the means
of intercommunication between persons of the same race.
A language consists of all the uttered sounds, and their
combinations into words and sentences, that human beings
employ for the communication of ideas, together with the
written or printed representations of such sounds; the
expression of ideas by human words. The elements of
language are (1) nouns or merely naming words, also
called substantives; (2) adjectives (words attributing or
predicating), sometimes called nouns adjective; (3) verbs
(words asserting action or being) ; and (4) particles (words
more closely defining and giving the references of general
relation; called adverbs when more nearly defining and
making particular a quality or relation ; prepositions when
showing the relations of objects; conjunctions when con-
necting statements). These are combined into (1) phrases,
(2) clauses, and (3) sentences, simple, compound, and com-
plex. To get a clear idea of this one must examine all the
italicized words. Language embraces the words and com-
binations of words forming the means of communication
among the members of a single community, nation, or
people. Philologists recognize groups of related languages
or language-stocks, the most important of which (genetically
classified) are the Aryan, or Indo-European, the Semitic,
the Ural-Altaic, Scythian, or Turanian, the Monosyllabic
or southeastern Asian, and the Hamitic, the first written.
More than 1,000 languages are spoken on the globe — so
different that each is unintelligible to the speakers of any
other. Speeches less remote, but still called different, are
counted by thousands. The philological characteristics of
these groups (morphologically classified or considered) are

238 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

highly inflected structure for the Aryan and Semitic,
monosyllabic structure for the Chinese, or southeastern
Asian, and partly monosyllabic structure for the Hamitic
(Egyptian). The Basque and the American languages are
highly poly synthetic or agglutinative.

To what family or group does your native speech belong ?
You do not know? Then, look it up in your dictionary.
From it you learn that English is a language belonging to
the West Teutonic branch of the Teutonic subfamily in the
Indo-European division of the languages of the world,
and that certain existing forms, as the Irish, Manx, Cor-
nish, etc., belong to the Celtic subfamily.

Philology is the study of language in connection with
history and literature; specifically, classical learning: in
this, the older sense, commonly called philology or classical
philology. It is sometimes called also literary philology.
It embraces the scientific investigation of the laws and
principles that obtain in a language or a group of lan-
guages, and in this sense is usually called comparative phil-
ology, as involving the comparison of languages with each
other.

Comparative philology is in familiar use in England,
to denote linguistic philology, or linguistics, as opposed to
literary philology; but continental usage (especially Ger-
man), restricting philology to literary philology, favors a
specific term, like linguistics, linguistic science, science of
language, glossology, etc., for the linguistic. Philology in-
cludes the study of language as the word or as speech in
order to ascertain its elements and laws.

But to continue. What is a word? A word is a vocal
sound or combination of vocal sounds, used as a symbol to
embody and signify an idea or thought, especially a notion

THE DICTIONARY AS A TEXT-BOOK 239

or conception, and forming one of the elements of language ;
a single independent utterance, forming usually a con-
stituent unit of a sentence.

A vocal sound that is a mere reflex of sensation is not
usually regarded as a word; but a vocal sound of reflex
origin may become by general use significant of an idea,
and therefore as truly a word as any utterance belonging
to language ; such a word is oh. A word may be a single
elementary sound symbolized by one letter, as the English
indefinite article, or a combination' of many sounds; it
may express a simple or a complex idea; it may be any
part of speech ; it may be an elementary word, as eat, or a
complicated derivative, as uneatableness. In human lan-
guage all words, except proper names and certain ex-
clamations, are signs of generalized ideas, called notions.
Even particles that now seem almost unmeaning and un-
necessary, originally expressed some verbal, substantive, or
other idea.

A word is, also, the letter, or combination of written or
printed letters or characters, that stands for a significant
vocal sound or sounds. Words are made up of letters ; the
letters are, invariably, grouped to form an alphabet. At
least, so it is in English. Let us therefore turn to alphabet
and see what we can learn there.

We learn that an alphabet is a series of symbols indi-
cating sound, and that in philology it consists of the letters
that constitute collectively the elements of written lan-
guage, arranged in an order fixed by usage, as a, &, c, d,
etc. ; as, the English alphabet. The alphabets of different
nations vary in number of letters. The Arabic alphabet
has 28 letters, Armenian 38, Coptic 32, Dutch 26, English
26, French 25, Georgian 39, German 26, Greek 24, Hebrew

240 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

22, Italian 21, Latin 23, Persian (Parsi or Zend) 45, Rus-
sian 33, Sanskrit 49, Slavonic 40, Spanish 27 (reckoning
the digraphs ch and II), Syriac 22. The Chinese have no
alphabet, but about 20,000 syllabic characters.

It is more than this ; in fact, it is any system of symbols
or signs representing letters, syllables, words, or phrases;
as, a telegraphic, a shorthand, or a deaf-and-dumb alphabet.
In English we find there are 26 letters in the alphabet
ranging from A to Z. Let us turn to every one of these,
each in order, to find out what the dictionary tells us about
them. Here is A. The letter came to us from the Pheni-
cians through the Romans, and in English it is used in
combination with other letters in such a way that it has
no less than seven sounds for its single form. This is a
unique fact — that in English the vowel-letters a, e, i, o, and
u are used to express many more sounds than the symbols
themselves. Thus, a is used with a different pronunciation
in artistic, art, fat, fare, ask, sofa, senate; e is used with
different valuation in end, eight, eve, moment, over; i has
acquired the powers of sound shown in the following words,
pin, pine, police; o is pronounced in no less than five differ-
ent ways as in obey, no, not, nor, atom, and u follows
closely after with four sounds for the same letter, as is
shown by the power of the letter in the words full, rule,
but and burn.

Proceed by studying each letter in the same way through-
out the alphabet and you will thus acquire an intimate
knowledge of all the powers of the letters in English speech
that you can not hope to get otherwise. Follow this up by
studying the principles of pronunciation, as applied in the
dictionary, as you will find them explained in the intro-
ductory pages, then you may be said to have mastered the

THE DICTIONARY AS A TEXT-BOOK 241

principles of phonetic expression as applied to English
sounds.

The next step in advance is to consider what English
words are for — to express ideas. How do they do this?
Properly by following the rules of grammar. What is
grammar ? The dictionary tells us that grammar is the art
of speaking and writing a language correctly; but it does
not stop there. It tells us in addition that it is the science
that treats of the principles that govern the correct use
of language, and that it is often so defined to include (1)
orthography or the grammar of letters; (2) phonetics or
phonology or the grammar of sounds, which has already
been considered; (3) etymology or the grammar or science
of the derivation of words; (4) syntax or the grammar of
sentences; (5) prosody or the grammar of verse.

To get a correct idea of the sense of the italicized words
it is necessary to find out what they mean, therefore, the
student should look them up in their places in the vocabu-
lary of the dictionary, each in turn, and note their respective
definitions. Orthography is the science that treats of the
art of spelling words correctly. Spelling is the art of
pronouncing or writing the letters of a word in their
proper order. Phonetics or phonology is the science of
pronouncing words correctly. Etymology is the science
of the origin of words, their derivation, structure, and
growth. Syntax is the science that treats of the con-
struction of sentences by combining words in accordance
with the rules or laws of the language to which they
belong. It embraces (1) the doctrine of the joining of
words, in the simple sentence, treating of their relations as
elements of the sentence and subjects of concord and gov-
ernment; (2) the doctrine of the joining of sentences, in

242 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

compound and complex sentences, treating of coordination
and subordination; and (3) the doctrine of the collocation
of words and sentences in connected speech, treating of their
arrangement and relative positions as required by gram-
matical connection, euphony, clearness and energy of ex-
pression. To get a perfect idea of what these subdivisions
treat each italicized word should be looked up and its
definition carefully studied. Prosody is the science that
governs poetry or poetical forms, and which regulates the
quantity and accent of syllables, meter, and versification.
The meaning of each one of these terms should be written
down for handy reference and the attention should then
be turned to the word sentence. In grammar, a sentence
consists of a related group of words that contains certain
parts of speech, as a noun and a verb and their modifiers,
that express a complete thought. Before one can proceed
further it becomes necessary to have a clear understanding
of what is meant by parts of speech. The dictionary tells
us that a part of speech is any one of the words of a
language that is classified under the nine divisions in Eng-
lish grammar: (1) a noun, (2) a pronoun, (3) a verb, (4)
an adjective, (5) an adverb, (6) a conjunction, (7) a pre-
position, and (8) an interjection. According to some
grammarians there is a ninth class, the article, which is now
classed as a limiting adjective. To get a clear conception
of what these words are they must also be sought out in
their places in the dictionary vocabulary. An industrious
statistician has computed that in a dictionary containing
50,000 words which, in view of the fact that there are
upward of 450,000 living words in the language to-day,
may be described as greatly abridged, there are approxi-
mately 30,000 nouns, 10,000 adjectives, 5,000 verbs, 2,000

THE DICTIONARY AS A TEXT-BOOK 243

adverbs, 80 prepositions, 50 pronouns, 30 interjections, 20
conjunctions, and 3 articles.

A noun, we are told, is a word used as the name of a
thing, quality, or action existing or conceived by the mind.
Nouns are classified as (1) proper nouns (sometimes termed
proper names) ; (2) common nouns; (3) collective nouns;
(4) abstract nouns; and (5) material nouns. A proper
noun is the name of an individual as distinguished from
others of the same class as, John Smith, London, Mount
Washington; a common noun is the name that an individual
object has in common with others of its class as, man, city,
mountain; a collective noun is a noun that expresses an
aggregate or collection of individuals as, army, assembly,
congregation; an abstract noun is a noun that indicates a
quality as, beauty, goodness, strength; a material noun is
one that describes the material or homogeneous matter or
mass of which an object consists, as wine, sugar, gold, iron.
When a material noun is used in the plural it denotes
different kinds of the substance named.

Before turning to investigate the pronoun let us examine
the definition of the word concord, which is that part of
syntax which treats of the agreement of one word with
another as in gender, number, case, or person. To ascer-
tain whether a sentence meets the requirements of gram-
matical principles and usage we resort to parsing, which
is the art of describing a word by giving its classification
as a part of speech, its form as to inflection and derivation
or composition, and its relation to other words in a sentence.
Now, in parsing a noun there are three things which may
be told about it (1) its number; (2) its gender, and (3) its
case. Look up each one of these words.

In grammar number is the form of inflection that in-

244 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

dicates whether one thing or more is spoken of. It is a
quality possessed by (1) nouns, (2) pronouns, (3) ad-
jectives,3 and (4) verbs. Particular attention should be
given to this fact, which is of equal importance to all the
classes of words mentioned. English has two numbers,
singular and plural. The singular number notes one per-
son or thing ; as, boy, man, wife, goose, mouse, etc. ; the
plural number denotes more than one person or thing; as,
boys, men, wives, geese, mice, etc.

Gender is the property of certain words by which they
indicate the sex or lack of sex of that which they represent.
In English, gender is indicated (1) by endings; (2) by
qualifying words or prefixes; or (3) by words used exclu-
sively for males or females, especially in pairs. It classifies
words into masculine, feminine, or neuter, and other classes
as they a'gree in forms and syntax. There is a common
gender which embraces words that are of the same form
in the masculine as in the feminine; as, child, fish, day,
stone, etc. Examples of the three gender-formations re-
ferred to above are : (1) emperor, empress, widow, widower;
(2) man, woman, man-servant, maid-servant, he wolf, she
wolf; (3) father, mother; husband, wife; son, daughter;
he, she; cock, hen. Certain neuter words have a second
gender, as in personification, as sun (masculine), moon
(feminine).

Case denotes the relation of a noun, pronoun, or ad-
jective to other words in the same sentence. In English

3 Grammarians differ as to these. Dr. Fernald in his "Working Grammar
of the English Language" says (p. 91): "English adjectives have neither
gender, person, number, nor case." Goold Brown, in his "Grammar of English
Grammars," says (p. 542): "Adjectives that imply unity or plurality must
agree with their nouns in number ; as, that sort, those sorts ; this hand, these
hands."

THE DICTIONARY AS A TEXT-BOOK 245

case has, for the most part, come to signify a relation, the
inflections, or case-endings being confined to (1) the
possessive case ('s) of the noun, and to the pronouns; as,
nominative case, thou ; possessive case, thine ; objective case,
thee.

The nominative case is that of a noun which is subject of
a sentence and generally comes before the verb; as, "the
nephew dwells in his uncle's home." The objective case
denotes the case of the object of (1) a transitive verb, or
(2) a preposition, and usually follows after its verb; as,
"the Normans colonized Britain"; "he sailed from New
York to spend six weeks in London/' The possessive case
is, as its qualifying words suggest, the case of a noun or
pronoun that denotes possession, origin, or the like. Nouns
in the possessive case are formed by the addition of 's to
the nominative singular and to irregular plurals and an
apostrophe only to the regular plural; as Warren's bicycle;
men's souls; boys' shoes.

Pronouns in the possessive case have special forms, as
my, his, her; its; our, ours; your, yours; their, theirs; whose.
But we are anticipating. First let us find out what the
dictionary teaches us about pronouns. A pronoun is a
word that denotes a person or thing by certain temporary
relations, as 7 (the speaker), you (one spoken to), instead
of by a name or noun. There are five classes of pronouns :
(1) personal; (2) demonstrative; (3) interrogative; (4)
relative or conjunctive; (5) indefinite. A personal pro-
noun is one which denotes or indicates the person, and
distinguishes the three grammatical persons from one an-
other. By person is meant one of the relations or modi-
fications which distinguish the speaker, the person or thing
spoken to, the person or thing spoken of, also the forms or

246 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

inflections indicating each relation. The subject is one of
three persons, according as it is the one speaking, the one
spoken to, or some one or some thing that is spoken of.
There are no inflections to indicate the person in nouns.
In pronouns different forms designate the three persons.
First person, singular, "I"; plural "we"; second person,
singular, "thou" and by sanction of usage also "you";
plural, "you"; third person, singular, "he," "she," or
" it " ; plural, ' ' they. ' ' In verbs certain terminal inflections
indicate the person of the subject, and the verb is said to
be in the same person ; as, I love, thou lovesf, he loves. In
English the plural verb is without distinctive endings; in
French, German., Latin, and Greek the persons are dis-
tinguished by inflections. The gender of a pronoun is
either masculine, feminine or neuter. This is indicated by
its meaning or by the meanings of the noun for which it
stands.

A demonstrative pronoun is one which in itself defines
or indicates that to which it refers, thus pointing out-
definite objects; as, this, that, these, those.

An interrogative pronoun is one used to ask a question ;
as, who? which f what?

A relative or conjunctive pronoun is one that refers or
relates to an antecedent term or expression and joining to
it a qualifying clause; as, who, which, what, and their
compounds, whoever, whichever, whatever (which are
sometimes called adjectives) and that. A clause of a com-
plex sentence introduced by a relative pronoun, having a
subject and predicate of its own, and referring to, de-
scribing, or limiting an antecedent, is called a relative
clause, as, "he in whom we trust."

An indefinite pronoun is one that represents objects in-

THE DICTIONARY AS A TEXT-BOOK 247

definitely or generally; as, any, some, other, another, each,
either.

Pronouns are used in the nominative case, the possessive
case, and the objective case. The case of certain others
depends upon the manner in which they are used. The
pronouns used in the nominative case are I, we; thou, they;
he, she; ivho, whoever; those used in the possessive case are,
my, mine; thy, thine; his, her, hers; our, ours; your, yours;
their, theirs; whose; those used in the objective case are,
me, thee, him, us, them, whom, ivhomever. The case of the
following pronouns is dependent upon the manner of their
use : her, herself, himself, you, yourself, yourselves, myself,
thyself, ourselves, themselves, ye, it, itself, that, what, which,
whatever, and whichever.

The dictionary tells us that in grammar a verb is a part
of speech which asserts, declares, or predicates something.
A predicate is a word or words in a sentence that express
what is affirmed or denied of a subject; that which is
affirmed or denied of the subject; as, in the sentence "Life
is short." "short" is the predicate. The grammatical
predicate is the bare verb form in which the assertion is
made ; the logical predicate is that form with all its modi-
fiers. In the sentence ' ' John went away quietly, " " went ' '
is the grammatical predicate, and "went away quietly" is
the logical predicate. There is also the objective or factitive
predicate, which is an adjective or a noun made by a verb
to qualify its object; as, they called him a coward; she
wrings the clothes dry.

Verbs may be classified with regard to their use with or
without a grammatical object; as, (1) transitive, including
reflexive and reciprocal, and having in general two voices,
active and passive, and (2) intransitive. With regard to

248 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

the expression of action or state they are either (1) active
or (2) neuter; and with regard to the subject they are
either (1) personal or (2) impersonal. According to their
special import they also include the classes of desideratives,
f requentatives, or iteratives, and inchoatives. An auxiliary
verb is one that assists in the conjugation of another verb,
such as & e in the passive voice, have in the perfect tense,
shall and will as futures; it is a helping word. The term
formerly had a much wider range, embracing not only, as at
present, verbs of incomplete predication, but any sub-
ordinate or formative element of language, as prefixes or
even prepositions. A transitive verb is one that has, re-
quires or terminates upon a direct object; followed (in the
active voice) by a noun or pronoun in an objective or
accusative relation ; also, expressing an action performed by
a subject or agent, that passes over to and terminates upon
some person or thing as its object : said of a verb or of the
action expressed by it; as, a transitive verb; a transitive
action. See INTRANSITIVE below. There is some difference
of opinion among grammarians as to whether a verb whose
object is not expressed shall be called transitive or in-
transitive, some contending that any verb that may take
an object is transitive, others that a verb is transitive only
when it has an object expressed. In the "Standard Dic-
tionary " verbs are given intransitive definitions whenever
they are commonly used without objects.

The word reflexive means ' ' reflected upon or referring to
itself or its subject." There are reflexive verbs and re-
flexive pronouns. A reflexive verb is one the object of
which, be it expressed or implied, denotes the same person
or thing as its subject. A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun
that, in an object of relation, signifies the same person or

THE DICTIONARY AS A TEXT-BOOK 249

thing as the subject: in English generally, though not
necessarily, a compound of a personal with self; as, I dress
myself; they saw themselves.

The word reciprocal means " mutually interchangeable
or convertible ; such that one may be viewed or accepted as
the equivalent of the other; as, reciprocal terms." A re-
ciprocal term is one that is the equivalent of another or is
interchangeable with it.

Voice, in grammar, connotates the relation of the subject
of a verb to the action which the verb expresses — that is,
the relation of the subject as acting, acting upon or for
itself, or as acted upon. Therefore, it is the form of a
verb (as modified by inflection or auxiliaries) that expresses
or indicates the relation of the subject to the action
affirmed by the verb. Collectively, it designates the various
verb-forms, as so modified, arranged in a systematic way
as regards mode, tense, number, person, etc., or so much of
the conjugation of a verb as shows a single relation of the
subject to the action expressed by the verb ; as, a paradigm
of the passive voice of "to love."

English grammarians give conjugation for two voices,
the active and passive. With them the passive voice is
formed with the past participle, and some part of the sub-
stantive verb to be. The active voice has two forms : one
comprising the simple inflected forms of the verb with
auxiliaries not parts of to be; the other, called progressive,
adding the present participle to some part of the verb
to be. The active voice expresses the action of verbs, as
distinguished from being and state; also, as opposed to
passivity. Verb-forms to which active is so applied are
said to belong to the active (opposed to the passive) voice.
Some grammarians use active in the sense of transitive.

250 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

The passive voice is the form of verbal statement that
represents the subject of a verb as the object of the action :
opposed to active; as, in the statement "Caesar was killed
by Brutus," the verb "was killed" is passive.

An intransitive verb is one that does not pass over to or
require an object. It denotes a state, feeling, or action that
terminates in the doer or agent; as, he sleeps; she walks;
the grass grows. It is applied to verbs that do not govern
a direct object. Many transitive verbs may be used in-
transitively, and vice versa. Intransitive verbs often have
causative transitive verbs corresponding to them; as, lie,
lay; rise, raise; sit, set. Intransitive verbs become tran-
sitive by association with a cognate accusative, a positive
predicate, and the like; as, he died a terrible death; he ran
himself tired. The cognate accusative or objective, as it is
sometimes called, is the accusative or objective case of a
noun which names the action of the verb governing it. In
the sentence, "to live one's life," life is a cognate objective
of live. A positive predicate is the simple uncompared
form of a predicate.

A neuter verb is one that is neither active nor passive;
it is intransitive. A personal verb is one that denotes or
indicates the person; it is one that has or that expresses
the distinction of the three grammatical persons. An im-
personal verb is one that has or contains an indeterminate
subject; as, an impersonal verb; an impersonal construc-
tion. In English the subject of an impersonal verb is
usually the pronoun it, in apposition with a following
clause; as, it grieves me to see you mourn.

As the adjective desiderative expresses desire, a desider-
ative verb is one that is so formed from another verb as to
express desire of performing the act expressed by the

THE DICTIONARY AS A TEXT-BOOK 251

primitive. A frequentative verb is one that denotes re-
peated action; it is sometimes called an iterative, and an
inchoative verb is one that begins or expresses beginning.

Verbs have participles, modes, and tenses. A participle
is a form of the verb that may be used either verbally or
adjectively, or both verbally and adjectively. In the verbal
use English participles are active or passive, present or past .
The present participle ends in -ing, and expresses the
present tense of the verb, as in "the leaves are falling,"
etc. The past participle ends commonly in -d, -ed, -en, -n,
or -t, and expresses the past or imperfect tense, as in "he
has learned," etc. Both present and past participle are
sometimes used with qualifying function and without an
idea of time, and in such use they are called verbal or
participial adjectives; they are commonly attributive, as in
' ' a learned man, " " a charming manner, ' ' etc. Mode means
"manner," and, in grammar, it means specifically, the
manner in which the action, being, or state expressed by a
verb is stated or conceived, whether as actual, doubtful,
commanded, etc. : denoted by the form of the verb. Also,
the verb-form used to express action, etc., in a particular
manner. This term is sometimes but less correctly called
mood. The English modes proper are the indicative, the
subjunctive, and the imperative. Certain verb-phrases are
also called modes, as those formed by may, might, can,
could (potential), should, would (conditional), must, ought
(obligative) . The subjunctive mode is that mode of the
finite verb that is used to express doubtful or conditional
assertion. In English the forms of the subjunctive mode
are introduced by conjunctions of doubt, contingency, con-
cession, etc., as if, though, or whether. Be and were are
almost the only surviving English subjunctive forms. The

252 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

tense of a verb is the form taken by it to indicate primarily
the time, but sometimes also the continuance or completed-
ness of the action, being, or state; also, the temporal re-
lation thus expressed. The English tenses are formed by
inflection endings, as in liked; by vowel-change, as in sang;
or by the use of auxiliary verbs, as in shall see, have seen.
There are two primary simple tenses, expressing respec-
tively present and past time; but these admit of many
modifications both in our own and in other languages. The
tenses are named aorist; future; imperfect; perfect; plu-
perfect; present; preterit. The word tense denotes also
the grammatical time as expressed by such forms. There
is much discordance in the views of grammarians as to the
offices of some tenses and as to the names by which they
should be called. The aorist is a Greek tense (or an
analogous tense in another language, as Sanskrit), which
expresses complete action as a simple occurrence, without
further limitation. The future perfect tense is a tense
that expresses action as past with reference to a point in
the future; as, "I shall have gone." Called also futurum
exactum, formerly paulo-post-future, and in English second
future. The future tense is that tense of a verb or verbal
form that expresses future action or time. The imperfect
tense indicates past action as uncompleted, continuous, or
synchronous with some other action. The perfect tense is
one that notes past or finished action ; it is sometimes called
preterit. Some grammarians note in English a present,
past (or pluperfect), and a future perfect tense, a
conditional perfect, and a perfect infinitive and participle.
See also imperfect; preterit. The pluperfect tense ex-
presses past time or action prior to some other past time
or action. It is the verbal tense or phrase that expresses

THE DICTIONARY AS A TEXT-BOOK 253

the past-perfect relation, as English / had been. The
present tense is the tense marking present time; as, I go,
do go, am going. The emphatic present is represented by
do with an infinitive; as I do say; with an ellipsis of to.
The progressive present is formed by the present participle
with the verb to be; as, I am coming; the house is being
built. The preterit is the tense that expresses absolute
past time and especially indicates completed and not con-
tinued past action as shown by the form "he fell." The
historical tenses are the past tenses, in distinction from
those denoting present or future time; also, the present
when used in place of a past tense for vividness, when it is
called the historical present.

There are various other classes of verbs not yet con-
sidered. These are: (1) The irregular verb which shows
any departures from rule in inflection, as in abnormal end-
ings or alteration of stem. Specifically, in English: (a) A
strong verb; a verb forming its preterit by vowel-change
(as give, gave; fly, flew), and its past participle by en or n
(as given; bitten; flown), (b) A verb (like have, sell,
seek, cast, feed, wet, etc.) showing certain irregularities in
past tense or past participles. (2) The regular verb, which
follows rule in inflection; specifically, in English, a verb
forming its preterit and past participle in -ed or -d; as
loved; walked. This -d often changes to t, as built. There
are also the strong-iveak verb, which shows both vowel-
change and weak ending (as English bring, brought;
German bringen, brachte), and the substantive verb, which
is the verb to be. A verb phrase is a phrase composed of a
verb and complementary words, as participles or an in-
finitive, as the compound tenses with have and be, the- model
verb phrases with may, can, must, etc., the forms of the

254 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

passive voice, etc. A verbal noun is a noun directly derived
from a verb, in English often having the form of the pres-
ent participle.

We must now turn to an entirely different class of words
— adjectives. The "Standard Dictionary" tells us that an
adjective is a word used to limit or qualify the application
of a noun or a nominal phrase ; as this book ; sweet sounds ;
good men ; a red brick house. Adjectives are of two kinds :

(1) limiting adjectives, which merely define or restrict the
meaning of the noun, and which include (a) the article, (b)
the pronominal adjective, and (c) the numeral adjective;

(2) qualifying adjectives, which denote some attribute of
the object named by the noun. A noun adjective is the
name of an attribute ; but this is a former designation and is
opposed to noun substantive, the name of an object. A
participial adjective is a participle used as an adjective, as
"a cultivated mind." A proper adjective is an adjective
derived from a proper noun, as American from America,
A demonstrative adjective is a demonstrative pronoun which
is used also as an adjective ; as, this, that, you, each. Ad-
jectives are said to have degrees of comparison. These are
positive, comparative, and superlative. The same may be
said for adverbs. A degree, in grammar, is one of the
three grades in which an adjective or adverb is compared.
Or, it may be a variation of form to indicate the grade
above noted; as, "sooner" is the comparative degree of
"soon." Comparison is the inflection of adjectives or ad-
verbs which indicates differences of degree in quality, etc.
The positive degree is the simple uncompared form of an
adjective or adverb, as good (adjective) ; badly (adverb).
The comparative degree expresses comparison. It is the
first degree in quality above or below the positive. It is

THE DICTIONARY AS A TEXT-BOOK 255

regularly indicated in adjectives by the addition of er or r
to the positive, as bright, brighter, true, truer, or by the use
of more or less, as excellent, more excellent, less excellent;
it is irregularly indicated by different words, as good, better.
A few adverbs are compared in like manner, as often,
oftener. The superlative degree is the highest degree of
comparison of the adjective or adverb. In English it is
formed either (a) by adding -st, -est, to the positive; as,
brightest, ablest; (b) by prefixing the word most (or least)
to the positive, which is done especially with words of more
than two syllables; as, most delightful; (c) by prefixing
an adverb of superlative meaning, as very, extremely, ex-
ceedingly, to the positive ; as, very kind. The first two are
called the superlative relative; the last the superlative ab-
solute (without comparison) ; opposed to comparative,
positive. A kind of superlative is also sometimes formed
with the suffix -most from words that do not distinguish
any positive and comparative ; for example, -midmost, under-
most, northernmost, southmosf, topmost.

An adverb is a part of speech used to modify words ex-
pressing action and quality ; hence, it is any word used to
modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. Adverbs denote the
way or manner in which an action takes place, or the
relations of place, time, manner, quality, and number, or
an attribute of an attribute. Some adverbs are merely
particles and indeclinable, as noiv, here, so; while others
are not properly particles, but are capable of inflection to
indicate degrees of comparison, as soon, sooner, soonest,
brightly, most brightly. A relative adverb is an adverb
derived from a relative pronoun and relating to an ante-
cedent, as when, where, whence, etc. ; usually introducing
adverbial clauses. An adverbial clause is a dependent

256 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

proposition in a complex sentence, having the office of an
adverb; as, he visited London when he came from Paris.
An adverbial or adverb phrase is a phrase having the force
of an adverb, as "in very truth."

So as not to exhaust the patience of the reader by ex-
tended explanations of the terms that remain to be con-
sidered, they are summarized briefly below. A conjunction
is a word or part of speech that connects words, clauses,
and sentences, or determines the relation between sentences,
as and in "day and night." Conjunctions are of two
principal kinds — coordinate (coordinating) and subordinate
(subordinating) — according as they join coordinate clauses
in compound sentences or subjoin subordinate clauses in
complex sentences. (See coordinate and subordinate.}
Conjunctions are called correlatives when they appear
commonly in pairs, and each introduces an alternative or a
correlate, as either and or. Adverbial conjunctions not
only unite thoughts, but also express relations of place,
time, causation, comparison, etc., as where, when, because,
as, than, etc.

Coordinate conjunctions are those conjunctions that join
coordinate clauses, etc. See conjunction, above. Coordinate
(coordinating) conjunctions embrace (1) copulative, ex-
pressing addition or expansion (and, also, etc.) ; (2) ad-
versative, expressing opposition (but, notwithstanding,
etc.) ; (3) disjunctive, expressing exclusion (or, nor, etc.) ;
(4) causal, expressing cause (because, etc.) ; (5) illative,
or inferential, expressing consequence and inference (hence,
therefore, etc.).

Subordinate conjunctions are those conjunctions that
join subordinate to principal clauses. Subordinate con-
junctions embrace (1) final, expressing purpose or result

THE DICTIONARY AS A TEXT-BOOK 257

(that, etc.) ; (2) temporal, expressing time (when, 'before,
since, etc.) ; (3) local, expressing place (where, beyond,
etc.) ; (4') conditional, expressing condition (if, etc.) ; and
concessional, expressing concession (though, etc.).

A preposition is a part of speech or particle that denotes
the relation of an object to an action or thing: so called
because it is usually placed before its object. The object
is expressed by a noun or pronoun, which with the pre-
position constitutes an adverbial phrase, and the action or
thing by a verb, adjective, or other noun or pronoun. The
relation expressed was originally that of space alone, but
became extended to time, cause, etc. See language. Eng-
lish prepositions have been divided by Maetzner into (1)
those referring originally to a starting-point, as of, from,
since; (2) those supposing a movement or direction to an
object, as to, toward, till, against, across; (3) those origin-
ally containing the idea of position or abiding ; as in, on, at,
with, among; (4) those that refer decidedly to a contrary
determination, as but, save, notwithstanding.

An interjection is a part of speech that expresses sudden
emotion, excitement, or feeling, as, oh! alas! hurrah!

This investigation may also include the tracing of the
etymology of each word recorded if desired. But, suf-
ficient has been given above to show how much benefit
can be obtained by a systematic study of the contents of
a dictionary. By turning back it is easy to see that one
word leads to the other through the entire series until the
whole subject has been traversed, and by following the plan
herein outlined, any intelligent person with a dictionary
before him can obtain with comparative ease at his desk
extended knowledge of any subject on which he may wish

258 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

to inform himself. Apply the plan to some other branch
of learning, and the result will be the same. The
advantages of following such a course of study are various.
In addition to acquiring a knowledge of the subject, one,
almost unconsciously, learns to spell correctly, acquires an
enlarged vocabulary of words and their derivations, and
learns how to use them correctly.

The man or woman who purchases a dictionary for the
purpose of educating himself purchases the short-cut to a
complete education in all that it contains, IF he or she will
use it intelligently. Properly used, the dictionary may be
made the greatest of all factors in education. Approach it
how we may, no matter how wide the range of our knowl-
edge, it teaches us the wisdom of humility, for not one
of us is certain that he has a complete mastery of its con-
tents, even though some may delude themselves into be-
lieving that they have. He who purchases it may well
consider its price a charity to himself.

VIII

The Function of Grammar

A KNOWLEDGE of the science that treats of the principles
which govern the correct use of language in either oral or
written form is essential but not indispensable to the correct
use of English words. This science is known as grammar
which has been defined as "the way to speak and write
language correctly." A knowledge of grammar is a de-
sirable adjunct to correct writing, because if one would be-
come a master of English, one must have an accurate knowl-
edge of the collocation of words and sentences, that is, the
treating of their arrangement and relative positions and
grammatical connection, producing euphony, clearness, and
energy of expression.

Rules governing the correct use of English words are
codified and are available in every grammar of the English
language, where the exceptions to these rules are not always
truthfully told. Grammarians, ever since the best usages
of the language have been codified, have split hairs the one
with the other so persistently that the student of language
is sometimes puzzled to know whether the particular
form of expression he wishes to use is or is not correct. In
this respect most grammarians are helpless to aid him for
they reflect only the views of their compilers. The student,
therefore, is often unable to determine what form of ex-
pression will pass muster as good English.

A reviewer of Professor Thomas Lounsbury's book, "The

259

260 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Standard of Usage in English," writing to "The Globe"
(New York), lately, said: "Professor Lounsbury is not one
of those who lament the lack of an ' authoritative ' grammar.
He agrees to a certain extent with Forster that 'as soon as
grammar is printed it begins to go, ' and he subscribes with
enthusiasm to the view of a Yale professor that ' language
can not be school-mastered.' Professor Lounsbury quotes
with appreciation a passage in Scott 's diary, where he takes
issue with his son-in-law, Lockhart: *J. G. L. points out
some solecisms in my style, as amid for amidst, scarce for
scarcely. "Whose," he says, "is the proper genitive of
ivhich only at such times as which retains its quality of
impersonification. ' ' Well ! I will try to remember all this,
but after all, I write grammar as I speak, to make my mean-
ing known, and a solecism in point of composition, like a
Scotch word in speaking, is indifferent to me . . .1 believe
the Bailiff in "The Good-natured Man" is not far wrong
when he says, "One man has one way of expressing him-
self, and another another, .and that is all the difference
between them."

The chief value of Professor Lounsbury 's work lies in the
fact that it demonstrates clearly ( 1 ) that rules of grammar
are worthless if they be not founded upon the usages of
reputable authors, and (2) that the grammarian who does
not accept this usage as his guide shows by this very practise
his unfitness for the task he has undertaken, "his own in-
competence and the worthlessness of the results he reaches. ' '

In our own time most of the schoolmasters, and the
majority of the pedants are eagerly striving to fix the lan-
guage with rules of grammar. There is a straining toward
the austerities of grammatical purity on every side. Our
teachars have forgotten that the function of grammar is not

THE FUNCTION OF GRAMMAR 261

to anticipate and formulate thought, and its mode of ex-
pression, but to follow after them and analyze and describe
them. For the earliest English grammar we must go back
to the time of the Tudors ; William Bullokar in 1586 pub-
lished "A Bref Grammar for English" which he claimed
was ' ' the first grammar for English that ever was, ' ' and he,
like many who followed him, set about to harness the lan-
guage after the Latin model then in use. "Even so late
as 1796," says Ramsey1 "the grammar of Thomas Coar,
published in London, filled its pages with diagrams like
the following :

Singular Plural

Norn, a house • Nom. houses

Gen. of a house Gen. of houses

Dat- to a house Dat. to houses

Ace. a house Ace. houses

Voc. 0 house Voc. 0 houses

Abl. with a house Abl. with houses

The English language is so beset with irregularities and
with exceptions to grammatical rule that in its study the
dictionary is far more helpful than the treatise on grammar.
At the very time the Tudor grammarians were struggling
to harness our speech Sir Philip Sidney, in his "Defence
of Poesie" said: "Another will say that English wanteth
grammar. Nay, truly, it hath that praise that it wants not
grammar; for grammar it might have, but needs it not,
being so easie in itselfe, and so void of those cumbersome
differences of cases, genders, moods and tenses . . . that
a man should be put to schoole to learne his mother tongue.
But for the uttering sweetly and properly the conceit of

* "The English Language and English Grammar," p. 49.

262 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

the minde, which is the ende of speech, that it hath equally
with any other tongue in the world. "

Read the works of the English Classics, above all read the
three great monuments of the English tongue — the Bible,
Shakespeare, and Milton — and you will experience very
little difficulty with English grammar. The late Dr. Whit-
ney2 claimed that the study of grammar was not "by any
means necessary in order to acquire correctness of speech.
Most persons learn good English in the same way that they
learn English at all — namely, by hearing and reading. ' ' But
the conversation must be with persons who speak correctly,
and the reading from books that are written by the best
authors. Who are the best authors? They are those
writers whose works have, by common consent of the Eng-
lish-speaking races become the Classics of our tongue.
Edward S. Gould, who in his "Good English"3 set out to
prove how many masters of our speech violated its canons
does not agree with this. He says, "As a general rule, the
usage of good writers is held to be the common law of the
language. Such usage, therefore, is prima facie evidence
of the accuracy of a disputed word or phrase. But the
final proof of accuracy can not be established by usage;
because the writer, in any particular instance, may have
been guilty of carelessness; he may have used the word
or phrase inadvertently ; and if it is fairly presumable that,
were his attention called to the point, he would admit the
error, his example can not be permitted to justify what
sound philological principles must condemn. In other
words, the records of usage are liable to review, and there-
fore usage is not the court of last resort.

2 W. Whitney, "Essentials of English Grammar,"

3 Pp. 3-4.

THE FUNCTION OF GRAMMAR 263

"There are, however, many persons who dispute that
proposition; persons who lack sensibility to the evils of
corruption in philology ; who think the purposes of lan-
guage are fulfilled when a speaker or writer has made
himself understood; who regard conservative views in
philology as obstinate adherence to the past; and whose
principles, if they can be called such, would go to the
extreme of justifying error itself by erroneous precedents.
Such reasoning can lead to nothing but literary anarchy.

"He can not shut his eyes to the very rudiments of
grammar. He dares not deny that syntax is subject to
grammatical rules. He must admit the necessity of con-
cord between verbs and nouns in the matters of number
and person, as well as the submission of cases to the govern-
ment of verbs and prepositions. And so forth. And, if
he does admit such necessity, he must further admit that
no amount of usage can supersede it. ' '

But in the foregoing Gould has inverted the order of
things. People learn to speak correctly much as a child
learns how to walk -properly. The proof of this is to be
found in the fact that many of the masterpieces of the
world's literature were produced by men who had abso-
lutely no knowledge of grammar ; who, in fact, never heard
of it. Guizot believes that Shakespeare, who was a notorious
violator of grammatical precision, did so intentionally,
desiring to produce the language of the period of which he
wrote. Be this as it may, it must not be forgotten that it
was in his time that the grammarians aimed to put the
English tongue into the Latin harness.

"If grammar does not make rules for the government of
language, what is its use?" asks Ramsey.4 The answer is

4 Loc. cit. supra., p. 50.

264 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

that grammar serves to dissect written or spoken thought
somewhat after the manner that the surgeon anatomizes the
human body. Grammar is an anatomical science rather
than a creative one. The grammarian's duty, like the lexi-
cographer's, is not to seek to create the facts, but to state
them, and to state them and classify them as he finds them.
In our time many persons condemn the split infinitive as a
mode of expression that violates grammatical precision.
But if reputable usage shows that this mode of expression
is permissible it is not only the province but the duty of
the grammarian to state the fact. He may, if he so desires,
and the facts warrant his doing so, state that the greater
part of the most accurate speakers and writers of his time
avoid this form of expression ; but if the expression is the
only one recognized in its class, and it has in its favor a
consensus of reputable usage, the grammarian must recog-
nize it as accepted. The chief value of grammar lies in
the fact that its study enables one to produce sentences
that are mechanically correct. This function prepares the
path to rhetoric, it is true, but it leads to stiffness, for to
the majority of persons who are learning to write for pub-
lication the* order in which they shall set their words causes
more trouble to them than the art of speaking them.

"To those persons who set about learning to write, the
art of arranging words seems to be more important than
the words themselves," says Havelock Ellis. "This tends
to make them assiduous students of grammar and syntax,
and leads them to write to formal order instead of by divine
right of creative instinct. The most pronounced sign of
the decadence of a nation and its literature is slavish sub-
servience to rule."5 Spoken words come naturally, but

5 "Westminster Review," p. 629.

THE FUNCTION OF GRAMMAR 265

words written under the conditions described are usually
arrayed with mechanical precision, yet lack that force
which freedom of thought and expression would give them.

In a recently published essay on "The Simplicity of
English,"6 Dr. Fernald, referring to grammarians, wrote:
* ' The trouble with many English grammarians has been that
they have known too much. By the time a man has mas-
tered the hundreds of parts of the Latin and the Greek
verb, and the Hiphil, Hophal, and Hithpael of the Hebrew ;
when he knows the five declensions of Latin and the three
of Greek nouns and the various declensions of adjectives to
suit all of these nouns; when he has labored through the
Slough of Despond of German genders, and added a light
fringe of French, Spanish, and Italian eccentricities, he is
apt to become an incarnate inflection. He feels that lan-
guage exists in order to be inflected. It is beautiful and
rich according as it can be tabulated in paradigms under
the law of permutations. He looks upon all that is self-
evident and straightforward with the scorn of an expert
in mysteries and occult arts. . . . He longs to recast the
language and run it into traditional moulds, from which
it should come forth with cogs and cams and dovetails to
be interlocked with mathematical precision."

And in an address delivered to the Woman 's Club of the
Chautauqua Institution, the same writer, while admitting
the helpfulness of grammar and dictionary as summary
statements and guides, warned his audience against the
error of considering that grammar and dictionary make the
language and not that they merely offer condensed expres-
sion of facts to be derived from observation of language in
use. Dr. Fernald added, "The use of the best writers of

8 "Harper's Monthly," September, 1909, p. 618.

266 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

all time, and of the best speakers of the present day, should
be the guide to correctness of speech."7

The student of language who wishes to consult a gram-
mar will find few better guides than "The Grammar of
English Grammars," written by Goold Brown in 1851.
Many other grammars have been published since this book
appeared ; some by persons high in authority in education,
who were well exploited for their efforts; others by gram-
marians who differed in opinion with their contemporaries
or predecessors and whose grammars were written for the
purpose of airing personal views or admonishing those
writers with whom they felt themselves at odds. The use-
fulness of such grammars is open to question. Goold Brown
says:

"Like every other grammarian, I stake my reputation as an
author upon 'a certain set of opinions/ and a certain manner
of exhibiting them, appealing to the good sense of my readers
for the correctness of both. All contrary doctrines are un-
avoidably censured by him who attempts to sustain his own;
but, to grammatical censures, no more importance ought to be
attached than what belongs to grammar itself. He who cares
not to be accurate in the use of language, is inconsistent with
himself, if he be offended at verbal criticism; and he who is
displeased at finding his opinions rejected, is equally so, if he can
not prove them to be well founded. It is only in cases sus-
ceptible of a rule, that any writer can be judged deficient. I
can censure no man for differing from me, till I can show him
a principle which he ought to follow. According to Lord
Kames, the standard of taste, both in arts and in manners, is
'the common sense of mankind/ a principle founded in the uni-
versal conviction of a common nature in our species.8 If this
is so, the doctrine applies to grammar as fully as to any thing
about which criticism may concern itself.

7 "The Chautauqua Daily," August 11, 1909, p. 7, col. 2.

8 See "Elements of Criticism," Vol. II., ch. xxv, p. 364.

THE FUNCTION OF GRAMMAR 267

"My main design has been, to prepare a work which, by its
own completeness and excellence, should deserve the title here
chosen. But, a comprehensive code of false grammar being
confessedly the most effectual means of teaching what is true,
I have thought fit to supply this portion of my book, not from
anonymous or uncertain sources, but from the actual text of
other authors, and chiefly from the works of professed gram-
marians.

"It was some ambition of the kind here meant, awakened by
a discovery of the scandalous errors and defects which abound
in all our common English grammars, that prompted me to
undertake the present work. Now, by the bettering of a lan-
guage, I understand little else than the extensive teaching of
its just forms, according to analogy and the general custom of
the most accurate writers. This teaching, however, may well
embrace also, or be combined with, an exposition of the various
forms of false grammar by which inaccurate writers have cor-
rupted, if not the language itself, at least their own style of it.

"With respect to our present English, I know not whether
any other improvement of it ought to be attempted, than the
avoiding and correcting of those improprieties and unwarrant-
able anomalies by which carelessness, ignorance, and affectation,
are ever tending to debase it, and the careful teaching of its
true grammar, according to its real importance in education.
What further amendment is feasible, or is worthy to engage
attention, I will not pretend to say."

Punctuation, when used to indicate a greater or less
degree of separation in the relations of the thought, as by
division into sentences, clauses, and phrases, to aid in the
better comprehension of the meaning and grammatical
relation of words, is known as grammatical punctuation.
In general its purpose is to enable the reader to note the
different pauses and inflections required to produce the
effect which the writer desires to convey. The system of
punctuation used in English resembles that common to the
European languages. The Germans favor open rather than

268 ESSENTIALS OP ENGLISH SPEECH

close punctuation, and consequently make less frequent use
of the comma than most writers in English. If this subject
is to be applied intelligently it must be studied carefully,
and the relative length of the different pauses mastered in
connection with the points which represent them before it
is possible to make a correct use of them. The chief points
used to denote the different pauses are the comma ( , ) which
denotes the shortest pause, the semicolon ( ;) a pause double
the length of that of the comma, the colon ( :) a pause
double the length of the semicolon, and the period (.)
double the length of the colon. The value of the other four
points depends upon the structure of the sentences in which
they are used. In marking pauses they may be the equal of
any of the foregoing, but two of them serve in a measure
to mark the inflections. These are the dash ( — ) , the note
of interrogation ( ? ) , the note of exclamation ( ! ) , and the
parenthesis [ ( ) ] . The dash is used chiefly to indicate an
emphatic or unexpected pause of variable duration. It is
used also to denote hesitancy as in speech. The note of
interrogation, as its name implies, is used to designate a
question; the note of exclamation indicates a pause de-
noting joy, grief, or other strong emotion or marked aston-
ishment, in which case sometimes it is repeated — a practise
commonly condemned as inelegant nowadays, but one which
formerly had some vogue. ' ' Grammatical consistency ! ! ! "
wrote John Pierce,9 and added "What a gem!" The
parentheses are used to enable the writer to inject into a
sentence an incidental clause which does not properly belong
there. In reading, this is generally spoken in a lower tone
and faster than the principal sentence.

• "A Plain and Easy Introduction of English Grammar," page 352, Phila-
delphia, 1804.

THE FUNCTION OF GRAMMAR 269

The late Dr. Theodore De Vinne, in his "Correct Com-
position, ' '10 says, ' ' A working knowledge of punctuation is
not to be acquired by merely learning rules. . . . The great
object of punctuation is to make clear to the reader the
meaning of the author. Rules are of value, but the unfold-
ing of obscure sense is the object of most importance." In
the work referred to, Dr. De Vinne includes an excellent
essay on punctuation that presents the subject clearly and
tersely. A brief explanation of the subject, with examples
illustrating the correct application of points, may be found
in the writer's "Preparation of Manuscripts for the
Printer/'

»P. 293.

Phonetics, Pronunciation, and Reading

AMONG the essentials of English speech the most im-
portant is a knowledge of how to pronounce words
correctly, for correct pronunciation is the evidence of
education, and it may be fostered and developed by a course
of intelligent and useful reading. But to be able to read
correctly one must be well grounded in the different values
of the letters of the English alphabet in their various com-
binations. Hence, a few words upon the means employed
to teach the young idea how to speak its mother tongue
and how to read to advantage are given below.

1. PHONETICS AND PRONUNCIATION

Those of us who have attended public school know of
the efforts made to stimulate good-natured competition
among boys and girls to acquire a thorough knowledge of
spelling and a correct pronunciation, for these two branches
of education are highly valued by teachers.

As a rule, modern methods of teaching these necessary
adjuncts to a thorough understanding of the English lan-
guage are complex. They are beset by so many difficulties,
especially in the field of pronunciation, in the guise of dots
and dashes, curves and curlicues, that the child who studies
English by these methods is greatly retarded in its studies.
The powers of memory of a child are severely taxed when
it is condemned to labor over chaotic aggregations of signs
for the purpose of acquiring a knowledge of the arbitrary

270

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 271

rules that govern the various combinations of letters that
enable it to read and write. These chaotic aggregations
form a chief stumbling-block to the progress of a child.
But it is not only the child that suffers ; the teacher too is
beset with perplexities difficult to solve, as has been evi-
denced recently at Kings College, London,1 where a con-
ference was held to consider the best means for teaching
pronunciation.

At this conference two methods of teaching pronunciation
were considered. Professor H. Caldwell Cook, represent-
ing the University of Cambridge, advocated the pronun-
ciation of unstressed vowels. He declared that what was
wrong with English pronunciation was that it was slipshod
and careless — a declaration with which any one who has
studied the subject should agree. But in this case, as in
many another which conies up in the teaching of the
English language, the doctors disagree. Professor H. C. K.
Wyld, of Liverpool University, attacked this theory, and
said that careful speech was either ludicrous or vulgar. He
thought the best pronunciation to teach was that which
would not make a boy appear ludicrous when he went out
into the world, and perhaps the best type is that of the
army officer of the old school. But the worthy Professor
has evidently forgotten that "the army officer of the old
school' ' is a law unto himself as much in the pronouncing
of words as in his interpretation of their meaning. The
writer, who in the course of his career has come into contact
with army men of "the old school," from Major to General,2
has had ample opportunity to judge of the quality of this
pronunciation, both in formal address and in conversation,
and his judgment is that the army man 's lead is a poor one

1 January 8, 1915. 2 Of the British army.

272 ' ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

to follow. Two of the characteristics of the pronunciation
referred to — if such it may be called — are the obscuring
of the initial "h" and the clipping of the final "g" —
characteristics which would never have been indulged had
the persons concerned been taught correct pronunciation.

It is a well-known fact that there is a tendency to obscure
the unstressed vowels in colloquial English conversation,
and this is due chiefly to rapidity of speech ; but this ten-
dency is largely overcome when the speaker takes time to
express his thought. Professor Walter Rippman, an expert
on phonetic values, believes that clearer and better speech
is a matter of articulation and not of the stressing of un-
stressed syllables, while Dr. Daniel Jones, who is lecturer
on phonetics at the University College, London, is of the
opinion that the best pronunciation is that which is not
obstrusive. In his judgment affected speech is bad. Just
exactly what is meant by * { affected speech ' ' is not explained,
but if this means assumed or unnatural speech, then one
must agree with the dictum. If it be an affectation of speech
to ignore the "h" in such words as which, what, when, and
whither, then one must write down the great mass of the
English people as affected. Of the two methods considered
at the Kings College conference there can be no question
that the first is to be preferred, for teach a child the correct,
formal pronunciation of words as units and you teach it at
the same time to observe not only the vowel values of their
contents but the accentuation and the syllabic division also,
thereby producing far better spellers than by the word-
picture method of sight-reading.

No one should expect to make over an adult who has de-
voted twenty years of his life to acquiring a slovenly
enunciation. No amount of teaching can uproot all the

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 273

evils of mispronunciation in the grown man; but these
evils can be checked, corrected, and even eradicated in the
young. None but a Liverpool professor would expect a
grown man to cure himself of habits of mispronunciation
acquired through years of contact with fellow men equally
as careless with their diction. The purpose of that London
Conference was evidently to determine whether or not
teachers of English should instruct their charges in the
correct way to speak English — giving full utterance to all
sounds in every spoken word ; that is, teach them the formal
pronunciation of words. Time and tide of public affairs
will take care of the unstressed vowel, the silent letters, etc.
We are all in a hurry, and never more so than when we
speak. We suffer from a chronic disease — that of trying
to say what we have to say before the other fellow gets
a chance to say it for us, and so correct pronunciation goes
by the board. Have you ever heard anything more utterly
absurd than the variant pronunciations of our little word
"yes"? Would that the public discard it altogether and
revert to the "yea" of our Puritan forebears.

Realizing the necessity for removing the stumbling-block
that has impeded the advance of both pupil and teacher,
the National Education Association appointed a commit-
tee for the purpose of considering the adoption of a uniform
and consistent system by which all the sounds in the English
language could be correctly indicated. But this Associa-
tion was not the first to recognize this need, for in the third
decade of the closing half of last century it had received
the attention of a committee of the foremost scholars of the
time, some of whom are living to-day. Until this committee
began its work the means of indicating pronunciation ac-
curately had not received such attention from educators as

274 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

the importance of the subject required. Even after the
labors of this committee had been completed educators
were slow to adopt the recommendations of the committee,
notwithstanding the fact that it had devised the most logical
and consistent method for indicating sounds.

Prior to this period, and for some years afterward, none
but motley methods for indicating pronunciation had been
used — used not only in the dictionaries, but also in the
text-books. Then (and even now) pronunciation was ex-
pressed by the same chaotic aggregations of dots and
dashes above or below the letters, together with curves and
curlicues, until it became necessary for the student of
orthoepy to commit to memory no less than 85 sound-signs
in order to study the subject intelligently. These sound-
signs varied with the successive revisions of the different
works presenting them, to suit the fancy of the author or
the editor-in-charge. That such a method would ultimately
be condemned is not to be wondered at, yet while it was
tolerated at large it was discountenanced by the leading
philologists of this country and by many eminent scholars
abroad.

On this subject Dr. Charles P. G. Scott, who was a
prominent member of the editorial staff of the Century
Dictionary, having been editor-in-chief of the department
of etymology of that work, and who comparatively recently
was editor of the new Worcester Dictionary in course
of revision, once said:

"In my opinion, long held, and confirmed in the most positive
manner by a somewhat extensive lexicographic experience and
philologic study, the so-called 'system' of notation used in the
current American and English dictionaries (except the Oxford
and the Standard) is thoroughly bad — unhistoric, unscientific,
unliterary, unscholarly, inconsistent, 'irrational, ineffective, ut-

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 275

terly senseless in itself. There is not only no redeeming merit
in it — it is a serious obstacle to the understanding and teaching
of the simplest facts concerning the pronunciation of English
and its true historical position, and its relation with other lan-
guages."

While, as has been said above, such a condition is still
tolerated at large, great strides have been made during the

New Correct Pairing of Vowel-Sounds

SHORT

LONG

as in

artistic

a as

art

tt a

air

tt tt

met

prey

a n

marine

tt tt

poetic

note

a tt

not

nor

tt it

put

mood

tt it

urge

Old Erroneous

Pairing

SHORT

LONG

as in

ale

tt tt

met

eve

tt u

ice

a n

not

note

n tt

put

mute

last decade by some of the expert orthoepists of the coun-
try toward securing the establishment of a standard system
for indicating pronunciation; and these efforts have re-
sulted in the adoption of the Scientific Alphabet. This
system has been successfully applied, and because of its

276 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

successful application has met with some opposition from
the very sources which it was designed to assist.

The first step in teaching English pronunciation is to
train in the ability to detect and produce each of the sounds
that make up the spoken language; let this be done thor-
oughly, and the pupil has taken a long step toward be-
coming a good reader, a good speller, and, incidentally, a
good talker.

As there is no definite relation between the name of a
letter and its sound in the ordinary spelling, the common
alphabet name should not be the first taught to a child
learning to read, as this leads to confusion, for a letter in
the common alphabet often represents many sounds. This
confusion of symbols and sounds in the common alphabet
is an appalling difficulty for children. At the very best, to
learn to read is an enormous draft on the energy of the
child. For simplicity, exactness, and thoroughness in train-
ing the pupils to pronounce the sounds of the language, no
system of diacritics compares for a moment with the Scien-
tific Alphabet.

There are many advantages in letting a pupil learn first
the fixed symbols that represent the sounds in spoken
English. After the pupil has mastered the sounds of the
Scientific Alphabet, and fixed their unvarying symbols in
his mind, he can then without confusion proceed to master
the hundreds of equivalents of these symbols which are
to be found in the common spelling. For example, in the
Scientific Alphabet 6 is the unvarying symbol for the sound
of the vowel o in "no"; in the common spelling the sound
is expressed by many symbols and combinations of symbols.

The variations and vagaries of the common spellings are
so confusing even to grown people that a child should not

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 277

be taught them until after he has fixed in his mind the
actual sounds that make up English words and has tied
these to unvarying symbols — one sound for each symbol,
one symbol for each sound. The mind of the child then has
something fixed to which to tie. Any other system is
needless labor for little folks, and is in addition a waste of
time.

When the child has mastered the signs and sounds that
make up the Scientific Alphabet it has mastered practically
and scientifically the essential elements of pronunciation.
The general introduction of teaching of this kind in the
schools of our country would prove the death-knell of
provincial pronunciation — of dialects.

In addition to the simplicity and accuracy with which
the Scientific Alphabet represents pronunciation, it famil-
iarizes the rising generation with the forms which words
would have were our language spelled phonetically ; that is,
scientifically, and following the line of least resistance, it
will ultimately prove a powerful factor in the simplification
of spelling. The pupils trained in such an alphabet will
not be opposed, when full-grown, to any step that it may
later be found necessary to take to simplify spelling.

Any foreigner studying the English language will find
the Scientific-Alphabet system of respelling for pronun-
ciation of greater help in acquiring a correct pronunciation
than any other system yet devised, because of its simplicity
and of its use of fixed symbols.

"The great merit of this system/' says the "School Jour-
nal' ' of the Scientific Alphabet, "lies in the fact that it re-
quires fewer characters. Its main feature is that each of
its letters is required to do service for one sound only.
According to its principles, each vowel-letter represents one

278 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

distinct elementary sound in its two forms, as long and
short ; each consonant-letter represents only one sound, and
diphthongs are represented by their vowel-letters. Three
new vowel-letters are introduced for three distinct ele-
mentary sounds never before adequately represented by
the vowel-letters of the ordinary alphabet." These three
new vowel-letters are a, for the sound of a in " sofa " ; e,
for the sound of o in "not," and u, for the sound of u in
"but." Each of these letters is distinct in itself; the dif-
ference between any two may be readily distinguished. At
first they may appear unfamiliar, but are easily assimilated,
as their form closely resembles existing letters, and in any
system of phonetic respelling some modification of the forms
a, o, and u must be made to distinguish the adapted use of
those letters from their regular use. The Hon. C. J. Bax-
ter, State Superintendent of Public Instruction of New
Jersey, said: "I find it [the Scientific Alphabet] grows
upon me with use, and that I am learning a new system of
diacritics without conscious effort." In other systems of
notation the letters a, o, and u when used to perform the
functions of the missing vowel-letters are modified by dia-
critics. The Scientific Alphabet dispenses with these dia-
critics by using new letters in preference to old letters
modified by confusing signs, but these new letters are
already familiar to the eye. The first is simply the ordi-
nary "a" printed in italic — a ; the second, the common "o"
with a line drawn through it — e ; the third, the capital let-
ter "u" printed the size of the lower-case letter. There is
an advantage in the adoption of the symbol u which may
not be observed by some readers; it is that in European
languages generally the natural and prevalent short u
sound is that which appears in "pull." The promulgators

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 279

of the Scientific Alphabet chose a new symbol to indicate a
distinct sound because they built on the basic principles
of language in general rather than upon our somewhat ir-
regular English. Professor E. F. Jackson, of Washington
University, St. Louis, said that the diacritical marks used
in the Standard "appear to me to be reasonable and scien-
tific, and much better adapted for use in a school where
Latin, Greek, French, and German are taught than the
former diacritics. "

As a large number of the unaccented vowels in English
words have two pronunciations — equally good each in its
own time and freely used by the same persons — the one
formal, distinct, and pedagogical, the other colloquial, the
Scientific Alphabet adopted the breve (^) and the reverse
breve (^) for the purpose of designating these pronun-
ciations. The vowel-weakenings are classified in the Scien-
tific-Alphabet system as invariably trending either toward
short i or short u. The Websterian system failed to in-
dicate this trend. In the Scientific-Alphabet system the
breve or reverse breve beneath a vowel is the general sign
of colloquial weakness. Thus, in " mountain " the weaken-
ing trends toward short i, while in ' ' ever ' ' it trends toward
short u; that is, the regular breve denotes the i tendency
while the reverse breve denotes the u tendency. The breve
direct or inverted is the only diacritic ever placed below a
vowel in the Scientific Alphabet. While the breve and
inverted breve are retained in the Revised Scientific Alpha-
bet, recommended for use by the National Education Asso-
ciation's special committee, they are optional, the symbols
i and a being suggested as alternatives. Messrs. Isaac
Pitman & Sons, the well-known shorthand and educational
publishers of New York, "deem the Scientific Alphabet,

280 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

which is used to indicate pronunciation in the Standard
Dictionary, the most accurate and simple used in any
dictionary. ' '

The efforts that have been made during the past few years
to introduce the Scientific-Alphabet system, which so com-
petent an authority as the " School Journal " has acknowl-
edged to be ' ' a triumphant creation of philological genius, ' '
and which no less eminent an expert than Dr. Charles P.
G. Scott has pronounced to be " a notation based on historic
and scientific principles," have been met here and there
with sullen opposition based on false premises; as, that it
does not conform to the system adopted by all the text-
books issued for the purpose of imparting primary educa-
tion by school-book houses which have, directly or in-
directly, constantly stirred up hostility to the adoption of
the Scientific Alphabet because no monopoly can be based
on this alphabet. The falsity of this premise is best shown
by comparison. When the systems adopted by these text-
books are compared with the so-called system of diacritics
fostered as the Websterian system, the former vary from
it to such an extent as to be absolutely different, as the
following comparison will show. In text-books pronuncia-
tion is usually indicated by the marking of letters as they
occur in the words proper, and in dictionaries by repro-
ducing the given words spelled phonetically. These two
systems are exemplified on page 281.

Comparison of the words on the next page shows that the
pupil who has mastered the text-book style has many things
to forget and many to learn before he can become proficient
in the art of reading the "Websterian system of indicating
pronunciation. The assumption that a pupil who has
learned the text-book system thereby commands the Web-

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 281

sterian system is not correct. The examination of a num-
ber of school-books will show many variations from the
so-called Websterian system of diacritical markings. In
such a recent examination of fifteen text-books it was
found that the Websterian system had not been closely
followed. For example: in a list of twenty words exam-
ined the text-books used 28 diacritics to indicate sound,
yet had the Websterian system been applied to these very

Ordinary Spelling.

Text-book Style,
without Respelling.

Dictionary Style,
with Kespelllng.

civic

9lv'Ie

slv'Ik

was

w5z

obey

6-bey'

8-ba'

heir

police

p6-ll9e'

p6-les'

doo

wolf

wulf

son

•te

sun

myrrh

mer

gage

gaj

chorus

«ho'rus

ko'riis

edge

exist

gj-Isf

8gz-tat'

words as many as 38 diacritics would have been necessary.
A tabulation of these words produced the surprizing re-
sult that in applying the Scientific- Alphabet system to these
same words it was necessary to use only 19 diacritics. Fur-
ther, it was found that the Websterian system, as repre-
sented by the Unabridged and International dictionaries,
was not strictly followed by the text-books, as they adopted
their own distinctive signs and symbols — signs and symbols
not used by Webster.

282 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

The difference existing between the systems adopted by
the text-books and the dictionaries must necessarily drive
the students of orthoepy to consult the guide to pronun-
ciation which accompanies every dictionary, where the
powers of the different letters are explained. Therefore,
inasmuch as text-books and dictionaries differ, consultation
becomes imperative, and a system that uses only 63 sound-
signs and is based upon truly scientific principles should
be found more acceptable than one which employs as many
as 85 and which is purely arbitrary in character. Professor
C. M. Young, of the University of South Dakota, speaking
of the Standard Dictionary, says that he has "no difficulty
with its diacritical markings, and it occurs to me that
people who are not able to use its diacritical markings are
not able to use a dictionary intelligently."

A phonetic system is fatally defective which employs a
given symbol for more than one sound or which expresses
one sound by more than one symbol. This is a common
error in all systems other than the Scientific Alphabet.
For example, take this from the Websterian notation: It
uses ' ' a ' ' with a straight mark over it for the sound of a in
"hate"; with a curve over it for the sound of a in "hat";
with a right-angled mark over it for the sound of a in
"senate"; with a circumflex over it for the sound of a in
"care"; with a dot over it for the sound of a in "ask";
with two dots over it for the sound of a in "arm"; with a
dot under it for the sound of a in " wad ' ' ; with two dots
under it for the sound of a in "all," and in the italic form
for the sound of a in "final." Besides doing this, it adds
to the confusion which is likely to arise from the using of
one letter nine times by indicating vowel-sounds in two
different ways by employing " a " with a line over it and an

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 283

4 ' e " with a line under it to indicate the sound of the letter
c as expressed in Continental pronunciation. Other com-
binations to indicate the same sound are a and e and 6 and a.
Further, this system of notation uses seven different kinds of
els, five different kinds of i's, seven different kinds of o's,
and six different kinds of u's. It indicates a given sound
by several different letters and makes a given letter repre-
sent several different sounds. Any pronouncing system of
notation is fundamentally wrong if it attempts to build a
system of vocal sound notation by bringing the sounds of
the language to the letters rather than the letters to the
sounds. The vocal elements of speech are fixed in all lan-
guages, and no system of phonetic indication can be prac-
ticable which fails to recognize these fixed sounds and to
build upon the basis of one symbol for each sound and one
sound for each symbol, as is done by the Scientific Alphabet.
The necessity of adopting a uniform system for respelling
being apparent, the National Education Association's
special committee began its investigation and later reported
on the subject. The committee's recommendation, formu-
lated in the report, called for 31 changes in the "Websterian
system of notation as against 14 modifications in the Scien-
tific Alphabet.

The advantages to be derived from such a system of re-
spelling for pronunciation as the Scientific Alphabet are so
important to the scholastic training of the youth of America
that the late William T. Harris, at one time United States
Commissioner of Education, declared that by practical
test school children who were taught by such a system
proved to be more rapid in the acquiring of an accurate
pronunciation and more correct in spelling the words
brought to their notice. Experiments made in different

284 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

parts of the United States to ascertain the amount of time
required for children to learn to read the English language
when printed in a phonetic alphabet have shown that about
two years may be saved in learning to read by this method ;
such an alphabet was prepared and promulgated, after care-
ful investigation, by the American Philological Association,
and was introduced in respelling for pronunciation in the
Standard Dictionary by its Editor, Dr. Isaac K. Funk.

There is much independent testimony of the value of
the Scientific Alphabet as an aid to exact pronunciation.
"The Atlantic Monthly" declares that it is "the simplest
and best method of phonetic representation yet devised, and
one distinctly better than that used by the Century [Dic-
tionary], which is more difficult to be understood by the
people. " " The Scientific American ' ' pronounces the Scien-
tific Alphabet as "an immense advance over the arbitrary
system used in so many other works." "The School Jour-
nal ' ' says the Scientific Alphabet ' t furnishes a basis of ac-
curately representing all sounds used in the English lan-
guage with the fewest possible characters. Our readers
will find it of great advantage to study carefully this trium-
phant creation of philological genius. We are convinced
that they will readily grasp the niceties of pronunciation
which it affords, and with it they will achieve much more
satisfactory results with far less exertion than by adhering
to the illogical and inconsistent systems commonly in
vogue. By adding it to their methods of imparting in-
struction and by applying it systematically they will attain
an exactness of diction that will be the envy of their asso-
ciates and the admiration of all."

Let it be understood that the Scientific Alphabet has
never been copyrighted; it is open to all, hence it is free

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 285

from all taint of monopoly. It is, in fact, far more easy to
understand and to remember than the complicated and
illogical systems of diacritical markings used in other dic-
tionaries ; it is far more exact, and is absolutely consistent.
The Scientific Alphabet is more simple and more accurate in
every way than any other system used for indicating pro-
nunciation (1) as it requires fewer characters — its three
new vowels, which are easily recognized, doing away with
about three-fourths of the diacritics required by other sys-
tems; (2) as it involves far fewer changes from the or-
dinary spelling than any other system.

Moreover, it furnishes a basis for accurately representing
all the sounds used in the English language, with the fewest
possible characters, and indicates only such changes in
spelling as are in the direction of logical and scientific
spelling reform. No two revisions of the Webster Dic-
tionary employ the same system of diacritics, and the same
objection applies to the Worcester Dictionary.

What need was there for the alphabet recommended by
the National Education Association's Committee? The
need for an alphabet that would adjust the differences
existing between the systems adopted by the text-books and
those used by the dictionaries and encyclopedias. Every
phonetic system that employs a given symbol for more than
one sound, or which expresses one sound by more than one
symbol is fatally defective. When the members of the
National Education Association's Committee, and those of
the Committees of the other learned bodies associated with
them, began their labors they were confronted with the
conditions that have been summarized in the table printed
on the following page.

286 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

The sound of a in about was rendered by six symbols — a, a, a, a, a, a.

The sound of a in at was rendered by three symbols — S, a, and a.

The sound of c in cat was rendered by three symbols— c, ch (chorus), and k.

The sound of e in prey was rendered by four symbols — a, a, e, and e.

The sound of i in tin was rendered by/awr symbols — I, a, i, and y".

The sound of i in marine was rendered by seven symbols— 6, ?, g, e, I, ee, and f.

The sound of o in not was rendered by six symbols — o, 0, o, e, a, and a.

The sound of o in nor was rendered by seven symbols— 0, p, 6, a, a, aw, and aw.

The sound of u in push was rendered by eight symbols — u, u, fl, u., fl, p, 6t», and oo.

The sound of u in rude was rendered by ten symbols — u, u, u, u, u, 0, 6, 6, o, and oir

The sound of u in hut was rendered by seven symbols— u, u, ft, w, 6, 6, and 5.

The sound of u in urn was rendered by eight symbols — e, e, I, I, u, u, u, and y.

The sound of ai in aisle was rendered by seven symbols— ai, I, 5, f, I, y, and p.

The sound of au in umlaut was rendered by six symbols — an, ou, ou, ow,ow, and ow.

The sound of oi in oil was rendered by six symbols— oi, ei, oi, oy, oy, and oy.

In other words, the National Education Association Com-
mittee and the Joint Committees that worked with it faced
the problem of reducing to 48 signs the 92 phonetic symbols
in use to indicate vowel sounds in dictionaries and text-
books, and still in use to-day. Out of this disorderly Babel
of sound-symbols the Committee brought an orderly system
of sound notation, based upon phonetic principles scien-
tifically correct and recommended by the leading phon-
ologists of the world.

Notwithstanding the erroneous interpretations that have
been put upon it in certain quarters, this alphabet remains
the most practical alphabet for the respelling of words for
pronunciation yet devised. Why ? Because it accomplishes
the purpose of its projectors — to bring order out of chaos.
It is the ripe fruitage of the joint labors of committees
appointed by America 's leading educational institutions :

(1) The American Philological Association, founded in
1869 for the advancement and diffusion of philological
knowledge.

(2) The National Education Association, founded in 1857

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 287

for the promotion of national educational aims and investi-
gations, which have made the association the most important
educational organization in the world.

(3) The Modern Language Association, founded in 1886,
for the advancement of the study of modern languages and
their literatures.

The total number of members in these three associations
is 14,000. In this vast body may be found the names of
every scholar of national or international reputation, and
every expert in phonetics which the American continent
has produced.

The alphabet was devised by such men as Calvin Thomas,
George Hempl, Charles P. G. Scott, 0. F. Emerson, E. 0.
Vaile, E. S. Sheldon, James W. Bright, C. H. Grandgent,
Raymond Weeks, T. M. Balliet, H/ H. Seerley, Melvil
Dewey, William H. Maxwell. This body of experts had
also the advantage of the researches and labors of such
specialists in phonetics as the late Francis A. March, Sr.,
the late Professor W. D. Whitney, the late S. Haldeman,
and the late William T. Harris, United States Commissioner,
and others.

It is, perhaps, owing to the recommendation of the
National Education Association Committee already re-
ferred to that its alphabet has met with opposition. But no
fitting substitute has been offered. The opponents of this
alphabet know that the alphabet used for respelling words
in one of the recently published dictionaries, with 64 sym-
bols disfigured with dots and dashes, curves and curlicues,
and in which not one vowel is used without some diacritical
mark, is not a scholarly substitute for the National Educa-
tion Association alphabet of 48 characters, of which 36 bear
no diacritical mark, in which only one diacritical mark (the

288

ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

macron) is used — an alphabet which was devised by the
foremost American phonetists. Instead of offering a sub-
stitute the question asked is whether this alphabet ' ' is easy
to learn." Which is easier to memorize — an alphabet of

RECOMMENDED ALPHABET

Letter

Name

Key-word

Letter

Name

Key- word

art

nor

artistic

not

aisle, find

oil

out, thou

pit

air

er (or dr)

rat

set

sli

esh

ship

dli

chew

ten

day

«1h

thin

prey

eth

that

men

mood

fee

push

urge

hut

marine

ev (or vi)

vat

tin

win

mute

yes

ji (or je)

jaw

ez (or zi)

zest

ki (or ke)

kin

azure

let

met

for a in

ask

net

( " a "

about

I" e"

over

6
o

sing
note
poetic

(" i "

I " e "

candid
added

64 symbols, each vowel of which is marked with some dot
or dash, some curve or curlicue, or, as is sometimes the case
—both; or an alphabet of 48 symbols of which only 8 are
marked with a macron ? Which is easier to learn, an alpha-

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 289

bet based upon the sound phonetic principles of one sound
for each symbol, or an arbitrary system in which several
symbols are used for the same sound?

Whether an alphabet designed to respell for pronuncia-
tion is easy to learn depends as much upon the ease with
which its symbols may be memorized as upon its being
based on sound phonetic principles — one symbol one
sound invariably throughout the alphabet. This feature
the National Education Association alphabet possesses, and
it is the only alphabet yet devised that does possess it. The
opponents of this alphabet have declared that "no reform
alphabet of any kind has hitherto met with success, and this
raises the presumption that any similar alphabet, still un-
tried, will prove equally unsuccessful. ' ' None but the veriest
tyro in phonetics would make such a statement. The fact is
that (1) the alphabet of the American Philological Associa-
tion has been in active use during the past twenty years
and has been found to answer its purposes very well; (2)
the alphabet devised by Paul Passy, and declared by the
opposition to be * ' the only phonetic alphabet that can claim
international standing, ' ' has been in use by the Association
Phonetique Internationale, with satisfaction to all con-
cerned, almost from its introduction. Therefore, it is in-
correct to say that no reform alphabet has met with suc-
cess. Nothing is or can be proved a failure until tried.
It was the very failure of Noah Webster's system for ex-
pressing sound that determined the subsequent editors of
the dictionary that bears his name to respell words for
pronunciation.

We have been told that "the subject of an alphabet for
respelling for pronunciation is very complex. " It is be-
cause of this very complex character that the subject was

290 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

referred for consideration to a body of expert phonetists
and not left to amateur philologists to determine. The
members of the Joint Committee who formulated the alpha-
bet as scholars in phonetics of international repute, are, of
all men, the best capable to deal with so complex a matter.
The labor of the National Education Association Commit-
tee, as expressed in its report issued July 6, 1910, was "to
prepare and recommend a key alphabet for uniform use in
indicating pronunciation in all our cyclopedias, dictionaries,
gazetteers, text- and reference-books" — so far but no far-
ther was the Committee to go, nor has it done so. Oppo-
nents of the National Education Association Alphabet
claim that if the alphabet is adopted "every dictionary,
every card catalogue, now so generally used in libraries,
would have to be remade." They cite as an illustration of
the application of this alphabet that all words whose initial
letter is "i," having the "so-called long i sound," would
have to be indexed under "a" because the sound is repre-
sented by the National Education Association alphabet by a
diphthongal symbol "ai." Also that the sound of "u" in
mute, being represented by the diphthongal symbol "iu,"
all words beginning with this symbol must be transferred to
"i" and indexed under it. As there are very few, if there
are any, libraries in which card indexes are used to indicate
the pronunciation of the titles of books, this claim is absurd.
"We have been told that six of the symbols in the National
Education Association alphabet are "consonants replacing
our present symbols," which "is undesirable since the
sounds to be represented are clearly and adequately shown
by our present letters." This is not so — our present let-
ters do not show the diphthongal characters of ch, sh, ng,
th and zh. The Committee of the National Education

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 291

Association recommended the use of ties in certain of these
symbols purposely to bring out this very diphthongal
character. The amateur philologist, who declares these un-
desirable, even though he may have sat at the feet of the
great professors of languages in the universities of Europe,
simply shows colossal ignorance as regards these digraphs.
Every one of the great dictionaries has decided that the
sound of these letters is diphthongal. The late Dr. William
T. Harris, in the latest Webster, said on this subject of ch
(p. xlix) : "The most frequent sound is diphthongal,
and is approximately described tsh. Most phonetists
analyze this sound as a combination of t and sh : they blend
into a composite sound. Ch has this diphthongal sound in
all native English words." This being the case, let us be
guided by the expert phonetist. Incidentally, let us re-
member that in the Websterian system of notation the
following symbols, with the addition of "a diacritic tick
or tie" and other embellishments, are used: du, rj., 66, do,
th? ta? and the following also, but without the trimmings,
gz, hw, ks, kw, ng, th and zh. Well may one believe that
' ' the addition of the diacritic tick or tie occasions needless
trouble ' ' in such a system as this, in which six symbols are
"ticked or tied" and seven are not! Which is the easier
to remember, the five tied symbols of the National Educa-
tion Association alphabet, or the thirteen mixed symbols
of the Websterian system?

To persons interested in phonetics the following points
concerning the National Educational Association's alphabet
may prove useful : (1) Of the letter a it may be proper to
say that the reason for assigning a to the vowel in artistic
and a to that in at is that the sound in at is much more
frequent in English than the sound in artistic. Some pho-

292 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

netists have preferred a as in artistic and ae as in at, but a
is like the old Greek, German, and Italian type for the a
in artistic and like our English script a, and is used by
German reformers and by the Association Phonetique
Internationale.

(2) Of the diphthong ai, which it has been said ' ' analyzes
to the eye a sound which has long been represented as a
single letter/' and "is forcing into our written language
an uncalled-for nicety of phonetic analysis, ' ' the New Web-
ster says (pp. li-lii) that "the long form [of i] has under-
gone a decided change, having within the modern English
period [from about 1550 (p. 726)] become a true diph-
thong, so that what we still call 'long i' is no longer a sim-
ple sound but one composed of two elements. . . . The
quality of the sound ... [of the initial element] varies
all the way from a (arm) to a (man) • the final element
being in any case i (ill). In America the initial element is
most often ... a (art).99 Judging from this it does not
seem that the Committee of the National Education Asso-
ciation was committing a great crime in recommending the
adoption of ai for the sound erroneously called long i, and
correcting a blunder in indicating a pronunciation which
even the editors of "Webster's New International admit has
been in vogue for more than 360 years!

(3) Of the diphthong du, as in sauerkraut: it may be
said that this consists of a glide between a in arm and u in
rule, and that as such this diphthong represents a sound
very common in English, which in some systems of notation
has been variously rendered as ou, ow, etc. (See page 286.)
The recommendation of cm in the National Education Asso-
ciation alphabet is the result of the Committee's deter-
mination to adhere to the principle of one symbol for one

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 293

sound throughout the alphabet — and of representing that
sound by the values assigned to the various letters by the
unanimous consent of the three Associations concerned.

(4) Of the sound of a in fare: it may be said that the
value given to it is the same as that given to it by the
American Philological Association thirty-eight years ago
when trying to bring order out of chaos — a value that has
been represented variously in England and America by the
symbols a, a, a, a, a, and a, and one which to this day is
rendered by e in the New English Dictionary, edited by Sir
James A. H. Murray at Oxford University, and in Ameri-
can text-books, without respelling, by e.

(5) Of the sound of e in they : this is the original sound
of the letter as indicated in Anglo-Saxon, Old English, and
Middle English. It is also the sound indicated in Latin,
French, German, Greek, and other languages. In the
National Education Association's alphabet it is represented
by the symbol e ; in other systems the symbols a and a both
do duty for the same sound, as shown below :

crepe fete great they

krep fet gret the

or or or or

krap fat grat tha

(6) Of the sound of i in marine: this, the New Inter-
national declares, "was originally the true long sound of
the letter i (e of eve} . ' ' Then, one may well ask, why not re-
tain it? In addition, it is, with this value, one of the
symbols of the alphabet recommended by the American
Philological Association in 1877, and by the Philological
Society of England, besides having the same value in Latin
and the chief languages of Europe.

294 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

(7) Of the sound of "u" in mute: this is a diphthong
consisting of a glide from, "i" in marine to "u" in rule,
which will enable all persons using the key to correct the
mispronunciation of such words as Tuesday (toosday) and
New York (noo york), which the systems formerly in
vogue did much to propagate. This is simplifying phonet-
ics, not complicating them. Besides, these letters have been
given this value by both the American Philological Asso-
ciation and the Philological Society of England, and they
have been in use for more than thirty years, and are em-
ployed by the New English Dictionary and by the Standard
Dictionary in their systems of respelling for pronunciation.

(8) Of the sounds of "o" in not, and "o" in nor:
these have the recommendations of the Joint Committee
to support them, have been in use more than thirty years ;
were recommended by the American Philological Associa-
tion in 1877 to correct the confusion caused by the Web-
sterian system of notation which used o and a for the
sounds of "o" and "a" in not and what, and 6 and a for
the sounds of "o" and "a" in nor and all. The latest
edition in the Webster dictionary series has corrected this
blunder of its former editors, and now respells what,
hwot, and all, 61.

(9) Of the sound of "oi" in oil: this the editors of the
Webster 's New International declare (p. liv.) to be "a
full diphthong," and on page xlx, "the most perfect diph-
thongs in English are i as in ice, on as in out, and oi as in
oil." The symbol recommended has the support of all
three of the learned bodies whose members formed the
Joint Committee which devised and agreed to the alphabet
recommended by the National Education Association Com-
mittee.

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 295

(10) Of the sound of "u" in rule, which method of re-
spelling for pronunciation is the simpler? Let the reader
determine for himself:

bulletin crew cruel fulfil

bulitin kru kruel fulfil

or or or or

boolltin kroo krooel foolfil

(11) The symbols "u" as in push,ll\i" as in urge, and
"u" as in but are recommended to help correct the con-
fusion governing these sounds, which has been caused by
the use of ten symbols (u, 06, o; u, 66, o; u, 6; u, 6) for
the four sounds found in mood, push, urge, and hut ad-
vocated by the Webster ian system of notation.

The Committee has been accused of recommending an
alphabet that subverts our present usage. The facts are
that when the various joint committees of the three Asso-
ciations got together their members knew of the confusion
that existed in the various schemes employed for phonetic
notation. They set about to devise, and have devised, a
better system than has ever before been offered to the pub-
lic, and the step taken is one toward simplification and
progress.

We have been told by those who do not like the National
Education Association alphabet that "it is not necessary
to foist upon the public, or force upon our school children,
an alphabet of forty odd symbols instead of an alphabet of
twenty-six," yet the editors of the Webster series of dic-
tionaries have for years been forcing on their public an
alphabet of 85 sound-signs, which has now been reduced
to 64! Is it easier to memorize 48 symbols or 64 or 85?
Certainly, the child that "has no time to indulge in pho-

296 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

netic niceties" [ ?] is much more likely to take to the 48 sym-
bols of the National Education Association alphabet than
to the 64 or 85 of the Websteriaii systems.

"We have been asked, "Ought there to be any organized
attempt by the National Education Association to force
this alphabet upon the teachers and children throughout
the country ? " No such attempt was ever organized, none
of the kind suggested was ever made. The alphabet is
recommended to correct an abuse that has existed for close
on a century of time — an abuse which grows with every
year that passes over our heads.

The situation resolves itself into this: On the one hand
the members of the National Education Association have
offered for use an alphabet endorsed by the leading phonet-
ists of America, by three leading learned societies, and
recommended and accepted by its Board of Superinten-
dence; on the other hand, those opposed to it have issued
anonymous pamphlets assailing this alphabet, for some
reason other than appears on the surface.

In estimating the claims to recognition of any alphabet
for respelling words to indicate pronunciation several
things should be considered: (1) Who devised the alpha-
bet? (2) Why was the alphabet devised? (3) What are
the phonetic qualities of the alphabet? (4) Why is it easy
to learn? (5) Why should it be applied to the English
language ?

(1) Who devised the alphabet?

On page 6 of a circular entitled, "On the Phonetic Al-
phabet Proposed by the Committee of the Department of
Superintendence, " we are told that the alphabet "does
not meet the approval of leading phoneticians, men who

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 297

have given years of study to the question. ' ' But the facts
are that this alphabet was devised by the foremost pho-
netists of America after careful investigations extending
over thirty-five years, and not the least experienced among
them was Dr. William T. Harris, late United States Com-
missioner of Education and editor-in-chief of Webster's
New International Dictionary, so that the National Edu-
cation Association alphabet is approved by leading pho-
neticians and is not the result of the hasty judgment
which some persons have claimed.

(2) Why was the alphabet devised?

To assign fixed symbols to each of the various sounds in
English so that every sound may have its own sign,
and every sign its own sound throughout the alphabet, and
so as to remedy the chaotic condition existing through the
giving of unusual values to many symbols "by the pub-
lishers of dictionaries, gazetteers, encyclopedias, and text-
books," bring about uniformity, and establish an un-
changeable standard — one that, having been based on the
recommendations of the experts of past generations, has
not been overturned or discredited by the experts of the
present generation, for the Joint Committees in their work
preserved that done by the experts of the American Philo-
logical Association in 1877.

(3) What are the phonetic qualities of the alphabet?

The phonetic qualities of this alphabet are (a) that it
uses the fundamental vowel letters with the original Latin
values, and thus (b) brings the notation into accord with
international phonetic science.

298 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

(4) Why is it easy to learn?

Because (a) it is based on a system and is not the result
of haphazard work in which more than one symbol is used
to represent the same sound. Because (&), consisting of
48 symbols it contains the smallest number of symbols
needed to adequately represent the sounds which are now
being rendered variously by 85, 64, and 63 symbols. ' ' The
number of distinct sounds in any one language seldom ex-
ceeds fifty," said the late A. J. Ellis, "and practically
fewer still are needed, for a native needs only a broad hint
of the sound to reproduce it."

Because (c) it is easy to write, and, as the late A. J. Ellis
said, ' ' any signs easy to write and distinct to read without
wearying the eye will suffice."

(5) Why should this alphabet be applied to the English
language ?

Because (a) it was devised for that purpose by experts.

Because (&) it is sufficiently delicate and precise for
all practical purposes.

Because (c) this eclectic key is the most happy com-
bination of the scholarly and the practical which it is pos-
sible to evolve.

On page 1 of the circular already referred to one is
told, "that among phoneticians and the societies interested
in phonetics, as well as in text-books and reference books,
there is not one alphabet in general use for indicating pro-
nunciation"— all of which is gratuitous information to
which attention is drawn in the National Education As-
sociation Committee's various reports, but the National
Education Association Committee includes dictionaries, and

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 299

it is to remedy this very condition of chaos that the alphabet
recommended by the National Education Association Com-
mittee was devised. It is to be remembered, also, that this
alphabet, like the mill that does not grind with the water
that is past, does not apply to any books that have already
been published, so that in no way can it affect publica-
tions that have preceded its recommendation. On page 2
of the circular one is told "that the English sounds of the
vowels have shifted far away from the Continental vowel
sounds,'* and "the fact remains that they have done so,
and that there now seems to be no practical chance that
they will ever be moved back." The care exercised in not
underlining one word — fact — in the foregoing may, in the
eyes of the critic, save the situation. But what are the
FACTS? In English as spoken to-day there are vowel-
sounds that are identical with the so-called "Continental
vowel-sounds," as, for example, in the following words:
arm, crepe, marine, hotel, rule. Therefore, English vowel-
sounds and Continental vowel-sounds have not shifted far
away, as is claimed. Further, let it not be forgotten that,
even if they had, it is not the purpose of the National Edu-
cation Association Committee to move them back — that
Committee was empowered to report on and recommend an
alphabet for use in the respelling of words in dictionaries,
gazetteers, encyclopedias, and text-books — to devise an
alphabet that shall bring sounds into harmony with usage
as recognized by the leading American experts in phonetics.
It is pointed out in the same circular that the late A. J.
Ellis, who is styled "the Father of English Phonetics," and
who is characterized as "one of the most eminent of
phoneticians," based his system of phonetic symbols on
"the common English sounds of the letters." This is

300 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

exactly what the various committees in joint labor have
done. But the results are different. Ellis 's universal alpha-
bet contained no less than 94 symbols, and his ideal inter-
national alphabet contained 243 symbols made up of 192
elements, 14 vowel-diphthongs, 4 consonant-diphthongs, 19
modifiers, and 11 other signs. Ellis 's alphabet, as the
editors of Webster 's New International Dictionary describe
it (p. xxxix), is "essentially a makeshift scheme, adapted
solely to scientific, not popular, use," and others who
are competent judges have declared it "an ingenious sys-
tem of compound letters, but the complexity of the writing
forbids its universal adoption."

The statement made on page 1 "that the vowel letters
do not have in English the sounds they have in Continental
language" is reiterated, and it is said also "that many
proposed phonetic alphabets are based on a Continental
vowel scheme," and "this is the chief reason why all such
alphabets have failed." That the reiteration belies the
facts has already been shown, and any one interested
enough to investigate the subject can find this out for
himself. That such alphabets have failed is untrue, for
the values of the Continental vowel-sounds are the basis
of all. These values are recognized by (1) the American
Philological Association; (2) the Modern Language As-
sociation; (3) the United States Board on Geographic
Names; (4) the National Education Association; (5) the
Philological Society of England, and (6) the Royal
Geographical Society of England, and also (7) by the
Oxford English Dictionary, and (8) form the basis of the
"Guide to Pronunciation of "Webster's New International
Dictionary."

See Webster's New International Dictionary, page

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 301

xlvii— A. 112. In the Greek language the letter alpha (the
Greek letter with which our "a" corresponds) represented
a single sound, that of English a in art. . . . This was
the value of the letter a in Latin also, and in the various
alphabets founded upon Latin . . . and the same value is
mainly retained to the present day in the languages of Con-
tinental Europe.

See page xlix — E. 148. In the classical pronunciation
of Latin, the letter e, when long, represented practically
the same sound as English a (ale) [or as "e" as in they],
and when short the same sound pronounced more quickly,
or a wider sound, that of e (end), the wide correlative of a.
In most of the languages of Europe which have adopted the
Roman alphabet these two sounds have been retained for the
letter, as they were in Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, and in
Middle English.

See page li — I. 178. In the classical pronunciation of
Latin, the letter i, when long, had practically the same
value as modern English e (eve), and this is the value
ivhich it still has in the chief languages of Europe.

For the discussions of the values of o and u, see page
liii, §199, and page Iv, §240, of Webster's New International
Dictionary.

On page 2 of another anonymous circular, quoting ' ' The
Teacher's Journal," the work of Professor E. W. Scripture,
done in 1901, is cited as applying to the National Education
Association alphabet — an alphabet which was not devised
nor recommended until 1910, or nine years later. Comment
on such tactics is needless.

The number of symbols recommended for use by the
National Education Association Committee is 48.

The number of symbols used by the Oxford English

302 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Dictionary, with its many representations of rapid, careless,
and incidental colloquial utterance, is 95.

The number of symbols used by Webster's International
Dictionary is 85.

The number of symbols used by Webster's New Inter-
national is 64 (eleven new symbols added, ten old symbols
discarded — twenty-one changes in all).

Again one is prompted to ask which is easier to memorize
— an alphabet of 48 symbols or one of 64 ?

On page 5 of the circular which attacks the National
Education Association's work its projectors who have had
no experience whatever with the National Education As-
sociation alphabet, claim that "confusion is involved when
attempt is made to distinguish the symbols." The Com-
mittee of the National Education Association can afford
to challenge any one to produce an alphabet in which the
symbols are clearer and cleaner than that which they have
recommended. Practical typographers have pronounced it
far superior to anything else of the kind yet devised. And
the symbols are so cut as to make it next to impossible for
any of them to become obscure through filling in or break-
ing apart.

In conclusion the opponents say (p. 6, par. 4) : "The
above criticisms are not intended to discourage the attempt
to agree upon a single phonetic key alphabet."

Then, evidently, they are intended to promote it, or what
we have before us is no more nor less than a Greek gift,
and the efforts to oppose the work of the National Educa-
tion Association Committee lacks raison d'etre. The alpha-
bet recommended by this Committee is used for indicating
sounds in the Funk and Wagnalls New Standard Dic-
tionary of the English Language. It is designated therein

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 303

as Key 1, and a full account of it is given in the Department
of Spelling and Pronunciation in the introductory pages of
that work.

As a concession to those persons who contend that it is
easier to remember 64 symbols than 48, and who are not
concerned with exact phonic values, the alphabet used
for indicating sounds in text-books is also given. This is
merely temporary ; the alphabet is used to aid the transition
from the older and utterly unscientific and unscholarly me-
dium to the modern scientific and scholarly alphabet de-
vised and recommended by the Committee of the Depart-
ment of Superintendence of the National Education
Association.

One of the reasons that there are several millions of
immigrants in the United States who are unable to speak
English is because the Federal Government has not taken
any steps to provide, through its Department of Education,
a bureau to which the important branch of imparting in-
struction in English might be intrusted. There is no doubt
that an alien immigrant who has been afforded the oppor-
tunity of learning English will the sooner realize to the
full the benefits of American citizenship, and thus will
graduate earlier as a good citizen than he will if left to
the European mill that, in the name of patriotism, grinds
him out as "cannon-fodder" every year. In imparting this
instruction the adoption of a phonetic system that har-
monizes in its values with the values that each letter has in
the alphabet of the language which the immigrant speaks
will prove a big help in the Americanizing of the alien
pro "bono publico, and will prevent him from mispro-
nouncing such words as been, finger, forehead, girl, nature,
picture, third, were, white, yes, etc.

304 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

2. ON READING

John Ruskin, past master in the art of expression, left
to all who love our language some advice in regard to its
study — advice which, in these days of fads in teaching,
if heeded in our schoolrooms would turn out better spellers,
better readers, and infinitely better speakers than are turned
out to-day. "You must/ ' said he, "get into the habit of
looking intently at words, assuring yourself of their mean-
ing syllable by syllable — nay, letter by letter. For though
it is only by reason of the apposition of letters in the
function of signs to sounds that the study of books is called
* literature/ and that a man versed in it is called a man
of letters instead of a man of books or of words, you may
yet connect with that accidental nomenclature this real fact,
that you might read all the books in the British Museum
(if you could live long enough), and remain an utterly
illiterate, uneducated person ; but that if you read ten pages
of a good book, letter by letter — that is to say, with real
accuracy — you are forevermore in some measure an edu-
cated person."

The first, the most palpable evil, and the one most
difficult to amend in teaching the art of reading is the
wrong done to little children by our wretched orthography.
Learning to read could be made a pleasant and an easy
victory for the child instead of a burden. Everybody
knows this, but every time some one sets to work to save the
children from the hateful task that not all their elders have
conquered he is assailed much as the labors of the Com-
mittee of the National Education Association, referred to
above, have been assailed.

To be a good reader, ready to take an article and deliver

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 305

it in an intelligible, artistic, impressive manner, calls for a
good deal of study and practise. Fifty years ago a boy or
a girl was considered very poorly educated who could not
recite well a bit of Shakespeare, Milton, or Tennyson. It
is said to be the case no longer. And more is the pity. A
good reader has an art more effective than a poor piano-
player. Better know how to read well than have a little
smattering of geology or botany.

That we are now in want of an art to teach how books
are to be read, rather than to read them, is as true to-day
as it was when Isaac D 'Israeli expressed the thought. ' l Our
reading public," said Dr. Haley, "is generally too much
like a mob at a public execution crowding and jostling,
hasting and fuming, to witness the catastrophe."

Coleridge described readers as of four kinds. "The
first," he said, "is the hour-glass, and their reading being
as the sands, it runs in and runs out and leaves not a
vestige behind; a second is like the sponge, which imbibes
everything, and returns it in nearly the same state, only
a little dirtier ; a third is like a jelly-bag, allowing all that
is pure to pass away, and retaining only the refuse and
dregs; and the fourth is like the slaves in the diamond
mines of Golconda, who, casting aside all that is worthless,
retain only pure gems."

A class of sophomores, who had but lately completed a
course in English literature, and were required to take an
examination, are said to have furnished the following gems
as the result of their studies :

(1) The periodical essay was in vogue as far back as the time
of the Danish invasion and Alfred the Great. The English
"Chronicle" was the paper then, and in it were placed various
bits of literature worth keeping. Later came the introduction

306 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

of printing, and then the papers were more widely distributed.
It remained, however, for Goldsmith and his friends to produce
the papers which were widely read and looked for. Goldsmith
edited during his life several different papers, among them
being the "Spectator," the "Tatler," and the Sir Roger de
Coverly paper.

(2) In the year 1422 William Caxton was ushered on to terra
firma.

(3) Marlowe died when only twenty-nine years of age, and
although he might have done better, we can't tell.

(4) Shakespeare's marriage was not a howling success; he
had three children.

(5) The first English novel was "Robinson Crusoe," by
Stevenson.

(6) Still another who contributed to the development of the
novel was Blackstone, who wrote "Loona Doane."

(7) Samuel Richardson developed the novel still farther when
he wrote "Johnny Jones."

(8) Caedmon is one of the oldest men in literature that we
know of.

(9) "The Rape of the Lark/' by Alexander Pope, was his
favorite work.

Incredible as they seem, these results are said not to have
been worse than their teacher had expected.

The occupant of a chair in the English Department of
one of our universities recently distinguished between the
work of teaching boys to write English and teaching how to
know English literature — that is, to know it and to appre-
ciate it in any reasonable degree. He found his task a
remarkably difficult one. Commenting on this subject,
Professor Henry S. Canby3 said: ''The undergraduate

8 "Yale Review," October, 1914.

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 307

must be able to read literature in order to know it, and to
read he must have the power of interpretation. Unless he
has some pretty exact knowledge of the thought behind the
words of Milton or Shakespeare or Tennyson or Emerson
or Shelley or Stevenson, he can not read them with more
than (it is reckoned) about 50 per cent, efficiency of com-
prehension. This percentage is, in Professor Canby's
judgment, below the margin of enjoyment and below the
point where real profit begins. " The Professor concludes
that " two- thirds of an English course must be learning to
search out the meaning of the written word, must be just
learning how to read. And, if one can not read lightly,
easily, intelligently, why, the storehouse is locked; the
golden books may be purchased and perused, but they will
be little better than so much paper and print. ' '

Given a parent with a love of literature, the chance of a
child 's learning to read intelligently is greater; the results
are likely to be superior in character to the examples cited
above, and if the reading be done in the company of an
unabridged dictionary, of a much more permanent value. *

When we read we should do so to instruct ourselves and
to extract the wholesome percepts from the pages before
us. Eufus Choate acquired the habit of reading daily
some first-class English author, "chiefly for the copia
verborum, to avoid sinking into cheap and bald fluency,
to give elevation, dignity, sonorousness, and refinement to
my vocabulary/' But the great mass of the reading public
reads differently. Its choice of reading matter is shown
by the patronage it gives nowadays to anything sensational,
be it newspaper, magazine or short story. The value of
reading is not in the quantity of matter perused but in its
quality and in the amount of intelligence brought to bear

308 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

upon the task or pastime. A year or two ago Mr. H. G.
Wells, the novelist, speaking at the British Institute of
Journalists, said that our reading should be more of the
work of the present than of that of the past. He depre-
cated the cheap reprints of the Classics and of standard
books, and thought they were bought but not read. If they
were read he did not think the readers gained much benefit
by their study, and that the time given to them would be
better applied into following up what was being written
and what was being done to-day. One may, perhaps, be
pardoned for pointing out that Mr. Wells, as a writer of
the day, thinks that writers of the day should receive
greater patronage from the reading public than they
actually do, and take their Classics at second hand from
the modern school rather than from the fountain head.
One is almost tempted to ask if that is the way Mr. Wells
himself studied the Classics.

That in many spheres of activity and of thought the pres-
ent is far ahead of the past one will not attempt to deny,
but this very advance was built upon past knowledge which
must have been based upon a very solid foundation to place
us where we are to-day. None of us can understand any
part of the present without having some knowledge of the
past. We feel, for instance, that in the very life we lead we
have left behind forever that coarseness of expression —
that plain unvarnished speech which characterized the
dramatists of the Elizabethan and Restoration periods.
But are we not deluding ourselves? Is it not a fact that
the coarseness is still with us, but it has been veneered?
The modern press, the modern drama, and the modern novel
are seasoned to public taste, and in some cases so highly
seasoned as to be unpalatable. They are tainted to such a

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 309

degree as to threaten the moral health of that very public
which patronizes them. Freedom of the press, when that
press is controlled by men of good repute, is eminently
desirable; but when it is controlled by men who have no
regard for truth, none for morality, and only degraded
conceptions of national honor ; by men who for the sake of
profit glory in debauching the minds and corrupting the
morals of their readers, then it is time to curtail that free-
dom, for when hand in hand with untruth, immorality and
corruption go unchecked, they will sooner or later prey
upon national life and degrade society.

No one can deny the widespread influence of the sala-
cious press and the suggestive novel, and their powers to
do harm is incalculable, so let us hope some steps will be
taken to check them. The past may have had a coarseness
of expression in its literature that it would be impossible
for us to imitate, but even that was health itself compared
with the abominable suggestiveness of the modern sex novel
of which Dr. Horton said, referring to one such book that
had been forwarded to him by an English publisher: "I
honestly tell you I would rather wade up to my chin in a
cesspool than read that book through ! ' ' Well, all modern
books are not as bad as that; probably Dr. Horton re-
ceived an extreme type.

Now let us turn to that past of which Mr. Wells dis-
approves, or rather to its literature which is Classic and
without a knowledge of which no education is complete. A
Classic, said Sainte-Beuve, is "an author who has enriched
the human spirit, who has really augmented the treasure,
who has enabled it to take another step onward ; who has
discovered some genuine truth of morals, or seized afresh
some eternal passion of the heart, in which everything

310 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

seemed known and explored ; who has rendered his thought,
his observation, his discovery in a form varied, it may be,
yet with breadth and grandeur, with strength and delicacy,
noble and beautiful in itself, who has spoken to all in a
style of his own, yet a style which belongs to the world,
in a style new without neologism, new and old, easily the
contemporary of all ages."

The royal road to the correct use of English words is
the reading of the English Classics, and from the natural
process of unconscious assimilation which such a course of
reading produces the lover of English will acquire the
command of the correct application of words; an ample
vocabulary for all his needs, and, by consulting a good
dictionary every time he comes across a word of which
the meaning is unfamiliar, and noting it down carefully
in a commonplace book, an exact knowledge of the meaning
of words. To understand the Classics we should, before
we read them, set ourselves to the task of finding out
something of the periods in which they lived as well as of
those of which they wrote, for learning how to read is no
easy acquisition ; this does not refer to matters of enuncia-
tion or those of voice inflection, but to the quick and true
apprehension of the meaning.

By following Dr. Thomas Arnold's advice to let our
reading be varied in its kind, and widely varied, we may
greatly benefit. The reader who wishes to be guided to a
course of reading which will enable him to enlarge his
vocabulary will find the Chandos Classics — a series of stan-
dard works complete in 150 volumes, each of which can be
purchased separately for 75 cents — an excellent medium to
begin with. Another is Sir John Lubbock's (Lord Ave-
bury) selection of One Hundred Best Books, which has

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 3H

been pronounced a splendid treasury of deep thought, of
romance, of wit, of travel and of history. These are sold
separately for 50 cents each. There is another series much
more extensive. It is Bonn's Standard Library, consist-
ing of more than 300 volumes, which are sold separately
from 75 cents to $1.00 each. And in the list of books se-
lected by the National Conference of Associated Colleges
and Preparatory Schools of the United States there is
another series of English Classics which comprises more
than 100 works written by seventy authors.4 The volumes
are issued by various publishers at different prices. Another
series are the Eclectic English Classics. The volumes are
sold separately from 20 cents to 60 cents each. A very
popular series nowadays is provided in "Everyman's
Library'' of 700 volumes, sold separately at 70 cents each.

The intelligent reading of the volumes in any one of
the selections named will enable all who wish to do so to
acquire the command of vocabularies ample for their needs.
It is not my purpose to supply bare lists of words for the
meanings of which the reader would have to consult a
dictionary, for these words are best studied in relation
with their context, for therefrom one obtains a conception
of their correct use. Intelligent reading helps one to keep
in touch with his fellow men ; it quickens the imagination,
helps to develop the intellect, relieves depression, 'and often
proves a perfect panacea for the mitigation of physical
strain.

The following list of books that children may read with
pleasure and profit is offered by way of suggesting that
one should guide a child's tastes in reading early and thus
help to develop a latent interest along the right lines. As

4 See pp. 208-211 of this book.

312 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Miss Ruth Cameron has fittingly said: (l Start a child to
reading some of the really fine books written for children,
and some of the really fine books not written especially
for them but simple enough to interest them, and by and
by you will have a grown man or woman capable of enjoy-
ing good literature. ' ' The list might be amplified by citing
the works of Jules Verne, Erckmann-Chatrian, and of
others, but is of sufficient length to start along the right
road:

(1) JEsop's Fables. (2) Alcott, Louisa— Little Men, Little
Women, Under the Lilacs. (These three books are considered
far and away her best.) (3) Aldrich — The Story of a Bad Boy.
(4) Andersen and Grimm — Fairy Tales. (5) Arabian Nights.
(6) Barbour— For the Honor of the School. (7) Barrie— Peter
Pan ; Peter and Wendy. (8) Bunyan — Pilgrim's Progress. (9)
Burnett— Little Lord Fauntleroy, The Little Princess. (10)
Carroll — Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, Through the Look-
ing Glass. (11) Child's Bible. (12) Cooper— Last of the Mohi-
cans, Leather Stocking Tales. (13) Crockett — The Lilac Sun-
bonnet. (14) Daskam — Sister's Vocation, Memoirs of a Baby.
(15) Defoe — Robinson Crusoe. (16) Dickens — David Copper-
field, Nicholas Nickleby, Old Curiosity Shop, Tale of Two Cities,
Christmas Carols. (17) Doyle— The White Company. (18)
Dumas — Monte Cristo. (19) Eggleston — Hoosier School Master.
(20) Evans — Saint Elmo, Beulah. (21) Ewing1 — Jackanapes;
Lob-lie-by-the-fire. (22) Fox— The Little Shepherd of King-
dom Come. (23) Garland, Hamlin— The Long Trail. (24)
Gaskell — Cranford. (25) Haggard — King- Solomon's Mines.
(26) Hale— Man Without a Country. (27) Hawthorne— Tangle-
wood Tales, Wonderbook. (28) Henty — March to Magdala.
(29) Hughes— Tom Brown's Schooldays. (30) Jackson, Helen
Hunt— Ramona. (31) Kingsley— Water Babies. (32) Kipling
— Jungle Book, Captains Courageous. (33) Lamb — Tales from
Shakespeare. (34) Lytton, Bulwer — Last Days of Pompeii.
(35) Macleod— The Book of King Arthur and His Noble
Knights. (36) Marryatt— Masterman Ready. (37) Page,

PHONETICS, PRONUNCIATION, AND READING 313

Thomas Nelson— Old Creole Days. (38) Quiller-Couch— The
Splendid Spur. (39) Raspe — The Adventures of Baron Mun-
chausen. (40) Ruskin — King of the Golden River. (41) Scott
— Ivanhoe, Kenilworth, Quentin Durward, The Talisman. (42)
Selections from Les Miserables. (43) Stevenson — Child's
Garden of Verse, Treasure Island, Kidnapped. (44) Swift —
Gulliver's Travels. (45) Sydney— The Five Little Pepper Series
(Earlier ones). (46) Twain, Mark — Tom Sawyer, The Prince
and the Pauper, Huckleberry Finn. (47) Van Dyke — The First
Christmas Tree. (48) Wallace, Lew— Ben Hur. (49) Wiggin
—Polly Oliver's Problem, Birds' Christmas Carol. (50) Wyss
— Swiss Family Robinson.

NOTE: The claims based on so-called experiments with the National Edu-
cation Association alphabet made by Mr. Guy M. Whipple, and described in
his pamphlet, "Relative Efficiency of Phonetic Alphabet," have been effec-
tively disposed of by Professors Raymond Weeks, James W. Bright, and
Charles H. Grandgent in their "Review of the Whipple Experiments."

Writing for Publication

IN the art of writing for publication no short cut leads
to^ success. Everyone who expects to succeed at it must
serve a long and sometimes a tedious apprenticeship, during
which his patience will be sorely taxed and his powers of
perseverance severely tested. Ability to tell a story well
is helpful, but this quality must be supported by a knowl-
edge of the principles of correct composition. Good com-
position is the result of correctly using well-chosen words,
and of so arranging them that their meaning can be
readily understood.

The successful writer invariably has personality and char-
acter. It is by the exercise of that dynamic force which
we call "will" that he is able to achieve what he sets out
to do. Native or developed genius, keen observation, vivid
imagination, a lively sense of humor, ability to properly
appreciate the picturesque, and power to concentrate
thought — these are the qualities that help to make for
success in writing. These qualities are not usually all
found in one person, but such as are lacking may be ac-
quired, developed, and cultivated by application. Among
men of average education there are very few who are able
to find "sermons in stones and books in running brooks,"
even though they be optimistic enough to declare that they
can find good in everything. Some persons are impressed
by scenery; others are controlled by sentiment; some are

314

WRITING FOR PUBLICATION 315

influenced by contact with their fellow men and women;
others are affected by their surroundings and home in-
fluences. As a rule, the dunce that has been sent to
roam excels the dunce that has been kept at home.

Every writer should cultivate the habit of accuracy, for,
at the very best, there are few persons who can relate even
the most trivial of circumstances as they really occurred.
"The writer who would write for immortality," wrote
Vergil, "should study with accuracy the plan of his work,
the propriety of his characters, and the purity of his
diction. ' ' To Emerson we owe this advice : "If you would
write to any purpose you must be perfectly free from
within ; give yourself the natural rein ; think on no pattern,
no patron, no paper, no press, no public ; think on nothing,
but follow your impulses; give yourself as you are, what
you are, and how you see it; every man sees with his own
eyes, or does not see at all; this is incontrovertibly true.
Bring out what you have ; if you have nothing, be an honest
beggar, rather than a respectable thief. ' '

Such grammarians as embrace the art of composition
in their treatises invariably state that style is the manner
in which a writer expresses his conceptions by means of
language ; style, they say, is not to be regulated altogether
by rules of construction, and then they proceed to enumerate
the different qualities of style. It is not wise for a beginner
to hamper the natural flow of his thoughts with these at
the outset. In time he will be able to determine for him-
self the difference between the natural and the forced, the
concise and the diffuse; the perspicuous and the obscure.
If he thinks clearly he will, in all probability, write natur-
ally and concisely, and perspicuity will follow as a matter
of course. But, before putting pen to paper he must have

316 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

or acquire a thorough knowledge of the matter about which
he purposes to write. Care and perseverance are qualities
essential to accuracy. Exactness of thought results more
often than not from ability to analyze details and to exer-
cise sound judgment. Strong convictions and the power
to absorb often lead to forceful writing, which is the result
of feeling and earnestness of purpose. The foundation of
all good creative work is feeling; eliminate feeling and
whatever you write will lack individuality and interest;
nothing but a lifeless mass of words will remain, possibly
icily correct so far as grammar and rhetoric are concerned,
but nevertheless colorless and without spirit.

Purity of style restricts one to the use of only those
words and phrases which belong to our language. To
secure this one must abstain (1) from using foreign words
or idioms, and give preference to the native English term
whenever that exists; (2) from using archaic, obsolescent or
obsolete words; (3) from using colloquialisms and slang;
(4) from using hybrid terms or nonce words; (5) from
bombast or affectedness which only serve to make one
ridiculous. Roger Ascham sought to discourage the use of
foreign words in the introduction to "Toxophilus" (1544)1.
Propriety of style is secured by selecting the right words
to use and by using them correctly in constructing sen-
tences to express thought. This correct use is in general
based upon the best usage as found in the works of the
great masters. When writing prose one should take care
(1) to follow the natural order of things or events; (2)
to refrain from using equivocal and ambiguous expressions ;
(3) to avoid making use of the language of poetry — morn
and eve, oft and stilly are words that belong to the poet's

1 "Toxophilus," Arber's reprint, p. 18. See also p. 77 of this book.

WRITING FOR PUBLICATION 317

vocabulary rather than, to that of the essayist and prose
writer — and (4) to reject provincial and dialectal phrase-
ology as undesirable. (5) Technical terms should be used
only in treating the particular art, science, trade or occu-
pation to which they belong.

Precision in writing is obtained by avoiding the use of
unnecessary words and by expressing oneself in such a way
that neither more nor less than the thought one has in mind
is presented to the reader. To do this effectively it is
necessary (1) to avoid tautology or the unnecessary repeti-
tion of the same word or idea, and (2) to use only such
words as are suited to the occasion. To illustrate this point
clearly: One may acquire knowledge by diligent study and
thus attain honor and gain celebrity. Another obtains a
reward when he wins a prize. In these sentences the five
words printed in italics are approximately synonymous in
meaning, but can not well be transposed without offending
precision.

Phelps2 tells us that one to whom thought comes in a
volume of words may express more, he may express less,
he may express other than his real meaning. He to whom
words occur with difficulty is the more apt to have a studied
expression, and therefore an exact expression. In one of
Edmund Burke 's elaborated sentences there may be
found words and clauses selected and multiplied and
arranged and compacted and qualified and defined and
repeated, for the very purpose of extending and limiting
the truth to its exact and undoubted measure. He ob-
viously labors to say just what he means, no more, no less,
no other. Still, on the whole, he fails, because he is so
elaborately precise in details. The thought is suffocated by

2 "English Style in Public Discourse," p. 91.

318 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

the multitude of words employed to give it life. It is
buried.

"Perspicuity," says Thomas Reid,3 "depends upon a
proper choice of words, a proper structure of sentences, and
a proper order in the whole composition . . . but it supposes
distinctness in our conceptions." Concisely defined, per-
spicuity is freedom from obscurity, intricacy, or ambiguity,
and is secured (1) by placing adjectives, adverbs, relative
pronouns, participles, and explanatory phrases as near as
possible to the words to which they relate and in such a
position as is necessary to the correct interpretation of the
sense; and (2) by avoiding the misuse of ellipses, and by
repeating such words as are necessary to express the sense.
For example, in the sentence "Self-reliance fits us both
for the development of our plans and for carrying them
to completion," the two words in italics are indispensable
to the correct understanding of the thought. Likewise, the
insertion of the word "other" in the sentence that follows
is necessary to a correct reading : ' ' This dictionary contains
more words than any other dictionary published. ' '

Unity in literary composition is the principle that one
central or dominating idea or ideal should pervade and con-
trol the whole. This is to be obtained (1) by avoiding the
introduction of useless breaks or pauses; (2) by keeping
the main object predominant throughout a sentence or
paragraph; (3) by treating different subjects in distinct
paragraphs; (4) by taking care to favor the principal
subject of a sentence instead of its adjuncts; (5) by avoid-
ing the introduction of unnecessary or long parentheses
and thus diverting the reader's mind from the main theme.

Strength is power in the expression of meaning in lan-

8 "Works," Vol. II., Intellectual Powers essay, iv., p. 399.
v

WRITING FOR PUBLICATION 319

guage and depends upon placing the most important words
in the position in which they will create the strongest
impression. Therefore, when making different assertions
the stronger assertion should always precede the weaker,
and in sentences composed of two members the longer
member should follow the shorter.

Hazlitt hated anything that occupied more space than it
was worth. ''I hate," said he, "to see a load of band-
boxes go along the street, and I hate to see a parcel of big
words without anything in them." Persons who write in
a concise and terse style write most effectively. They do
this not by selecting the big, round word but by using the
short, simple one wherever possible. They avoid redun-
dancy, tautology, and circumlocution. Their sentences are
not so short as to be abrupt and jerky, not so long as to
weary the reader, nor so involved as to entangle him in a
maze of words. Milton, in his essay on "Education," has
given us an example of such a maze, the sense of which
has been preserved by careful punctuation: "And for the
usual method of teaching arts, I deem it to be an old errour
of universities, not yet well recovered from the scholastic
grossness of barbarous ages, that instead of beginning with
arts most easy (and those be such as are most obvious to
the sense), they present their young immatriculated novices
at first coming with the most intellective abstractions of
logic and metaphysics ; so that they having but newly left
those grammatic flats and shallows where they stuck un-
reasonably to learn a few words with lamentable construc-
tion, and now on the sudden transported under another
climate to be tossed and turmoiled with their unballasted
wits in fathomless and unquiet depths of controversy, do
for the most part grow into hatred and contempt of learn-

320 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

ing, mocked and deluded all this while with ragged notions
and babblements, while they expected worthy and delight-
ful knowledge; till poverty or youthful years call them
importunately their several ways, and hasten them with the
sway of friends either to an ambitious and mercenary, or
ignorantly zealous divinity; some allured to the trade of
law, grounding their purposes not on the prudent and
heavenly contemplation of justice and equity, which
was never taught them, but on the promising and pleasing
thoughts of litigious terms, fat contentions, and flowing
fees; others betake them to state affairs, with souls so
unprincipled in virtue and true generous breeding, that
flattery and courtships and tyrannous aphorisms appear
to them the highest points of wisdom ; instilling their barren
hearts with conscientious slavery; if, as I rather think,
it be not feigned. ' '

Of the difficulties that beginners have to contend with
the chief is the desire to produce something that will be
impressive. This leads, often, to the use of big words and
flowery expressions which are forced on the paper much as
plants are forced under the nurseryman's frame. To
those persons who wish to overcome this defect, the best
advice that can be given is : when you write try to appear
as you are rather than as you wish to be. Be natural, and
you will not only find that nature is your second self but
that writing will become a pleasure rather than a laborious
task. Simple language is always effective.

As a writer in ' ' Ophthalmic Literature ' M put it : Any one
who has something to write can learn to write it clearly,
smoothly, and effectively if he wishes to do so. To learn
to write good English, thought must be given to the exact

4 "Ophthalmic Literature," September, 1912.

WRITING FOR PUBLICATION 321

meaning of each word used. From among different words
that carry about the same meaning, one must learn to choose
that one which most exactly conveys the thought. The
words so chosen must be arranged in the order that will un-
fold the idea most smoothly and regularly without any un-
necessary breaks. The words must be grouped in sen-
tences, each of which presents a fairly complete idea, that
may be grasped without leaving it indefinite, or dependent
on something that is to come after.

No course in logic or general intellectual training will do
more to develop the power of exact, definite connected think-
ing than the endeavor to use words with exactness, and in
proper sequence in writing. But by practising the exer-
cises designed to improve one's style, much may be gained.
A practical plan to develop what one has in mind is first
to put it on paper; then, after it has been forgotten, to go
over it again and attempt to substitute sentences equally as
appropriate or better; and finally, after another period of
waiting, to choose from among the different forms of ex-
pression the clearest, most definite. Only by this effort
to use the best possible form of expression, kept up all the
time one is engaged in writing ; and by repeated revision
of what one has written, can the writing of good English
be attained. A keen interest in one's subject is an un-
deniable desideratum, for when one is full of what one
wishes to say, the various forms that express one's thought
arise spontaneously in one's mind, and it is by selecting
the best of these that one becomes master of the art of
writing.

The person who can tell a story effectively should have
very little difficulty in writing it interestingly if nature be
given sway over ambition. The desire to shine is human,

322 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

but it is so strong in most persons who wish to write for
publication that it often suppresses individuality inasmuch
as it begets in the writer's mind an exaggerated idea of
what prospective readers may expect, for most of us have
an ideal which we wish to attain or an idol whom we desire
to imitate. There are few persons who, when they begin
to write, do not set about it without having some model in
mind — one they wish to imitate or one after whom they
desire to pattern their work. The novice should not try
to cast his thoughts in some master's mold, chiefly because
he will find the task beyond his powers, but in addition
because if he could succeed he would be compelled to
produce an artificial individuality at the expense of the
suppression of his own. Ellis5 tells us that as a writer
slowly finds his own center of gravity, the influence of the
rhythm of other writers ceases to be perceptible except in
so far as it coincides with his own natural movement and
tempo. That is a familiar fact. We less easily realize,
perhaps, that not only the tunes, but the notes that they
are formed of, in every great writer are his own. In other
words, he creates even his vocabulary. That is so not only
in the more obvious sense that out of the mass of words
that make up a language every writer uses only a limited
number, and even among these has his words of predilec-
tion. It is in the meanings he gives to words, to names,
that a writer creates his vocabulary.

Writing for the press is one of the best exercises for
those who have, decided to follow a literary career. Jour-
nalism is an exacting profession, but he who has been for-
tunate enough to graduate from the editorial rooms of
some great daily has a liberal education in the art of

c "The Atlantic Monthly," November, 1908.

WRITING FOR PUBLICATION 323

writing. Some of the shining lights in English literature
served their apprenticeship in writing for the press.
Joseph Addison, poet and essayist, wrote for a tri-weekly
sheet called "The Tatler," which was started by his old
schoolfellow, Richard Steele, and also for a much more
famous publication, "The Spectator" — the first English
periodical worthy of the name. It was in the latter that
Addison 's finest work appeared.

Richard Steele, playwright and essayist, not only founded
"The Tatler," "The Spectator," and "The Guardian," but
contributed to them. Dr. Samuel Johnson, teacher, lexi-
cographer, author, was inseparably associated with "The
Rambler," a bi-weekly periodical and "The Idler," a pub-
lication in lighter vein, of which 103 numbers appeared.
Lord Macaulay wrote his inimitable essays for "The Edin-
burgh Review." Emerson edited "The Dial." Holmes
contributed to the "Atlantic Monthly." Whittier edited
"The Haverhill Gazette," and later "The New England
Weekly Review" and "The Pennsylvania Freeman." —
Lowell, Dickens, Thackeray, — all had experience in news-
paperdom before they attained the lasting fame which
they enjoyed. Horace Greeley and Charles Anderson
Dana were famous editors, and many others have followed
them, but few of these have reached to their high plane.
Journalism has been defined as literature in a hurry. Vis-
count Morley, who was taxed with having framed the
definition, denied it. He said that to define journalism
accurately one must go a great deal deeper than that. The
journalist has to take the moods and occasions of the hour
and make the best he can of them. He is a man of action
and is concerned with the real. The qualities of a good
journalist, says Lord Morley, are candor, courtesy, inde-

324 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

pendence and responsibility, but even this definition the
noble Lord declared inadequate. The journalist works in
a hurry, and tries to tell what he has to tell in as few words
as it is possible to tell it. He has learned how to con-
centrate thought, and thus can present facts concisely.
That is one of the great advantages to be obtained from
journalistic training.

The journalist aims to suit his style to the intelligence
and taste of the greater number of the readers of the jour-
nal to which he contributes, and the better class of journal
seeks to elevate and to refine the public taste rather than
to deprave it. When the founders of "The Evening Post"
(New York), of which William Cullen Bryant was chief
editor in 1828, issued the first number of this journal they
announced its purpose in the following terms : ' ' The design
of this paper is to diffuse among the people correct infor-
mation on all interesting subjects, to inculcate just prin-
ciples in religion, morals, and politics; and to cultivate a
taste for sound literature."6 The progress of intelligence
has developed human thought and that development is due
largely to the intellectual influence which the newspaper
press brings to bear upon the people.

6 Prospectus of the "Evening Post," No. 1, November 16, 1801.

Individuality in Writing

To tell the reader how he can infuse his individuality
into what he writes is not an easy task, and therefore it is
one to approach with timidity. It is not the purpose here
to instruct him how he can become eminent in literature.
Practise, talent, opportunity and time only may help him
to the enviable position of a successful author. To Orson
Squire Fowler, an eminent phrenologist of the last century,
we owe the thought that individuality is one of the first
developed and most active intellectual organs of the young.
For this reason Fowler claimed that the power of obser-
vation in children should be the principal power employed
in their education. It is on the individuality of the citizen
that the strength of the State depends, and this individu-
ality is the result of the development of character.

Individuality in writing depends upon personal character
more than upon anything else. Men and women of strong
character, if they write at all, are usually persons who
write forcefully, earnestly, and convincingly. A writer's
style depends also upon his opinions, and no writer who
does not think for himself and act for himself can be said
to possess individuality.

Medical men have told us that in man physical changes
take place every seven years. Similarly changes may be
said to take place in character and individuality. Some-
times the point of view is changed by travel or by wide
range of contact with one's fellow men. Sometimes opin-

325

326 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

ions firmly and doggedly held for years are modified and
often ultimately completely reversed. William Ewart
Gladstone began his career as a Conservative (Tory) and
ended it as a Liberal ; and his great contemporary, Benjamin
Disraeli, entered the House of Commons as a Liberal and
left it a Conservative, which he remained throughout his
career in the House of Lords as Earl of Beaconsfield.

Individuality is subject, in great measure, to one's sur-
roundings, the influences of home, the experiences of child-
hood— for these often leave on the mind indelible impres-
sions which influence the molding of character to some
degree.

"Every writer," says Havelock Ellis, "is called afresh
to reveal new strata of life. By digging in his own soul he
becomes the discoverer of the soul of his family, of his
nation, of the race, of the heart of humanity. For the
greater writer finds style as the mystic finds God, in his
own soul. It is the final utterance of a sigh, which none
could utter before him, which all could utter after." If
you have something to say put your thought and feeling,
your heart and soul into the manner in which you say it.
That is the way to stamp your individuality upon it.

A short time ago Viscount Morley, addressing a meeting
of representatives of the British Imperial Press, said: "I
remember once, when I was in charge of a newspaper, there
came to me a youngster who sought employment, and I
said, 'Have you any special quality ?' £Yes/ he thought
he had. 'What is it?' He said, 'Invective/ 'Any par-
ticular form?' 'No; general invective.' ' And in this
quality the young man was not by any means alone. Un-
fortunately, the too free use of the language of personal
vituperation, coarse epithet and innuendo has sometimes

INDIVIDUALITY IN WRITING 327

been mistaken for individuality. Its use has enabled young
writers to secure a measure of questionable fame which has
proved a boomerang. They have found out that scandal
and personality are popular, so they use pointed insinua-
tions, sophistry, in dissecting private characters or des-
cribing fashionable vices. Their efforts seem to be devoted
to trying to prove that ''things are not what they seem."
To such as have fallen into the rut of the scavenger's cart
the best advice that can be given is — take your own muck-
rake and rake yourself out on solid ground, and once there,
stay there.

Just as in musical notation there are notes which are
sharp, others which are flat, and others still that are
natural, so there are individuals who possess like qualities.
Indeed, most men possess them but few know how to use
them. Lord Macaulay possessed them and used them
judiciously, as any one who cares to read his essays can
see for himself. But then, Macaulay was the foremost
essayist of his time, and he to-day ranks as a master of the
art of expression. His scathing denunciation of Bertrand
Barrere is a brilliant example of the manner in which he
could wield a pen when spurred by indignation. His
essay on Milton, although written at the starting-point of
his literary fame, was so brilliant that its appearance was
felt, and notwithstanding the fact that later in life he
himself condemned it as "overloaded with gaudy and
ungraceful ornament," it is still considered a masterpiece
of literary skill. Forcefulness, brilliancy, and grace were
not his only qualities as a writer, for he was an artist, and
painted pictures with the pen, in which every word he used
blended harmoniously. As a poet his Lays have never
been surpassed for natural vigor and melody.

328 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

' ' The great writers of any school bear witness, each in his
own way, that deeper than the conventions and decorums
of style there is a law from which no writer can escape,
a law which he must needs learn but can never be taught.
That is the law of the logic of thought. All the conven-
tional rules of the construction of speech may be put aside
if a writer is thereby enabled to follow more closely and
lucidly the form and process of his thought. It is the law
of that logic that he must forever follow, and in attaining
it alone find rest.1 ' '

With young writers, or with those persons who begin to
write, the tendency to imitate seems irresistible. Imita-
tion may be the sincerest flattery, but it is not individuality
and is best avoided. Individuality may be said to assert
itself in letter-writing more than in any other form of
composition, and therefore it is an art which should be
cultivated as in the direct line toward the aim in view.
It is one of the most fascinating of pastimes. It is not an
exotic, and therefore should not be forced. It is a plant
of natural growth, and as such should be fostered only by
natural means. For this reason, in practising the art of
letter-writing it is best to begin by addressing oneself to
an intimate friend, one who is willing to read and com-
petent to point out such errors as may have unconsciously
been committed. It may seem paradoxical to suggest that
individuality can assert itself without the use of the personal
pronoun, first person singular, yet such is the case; and
the person who can compose a readable letter without re-
peated reference to self can be said to have overcome one of
the principal difficulties that besets beginners.

The literatures of England and of France have been en-

1Havelock Ellis in "The Atlantic Monthly," November, 1908.

INDIVIDUALITY IN WRITING 329

riched with the work of famous letter-writers. The Paston
letters, the publication of which earned for John Fenn
the honor of knighthood, are a valuable collection of the
correspondence that passed between the members of the
Paston family of Norfolk in England between the years
1424 and 1506. The originals bound in three volumes were
presented to King George III. by their editor in 1787,
but, unfortunately, have disappeared. ' ' The Paston let-
ters," said Richard Garnett,2 "are peculiarly interesting
from the importance, and, in some respect the represen-
tative character of the family ... In its broader aspects
the correspondence exhibits human nature much as it is
now, except for the notable deficiency in public spirit and
the absence of large views or worthy interests in life. The
contrast with our own times is instructive, showing how
largely commerce and literature, art and travel, have con-
tributed to augment moral and intellectual as well as
material wealth."

Pope originated the literary letter when in 1737 he
issued a volume of letters which passed between his literary
friends and himself. Lord Chesterfield's "Letters to his
Son" and those to his godson and successor are reckoned
*among the English Classics. James Howell was one of
England 's most entertaining letter- writers, and Thackeray,
who greatly admired his work, always kept a volume of
Howeirs letters by his bedside. Dr. Joseph Jacobs edited
an edition of Howeirs familiar letters in 1893. The letters
of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, of Dorothy Osborne to
Sir William Temple, of Dean Swift and of Horace Walpole
are worthy to rank with the best literature of their time.

The perusal of famous diaries, as those of Samuel Pepys

- "Encyc. Brit.," Vol. XVIII., page 345.

330 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

and Madame D'Arblay, may prove instructive as well as
useful in the development of individuality in writing. The
"Diary" of Pepys is instructive in that it depicts in minute
detail the manners and customs of the times in which he
lived. It is amusing in that the author quite unconcernedly
displays within its pages his own weaknesses and faults,
as well as the vanities and extravagancies of the persons
with whom he came into contact as Secretary of the Ad-
miralty during the reigns of Charles II. and of his ill-fated
brother James, whom William III. practically drove out
of England. It is instructive in that without it the history
of the Court of Charles II. could not have been written.
Pepys lacked imagination and had little political knowl-
edge, therefore could only record the sights and the current
gossip — this he did well. It is because these were recorded
without hesitation that from his "Diary" we can under-
stand the brilliancy and wickedness of the Court, as well as
the social state and daily life of the bourgeois class.3 The
"Diary and Letters of Madame D'Arblay" (Frances
Burney) are also full of court gossip, but contain in ad-
dition much spirited dialogue and many character sketches
marred, however, by amazing self-conceit.

In a recent criticism of Pepys 's work Havelock Ellis4 said :>

"Pepys wrote his 'Diary' at the outset of a life full of
strenuous work and not a little pleasure, with a rare devotion
indeed, but with a concision and carelessness, a single eye on
the fact itself and an extraordinary absence of self-conscious-
ness, which rob it of all claim to possess what we convention-
ally term style. Yet in this vehicle he has perfectly conveyed
not merely the most vividly realized and delightfully detailed

3 "Encyc. Brit.," Vol. XVIII., page 521.

4 "The Atlantic Monthly," November, 1908.

INDIVIDUALITY IN WRITING 331

picture of a past age ever achieved in any language, but lie
has, moreover, painted a psychological portrait of himself which,
for its serenely impartial justice, its subtle gradations, its bold
juxtapositions of color, has all the qualities of the finest Velas-
quez. There is no style here, we say, merely the diarist writing
with careless, poignant vitality for his own eye; and yet no
style that we could conceive would be better fitted, or so well
fitted, for the miracle that has here been effected."

XII

On the Corruption of Speech

BAD English is an offense when it emanates from the
uneducated; it is little short of a crime when it comes
from those who have had opportunities for education. It
is due to the care which we exercise in teaching the lan-
guage that the level of English speech is higher in America
than it is in England. A recent visitor to our shores gave
expression to the following:

"The American has a way of writing, figuratively, with a
dictionary at his elbow and a grammar within reach. There
are few educated Englishmen who do not consider their own
authority — the authority drawn from their school and univer-
sity training — superior to that of any dictionary, or grammar,
especially of any American one. So it has come about that,
while the tendency of the American 'people is constantly to
become more exact and more accurate in its written and spoken
speech, the English tendency is no less constantly toward a
growing laxity; and while the American has been sternly and
conscientiously at work pruning the inelegancies out of his
language, the Briton has been light-heartedly taking these same
inelegancies to himself."1

He is not alone in his view. Professor Walter W. Skeat,
writing on "The Problem of Spelling Reform,"2 said: "I
lately met the President of an American University, who
said to me (I have no doubt with perfect truth) : 'In our
universities English takes first place. ' This is one of those

1H. P. Robinson, "The Twentieth Century American."
2 "Proceedings of the British Academy," Vol. II.

332

ON THE CORRUPTION OF SPEECH 333

facts of which the ordinary Englishman is entirely ignor-
ant ; indeed, it is almost impossible for him to imagine how
such a state of things can be possible. I recommend the
contemplation of this astounding fact to your serious con-
sideration. ' '

Compare the foregoing with what Rudyard Kipling has
written about the Americans, and note the difference:
"They delude themselves into the belief that they talk
English — the English — the American has no language.
He is dialect, slang, provincialism, accent, and so forth."2*
It is as well known in England to-day as it is in America,
even if it be not known to Mr. Kipling, that professors in
American universities, and other American scholars, have
done more than any other English-speaking people to
preserve in all its purity that "Well of English undefiled"
which we share in common.

The American has dialect, so have the British Isles, and
they have it almost to the number of all their counties and
shires. Professor Emerson in his "History of the English
Language" says: "Spoken English throughout America is
more uniform among all classes, there being no such
strongly marked dialects as in England. America differs
from England also in having no one locality, the speech
of which is acknowledged by all as standard usage. The
only standard recognized in America is that of dictionaries,
which attempt to follow, not one locality, but the best usage
of the country as a whole. ' '

The American has slang. Much slang, American or
English, is slovenly, incorrect, vicious, and worthless; but
this lives its little day and is soon crowded out of use by
the lesser part which is virile, expressive, and picturesque.

23 "American Notes," II.

334 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

American slang breathes the atmosphere of thought un-
trammeled by conventionalities; it is free, forcible, and
vigorous, and to use the best of it is no longer considered
an offense to good taste. To-day Richard Grant White's
principle that "in language everything distinctively
American is bad,"3 is erroneous.

Mr. Kipling says that the American has "provincialism,"
whatever that may mean. If Mr. Kipling means that the
American uses provincialisms, and will study Dr. Joseph
Wright's "English Dialect Dictionary," he will find that
there are others to whom the distinction of "provincialism"
applies much more appropriately than it does to the people
of the United States.

The American has accent. For this he has reason to be
thankful because he knows what to do with it. Mr. Robin-
son says the American people are to be envied for the
homogeneity of their language. He thinks Stevenson
understates matters when he says: "You may go all over
the States, and setting aside the actual intrusion and in-
fluence of foreigners — negro, French, or Chinese — you will
scarce meet with so marked a difference of accent as in
forty miles between Edinburgh and Glasgow, or of dialect
as in the hundred miles between Edinburgh and Aber-
deen."4 Mr. Robinson believes this universal tongue —
"this universal comprehensrbility" — is of the greatest im-
portance to the nation, and thinks there is no way of
reckoning how much England has lost owing to the fact
that communication of thought is practically impossible
between people who are neighbors.

With all his faults as enumerated by Mr. Kipling, the

3 "The Atlantic Monthly," XLI, 495.

4 H. P. Robinson, "The Twentieth Century American."

ON THE CORRUPTION OF SPEECH 335

American, even in the haste of affairs which is a char-
acteristic of his race, has not yet reached the state of his
English "cousins," which was recently described by a
writer in "The Bystander " as follows:

Long ago society unanimously decided to drop its g's. We
went huntin', ridin', shootin'. Now it is my duty to reveal,
we are threatened with the mutilation of the adverb. "I should
be awful glad to come if it wasn't so frightful far," writes the
gilded youth. "I'm absolute sick of this utter boring play,"
says Lady Hortense in the stalls. We are "fearful pleased"
and "terrible disgusted." Last week, we spoke of a certain
young lady as "huntin' regular" with the Quorn.

In treating the subject of a Pure Speech League estab-
lished in London, "The Sun" (New York) said editorially:

No one knows who the founders are, but they must be
superior people, for in a circular newly published they allege
that not more than one person in 104 speaks real English. It
is alleged, for instance, that the Londoners say oi for i, whereas
others aver that they have never heard anything resembling oi.
"Many say aw, " writes one critic ; "many say ah, but in all the
various shades and gradations of Cockney we do not remember
having heard oi" A common Cockneyism of our time is the
substitution of i for a, as "pile' ' for pail, "line* ' for lane, and
so on; but Professor Skeat says he can well remember the
shock of surprize when first he heard this singular perversion.
On that occasion it was a railway porter who cried "Myden
Lyne," but now, according to Professor Skeat, "you can already
trace a tendency toward the Cockney 'line' for lane in the
speech of many educated persons." Dr. Wright in his Dic-
tionary of Dialect gives sixteen different pronunciations of the
word "down" as used in various parts of England, and these
differences are all in the vowel sound.

A German who spent some time in the United States and
then returned home was greatly impressed with the passion

336 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

for the study of English which he found here: "The bul-
wark of the American republic is the dictionary/' he said.
"I never saw so many dictionaries in my life in any lan-
guage, as I have seen in New York. In homes the dictionary
occupies a prominent place on the library or sitting-room
table, and in offices it is frequently the only literature in
sight. When I first began to make my acquaintance with
the business life of the metropolis I considered it a reflec-
tion on my ability as a linguist when the office-boy handed
me a dictionary with which to while away the time while
waiting for his employer. Later I found that Americans
born and bred improved the fleeting moments in the same
manner. " It is different in England — there dictionaries
are the luxury of a few. But, notwithstanding the fact that
the habit of consulting the dictionary frequently is culti-
vated among the masses in America far more than among
them in England, there is a strong tendency to misuse
words on both sides of the Atlantic. In America the
endeavor is to obtain an accurate knowledge of the mean-
ings of words, yet despite this endeavor, erroneous and
illiterate forms of speech abound. Perhaps, these may be
attributed to an abnormal passion for novelty which seems
to dominate the English-speaking races. There are very
few persons, even among those who would be shocked at
being told that they were not well educated, who are not
given to cultivating, perhaps unconsciously, the vernacular
of the street. "The English Slanguage," as one purist
fittingly termed it, pervades our daily life. Children dis-
play persistent aptitude in acquiring expressive but un-
cultured phrases, and their parents in chiding them some-
times make matters worse by the way they set about it.
"The Philadelphia Telegraph " recently printed a good

ON THE CORRUPTION OF SPEECH ,337

example of this: "The other night at dinner in West
Philadelphia a little girl surprized her mother by saying,
' I'm not stuck on this bread.' 'Margie/ said her mother
reprovingly, 'you want to cut that slang out.' 'That's a
peach of a way of correcting the child,' remarked the
father. 'I know,' replied the mother, 'but I just wanted
to put her wise.' 5

In commercial life one often meets men who pass for
educated whose sense of the correct use of words has been
blunted by contact with others who possibly have not
enjoyed the same educational advantages as themselves.
They know good English when they hear it, but seldom use
it. They seem to forget that accuracy of speech and
knowledge of the true meanings of words are essential to
clear understanding. Errors of speech are due more often
to carelessness than to ignorance. And it is that careless-
ness which should be checked.

In the course of an address delivered before the Prin-
cipals ' Club a few months ago, a prominent member of the
New York Bar5 took occasion to say, "We as Americans
are noted for the bad English that we use. Now, with all
due credit to the splendid work that has been done, and
is being done by you teachers, I would urge that specimens
of the finest literature should be put into the hands of our
school children, and they should be taught to read them
up to the time they graduate from college. There is to-day
a deplorable lack of knowledge of English literature among
college graduates. I would advocate the daily reading of
good literature in our schools. Thus shall we cultivate
a taste for good writing and thereby secure the elimination
of the ever-prevalent slang. "

6 The Hon. John J. Delany.

338 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

Mr. George J. Smith, a member of the Board of Exam-
iners of applicants for teachers' licenses in New York
City, recently reached the conclusion that "the fund of
general knowledge possessed by the graduates of our in-
stitutions is discouragingly limited, and in very many
cases the command of the mother tongue is exceedingly
poor." He found ample evidence that the graduates had
done little reading of standard works of literature other
than those required in the course. In other words, "they
had not acquired that habit without which scholarship and
culture are impossible — the reading habit, the getting
acquainted with many informing and masterly works for
the pleasure and the use of so doing. "

This condition he attributes to "too little time and at-
tention" given in the schools to reading. He said that in
some of the elementary schools not more than. 100 minutes
a week are given to reading, while in high schools little
more time is allotted.

"Good English," said Dr. Elroy Avery many years
ago, "is an art and not a science ; a thing of habit and not
merely one of theory ; a matter of practise rather than one
of preaching." But the art of speaking and writing good
English is not easily acquired in the face of such conditions
as are described above or as have been described by Pro-
fessor Walter Skeat. On the occasion of millenary cele-
brations in honor of King Alfred the Great, held at Win-
chester, England, several years ago, the Professor, speak-
ing of the history of the English language, remarked that
the number of students who have even an elementary
knowledge of it is remarkably small. He added : " I know
of nothing more surprizing than this singular fact. The
history of English is just the one thing which hardly any

ON THE CORRUPTION OF SPEECH 339

schoolboy knows. Very often he can tell you the differ-
ence between one ancient Greek dialect and another, but
to discriminate between the English of Chaucer's 'Canter-
bury Tales' and that of Barbour's story of 'King Robert
the Bruce' is wholly beyond him. Just as the schoolboy
is taught to look with reverence upon every Latin and
Greek sentence, so is he, in only too many instances, left
to his own devices as regards his native tongue."

If such be the condition of the schoolboy, what may one
expect of those persons who, in their day, have not enjoyed
even the meager advantages which the Professor referred
to. It is to such as these that the writer ventures to hope
this book may appeal.

Between the class that has acquired a perfect mastery
of the English tongue and the class that cares little whether
or not it speaks or writes correctly, there is a third class —
a vast and important multitude which is constantly engaged
in the culture of self, that strains its faculties to acquire
those attainments which make for success in life, and above
all, that aims to secure a perfect command of our language.
It is to this class, also, that these pages may prove of
interest. In the use of English the reader must bear in
mind the fact that the correctness of a form 'or of a con-
struction is not impaired by the fact that nothing analogous
to it exists in the language, any more than that the correct-
ness of a word is to be challenged because there is no other
in the language resembling it in sound or spelling. All
rules of grammar and rhetoric should be based on good
usage, for that is the only standard by which the correct
use of words is to be judged.

"The depravation of a language is not merely a token
pr an effect of the corruption of a people, but corruption

340 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

is accelerated, if not caused, by the perversion and degra-
dation of its consecrated vocabulary. " So wrote Professor
George P. Marsh in his "Lectures on the English Lan-
guage," and judging from the forming of a Pure Speech
League in London, and the recent plea of the Editor of
"The New York Times Saturday Review of Books" for
a Society for the Protection of Words in New York, one
may well think that the English language is being cor-
rupted.

Things may be rotten in the State of Denmark, but
English, notwithstanding that it suffers fearfully from
maltreatment, has not yet reached that stage of decay which
the word "rotten" implies. In the natural order of things
speech is more susceptible to corruption than writing, be-
cause the greater number of the intelligent people are care-
less of their diction, and are guilty of making mistakes in
conversation which they would never make if they wrote
what they wished to say. Grammarians, too, have helped
the work of misuse along. A short time ago Professor
Lounsbury pointed out that we have no "authoritative"
English grammar. "What is good English to an English-
man, may be bad English to an American," said he, and,
continuing, pointed out that Sir Philip Burne-Jones, in a
new book on America, commented on the fact that Ameri-
cans use "gotten" instead of "got." And yet a well-
educated American girl would be as likely to say "had
went" as "had got." An English play can generally be
distinguished from an American play by the single fact
that the actors say "ain't," something unspeakable in
educated American circles. The English people are not
to be shamed out of saying "ain't." They use it boldly
and unblushingly, declaring it is all right and perfectly

ON THE CORRUPTION OF SPEECH 341

proper, if for no other reason than that the English people
say it. In America "ain't" is always inelegant, and when
used is due more to carelessness than to ignorance.

Thoughtlessness lies at the root of that maltreatment of
words which leads to the corruption of their original sense,
and this the Editor of "The Saturday Review of Books"
says "marks all classes of authors and, indeed, has become
almost universal in both England and America." He
quotes the word "vast" as one that is flagrantly misused.
"Small of body but mighty of soul, its limits are those of
a continent, an ocean, the universe, space itself. Imagine
its sensations when put into a literary scavenger's daughter
and compressed to the point where it can circumscribe a
fireplace, a crab, or a pot of jam ! ' ' Another word which
has received no better treatment is "infinite" — "a sleeping
bag with an infinite number of compartments ! " " Think, ' '
says the same authority, "of the sort of jolt that poor
word must have experienced, accustomed to shadow forth
the wisdom of the Almighty, when forced to dwindle and
dwarf its majesty to the description of a dozen pockets in
a sleeping bag ! ' '

"When the word "chesty" was given place in the dic-
tionary the Editor of "The New York Herald" told us that
"words have been admitted in the language that are not
only disreputable in origin, not only offensive in all their
associations, not only vulgar in essence, but unfit at all
points for survival," and all because the expressive little
word "chesty" found place in a lexicon! The Editor of
"The Herald" may be right but was he not a little too
severe? It is a matter of record that language purifies
itself ? Many words which were in common use in the days
of Fielding and Smollett are not accepted as of sterling

342 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

value to-day, and one does not need a divining-rod to
predict that many words now in vogue will find permanent
rest in some lexicographic mausoleum of the future.

In considering the subject under discussion several years
ago the Editor of "The Evening Sun" (New York) re-
marked that "every now and then some one gets up and
proves to his own satisfaction that among other things
which are going to the dogs is the English language. The
appearance of books written in slang, in which the argot
of the stage, the race-track, and the gambling-house are
used, is cited as good and sufficient evidence of this. But,
all this is quite unscientific." We know from past experi-
ence that the slang of one age has become the reputable
language of another. In every period of the past there
has been apprehension that corruptions were pouring into
the language with irresistible force. One has but to look
back to the prefaces of the earlier dictionaries to find proof
of this assertion.

Dr. Samuel Johnson set out "to fix" the language;
Addison wished that "certain men might be set apart as
superintendents of our language, to hinder any words of a
foreign coin passing among us"; Swift, in a letter to the
Earl of Oxford, written in 1712, proposed "correcting and
improving it"; Dickens deplored the flood of slang which
was imported and incorporated in the language of his time.

Sixty years ago he wrote in "Household Words": "To
any person who devotes himself to literary composition in
the English language, the redundancy of unauthorized
words and expressions must always be a source of unutter-
able annoyance and vexation. Should he take advantage
of what he sses and hears in his own days and under his
own eyes, and incorporate into his language those idiomatic

ON THE CORRUPTION OF SPEECH 343

words and expressions he gathers from the daily affairs of
life and the daily conversation of his fellow men, he will
have no lack of critics to tell him that he writes insufferable
vulgarity and slang.

"You may hear slang every day in term from barristers
in their robes, at every mess-table, at every bar mess, at
every college commons, in every club dining-room. Brig-
ands, burglars, beggars, impostors, and swindlers will have
their slang jargon to the end of the chapter. Mariners,
too, will use the terms of their craft, and mechanics will
borrow from the technical vocabulary of their trade. And
there are cant words and terms traditional in schools and
colleges, and in the playing of games, which are orally
authorized if not set down in written lexicography. But
so universal has the use of slang terms become, that, in all
societies, they are frequently substituted for, and have
almost usurped the place of wit.

"If we continue the reckless, and indiscriminate im-
portation and incorporation into our language of every
cant term of speech from the columns of American news-
papers, every Canvas Town epithet from the vocabularies
of gold-diggers, every bastard classicism dragged head and
shoulders from a lexicon by an advertising tradesman to
puff his wares, every slipslop Gallicism from the shelves
of the circulating library ; if we persist in yoking Hamlets
of adjectives to Hecubas of nouns, the noble English tongue
will become, fifty years hence, a mere dialect of colonial
idioms, enervated ultramontanisms, and literate slang;
the fertility of a language may degenerate into the fecu-
lence of weeds and tares. Should we not rather, instead of
raking and heaping together worthless novelties of ex-
pression, endeavor to weed, to expurgate, to epurate; to

344 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

render, once more, wholesome and pellucid that which was
once a well of English undefiled, and rescue it from the
sewerage of verbiage and slang?

"If the evil of slang has grown too gigantic to be sup-
pressed, let us at least give it decency by legalizing it;
else, assuredly, this age will be branded by posterity with
the shame of jabbering a broken dialect in preference to
speaking a nervous and dignified language."

The use of slang generally betokens imperfect education,
or a small vocabulary, though men of good education fre-
quently employ it in their ordinary speech to win the favor
of the ignorant. This is a doubtful expedient. A man
who habitually talks and writes good English generally
makes himself felt more strongly than the educated im-
postor who uses bad English for popularity's sake. But,
slang we shall have with us always, and only the fittest will
survive.

Professor Brander Matthews has a good word to say for
slang as a vitalizing element in our language. He is
quoted in "The New York Herald " as saying: "I consider
Mark Twain and Rudyard Kipling writers of the best
English we have to-day; their use of slang is wonderful,
and they have made it a part of the literature of the
period." The people, not the schoolmaster, says Professor
Matthews, give our tongue its virility. He continues:
"The English language belongs to the people who speak
it. It is their own precious possession, to deal with at
their pleasure and at their peril. The English language
has gone on its own way, keeping its strength in spite of
the efforts of pedants and pedagogs to bind it and to stifle
it, ever insisting on renewing its freshness as best it could.

"This actual speech of the people, whether in Rome or

ON THE CORRUPTION OF SPEECH 345

in London or in New York, is the real language of which
the literary dialect is but a sublimation. Language is made
sometimes in the library, it is true, and in the parlor also,
but far more often in the workshop and on the sidewalk;
and nowadays the newspaper and the advertisement record
for us the simple and undistilled phrases of the workshop.
Most of these will fade out of sight unregretted, but a few
will prove themselves possessed of sturdy vitality.

"The ideal of style, so it has been tersely put, is the
speech of the people in the mouth of the scholar. One
reason why so much of the academic writing of educated
men is arid is because it is as remote as may be from
the speech of the people. One reason why Mark Twain
and Budyard Kipling are now the best-beloved authors
of the English language is because they have, each of them,
a welcome ear for the speech of the people/'

There are not many persons who will deny the vigor of
Mr. Kipling's English, but there will be many who will
disagree with Professor Matthews when he classes Mr.
Kipling among the "writers of the "best English we have
to-day," for much of Mr. Kipling's work is marred by
faulty English. Although his style is pellucid to trans-
parency, yet his dwelling-place is of that exceedingly brittle
kind which makes it an unsafe haven from which to assail
the quality of the English used by the educated American.

In a recent essay entitled ' ' The Test of Language, ' ' Miss
Phyllis Dale relates that she received a letter from a
mother begging her to write on the intemperate language
used by many young girls to-day. The distressed mother
wrote : " It is hard to keep correcting and nagging children,
and yet the expressions that my girls and their friends —
all high-school students — make use of make me look back

346 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

with reverence to my own - convent school-days. To be
sure, I was not well versed in the 'ologies and 'ometries
when I graduated, but I certainly did not call things
'terribly nice' or 'awfully pretty' or puzzle my hearers
with the ridiculous exaggerations of speech which seem a
fashion nowadays." This intemperance Miss Dale justly
condemns and adds: ll Language affects sensitive persons
like music. If it is well chosen and clearly expressed it is
a sensuous delight to listen to, whereas if it is marred by
grammatical errors and harshened by provincialisms, it jars
upon one's sensibilities as discordant strains of 'music.

" Exaggeration is a peculiarly infectious mania of the
moment. There is a picturesque extravagance of speech
which is sometimes very effective, but it is the exaggeration
of the fairy story and the wonder book, and is not in the
least degree misleading.

"The exaggerating girl has milder and less effective
methods. If she has a headache she tells you that she is
in 'agony,' or that she 'will go crazy.' If she speaks of
a rich acquaintance he figures as a person of vast wealth
or comes under the general head of 'millionaire' Every
one who has an automobile and a fine house and money to
spend figures as a 'millionaire' in the average girl's con-
versation. She tells of a 'terrible accident' that has taken
place around the corner. You investigate and find that
a cab horse has fallen down and frightened two women
who were in the cab. ' '

Popular perversions are in some degree responsible for
the misuse of words. Professor Lourisbury has cited one
commented upon by Fitzedward Hall as follows: "While
one is surprized to hear, for example, 'I done it' from any
American but the most illiterate, one may often hear it in

ON THE CORRUPTION OF SPEECH 347

England from persons not very far below the rank of
gentlemen. ' ' That the Professor does not deem Fitzedward
Hall an unassailable authority will prove a source of satis-
faction to many Englishmen who, like the writer, have
never heard the expression used in England, although they
have come into contact with farmers, mechanics, the middle
class, and the class with handles to their names. Apropos
of this expression the following anecdote, culled from
"Lippincott's Magazine/' shows that the use of "I done it"
is not unknown in the United States. A young woman of
the official set in Washington at a public function found
herself bored by the attentions of a " fresh ' ' young man, the
son of a Senator. Soon after his introduction he proceeded
to regale her with a story of some adventure in which he
had figured as hero. ' * Did you really do that ? ' ? she asked,
not knowing what else to say. ' ' I done it ! " was the proud
response, and he began forthwith another lengthy narrative,
more startling even than the first. The young woman
again politely expressed her surprize. "Yes," said the
hero, "that's what I done!" A third story followed, with
another "I done it!" whereupon the girl remarked: "Do
you know you remind me so strongly of Banquo's ghost in
the play." "Why?" "Don't you remember that Mac-
beth said to the ghost : ( Thou canst not say I did it ! ' "

Professor Lounsbury is not seriously apprehensive of the
general corruption of the English tongue. The same cry
has been raised frequently in the last three centuries, but
the language has survived in spite of it. "No matter how
many of these so-called corruptions creep in," says the
Professor, "no fear need be entertained that the language
is going to ruin in consequence. The result depends on
agencies entirely different from those which affect the for-

348 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

mation of words, the rules of syntax, or the construction
of sentences."

Our language is so plastic a medium for the expression
of thought that it may be said to adapt itself to the needs,
intellectual and material, of the persons who use it. It
develops with their development and degenerates with their
decay. None but the conservative influence of the men
of letters can check its decline. Corruptions in the use of
words there undoubtedly are, and there will continue to
be. One does not need to go much further than the street
to find them, but they do not exist in such proportion as
to give grammarians, lexicographers, or purists cause for
alarm. These corruptions are due sometimes to mere
accidental misuse (as, "Where am I at?") ; to the affecta-
tions or the caprices of society; to local conditions; to
political influences, and even to translations from foreign
languages in which words are often incorrectly made to
do service for others through the linguistic limitations of
the translator. Sooner or later such corruptions must all
undergo that natural process of refining to which English
words are subjected before they are accepted as measuring
up to the required standard. In the meantime, however,
it is the duty of every educated man and woman to check
their spread and to lead those who use them back to that
well of English undefiled from which they can draw speech
in all its limpid purity.

APPENDIX

349

A Partial List of British and American Authors

Adv. — adventure; alleg. — allegory; as*. — astronomy; biog. —
biography; ess. — essay; hist. — history; hum. — humor; lexicog. — lexi-
cography ; lit. — literary ; mis. — miscellaneous ; math. — mathematics ;
nat. — nature study; nov. — novel; philos. — philosophy; philol. — phil-
ology; poet. — poetry; pol. — politics; print. — printing; sci. — science;
soc. — sociology ; theol. — theology ; trans. — translation ; trav. — travel.

NAME Type of Work Chief WorTcs $ Dates Born-Died

Abbott, Jacob, (Nov.), Rollo BooTcs 1803-1879

Abbott, John S. C. (Hist. & Biog.), Hist, of Napoleon III. 1805-1877
Abbott, Lyman, (Biog. & Mis.), Life of Henry Ward

Beecher 1835-

Acton, Lord, (Hist.), Cambridge Modern History . . . 1834-1902
Adams, Brooks, (Hist. & Ess.), The Emancipation of

Massachusetts 1848-

Adams, Charles F., (Hist. & Ess.), Railroads.- their Origin

and Problems 1833-1886

Adams, Henry, (Hist. & Biog.), Hist, of United States 1838-
Adams, William Taylor, (" Oliver Optic "), Young

America Abroad 1822-1897

Addison, Joseph, (Ess.), The Spectator 1672-1719

Ainger, Canon Alfred, (Biog. & Ess.), Biography of

Charles Lamb (English Men of Letter Series) . 1837-1904
Ainsworth, William Harrison, (Nov.), The Tower of Lon-
don 1805-1882

Akenside, Mark, (Poet), Pleasures of the Imagination . 1721-1770

Alcott, Louisa May, (Nov., Juveniles), Little Women . 1832-1888

Alcuin, (Theol., Hist. & Poet), Epistles 735-804

Aldhelm, (Poet), Latin Poems ?640-709

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, (Poet & Drama), Prudence

Palfrey 1836-1907

Alfred, (Trans., Saxon Poems), Trans, of Bozthius

Consolation of Philosophy 849-901

Alfred of Eievaulx, (Hist.), Account of the Battle of the

Standard, 1138 1109-1166

Alfric, (Archbishop of Canterbury), Homilies, Latin

Grammar ? -1006

Alison, Sir Archibald, (Hist. & Biog.), History of Europe 1792-1867
Allen, Grant, (Nov. & Ess.), The Evolution of the Idea of

God 1848-1899

Allen, James Lane, (Nov.), The Choir Invisible . . . 1848-
Allibone, Samuel Austin, A Critical Dictionary of English

Literature and Authors .- 1816-1889

351

352 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

NAME Type of WorTc Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died

Allingham, William, (Poet), Day and Night Songs . . 1824-1889

Allston, Washington, (Poet), Sylphs of the Season . . 1779-1843
Andrew of Wyntoun, (Hist.), Orygynale Cronykil of

Scotland 1350-1420

Anstey, F. See GUTHRIE

Arnold, Sir Edwin, (Poet), The Light of Asia . . . . 1832-1904

Arnold, Matthew, (Poet & Mis.), Essays in Criticism . 1822-1888

Arnold, Thomas (Hist.), Hist, of Some (Unfinished) . 1795-1842

Ascham, Eoger, (Sport), Toxophilus 1515-1568

Ashe, Thomas, (Poet), London Lyrics 1836-1889

Asser, (Hist.), Life of Alfred the Great d. about 910
Audubon, John James, (Nat.), The Birds of America . 1780-1851
Aungervyle, Eichard, ("Eichard de Bury"), (Biblio-
phile), Philobiblon 1281-1345

Austen, Jane, (Nov.), Sense and Sensibility .... 1775-1817

Austin, Alfred, (Poet), English Lyrics 1835-1913

Bacon, Francis, (Philos.), Essays (1597), Novum Or-

ganum (1620) 1561-1626

Bagehot, Walter, (Philos.), Physics and Politics . . . 1826-1877
Baillie, Joanna, (Poet & Drama), Dramatic Works

(1798), Poetical Worlcs (1823) 1763-1851

Baker, Sir Eichard, (Hist. & Poet), Chronicles of the

Kings of England 1568-1645

Bale, John, (Hist. & Drama), Lives of British Writers . 1495-1564
Balfour, Arthur James, (Pol. & Philos.), Foundations of

Belief 1848-

Ball, Sir Eobert, (Sci.), Story of the Heavens . . . 1840-1913
Ballantyne, E. M., (Nov. & Travel, Juveniles), Tale of the

Oregon Gold Fields 1825-1894

Bancroft, George, (Hist.), History of the United States 1800-1891

Banim, John, (Nov.), The Tales of the O'Hara Family . 1800-1842
Banks, Sir Joseph, (Nat.), Circumstances Relative to

Merino Sheep 1743-1820

Barbauld, Mrs. Anna L., (Poet & Ess.), The Death of

Eighteous 1743-1825

Barham, Eichard Harris, (Hum.), The Ingoldsby Legends 1788-1845
Baring-Gould, Sabine, (Nov. & Mis.), Curious Myths of

the Middle Ages 1834-

Barlow, Joel, (Poet), The Vision of Columbus . . . 1755-1812
Barrie, James Matthew, (Nov. & Drama), Auld Licht

Idylls (1888), Peter Pan (1904) 1860-

Barrow, Isaac, (Theol. & Math.), Methods of Tangents . 1630-1677

Bates, Arlo, (Nov. & Poet), The Pagans 1850-

Baxter, Andrew, (Philos.), An Enquiry into the Nature

of the Human Soul 1686-1750

Baxter, Eichard, (Theol.), The Saint's Everlasting Best . 1615-1691

A PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORS 353

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died

Bayly, Ada Ellen, ("Edna Lyall"), (Nov.), Donovan . 1857-1903
Bayly, Thomas Haynes, (Poet & Songs), Weeds of

Witchery 1797-1839

Beattie, James, (Poems & Ess.), The Minstrel . . . 1735-1803
Beckford, William, (Lit.), The History of the Caliph

Vatliek 1760-1844

Beaumont, Francis, (Drama), The Woman Hater . . 1584-1616

Beddoes, Thomas, (Sci. & Mis.), History of Isaac Jenkins 1760-1808
Beddoes, Thomas Lovell, (Drama & Poet), The Bride's

Tragedy 1803-1849

Bede, (Hist. & Theol.), Ecclesiastical History of the

English Nation 672-735

Beecher, Henry Ward, Life of Christ 1813-1887

Bell, Sir Charles, (Anatomy), System of Dissections . . 1774-1842
Bellamy, Edward, (Soc. & Mis.), Looking Backward . . 1850-1898
Belloc, Hilaire, (Nov. & Mis.), Emmanuel Burden, Mer-
chant 1870-

Bennett, Arnold, (Nov.), The Old Wives' Tale .... 1867-

Benson, Arthur C., (Ess.), From a College Window . . 1862-

Benson, Edward F., (Nov.), Dodo 1867-

Bentham, Jeremy, (Philos. & Legal), Principles of Morals

and Legislation 1748-1832

Bentley, Richard, (Theol.), Dissertations (2) upon the

Epistles of Phalaris 1662-1742

Benton, Thomas Hart, (Hist. & Pol.), Thirty Tears View 1782-1858
Berkeley, George, (Philos.), Principles of Human Knowl-
edge 1684-1753

Besant, Sir Walter, (Nov.), All Sorts and Conditions of

Men 1836-1901

Beverley, Robert, (Hist.), Hist, of the Present State of

Virginia about 1675-1716

Bigelow, John, (Biog. & Pol.), Life of Benjamin Franklin 1817-1911

Binyon, Laurence, (Poet), The Death of Adam . . . 1869-
Bishop, William Henry, (Nov.), The House of a Merchant

Prince 1847-

Black, William, (Nov.), Yolande 1841-1898

Blackmore, R. D., (Nov.), Lorna Doone 1825-1900

Blackstone, Sir William, (Legal), Commentaries of the

Laws of England 1723-1780

Blair, Hugh, (Theol. & Lit.), Sermons 1718-1800

Blair, Robert, (Poet), The Grave 1699-1747

Blake, William, (Poet), Songs of Innocence and Experi-
ence 1757-1828

Blessington, Countess of, (Nov. & Mis.), Conversations

with Lord Byron 1789-1849

Blind, Mathilde, (Poet), The Ascent of Man .... 1841-1896

Bloomfield, Robert, (Poet), Farmer's Boy 1766-1823

354 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

NAME Type of Work Chief WorTcs # Dates Born-Died

Blunt, Wilfrid Scawen, (Poet), Sonnets and Songs . . 1840-
Boker, George H., (Poet & Drama), Anne Boleyn, a

Tragedy 1824-1890

Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, (Lord Bolingbroke),

(Pol. & Lit.), Letters on the Study of History 1678-1751

Bonnycastle, John, (Math.), Elements of Geometry . . 1750-1821

Bosw ell, James, (Biog.), Life of Johnson 1740-1795

Bourchier, John, (Baron Berners), (Trans.), Froissart's

Chronicle 1469-1532

Boyle, Eobert, (Sci. & Philos.), Skeptical Chemist . . . 1627-1691
Brackenridge, Hugh Henry, (Poet), Eising Glory of

America 1748-1816

Braddon, Mary Elizabeth, (Mrs. John Maxwell), (Nov.),

Lady Audley's Secret 1837-1915

Bradford, William, (Hist. & Theol.), History of Plymouth

People and Colony 1590-1657

Bradley, Andrew Cecil, (Ess. & Critic), A Commentary on

Tennyson's in Memoriam 1851-

Bradstreet, Mrs. Anne, (Poet), Poems 1612-1672

Brady, Cyrus Townsend, (Nov.), Stephen Decatur . . 1861-
Bret Harte, Francis, (Hum. & Nov.), ~The Luck of Boar-
ing Camp 1839-1902

Bridges, Kobert, (Poet & Drama), The Growth of Love . 1844-

Bright, James Franck, (Hist.), A History of England . 1832-
Brodhead, John Romeyn, (Hist.), Hist, of the State of

New York, 1609-1691 1814-1873

Bronte, Charlotte, (Nov.), Jane Eyre 1816-1855

Brooke, Henry, (Poet & Nov.), The Fool of Quality . . 1706-1783
Brooke, Stopford Augustus, (Theol. & Ess.), Freedom in

the Church of England 1832-

Brougham, Lord Henry, (Pol. & Hist.), Sketches of the

Statesmen of the Time of George III. . . . 1778-1868

Broughton, Ehoda, (Nov.), Nancy 1840-

Brown, Chas. -Brockden, (Nov.), Wieland 1771-1810

Brown, George Douglas, (Nov.), The House with the

Green Shutters 1869-1902

Brown, Thomas Edward, (Poet), Fo'c'sle Yarns . . . 1830-1897
Browne, Charles F., ("Artemus Ward")* (Hum.),

Artemus Ward, his Book 1834-1867

Browne, Sir Thomas, (Sci. & Mis.), Religio Medici . . 1605-1682

Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, (Poet), Aurora Leigh . . 1809-1861

Browning, Eobert, (Poet & Drama), Paracelsus . . . 1812-1889
Bruce, James, (Travels), Travels to Discover the Source

of the Nile 1730-1794

Bryan, William Jennings, (Pol. & Soc.), Speeches . . 1860-

Bryant, William Cullen, (Poet), Thanatopsis .... 1794-1878

A PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORS 355

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died

Bryce, James, Viscount, (Hist. & Pol.), The American

Commonwealth 1838-

Brydges, Sir Samuel E., (Poet & Ess.), bonnets and Poems 1762-1837
Buchanan, George, (Hist. & Poet), Latin History of Scot-
land 1506-1582

Buchanan, Robert, (Poet & Nov.), God and the Man . . 1841-1901

Sullen, Frank Thomas, (Nov.), The Cruise of the Cachalot 1857-
Bulwer-Lytton, Edward, (Lord Lytton), (Poet & Nov.),

Pelham 1805-1873

Bunner, Henry Cuyler, (Nov. & Poet), The Story of a New

York House 1855-1896

Bunyan, John, (Allegory), The Pilgrim's Progress . . 1628-1688

Burgess, Thomas, (Theol.), Hebrew Elements .... 1756-1837

Burgess, Gelett, (Hum.), The Purple Cow 1866-

Burke, Edmund, (Pol. & Ess.), The Sublime and the

Beautiful 1729-1797

Burnet, Gilbert, (Hist.), History of the Reformation . . 1643-1715

Burnett, Frances Hodgson (Nov.), Little Lord Fauntleroy 1849-

Burney, Charles, (Mus. Hist.), General History of Music 1726-1814

B.urney, Frances, (Madame D'Arblay), (Nov.), Evelina 1752-1840
Burns, Robert, (Poet), The Cotter's Saturday Night, Tarn

O'Shanter, The Unco Guid . 1759-179G

Burroughs, John, (Nat. & Ess.), Winter Sunshine . . . 1837-
Burton, Sir Richard, (Travel & Mis.), Pilgrimage to El-

Medinah and Mecca 1821-1890

Burton, Robert, (Philos.), The Anatomy of Melancholy . 1576-1640

Bury, John B., (Hist.), History of Greece 1861-

Bushnell, Horace, (Theol. & Philos.), Nature and the

Supernatural 1802-1876

Butler, Ellis Parker, (Nov.), Pigs is Pigs . .... 1869-

Butler, Joseph, (Theol. & Philos.), Analogy of Religion . 1692-1752

Butler, Samuel, (Poet), Hudibras 1612-1680

Butler, Samuel, (Nov.), Erewhon 1835-1902

Butler, William Allen, (Nov. & Hum.), Nothing to Wear 1825-1902

Byron, Lord, (Poet), Childe Harold 1788-1824

Cable, George W., (Nov.), Old Creole Days 1844-

Caedmon, (Poet), Saxon Poems . • -680

Caine, Hall, (Nov.), The Manxman 1853-

Caird, Edward, (Philos. & Theol.), Evolution of Religion 1835-1908
Caird, John, (Theol. & Philos.), An Introduction to the

Philosophy of Religion 1820-1898

Calverley, Charles Stuart, (Poet), Fly Leaves .... 1831-1884

Camden, William, (Hist.), Britannia 1551-1623

Campbell, Thomas (Poet), The Pleasures of Hope (1799),

Gertrude of Wyoming (1809) 1777-1844

Capes, Bernard, (Nov.), The Secret in the Hill . . . Modern

356 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died
Carew, Thomas, (Poet), He that Loves a Eosy Cheek U589-1639
Carey, Henry, (Poet), Sally in our Alley .... 1700-1743
Carey, Henry Charles, (Econ. & Mis.), Principles of Polit-
ical Economy 1793-1879

Carleton, William, (Nov.), Traits and Stories of the

Irish Peasantry 1794-1869

Carleton, Will, (Poet), 'Farm Ballads 1845-1912

Carlyle, Thomas, (Hist. & Ess.), Sartor Eesartus . . . 1795-1881

Carte, Thos., (Hist.), Hist, of England 1686-1754

Gary, Henry F., (Poet), Translation of Dante's Divina

Commedia 1772-1844

Castell, Edmund, (Orientalist & Poet), Lexicon Hepta-

glotton, etc 1606-1685

Cavendish, George, (Biog.), Life of Cardinal Wolsey . . 1500-1562?

Caxton, William, (Hist.), History of Troy 1423-1491

Chalmers, Geo., (Hist.), Political Annals ..... 1742-1825

Chalmers, Thomas, (Theol. & Philos.), Political Economy 1780-1847
Chanler, Amelie Kives. See EIVES.

Channing, William Ellery, (Poet & Biog.), Thoreau . 1818-1901
Chapman, George, (Poet & Drama), Ovid's Banquet of

Sence 1557-1634

Chatterton, Thomas, (Poet), Poems 1752-1770

Chaucer, Geoffrey, (Poet), Canterbury Tales . .1328 or 1340-1400

Chesterton, Gilbert K., (Nov.), Heretics 1874-

Cheyne, Canon Thomas K., (Theol.), Job and Solomon . 1841-
Child, Frances James, (Lit.), Edited, English and Scottish

Popular Ballads 1825-1896

Chillingworth, William, (Theol.), The Eeligion of Protes-
tants 1602-1644

Cholmondeley, Mary, (Nov.), Eed Pottage .... Modern
Church, Eichard William, (Dean of St. Paul's) (Hist.,

Biog. & Mis.), Anselm 1815-1890

Churchill, Winston, (Nov.), The Crisis 1871-

Churchill, Et. Hon. Winston, (Biog.), Life of Lord Ean-

dolph Churchill 1874-

Clarendon, Edward Hyde, Earl of, (Hist.), History of

the Eebellion and Civil Wars in England . . 1608-1674
Clark, James Freeman, (Theol.), Ten Great Eeligions . 1810-1888
Clarke, Adam, (Theol. & Mis.), A Bibliographical Dic-
tionary 1763-1832

Clarke, Edward Daniel, (Travels), Travels in Europe,

Asia and Africa 1769-1822

Clarke, Samuel, (Thefcl. & Philos.), Three Practical Essays

on Baptism, Confirmation and Eepentance . . 1675-1729
Clemens, Samuel L., ("Mark Twain "), (Hum.), Inno-
cents Abroad 1835-1910

Clifford, Mrs. W. K., (Nov. & drama), The Modern Way Modern

A PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORS 357

NAME Type of -Work Chief Works $- Dates Born-Died
Clodd, Edward, (Philos. & Mis.), The Story of the Creation 1840-
Cobbett, William, (Pol. & Ess.), Rural Sides (1825), Cot-
tage Economy (1822), America 1762-1835

Coke, Sir Edward, (Legal), Institutes of the Laws of

England 1552-1632

Coleridge, Samuel T., (Poet & Philos.), The Ancient

Mariner 1772-1834

Collier, Jeremy, (Theol. & Mis.), Essays upon Several

Moral Subjects 1650-1726

Collins, J. Churton, (Ess. & Critic), Sir Joshua Reynolds

as a Portrait Painter 1848-1908

Collins, William, (Poet), The Passions 1721-1756

Collins, Wm. Wilkie, (Nov.), The Woman in White . . 1824-1889

Colman, George, (Drama & Trans.), The Jealous Wife . 1733-1794
Colvin, Sir Sidney, (Biog. & Ess.), Keats, English Men of

Letters Series 1845-

Congreve, William, (Drama), The Mourning Bride . . 1670-1729

Conington, John, (Trans.), Vergil's ^Eneid .... 1825-1869

Conrad, Joseph, (Nov.), The Nigger of the Narcissus . 1857-
Conway, Sir (William) Martin, (Travel & Ess.), No Man's

Land 1856-

Cook, Captain James, (Travel), Three Voyages Round

the World 1728-1779

Cooke, John Esten, (Nov. & Poet), Last of the Foresters 1830-1886

Cooper, J. Fenimore, (Nov.), The Spy 1789-1851

Corelli, Marie, (Nov.), Romance of Two Worlds . . . 1864-
Cotton, John, (Theol.), The Keyes to the Kingdom of

Heaven, and the Power thereof 1585-1652

Cotton, Sir Robert Bruce, (Hist. & Pol.), Life and Raigne

of Henry III 1570-1631

Courthope, William J., (Hist. & Biog.), History of En-
glish Poetry . 1842-

Coverdale, Miles, (Theol.), First Translation of the

Entire Bible 1487-1568

Cowley, Abraham, (Poet), Pindaric Odes (1656), The

Mistress (1656) 1618-1667

Cowper, William, (Poet), The Task (1785), Letters . . 1731-1800

Coxe, William, (Hist.), History of the House of Austria 1747-1828

Crabbe, George, (Poet), The Parish Register .... 1754-1832
Craigie, Mrs. ("John Oliver Hobbes"), (Nov.), The

School for Saints 1867-1906

Craik, Mrs. Dinah Maria (Nov.), John Halifax, Gentleman 1826-1887
Cranch, Christopher Pearse, (Poet), Last of the Hugger-
muggers 1813-1892

Cranmer, Thomas, (Theol.), The Book of Common Prayer

(1549), Translation of the Bible (1540) . . 1489-1556

Crawford, F. Marion, (Nov.), Mr. Isaacs 1854-1909

358 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died

Creighton, Mandell, (Hist.), History of the Papacy . . 1843-1901

Crockett, Samuel Eutherford, (Nov.), The Saiders . . 1860-

Croly, George, (Poet & Mis.), Catiline 1780-1860

Cronwright-Schreiner, Mrs. ("Olive Schreiner"), (Nov.),

The Story of an African Farm 1863-

Cudworth, Ealph, (Philos. & Mis.), The True Intellectual

System of the Universe 1617-1688

Cumberland, Eichard, (Drama & Mis.), Memoirs . . . 1732-1811

Cunninghame-Graham, Eobert B., (Trav. & Nov.), Ipane 1852-
Curtis, George Ticknor, (Hist.), Hist, of the Constitution

of the United States 1812-1894

Curtis, George William, (Nov. & Mis.), Prue and I . . 1824-1892

Cynewulf, (Poet), Eeligious Poems 8th Cent.

Dale, Eobert William, (Theol.), The Atonement . . . 1829-1895
Dalton, John C., (Sci.), New System of Chemical Phil-
osophy 1767-1844

Dalton, John C., (Sci.), Human Physiology .... 1825-1889
Dana, Charles Anderson, (Encyclopedist & Mis.), Edited

Appleton's New American Cyclopedia . . . 1819-1897

Dana, Eichard Henry, (Nov. & Poet), The Idle Man . . 1787-1879
Dana, Eichard Henry, Jr., (Nov. & Mis.), Two Years

Before the Mast 1815-1882

Danby, Frank, (Nov.), (Mrs. Julia Frankau), Dr. Phil-
lips, a Maida Vale Idyll; Eighteenth Century

Color Prints 1864-

Daniel, Samuel, (Poet), Sonnets 1562-1619

Daniell, John F., (Sci.), Meteorological Essays . . . 1790-1845

Darwin, Charles, (Nat.), The Origin of Species . . . 1809-1882

Darwin, Erasmus, (Poet, Nat. & Philos.), Botanic Garden 1731-1802

Davenant, Sir William, (Drama & Poet), Gondibert . . 1605-1668

Davidson, John, (Poet), Ballads and Songs 1857-1909

Davidson, Lucretia Maria, (Poet), Amir Khan . . . 1808-1825

Davies, Sir John, (Poet & Ess.), Nosce Teipsum . . . 1569-1626
Davis, Eichard Harding, (Nov. & Drama), Soldiers of

Fortune 1864-

Davy, Sir Humphry, (Sci., Poet & Ess.), Consolations in

Travel 1778-1829

De Bracton, Henry, (Legal), De Legibus et Consuetudinibus d. 1268

Defoe, Daniel, (Adv.), Robinson Crusoe 1663-1731

Dekker, Thomas, (Drama), The Shoemaker's Holiday . 1570-1641
Deland, Mrs. Margaret Wade, (Nov. & Poet), John Ward,

Preacher 1857-

De la Eamee, Louisa, ("Ouida"), (Nov.), Under Two

Flags 1839-1908

De Mandeville, Bernard, (Philos. & Poet), The Gambling

Hive 1670-1732

A PARTIAL LIST OB' AUTHORS 359

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died

De Mandeville, Sir John, (Trav.), Narrative of Travels . 1300-1372

De Morgan, William Frend, (Nov.), Joseph Vance . . 1839-

Denham, Sir John, (Drama), Cooper's Hill .... 1615-1668
De Quincey, Thomas, (Ess.), Confessions of an English

Opium Eater 1785-1859

Derby, George Horatio, ("John Phoenix"), (Hum.),

Squibob Papers 1823-1861

De Tabley, Lord, (Poet), Philoctetes 1835-1895

De Vere, Aubrey, (Poet), Legends of St. 'Patrick . . . 1814-1902

Dickens, Charles, (Nov.), David Copper field; Pickwick . 1812-1870

Dickinson, John, (Pol.), Letters 1732-1808

Dilke, Sir Charles, (Hist. & Pol.), Problems of Greater

Britain 1843-1911

Disraeli, Benjamin (Lord Beaconsfield), (Nov.), Vivian

Grey 1805-1881

Disraeli, Isaac, (Mis.), Curiosities of Literature . . . 1766-1848

Dobson, Austin, (Poet & Mis.), Vignettes in Rhyme . . 1840-
Dodge, Mary Abigail ("Gail Hamilton"), (Nov. & Ess.),

Gala Days 1838-1896

Dodge, Mary Mapes, (Nov.), Irvington Stories . . . 1838-1905
Dodgson, Charles Lutwidge, ("Lewis Carroll"), (Nov.,

Juveniles), Alice's Adventures in Wonderland . 1832-1898
Dodsley, Eobert, (Drama), The King and the Miller of

Mansfield 1703-1764

Donne, John, (Ess. & Satires), An Anatomy of the World 1573-1631

Doughty, Charles M., (Travel), Arabia Deserta . . . 1843-

Douglas, Gawin, (Trans.), Mneid . , 1474-1522

Dowden, Edward, (Poet & Biog.), Shakespeare, his Mind

and Art 1843-1913

Dowson, Ernest, (Poet), Verses . ... . ... . . 1867-1900

Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan, (Nov.), The Adventures of

Sherlock Holmes 1859-

Drake, Joseph Rodman, (Poet), The American Flag . 1795-1820
Draper, John William, (Hist.), Hist, of the Civil War in

America 1811-1882

Drayton, Michael, (Poet), The Polyolbion 1563-1631

Driver, Samuel Rollis, (Theol.), Isaiah: his Life and

Times 1846-

Drummond, Henry, (Theol. & Philos.), The Ascent of

Man 1851-1897

Drummond, William, (Poet), The Flowers of Zion . . 1584-1649
Dryden, John, (Poet), Absalom and Achitophel (1681),

Ode to St. Cecilia's Day (3700) 1631-1700

Du Chaillu, Paul Belloni, (Trav. & Nat.), Explorations

in Equatorial Africa 1835-1903

Dugdale, Sir William, (Hist.), The Antiquities of War-
wickshire 1605-1686

360 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died

Du Maurier, George, (Nov.), Trilby 1834-1896

Dunbar, William, (Alleg. Poet), The Thistle and Eose 1465-1530
Dunne, Finley Peter, ("Mr. Dooley"), (Hum.), Mr.

Dooley's Philosophy 1867-

Dwight, Timothy, (Theol. & Poet), The Triumph of

Infidelity 1752-1817

Dyer, John, (Poet), Grougar Hill 1700-1758

Earl of Chesterfield, ("Philip Dormer Stanhope"),

(Lit.), Letters to his Son 1694-1773

Earle, John, (Theol. & Philol.), Philology of the English

Tongue 1824-1903

Ediard, Laurence, (Hist.), The History of England to

1688 ?1671-1730

Edgeworth, Maria, (Nov.), Castle Rackrent .... 1767-1849
Edwards, Amelia B., (Mis.), A Thousand Miles up the

Nile 1831-1892

Edwards, Jonathan, ( Theol. & Philos.) , Freedom of the Will 1703-1758
Eggleston, Edward, (Nov. & Hist.), The Hoosier School-
master 1837-1902

Elmsley, Peter, (Lit.), Bacchce 1773-1825

Elyot, Sir Thomas, (Philos.), The Governor . . about 1490-1546
Emerson, Kalph Waldo, (Ess. & Poet), Essays, 1st series 1803-1882
Erigena, Johannes Scotus, (Philos.), Of the Nature of

Things -?886

Evans, Marian, ("George Eliot "), (Nov. & Poet), Adam

Bede 1820-1880

Evelyn, John, (Mis.), Sylva 1620-1706

Ewing, Mrs. Juliana Horatia, (Nov., Juveniles), Jack-
anapes 1841-1885

Fabyan, Eobert, (Hist.), Chronicles of England and

France -1513

Fairbairn, Andrew M., (Theol.), The Philosophy of the

Christian Religion 1838-1911

Fairfax, Edward, (Trans. & Poet), Trans. Tasso's

Recovery of Jerusalem about 1580-1635

Farjeon, Benjamin L., (Nov.), Toilers of Babylon . . 1833-1903

Farquhar, George, (Com. & Poet), The Beaux Stratagem 1678-1707

Farrar, Frederic W., (Theol.), Life of Christ .... 1831-1903

Fawcett, Edgar, (Nov. & Drama), Olivia Delaplaine . . 1847-1904
Felkin, The Hon. Mrs., (Ellen Thorneycroft Fowler),

(Nov.), Concerning Isabel Carnaby . . . Modern

Fenn, George Manville, (Nov.), The Man with a Shadow 1831-1909

Fergusson, Eobert, (Poet), Poems 1750-1774

Field, Eugene, (Hum. & Poet), A Little Book of Western

Verse 1850-1895

A PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORS 361

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died

Fielding, Henry (Nov. & Drama), Joseph Andrews (1742),

Tom Jones (1749), Amelia (1751) .... 1707-1754
Fields, James Thomas, (Poet, Biog. & Mis.), Ballads, and

other Verses (Editor Atlantic Monthly, 1862-

1870) 1817-1881

Findlater, Jane Helen, (Nov.), The Green Graves of

Balgowrie 21860-

Findlater, Mary, (Nov.), Tales that are Told .... 1865-

Firth, Charles H., (Hist.), Oliver Cromwell 1857-

Fisher, John, (Theol.), Sermons 1459-1535

Fiske, John, (Philos. & Hist.), Cosmic Philosophy . . 1842-1901
Flamsteed, John, (Ast.), Historia Ccelestis Britannica . 1646-1719
Fletcher, John, (Drama), Philaster, The Faithful

Shepherdess 1576-1625

Florence of Worcester, (Hist.), Chron. of England . . -1118

Foote, Samuel, (Drama), The Mayor of Garrat . . . 1720-1777
Ford, John, (Drama), The Lover's Melancholy . . . 1586-1639?
Ford, Paul Leicester, (Nov.) , The Honorable Peter Stirling 1865-1902
Fordun, John de, (Hist.), Chron. of Scotland . . . -1384

Fortescue, Sir John, (Legal), Laws of England . . . 1394-1476
Fosbrooke, Thomas D., (Hist. & Mis.), The Economy of

Monastic Life 1770-1842

Foster, Stephen Collins, (Songs & Ballads), Old Folks at

Home 1826-1864

Fox, George, Journal of his Life, Travels, etc. . . . 1624-1691
Fox, John, (Nov.), The Little Shepherd of Kingdom

Come 1863-

Foxe, John, (Hist.), Acts and Monuments of the Church

("BooTc of Martyrs") 1516-1587

Frankau, Mrs. Julia. See FRANK DANBY.

Franklin, Benjamin, (Philos. & Hist.), Poor Eichard's

Almanac (1732), Autobiography 1706-1790

Freeman, E. A., (Hist.), Hist, of the Norman Conquest . 1823-1892
Freeman, Mary E. Wilkins, ("Mary E. Wilkins"),

(Nov.), Jane Field 1862-

Freneau, Philip, (Poet), The Indian Bury ing -Ground . 1752-1832
Froude, James Anthony, (Hist. & Ess.), History of Eng-
land from the Fall of Wolsey to the Armada . 1818-1894
Fuller, Henry Blake, (Nov.), The Chevalier of Pensieri-

Vani 1857-

Fuller, Sarah Margaret, (Mis. & Critic), Woman in the

Nineteenth Century (Editor of The Dial} . . 1810-1850
Fuller, Thomas, (Biog. & Hist.), The Worthies of England 1608-1661
Funk, Isaac K., (Philos. & Lexicography), The Next Step

in Evolution; A Standard Dictionary of the

English Language 1839-1912

362 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $• Dates Born-Died

Furness, Horace Howard, (Critic & Ess.), Edited a

New Variorum Edition of Shakespeare . . . 1833-1912
Furnivall, Frederick J., (Philo. & Mis.), Edited a Parallel

Text Edition of Chaucer's Minor Poems . . . 1825-1911

Fyffe, Charles Alan, (Hist.), Hist, of Modern Europe . 1845-1892

Gaimar, Geoffrey, (Trans.), Translation into Anglo-Nor-
man of Geoffrey's History of the Britons (1154) 12th Cent.
Gairdner, James, (Biog. & Hist.), The Houses of Lan-
caster and York 1828-

Galsworthy, John, (Drama & Nov.), Joy; Fraternity . . 1867-

Galt, John, (Nov.), The Annals of the Parish . . . . 1779-1839

Gardiner, S. E., (Hist.), The Thirty Years' War . . . 1829-1902

Garnett, Mrs. E. S., (Nov.), The Infamous John Friend Modern
Garrick, David, (Drama), Miss in Her Teens (1747),

The Lying Valet (1740) H716-1779

Gatty, Mrs. Margaret ("Aunt Judy"), (Nov. & Poet,

Juveniles), Aunt Judy's Tales 1807-1873

Gastfoigne, George, (Poet), The Steele Glas .... 1525-1577

Gay, John, (Poet), Fables, Black-eyed Susan, Beggar's

Opera (1726) . . . . . . . . . . 1685-1732

Gayarre, Charles Etienne A., (Hist.), History of Louisiana 1805-1895

Geikie, Sir Archibald, (Sci.), Text-Book of Geology . . 1835-
Geoffrey of Monmouth, (Hist.), Historia Britonum . . -1154

George Eliot. See EVANS
Gervase of Canterbury, (Hist.), Chronicle of the Reigns

of Stephen, Henry II. and Richard I. . . d. about 1210
Gibbon, Edward, (Hist.), The Decline and Fall of the

Roman Empire 1737-1794

Gilbert, Sir William Schwenck, (Poet & Dram.), Bab

Ballads 1836-1911

Gildas, (Hist.), Conquest of Britain about 516-570

Gilder, Eichard Watson, (Poet), The Great Remembrance 1844-1909

Gillies, John, (Hist.), History of Ancient Greece . . . 1747-1836

Gissing, George E., (Nov.), Demos 1857-1903

Gladstone, William E., (Pol. & Mis.), The State in its

Relations with the Church 1809-1898

Glanville, Eanulf De, (Legal), Collection of English Laws -1190

Glover, Eichard, (Poet), Leonidas 1712-1789

Godwin, William, (Nov. & Mis.), Caleb Williams . . . 1756-1836
Goldsmith, Oliver, (Nov. & Drama), The Vicar of Wake-
field (1764), The Deserted Village (1770), She

Stoops to Conquer (1773) 1728-1774

Goodrich, Samuel Griswold, ("Peter Parley "), (Nov.,

Hist. & Mis.), Peter Parley Tales 1793-1863

Gore, Charles, (Theol.), Editor of Lux Mundi . . . . 1853-

A PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORS 363

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died

Gosse, Edmund William, (Hist. & Ess.), Hist, of Eigh-
teenth Century Literature; Record of English

Literature 1849-

Gower, John, (Poet), Confcssio Amantis (1483 Caxtons)

about 1325-1408

Grahame, James, (Poet), The Sabbath 1765-1811

Granger, James, (Hist.), Biog. Hist, of England . . -1776

Grant, James, (Nov.), The Yellow Frigate .... 1822-1887

Grant, Eobert, (Nov.), Unleavened Bread 1852-

Graves, Alfred Perceval, (Poet), Songs of Irish Wit and

Humour 1846-

Gray, Thomas, (Poet), Elegy Written in a Country

Churchyard 1716-1771

Green, John Eichard, (Hist.), Short History of the En-
glish People 1837-1883

Green, Mrs. M. A. Everett, (Wood), (Hist.), Lives of

the Princesses of England 1818-1895

Green, Thomas Hill, (Philos.), Prolegomena to Ethics . 1836-1882
Greene, George Washington, (Hist.), Short History of

Rhode Island 1811-1883

Greene, Robert, (Drama & Mis.), The Scottish Historic

of James IV about 1560-1592

Gregory, Daniel Seelye (Theol. & Mis.), Why Four Gos-
pels; Managing Editor of A Standard Diction-
ary of the English Language 1835-

Grosseteste, Robert, (Theol., Philos. & Poet), Sermons,

Verses, etc ?1175-1253

Grote, George, (Hist.), Hist, of Greece 1794-1871

Guest, Lady Charlotte, (Trans, from Welsh), Mabinogion 1812-1895
Guthrie, Thomas Anstey, ("F. Anstey")> (Nov.), Vice

Versa 1856-

Gwynn, Stephen Lucius, (Nov. & Poet), Robert Emmet: a

Historical Romance 1864-

Habberton, John, (Nov.), Helen's Babies 1842-

Haggard, H. Rider, (Nov.), King Solomon's Mines . . 1856-

Hakluyt, Richard, (Trav.), Voyages and Discoveries . . 1553-1616
Hale, Edward Everett, (Nov. & Ess.), The Man Without

a Country 1822-1909

Hall, Basil, (Trav.), Fragments of Voyages and Travels 1788-1844

Hall, Joseph, (Poet & Nov.), Satires 1574-1656

Hall, Robert, (Sermons), Modern Infidelity Considered . 1764-1831

Hall, Samuel Carter, (Mis.), Baronial Halls of England 1800-1889

Hallam, Henry, (Hist.), Europe During the Middle Ages 1777-1859

Halleck, Fitz-Greene, (Poet), Marco Bozzaris .... 1790-1867
Halley, Edmund, (Sci. & Nat. Philos.), Catalogue of *

Southern Stars . 1656-1742

364 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died
Halsey, Francis Whiting, (Hist.), The Old New York

Frontier 1851-

Hamilton, Thomas, (Nov. & Hist.), The Youth and Man-
hood of Cyril Thornton 1789-1842

Hamilton, William, (Poet), Braes of Yarrow .... 1704-1754

Hannay, James, (Nov. & Mis.), Satire and Satirists . 1827-1873
Hannay, Eev. James Owen, (" George A. Birmingham"),

(Nov. & Dram.), The Seething Pot . . . . 1865-

Hardy, Arthur S., (Nov. & Poet), The Wind of Destiny 1847-
Hardy, Thomas, (Nov. & Poet), Under the Greenwood

Tree; less of the D'Urbervillcs 1840-

Hardyng, John, (Hist. & Poet), A Metrical Chronicle of

England 1378-1465?

Harraden, Beatrice, (Nov.), Ships that Pass in the Night 1864-

Harrington, James, (Pol. & Philos.), Oceana .... 1611-1677

Harris, James, (Philol. & Philos.), Hermes .... 1709-1780

Harris, Joel Chandler, (Nov.), Uncle Eemus .... 1848-1908

Harrison, Frederic, (Hist. & Ess.), Cromwell .... 1831-
Harrison, Mrs. St. Leger (" Lucas Malet"), (Nov.),

The Wages of Sin 1852-

Hartley, David, (Sci.), Observations on Man .... U705-1757

Harvey, William, (Sci.), Circulation of the Blood . . 1578-1657

Hawes, Stephen, (Poet), The Pass Tyme of Pleasure . 1483-1523

Hawker, Eobert Stephen, (Poet), Cornish Ballads . . 1803-1875

Hawkins, Anthony Hope, (Nov.), The Prisoner of Zenda 1863-

Hawthorne, Julian, (Nov.), Archibald Malmaison . . . 1846-

Hawthorne, Nathaniel (Nov.), The Scarlet Letter . . . 1804-1864

Hay, John, (Hist., Poet & Nov.), Pike County Ballads 1838-1905

Hayne, Paul Hamilton, (Poet), Legends and Lyrics . . 1830-1886
Hay ward, Sir John, (Hist.), Life and Eaigne of Henry

IV about 1560-1627

Hazlitt, William, (Ess. & Critic), Character of Shake-
speare's Plays 1778-1830

Hearn, Lafcadio, (Travel), Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan 1850-1904
Heber, Eeginald (Travel, Poet & Mis.), A Journey through

India 1783-1826

Helps, Sir Arthur, (Ess. & Hist.), Friends in Council . . 1813-1875

Hemans, Felicia D., (Poet), Vespers of Palermo . . . 1794-1835

Henley, William Ernest, (Poet), The Song of the Sword 1849-1903

Henry of Huntingdon, (Hist. & Poet), Chron. of England d. abt. 1157

Henry, Matthew, (Theol.), Commentary (Unfinished) . 1662-1714
Henryson, Eobert, (Poet), The Testament of Cresseid

about 1425— about 1500

Henty, George A., (Nov., Juveniles), Under Drake's Flag 1832-1902
Herbert, Lord Edward, (Hist. & Poet), Hist, of the Life

and fteign of Henry VIII 1581-1648

Herbert, George, (Poet), The Temple 1593-1633

A PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORS 365

NAME Type of Work Chief Works if Dates Born-Died

Herrick, Eobert, (Poet), Hesperides 1591-1674

Herrick, Robert, (Nov.), The Man Who Wins .... 1868-
Herschel, Sir John F. W., (Philos.), Cape Observations . 1792-1871
Hewlett, Maurice, (Nov.), The Forest Lovers .... 1861-
Heywood, John, (Poet & Drama), The Spider and the Fly 1497-1565?
Heywood, Thomas, (Drama), A Woman Killed with Kind-
ness n570-1648

Hichens, Robert S., (Ess. & Nov.), The Garden of Allah 1864-
Higdon, Ranulf, (Hist.), Polychronicon (Chron. of En-
gland) about 1299-about 1363

Higginson, Thos. Wentworth, (Hist., Nov. & Ess.), Mai-
bone, an Old Port Romance 1823-1911

Hildreth, Richard, (Hist.), History of the United States . 1807-1865
Hill, George Birkbeck, (Biog.), Dr. Johnson: his Friends

and Critics 1835-

Hillhouse, James A., (Poet), Percy's Masque .... 1789-1841

Hoadly, Benjamin, (Theol. & Pol.), Sermons .... 1676-1761
Hobbes, John Oliver. See CRAIGIE.
Hobbes, Thomas, (Philos. & Hist.), Leviathan (1651),

Behemoth, a History of the Civil Wars (1679) . 1588-1679

Hodgkin, Thomas, (Hist.), Italy and her Invaders . . 1831-
Hogg, James, ("Ettrick Shepherd") (Poet & Nov.), The

Queen's Wake 1770-1835

Holinshed, Raphael, (Hist.), Chronicles of England, Scot-
land, and Ireland -1580

Holland, Dr. Josiah Gilbert, (Biog., Nov. & Ess.), Life

of Lincoln 1819-1881

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, (Ess., Poet & Nov.), Autocrat of
the Breakfast Table (1858), Under the Violets

(1860), Elsie Venner (1861) 1809-1894

Home, John, (Drama), Douglas 1724-1808

Hone, William, (Mis.), Every -Day Book 1779-1842

Hood, Thomas, (Poet & Hum.), The Song of the Shirt

(1844) ; Miss Kilmansegg ; Eugene Aram (1831) 1799-1845

Hook, Theodore E., (Drama & Nov.), Siege of St. Quentin 1788-1841

Hooke, Nathaniel, (Hist.), Eoman History -1763

Hooke, Robert, (Philos.), Micrographia .... 1635-1702

Hooker, Richard, (Theol.), Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity 1553-1600
Hooker, Thomas, (Theol.), The Pattern of Perfection abt. 1586-1647
Hope, Anthony. See HAWKINS.

Hopkinson, Francis, (Poet, Pol. & Ess.), Battle of the Kegs 1737-1791
Hornung, Ernest William, (Nov.), The Amateur Cracks-
man 1866-

Horsley, Samuel, (Theol. & Philos.), On Prosodies of the

Greek and Latin Languages 1733-1806

Housman, Laurence, (Poet & Nov.), An Englishwoman's

Love Letters . 1867-

366 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

NAME Type of Work Chief Worlcs $ Dates Born-Died

Howard, Henry, ("Earl of Surrey"), (Poet), Sonnets

(1557); Translation of Virgil's Mneid (1557) . 21516-1547
Howe, Julia Ward, (Poet), Battle Hymn of the Republic 1819-1910
Howells, William Dean, (Nov.), Venetian Life (1866),

The Eise of Silas Lapman (1885) 1837-

Hughes, Thomas, (Nov.), Tom Brown's Schooldays . . 1823-1896
Hughes, Thomas Patrick, (Lexicog. & Orient.), The Dic-
tionary of Islam 1838-1911

Hume, David, (Hist.), Hist, of England 1711-1776

Humphreys, Mrs. W. Desmond, ("Eita"), (Nov.), A

Man of no Importance f

Hunt, J. H. Leigh, (Ess. & Poet), Men, Women and

Books 1784-1859

Hunter John, (Sci.), Natural Hist, of the Human Teeth 1728-1793
Hunter, Sir William W., (Hist.), The Imperial Gazetteer

of India 1840-1900

Hutcheson, Francis, (Philos.), A System of Moral Philos-
ophy 1694-1747

Hutchinson, Lucy, (Biog.), Memoirs 1620-1675

Hutchinson, Thomas, (Hist.), Hist, of the Province of

Massachusetts 1711-1780

Button, Charles, (Mathematics), Miscellanea Mathematica 1737-1823
Hutton, Eichard Holt, (Ess. & Mis.), Contemporary

Thought' and Thinkers 1826-1907

Huxley, Thomas Henry, (Sci. & Mis.), Man's Place in

Nature 1825-1895

Ingelow, , Jean, (Poet & Nov.), High Tide on the Coast of

Lincolnshire; Off the Skelligs 1830-1897

Ingersoll, Ernest, (Nat.), The Life of Animals — the

Mammals 1852-

Ingersoll, Eobert Green, (Philos.), Some Mistakes of

Moses 1833-1899

Ingulphus, (Hist.), Hist, of the Monastery of Croyland . 1030-1109
Ireland, William H., (Drama, Poet & Nov.), Shakespeare

Forgeries 1777-1835

Irving, Washington, (Nov. & Hist.), Knickerbocker's

Hist, of New York (1809), Sketch Book (1819) 1783-1859
Irwin, Wallace, (Hum.), Love Sonnets of a Hoodlum . 1875-

Jacobs, Joseph, (Fables & Judaica), English Fairy Tales

(1890) ; The Jews of Angevin, England (1893) 1854-

Jacobs, William Wymark, (Nov.), Skipper's Wooing . 1863-

James, George P. E. (Nov. & Hist.), Eichelieu . . . 1801-1860

James, Henry, (Theol. & Philos.), The Nature of Evil . 1811-1882

James, Henry, (Nov. & Ess.), A Passionate Pilgrim . 1843-

James I. of Scotland, (Poet), The King's Quhair . . 1394-1437

A PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORS 367

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died

James, William, (Philos.), Principles of Psychology . . 1842-1910
Jebb, Sir Richard, (Trans. & Mis.), Sophocles . . . 1841-1905
Jefferies, Richard, (Nat. & Mis.), Wild Life in a Southern

County 1848-1887

Jefferson, Thomas, (Pol.), Drafted the Declaration of

Independence 1743-1826

Jenyns, Soame, (Ess & Poet), View of the Internal Evi-
dence of the Christian Eeligion . . . 1703 or 04-1787
Jerome, Jerome K., (Nov. & Hum.), Three Men in a Boat 1859-
Jewel, John, (TheoL & Philos.), Apologia Ecclesice

AnglicancB 1522-1571

Jewett, Sarah Orne, (Nov.), Deephaven 1849-1909

John of Salisbury, (Philos. & Biog.), Life of Thomas a

Becket 1120-1180

Johnson, Edward, (Hist.), Wonderworking Providence of

Sion's Saviour in New England 1599-1672

Johnson, Rossiter, (Hist.), History of the War of Seces-
sion 1840-

Johnson, Samuel, (Lex. & Nov.), Dictionary of the English

Language, (17 55) ; Easselas (1759) .... 1709-1784
Johnston, Sir Harry H., (Nat. & Travel), The Kilima-

Njaro Expedition 1858-

Jones, Henry Arthur, (Drama & Ess.), The Hypocrites . 1851-
Jones, Sir William, (Orientalist & Ess.), Works (1799) 1746-1794
Jonson, Ben, (Drama), Every Man in His Humour

(1598); Catiline (1611) 1573-1637

Jortin, John, (Theol. & Critic), Remarks on Ecclesiastical

History .' 1698-1770

Junius, Letters which appeared between 1769 and 1772,
and are ascribed to Sir Philip Francis .

Kames, Henry Home (Lord Kames), (Philos.), Elements

of Criticism 1696-1782

Keats, John, (Poet), Endymion 1795-1821

Keble, John, (Poet), The Christian Year 1792-1866

Kemble, John Mitchell, (Hist. & Philology), The Saxons

in England 1807-1857

Kennedy, John P., (Nov. & Ess.), Swallow Barn . . . 1795-1870

Key, Francis Scott, (Poet), The Star-Spangled Banner . 1779-1843

King, Henry, (Poet & Sermons), Poems and Sonnets . . 1591-1669

Kinglake, Alexander W., (Hist.), Eothen 1811-1891

Kingsley, Charles, (Mis.), Alton Locke 1819-1875

Kingsley, Henry, (Nov.), Bavenshoe 1830-1876

Kingston, William H. G., (Nov. & Juveniles), The Prime

Minister 1814-1880

Kipling, Rudyard, (Mis. & Poet), Plain Tales from the

Hills; The Recessional 1865-

368 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died

Kitto, John, (Theol.), Cyclopedia of Biblical Literature 1804-1854

Knight, Charles, (Hist.), A History of England . . 1791-1873

Knighton, Henry, (Hist.), A Hist, of English Affairs . -1366

Knolles, Bichard, (Hist.), General Hist, of the Turks, abt. 1545-1610

Knowles, James Sheridan, (Drama), William Tell . . 1784-1862

Knox, Vicesimus, (Ess. & Mis.), Essays 1752-1821

Krehbiel, Henry Edward (Music), The Pianoforte and its

Music 1854-

Lamb, Charles, (Ess.), Essays of Elia . . . .» . . 1775-1834
Landon, Letitia E., ("Mrs. Mac Lean"), (Nov. & Poet),

Ethel Churchill 1802-1838

Landor, A. Henry Savage, (Travel), An Explorer's Adven-
tures in Tibet 1865-

Landor, Walter Savage, (Poet & Mis.), Gebir . . . 1775-1864
Lang, Andrew, (Ess. & Poet), Ballads and Lyrics of Old

France 1844-1912

Langland, William, (Alleg.), Piers Plowman . abt. 1330Tabt. 1400
Lanier, Sidney, (Critic & Poet), The English Novel and

its Development 1842-1881

Lankester, Sir Edwin Bay, (Sci.), Studies on Apus,

Limulus, and Scorpio 1847-

Lathrop, George Parsons, (Nov.), An Echo of Passion . 1851-1898

Latimer, Hugh, (Theol.), Sermons abt. 1472-1555

Layamon, (Poet & Hist.), Brut or Chron. of Britain . 1155-1200

Lea, Henry Charles, (Hist.), Hist, of the Inquisition . 1825-1909
Lecky, William Edward Hartpole, (Hist. & Philos.), 'Hist.

of the Rise and Progress of Rationalism in

Europe 1838-1903

Lee, Nathaniel, (Drama), Gloriana 1657-1692

Lee, Sir Sidney, (Biog. & Mis.), Life of Shakespeare . 1859-

Le Gallienne, Kichard, (Poet & Crit.), Eudyard Kipling . 1866-

Leighton, Bobert, (Theol.), Sermons 1611-1684

Leland, John, (Hist.), English Antiquities . . . abt. 1506-1552

Lemon, Mark, (Mis.), The Streets of London . . . . 1809-1870
Leslie, Sir John, (Philos. & Mis.), Elements of Natural

Philosophy 1766-1832

Lewes, George Henry, (Philos. & Mis.), The Biographical

Hist, of Philosophy 1817-1878

Lewis Carroll. See DODGSON.

Lewis, Sir George Cornewall (Polit.), A Dialogue on the

Best Form of Government . 1806-1863

Liddon, Canon Henry Parry, (Theol.), The Divinity of

Christ 1829-1890

Lightfoot, Joseph Barber, (Theol. & Philos.), On a Fresh

Revision of the English New Testament . . 1828-1889

Lingard, John, (Hist.), Hist, of England .... 1771-1859

A PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORS 369

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $• Dates Born-Died

Linton, Mrs. E. Lynn, (Nov.), Sowing the Wind . . . 1822-1898

Lister, Thomas H., (Nov.), Granby 1801-1842

Littleton, Sir Thomas de (Legal), The Tenures . . . 1402-1481
Livingstone, David, (Trav.), Missionary Travels and

Researches in South Africa 1813-1873

Locke, David R., ("Petroleum V. Nasby"), (Nov. &

Hum.), Nasby Papers 1833-1888

Locke, John, (Philos.), An Essay Concerning Human

Understanding 1632-1704

Locker-Lampson, Frederick, (Poet), London Lyrics . . 1821-1895
Lodge, Henry Cabot, (Hist. & Pol.), Short Hist, of the

English Colonies in America 1850-

Lodge, Sir Oliver, (Sci. & Philos.), Life and Matter . 1851-

Lodge, Thomas, (Nov. & Drama), Eosalynd .... 1556-1625

London, Jack, (Nov. & Travel), The Call of the Wild . 1876-

Longfellow, Henry W., (Poet), Evangeline .... 1807-1882

Longstreet, Augustus Baldwin, (Nov.), Georgia Scenes . 1790-1870
Lossing, Benson J., (Hist.), Pictorial Field-book of the

Revolution 1813-1891

Lothrop, Harriet, (Nov. & Juv.), The Golden West . . 1844-
Lounsbury, Thomas Raynesford, (Lit. & Critic), A Hist.

of the English Language 1838-

Lovelace, Sir Richard, (Poet), To Althea from Prison . 1618-1658
Lowell, James Russell, (Poet, Hum. & Pol.), Bigelow

Papers 1819-1891

Lowth, Robert, (Theol. & Philology), New Translation of

Isaiah 1710-1787

Lucas, Edward Verrall, (Nov. & Hum.), Over Bremerton's 1868-
Litcy, Henry W., ("Toby, M.P."), (Hum.), A Diary

of Two Parliaments 1845-

Lyall, Edna (Miss Ada Ellen Bayly), (Nov.), Donovan 1857-1903
Lyall, Sir Alfred C., (Poet & Biog.), Verses Written in

India 1835-19U

Lydgate, John, (Poet), The Fall of Princes . . . 1370?-1451?

Lylie, John, (Drama & Poet), Euphues 1553-1606

Lyndsay, Sir David, (Poet), The Dreme $1490-1555

Lyttelton, Lord George, (Poet & Mis.), Dialogues of the

Dead 1708 or 09-1773?

Macaulay, Lord Thomas B., (Ess., Hist. & Poet), Essays

(1825-1844), Lays of Ancient Eome (1842) . . 1800-1859
MacCarthy, Denis Florence, (Poet), Under glimpses, and

other Poems 1817-1882

MacCarthy, Justin, (Hist., Nov. & Pol.), My Enemy's

Daughter (1869), Hist, of our Own Time (1880) 1830-1912
McCosh, James, (Philos. & Theol.), Method of Divine

Government 1811-1894

370 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died

MacCrie, Thomas, (Hist. & Biog.), The Life of John Enox 1772-1835
MacDiarmid, John, (Biog. & Hist.), Lives of British

Statesmen 1779-1808

MacFall, Mrs. Frances E., ("Sarah Grand")* (Nov.),

The Heavenly Twins 1862-

Mackail, Prof. J. W., (Mis.), Latin Literature . . . . 1859-

Mackay, Eric, (Poet), Love Letters of a Violinist . . 1851-1898
Mackintosh, Sir James, (Philos., Hist. & Ess.), Vindicice

Gallicce 1765-1832

McMaster, John Bach, (Hist.), Hist, of the People ^of the

United States 1852-

Macpherson, James, (Poet), Ossian : Fingal, Temora . 1738-1796
Mahaffy, John Pentland, (Hist. & Ess.), Prolegomena to

Ancient History 1839-

Mahan, Alfred Thayer, (Hist. & Mis.), Influence of Sea

Power upon History 1840-1914

Maitland, Frederic W., (Law & Hist.), Roman Canon Law

in the Church of England 1850-1906

Malcolm, Sir John, (Hist.), Hist, of Persia .... 1769-1833
Malory, Sir Thomas, (Eomance), Morte d' Arthur . . . -1470

Malthus, Thomas K., (Economist), Principles of Political

Economy 1766-1834

Mangan, James Clarence, (Poet), Dark Eosaleen . . 1803-1849
Mannyng, Eobert ("Bobert of Bmnne"), (Poet), The

Story of Inglande abt. 1264-1340?

Map, or Mapes, Walter, (Poet), Latin Poems . . abt. 1150-1210?

March, Francis Andrew, (Philol.), March's Thesaurus . 1825-1911
Mark Twain. See CLEMENS.
Marlowe, Christopher, (Drama), Tamburlaine, 1590;

Faustus (1616) 1564-1593

Marjyat, Captain Fred, (Nov.), Mr. Midshipman Easy . 1792-1848
Marsden, William, (Hist. & Travels), Hist, of the Island

of Sumatra 1754-1836

Marsh, George Perkins, (Philol.), Man and Nature . . 1801-1882

Marshall, John, (Biog.), Life of Washington . . . 1755-1835

Marston, John, (Drama & Poet), The Malcontent . . ?1575-1634

Marston, Philip Bourke, (Poet), Song Tide .... 1850-1887
Martin, Sir Theodore, (Hist., Poet & Mis.), Life of His

Eoyal Highness, the Prince Consort .... 1816-1909
Martineau, Harriet, (Mis.), Illustrations of Political

Economy 1802-1876

Martineau, James (Theol. & Philos.), A Study of Eeligion 1805-1900
Marvel, Ik. See MITCHELL, DONALD G.
Marvell, Andrew, (Poet & Pol.), The "Rehearsal Trans-
posed 1620-1678

Masefield, John, (Poet & Drama), Salt-Water Ballads . Modern

Mason, Alfred E. W., (Nov.), The Four -Feathers . . 1865-

A PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORS 371

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died

Mason, William. (Poet & Biog.). Memoirs of Thomas

Gray 1725-1797

Massinger, Philip, (Drama), A New Way to Pay Old

Debts 1583-1640

Mather, Cotton, (Theol., Hist. & Sci.), Magnalia Christi

Americana 1663-1728

Matthews, James Brander, (Ess., Drama & Mis.), Intro-
duction to the Study of American Literature . 1852-

Maturin, Charles K., (Drama & Nov.), Bertram . . . 1782-1824

Maxwell, Mrs. See BRADDON, M. E.

Maxwell, William B., (Nov.), The Guarded Flame . .

May, Thomas, (Poet & Hist.), Hist, of the Long Parlia-
ment 1595-1650

Meredith, George, (Poet & Nov.), Ordeal of Eichard

Feveral 1828-1909

Merivale, Charles, (Hist.), A History of the Romans under

the Empire 1808-1893

Meynell, Mrs. Alice C., (Poet & Ess.), The Rhythm of Life 1850-

Middleton, Conyers, (Hist. & Mis.), Hist, of the Life of

Cicero 1683-1750

Middleton, Thomas, (Drama), A Game at Chess . abt. 1570-1627

Mill, James, (Philos. & Hist.), Principles of Political

Economy 1773-1836

Mill, John Stuart, (Philos.), System of Logic . . . 1806-1873

Miller, Joaquin, (originally ' ' Cincinnatus Heine Miller"),

(Poet), Songs of the Sierras 1841-1913

Milner, Joseph, (Hist. & Theol.), Hist, of the Church

of Christ 1744-1797

Milton, John, (Poet), Paradise Lost (1665), Paradise

Regained (1671) 1608-1674

Minot, Laurence, (Poet), Historical Poems . . abt. 1333-1352

Minto, William, (Biog., Ess. & Mis.), Characteristics of

English Poets from Chaucer to Shirley . . . 1845-1893

Mitchell, Donald G., ("Ik Marvel"), (Nov. & Ess.),

Reveries of a Bachelor 1822-1908

Mitchell, John Ames, (Nov.), The Silent War . . . 1845-

Mitchell, Silas Weir, (Sci., Poet & Nov.), Injuries of the

Nerves; Hugh Wynne 1829-1914

Mitford, William, (His*.), Hist, of Greece .... 1744-1827

Moffat, Robert, (Trav.), Missionary Labours and Scenes

in South Africa 1795-1883

Monkhouse, William Cosmo, (Poet, Art Critic & Mis.),
Italian Pre-Raphaelites ((<The National Gal-
lery") 1840-1901

Monier- Williams, Sir Monier, (Orientalist & Philologist),

Sanskrit-English Dictionary 1819-1899

Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley, (Lit.), Letters . . . 1690-1761

372 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died

Montgomery, James, (Poet), The Pelican Island . . . 1771-1854

Moody, Dwight Lyman, (Theol!), How to Study the Bible 1837-1899
Moody, William Vaughan, (Poet & Dramatist), The Fire

Bringer 1869-1910

Moore, F. Frankfort, (Nov. & Travel), The Mate of the

"Jessica" 1855-

Moore, George, (Nov. & Eealist), Esther Waters . . . 1853-

Moore, John, (Mis.), A View of Society and Manners . 1730-1802

Moore, John Bassett, (Law), American Diplomacy . . 1860-

Moore, Thomas, (Poet), Irish Melodies 1779-1852

More, Hannah, (Poet & Nov.), Percy 1745-1833

More, Henry, (Theol.), Divine Dialogues 1614-1687

More, Sir Thomas, (Hist. & Poet), Life and Reign of

Edward V. (1513), Utopia (1514) .... 1480-1535
Morgan, Lady Sydney, (Nov. & Poet), The Wild Irish

Girl abt. 1783-1859

Morier, James, (Nov.), Adventures of Hajji Baba . . 1780-1848
Morison, J. Cotter, (Hist. & Mis.), Service of Man . . 1831-1888
Morley, Henry, (Lit.), First Sketches of English Liter-
ature 1822-1894

Morley, John, (now Viscount Morley of Blackburn),

(Biog. & Hist.), Life of Gladstone .... 1838-
Morris, George P., (Poet, Drama & Songs), Woodman,

Spare that Tree 1802-1864

Morris, Sir Lewis, (Poet), The Epic of Hades . . . 1833-1907
Morris, Eichard, (Philo. & Mis.), Historical Outlines of

English Accidence 1833-1894

Morris, William, (Poet), Life and Death of Jason : . 1834-1896
Morrison, Eobert, '(!Plrilo-)> Dictionary of the Chinese

Language 1782-1834

Morton, Nathaniel, (Hist.), New England's Memoriall . 1613-1685
Motley, John Lothrop, (Hist.), The Rise of the Dutch

Republic 1814-1877

Mulford, Elisha, (Theol. & Philos.}, Republic of God . 1833-1885

Mulock. See CRAIK.

Murfree, Mary Noailles, ("Charles Egbert Craddock"),

(Nov.), In the Tennessee Mountains .... 1850-

Murphy, Arthur, (Drama & Mis.), The Orphan of China 1730-1805

Murray, David Christie, (Nov.), The Weaker Vessel . 1847-1907
Murray, George Gilbert A., (Greek & Mis.), Hist, of

Ancient Greek Literature 1866-

Murray, Sir James A. H., (Lexicographer), A New En-
glish Dictionary on Historic Principles . . . 1837-
Myers, Ernest James, (Poet); Judgment of Prometheus 1844-
Myers, Frederic W. H., (Philos., Poet & Ess.), The

Human Personality (1903) 1843-1901

A PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORS 373

NAME Type of Work Chief Works # Dates Born-Died

Napier, Sir William F. P., (Hist.), Hist, of the War in

the Peninsula 1785-1860

Nasby, Petroleum V. See LOCKE, DAVID E.

Nash, Thomas, (Drama & Mis.), The Tragedie of Dido

1558-1600 or '01
Neckham, Alexander, (Poet, Theol. & Philos.), Latin

Poems 1157-1217

Newbolt, Henry, (Poet), Admirals All 1862-

Newman, Francis Wm., (Ess.), The Soul, her Sorrows

and Aspirations 1805-1897

Newman, John Henry, (Theol.), Apologia pro Vita Sua 1801-1890
Newton, Booth Tarkington, (Nov.), The Gentleman from

Indiana 1869-

Newton, Sir Isaac, (Philos.), Philosophies Naturalis

Principia Mathematica 1642-1727

Nicolay, John George, (Hist.), Life of Abraham Lincoln

(Collaborated with John Hay) 1832-1901

Noel, Hon. Eoden, (Poet), A Modern Faust .... 1834-1894
Norris, William Edward, (Nov.), Adrian Vidal . . . 1847-
North, Christopher. See WILSON, JOHN.

North, Sir Thomas, (Trans.), Plutarch's Lives . . . $1535-1603
Norton, Charles Eliot, (Trans. & Critic), Historical Study

of Church Building in the Middle Ages . . 1827-1908
Noyes, Alfred, (Poet), Drake 1880-

Ockley, Simon, (Hist.), Hist, of the Conquest of Egypt,

Persia and Syria, etc 1678-1720

Odell, Jonathan, (Poet & Satire), The Word of Congress 1737-1818
Oliphant, Laurence, (Travel), Episodes in a Life of

Adventure 1829-1888

Oliphant, Mrs. M., (Nov.), Adam Graeme 1828-1897

Oppenheim, E. Phillips, (Nov.), The Lighted Way . . 1866-

O'Reilly, John Boyle, (Poet), Moondyne 1844-1890

Orm or Ormin, (Poet), Ormulum 1187-1237

O 'Shaughnessy, Arthur, (Poet), Songs of a Worker . . 1844-1881
Otis, James, (Ess.), Considerations on Behalf of the

Colonies, in a Letter to a Noble Lord . . . 1725-1783

Otway, Thomas, (Drama), Venice Preserved .... 1651-1685
Ouida. See DE LA RAMEE.

Oxenham, John, (Nov.), John of Gerisan .... Modern

Page, Thomas Nelson, (Nov.), The Old South . . . 1853-
Pain, Barry, (Hum. & Nov.), Another Englishwoman's

Love Letters 1867-

Paine, Robert Treat, (Poet), The Invention of Letters . 1773-181J

Paine, Thomas, (Philos.), The Age of Eeason .... 1737-1809

374 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

NAME Type of Worfc Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died
Paley, William, (Theol. & Philos. ),* The Principles of

Moral and Political Philosophy 1743-1805

Palfrey, John Gorham, (Hist.), Hist, of New England . 1796-1881
Palgrave, Sir Francis, (Hist.), Hist, of Normandy and

England 1788-1861

Palgrave, Francis Turner, (Poet), Golden Treasury of

English Songs and Lyrics 1824-1897

Palgrave, William G., (Trav.), Essays on Eastern

Questions 1826-1888

Palmer, George Herbert, (Philos. & Mis.), The Field of

Ethics 1842-

Palmer, John Williamson, (Poet, Nov. & Mis.), Stonewall

Jackson's Way; After His Kind 1825-1906

Paris, Matthew, (Hist.), Historia Major, (Hist, of En-
gland) -1259

Park, Mungo, (Trav.), Travels in the Interior of Africa 1771-1805
Parker, Sir Gilbert, (Poet & Nov.), Seats of the Mighty 1862-
Parker, Theodore, (Theol.), Discourse on Matters Per-
taining to Religion 1810-1860

Parkman, Francis, (Hist.), Oregon Trail 1823-1893

Parnell, Thomas, (Poet), The Hermit 1679-1718

Parsons, Theophilus, (Legal), Law of Business for

Business Men 1797-1882

Parton, James, (Biog. & Ess.), Life and Times of Aaron

Burr . 1822-1891

Paston Family, 1460-1482, (Hist.), Letters: Edited by

James Gairdner, 3 vols. (1872-1875) . From 1400-1506
Pater, William H., (Ess. & Mis.), Studies in the Hist, of

the Renaissance 1839-1894

Patmore, Coventry K. D., (Poet), The Unknown Eros . 1823-1896

Pattison, Mark, (Biog. & Ess.), Isaac Casaubon, 1559-1614 1813-1884

Paul, Herbert, (Hist.), Hist, of Modern England . . 1853-

Paulding, James Kirke, (Nov. & Ess.), Salmagundi . . 1779-1860

Payn, James, (Nov. & Ess.), Married Beneath Him . 1830-1898
Payne, John Howard, (Drama & Mis.), Home, Sweet

Home 1792-1852

Pearson, John, (Theol.), Exposition of the Creed . . 1612-1686
Peckham, John, (Theol. & Philos.), Collectanea Bib-

liorum . ?1240-1292

Peele, George, (Drama & Poet), The Old Wives' Tale . 1558-1598

Pemberton, Max, (Nov.), Iron Pirate 1863-

Penn, William, (Relig.), A Brief Account of the People

Called Quakers 1644-1718

Pepys, Samuel, Diary 1633-1703

Percival, James Gates, (Poet), Prometheus .... 1795-1856
Percy, Thomas, (Poet), Reliques of Ancient English

Poetry 1729-1811

A PARTIAL LIST OP AUTHORS

375

NAME Type of WorTc Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died

Petty, Sir William, (Philos.), Political Arithmetic . . 1623-1687

Philips, John, (Poet), Splendid Shilling 1676-1708

Phillips, Stephen, (Poet), Christ in Hades .... 1866-

Phillpotts, Eden, (Nov.), The Secret Woman .... 1862-

Pierpont, John, (Poet), Airs from Palestine .... 1785-1866
Pinero, Sir Arthur W., (Drama), The Second Mrs. Tan-

queray ' . . . . . 1855-

Poe, Edgar Allen, (Poet), Tales (1840), The Raven

(1845) 1809-1849

Pollok, Eobert, (Poet), The Course of Time .... 1799-1827

Pomfret, John, (Poet), The Choice 1667-1703

Pope, Alexander, (Poet), Eape of the Lock (1713),

Dunciad (1729), Essay on Man (1733) . . . 1688-1744
Person, Richard, (Philology), Translations of Greek

Plays, etc 1759-1808

Porter, Jane, (Nov.), Scottish Chiefs 1776-1850

Potter, John, (Hist.), The Antiquities of Greece . . . 1674-1747

Praed, Winthrop Mackworth, (Poet & Ess.), Lillian . . 1802-1839

Prescott, William H., (Hist.), Ferdinand and Isabella . 1796-1859
Priestley, Joseph, (Theol., Philos. & Mis.), Institutes of

Natural and Revealed Religion 1733-1804

Prince, John Dyneley, (Philol.), Assyrian Primer . . 1868-
Prince, Thomas, (Theol. & Hist.), Chronological Hist, of

New England in the Form of Annals . . . 1687-1758

Prior, Matthew, (Poet), Solomon 1664-1721

Proctor, Bryan W., ("Barry Cornwall"), (Poet),

Mirandola 1787-1874

Purchas, Samuel, (Trav.), Pilgrimage (1613), Pilgrims

(1625) 1577-1626

Quarles, Francis, (Poet), A Feast for Wormes . . . 1592-1644

Quiller-Couch, Sir Arthur, (Nov.), Noughts and Crosses 1863-

Kadcliffe, Anne, (Nov. & Poet), The Romance of the

Forest 1764-1823

Raleigh, Sir Walter, (Hist.), Hist, of the World . . . 1552-1618
Raleigh, Sir Walter, (Ess. & Mis.), The English Novel .

Ramsay, Allan, (Poet), The Gentle Shepherd .... 1685-1758

Ray, John, (Nat. & Mis.), Catalogus plantarum Angliae 1628-1705

Read, Thomas Buchanan, (Poet), The House by the Sea 1822-1872
Reade, Charles, (Nov & Drama), The Cloister and the

Hearth 1814-1884

Reed, Talbot Baines, (Nov., Juveniles), The Fifth Form

at iSt. Dominic's 1852-1893

Reed, Thomas, (Philos. & Theol.), Inquiry into the

Human Mind 1710-1796

376 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died
Khodes, James Ford, (Hist.), Hist, of the United States

from the Compromise of 1850 1848-

Rhys, Sir John, (Philologist), Celtic Heathendom . . 1840-
Kicardo, David, (Pol. Economist), Principles of Political

Economy and Taxation 1772-1823

Kice, Alice Hegan, (Nov.), Mrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage

Patch 1870-

Rice, James, (Nov.), Eeady Money Mortiboy .... 1843-1882

In collaboration with Sir Walter Besant

Richard of St. Victor, (Theol. & Philos.) -1173

Richardson, Samuel, (Nov.), Pamela (1740), Clarissa

Harlowe (1748) 1689-1761

Ridge, William Pett, (Nov.), A Breaker of Laics . . . 1864-
Riley, James Whitcomb, (Poet & Hum.), Pipes o' Pan at

Zekesbury 1853

Ripley, George, (Philos. & Lexicographer), Discourses on

the Philosophy of Religion 1802-1880

Rishanger, William, (Hist.), Chronicles of England . 1250-1312
Rives, Amelie, (Princess Troubetzkoy), (Nov.), The Quick

or the Dead 1863-

Robert of Gloucester, (Hist. & Poet), Rhyming Chronicle

of England 1255-1307

Robertson, William, (Hist.), History of Scotland (1759),

History of Charles V. of Germany (1769),

History of America (1777) 1721-1793

Rochester, Earl of, ("John Wilmot"), (Poet), Poems 1648-1680

Roe, Edward Payson, (Nov.), Barriers Burned Away . 1838-1888

Roger of Wendover, (Hist.), Flowers of History . . . ?1237
Rogers, Samuel, (Ess. & Poet), Human Life (1819),

Pleasures of Memory (1792) 1763-1855

Rolle, Richard, (Poet), The Pricke of Conscience . . ?1290-1349

Romanes, George John, (Sci), Mental Evolution in Man 1848-1894
Roosevelt, Theodore, (Politics, Hist. & Nov.), Winning

of the West 1858-

Ropes, John Codman, (Hist.), The First Napoleon . . 1836-1899

Roscoe, William, (Hist.), Life and Pontificate of Leo X. 1753-1831

Roscommon, Earl of, (Poet), Art of Poetry .... 1633-1684

Rossetti, Christine Georgina, (Poet), Goblin Market . . 1830-1894

Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, (Poet), Ballads and Sonnets . 1828-1882

Rowe, Nicholas, (Drama), Jane Shore 1673-1718

Ruskin, John, (Art Critic), Modern Painters .... 1819-1900
Russell, William Clark, (Nov.), The Wreck of the

Grosvenor 1844-1911

Rymer, Thomas, (Hist.), Faedera 1641-1713

A PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORS 377

NAME Type of Work Chief Works & Dates Born-Died
Sackville, Thomas, (Drama), Gorboduc (The first En-
glish tragedy) 1536-1608

Saintsbury, George, (Critic & Mis.), History of Criticism

and Literary Taste in Europe 1845-

Sandys, George, (Trans., Poet & Travels), A Paraphrase

of the Psalms of David 1577-1644

Santayana, George, (Poet), The Hermit of Carmel . . 1863-

Sarah Grand. See MACFALL.

Savage, Richard, (Poet), Sir Thomas Overbury (1724),

The Wanderer (1729) 1697-1743

Saxe, John G., (Poet & Hum.), New Rape of the Lock . 1816-1887

Schreiner, Olive. See CRONWRIGHT.

Scott, Hugh Stowell, ("Henry Seaton Merriam")

(Nov.), The Sowers 1863-1903

Scott, Thomas, (Theol.), The Force of Truth .... 1747-1821
Scott, Sir Walter, (Nov. & Poet), The Lady of the Lake

(1810); Waverley Novels (1814-1828) . . . 1771-1832
Scotus, John Duns ("Duns Scotus"), (Theol. & Philos.),

A collective edition of works published in 1639 1265-1308
Seabury, Samuel ("Westchester Farmer"), (Theol. &

Pol.), Series of Pamphlets 1729-1796

Seaman, Owen, (Hum. & Nov.), In Cap and Bells . . 1861-
Sedgwick, Catharine Maria, (Nov.), New England Tales 1789-1867
Seeley, Sir John Robert, (Philos. & Hist.), Ecce Homo

(1866), Life and Times of Stein (1879) . . 1834-1895
Selden, John, (Hist., Legal & Mis.), The Duello, or Single

Combat 1584-1654

Shakespeare, William, (Drama) 1564-1616

Shaw, George Bernard, (Nov. & Drama), Man and Super-
man 1856-

Shea, John Dawson G., (Hist.), The Catholic Church in

America 1824-1892

Shelley, Percy B., (Poet), Prometheus Unbound (1819),

The Cenci (1819) 1792-1822

Shenstone, William, (Poet), The School-Mistress . . . 1714-1763
Shepard, Thomas, (Theol.), New England's Lamentation

for Old England's Errours 1605-1649

Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, (Drama), The School for

Scandal 1751-1816

Sherlock, Thomas, (Theol.), The Trial of the Witnesses,

etc 1678-1761

Sherlock, William, (Theol. & Pol.), A Vindication of the

Doctrine of Trinity 1641-1707

Shirley, James, (Drama). The Traitor 1594-1666

Shorter, Clement King, (Ess. & Critic), Sixty Years of

Victorian Literature 1858-

Shorthouse, Joseph Henry, (Nov. & Ess.), John Inglesant 1834-1903

378 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died

Sidgwic-k, Henry, (Philos.), The Methods of Ethics . . 1838-1900
Sidney, Sir Philip, (Lit. & Poet), Arcadia, Defense of

Poesie (1581) 1554-1586

Sigourney, Lydia Huntley, (Poet), Pocahontas, and other

Poems 1791-1865

Sill, Edward Kowland, (Poet), The Hermitage . . . 1841-1887
Simms, William Gilmore, (Nov. & Poet), Guy Rivers . 1806-1870
Skeat, Walter William, (Philologist and Lexicographer),
An Etymological Dictionary of the English Lan-
guage 1835-1912

Skelton, John, (Poet), Booke of Colin Clout .... 1460-1529
Smart, Hawley, (Nov.), Master of Rath Kelly . . . 1833-1893
Smedley, Francis Edward, (Nov.), Frank Farleigh . . 1818-1864
Smiles, Samuel, (Hist., Biog. & Mis.), Self Help . . 1812-1904
Smith, Adam, (Philos.), The Wealth of Nations . . . 1723-1790
Smith, Benjamin Eli, (Lexicog. & Trans.), Century Dic-
tionary 1857-1913

Smith, Captain John, (Hist.), The Generall Historic of

Virginia, etc. 1579-1631

Smith, Goldwin, (Hist. & Mis.), Canada and the Canadian

Question 1823-1910

Smith, Horace, (Nov. & Poet), Gale Middleton . . . 1779-1849

Smith, Sydney, (Ess. & Pol.), Peter Plymley's Letters . 1771-1845
Smith, William Eobertson, (Theol.), The Prophets of

Israel 1846-1894

Smollett, Tobias, (Nov.), Roderick Random (1748); Pere-
grine Pickle (1751) ; Humphrey Clinker (1771) 1721-1771

Somervile, William, (Poet), The Chace 1677-1742

South, Eobert, (Theol.), Sermons 1634-1716

Southey, Eobert, (Poet & Hist.), The Curse of Kehama

(1810) ; Life of Nelson (1813) 1774-1843

Sparks, Jared, (Biog. & Hist.), Library of American

Biography 1789-1866

Spedding, James, (Biog.), Life and Letters of Francis

Bacon 1808-1881

Speed, John, (Hist.), History of Great Britain . . . 1552-1629

Spencer, Herbert, (Philos.), Principles of Biology . . 1820-1903
Spenser, Edmund, (Poet), Shepheardes Calendar (1579);

Faerie Queene (1590-1596) 1552-1599

Spofford, Harriet E., (Nov. & Poet), Sir Rohan's Ghost . 1835-
Spurgeon, Charles Haddon (Theol.), The Treasury of

David 1834-1892

Stanley, Sir Henry M., (Travel), In Darkest Africa . 1841-1904
Stannard, Mrs. Arthur, ("John Strange Winter"),

(Nov.), Booties' Baby 1856-1911

Stedman, Edmund Clarence, (Poet & Critic), The Dia-
mond Wedding 1833-1908

A PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORS

379

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died
Steel, Mrs. Flora Annie, (Nov.), On the Face of the

Waters 1847-

Stecle, Sir Richard, (Ess.), The Tatler (1709) ; Sir Roger

dc Coverlcy in No. 2 of The Spectator . . , . 1672-1729

Stephen, James Kenneth, (Poet & Satire), Lapsus Calami 1859-1892
Stephen, Sir Leslie, (Ess. & Biog.), Dictionary of National

Biography 1832-1904

Sterne, Laurence, (Nov.), Tristam Shandy (1759-1762),

Sentimental Journey (1765) 1713-1768

Stevens, Augusta de Grasse, (Nov.), The Lost Dauphin,

Louis XVII abt. 1865-1894

Stevenson, Robert Louis, (Nov.), The New Arabian

Nights 1850-1894

Stewart, Dugald, (Philos.), Outlines of Moral Philosophy 1753-1828
Stimson, Frederic Jesup, ("J. S., of Dale"), (Nov. &

Legal), The Crime of Henry Vane .... 1855-

Stockton, Francis (Frank) R., (Nov.), Rudder Grange 1834-1902
Stoddard, Richard Henry, (Poet & Mis.), Loves and

Heroines of the Poets 1825-1903

Stokes, Sir George G., (Sci. & Philos.), Natural Theology 1819-1903

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, (Nov.), Uncle Tom's Cabin . 1812-1896

Street, Alfred B., (Poet), Frontenac 1811-1881

Strutt, Joseph, (Hist. & Mis.), The Chronicles of England 1742-1802
Stubbs, William, (Hist.), Constitutional History of En-

gland 1825-1901

Suckling, Sir John, (Poet), Session of the Poets . . . 1609-1642
Sullivan, Thomas Russell, (Nov. & Poet), Roses of

Shadow 1849-

Swift, Jonathan, (Nov. & Satire), Gulliver's Travels . 1667-1745

Swinburne, Algernon C., (Poet), Atlanta in Calydon . . 1837-1909

Symonds, John A., (Hist.), Renaissance in Italy . . . 1840-1893

Symons, Arthur, (Poet & Critic,), London Nights . . 1865-

Tautphoeus, Baroness, (Nov.), The Initials .... 1807-1893
Taylor, Bayard, (Nov., Poet & Mis.), Poems of the

Orient 1825-1878

Taylor, Sir Henry, (Poet & Drama), Philip van Artevelde 1800-1886
Taylor, Jeremy, (Theol.), Holy Living (1650), Life of

Christ (1649) 1613-1667

Tennyson, Alfred, Lord, (Poet), Morte d' Arthur . . . 1809-1892
Terhune, Mary Virginia, ("Marion Harland"), (Nov.),

The Hidden Path 1831-

Thackeray, William M., (Nov.), Vanity Fair .... 1811-1863

Thaxter, Celia, (Poet), Among the Isles of Shoals . . 1836-1894

Thompson, Francis, (Poet), Poems 1859-1907

Thompson, Robert Ellis, (Economist & Theol.), Elements

of Political Economy 1844-

380 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died
Thompson, Silvanus Phillips, (Biog. & Sci.), Life of

Lord Kelvin 1851-

Thomson, James, (Poet), The Seasons (1726-1730), The

Castle of Indolence (1748), Eule Britannia . 1700-1748
Thomson, James, ("Bysshe Vanolis"), (Poet), The City

of Dreadful Night 1834-1882

Thomson, Prof. J. Arthur, (Sci. & Philos.), Heredity . 1861-

Ticknor, George, (Hist.), Hist, of Spanish Literature . 1791-1871
Thoreau, Henry David, (Ess. & Naturalist), Walden; or,

Life in the Woods 1817-1862

Thorpe, Benjamin, (Transl. & Mis.), Northern Mythology 1782-1870

Thorpe, Sir Edward, (Sci. & Mis.), Inorganic Chemistry 1845-

Thurston, Katherine Cecil, (Nov.), John Chilcote, M.P. 1879-1911

Timrod, Henry, (Poet), Cotton Boll 1829-1867

Todhunter, Dr. John, (Poet & Dramatist), The Banshee 1839-
Tooke, John Home, (Pol. & Philologist), Winged Words,

or the Diversions of Purley 1736-1812

Toplady, Augustus Montague, (Hymns & Sacred Poems),

Bock of Ages 1740-1778

Tourgee, Albion Winegar, (Nov.), A Eoyal Gentleman . 1838-1905

Traill, Henry Duff, (Ess.), The New Lucian .... 1842-1900

Trollope, Anthony, (Nov.), The Warden 1815-1882

Trollope, Thomas A., (Nov.), La Beata 1810-1892

Trumbull, John, (Poet & Satire), McFingal .... 1750-1831
Tusser, Thomas, (Husbandry & Poet), A Hundred Good

Points of Husbandrie 1527-1580

Tuttiett, Miss M. G., ("Maxwell Gray"), (Nov. & Poet),

The Silence of Dean Maitland — —

Tyler, Moses Coit, (Hist. & Biog.), Hist, of American

Literature 1835-1900

Tynan, Katherine, (Mrs. Hinkson), (Poet), Shamrocks . 1861-

Tyndale, William, (Theol.), Transl. of New Testament 1484-1536
Tyndall, John, (Sci. & Mis.), Heat a Mode of Action,

and other scientific papers 1820-1893

Udal, Nicholas, (Drama & Trans.), Ealph Eoyster Doy-

ster, First Comedy in English 1506-1556

Usher, James, (Theol. & Philos.), Body of Divinitie . 1581-1656

Vachell, Horace Annesley, (Nov.), The Hill .... 1861-

Vanbrugh, Sir John, (Drama), The ProvoTced Wife . . 1664-1726

Very, Jones, (Poet), Essays and Poems 1813-1880

Vizetelly, Edward, (Adventure), From Cyprus to Zanzibar 1847-
Vizetelly, Ernest, (Nov. & Trans.), A Lover's Progress . 1853-
Vizetelly, Henry Kichard, (Mis.), A History of Cham-
pagne; The Story of the Diamond Necklace . 1820-1893

A PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORS 381

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died

Wace, (Hist.), Roman de Brut 1100-1175

Wake, William, (Theol.), The Genuine Epistles of the

Apostolical Fathers 1657-1737

Walker, John, (Lexicographer), Outlines of English

Grammar 1732-1807

Walkley, Arthur B., (Critic & Ess.), Drama and Life . 1855-

Wallace, Lewis, (Nov. & Biog.), Ben Hur 1827-1905

Waller, Edmund, (Poet), Love Songs to " Sacharissa,' '

Lady Dorothy Sidney 1606-1687

Walpole, Horace, (Lit. & Pol.), Anecdotes of Painting in

England 1717-1797

Walpole, Sir Spencer, (Hist. & Pol.), A History of En-
gland, from the Conclusion of the Great War

in 1815 1839-1907

Walsingham, Thomas, (Hist.), Historia Anglicana . d. abt. 1422
Walton, Brian, (Theol. & Lit.), Polyglot Bible . . . 1600-1661
Walton, Izaak, (Sport), The Compleat Angler . . . . 1593-1683
Warburton, William, (Theol. & Critic), Divine Legation

of Moses 1698-1779

Ward, Adolphus William, (Hist. & Biog.), History of

English Dramatic Literature . . . . . . 1837-

Ward, Art emus. See BROWNE, CHARLES F.

Ward, Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, (Nov.), Gates Ajar . 1844-1911

Ward, Mrs. Humphry, (Mary A. Arnold), (Nov.),

Robert Elsmere 1851-

Ward, Nathaniel, (Theol. & Philos.), The Simple Cobler

of Agavvam in America abt. 1570-1653

Warner, Charles Dudley, (Hum. & Poet), My Summer in

a Garden 1829-1900

Warton, Thomas, (Poet), The Triumph, of Isis . . . 1728-1790
Watson, H. B. Marriott, (Nov. & Dramatist), Marahuna 1863-
Watson, Eev. John, ("Ian Maclaren"), (Nov.), Beside

the Bonnie Brier Bush 1850-1907

Watson, William, (Poet), The Year of Shame . .
Watts, Isaac, (Hymns), The Psalms of David .
Watts-Dunton, Theodore, (Poet & Nov.), Aylwin
Webster, Augusta, (Poet), The Auspicious Day .
Webster, John, (Drama), The White Devil

1858-

1674-1748

1836-

1840-1894

1580-1625

Webster, Noah, (Philologist & Lexicographer), Diction-
ary of the English Language, 1st edition, 1828,

2nd edition, 1840 1758-1843

Wells, H. G., (Nov. & Ess.), Kipps 1866-

Wendell, Barrett, (Lit.), A. Hist, of American Literature 1855-

Wesley, John, (Hymns & Theol.), Hymns, Journal . . 1703-1791
Westcott, Brooke Foss, (Theol.), The Gospel of the

Resurrection 1825-1901

Weyman, Stanley J., (Nov.), A Gentleman of France . 1855-

382 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

NAME Type of Work Chief Works $ Dates Born-Died

Wharton, Mrs. Edith, (Nov.), The Valley of Decision . 1862-

Whately, Abp. Eichard, (Philos.), Christian Evidence . 1787-1863
Whetham, William C. D., (Sci. & Mis.), The Recent

Development of Physical Science 1867-

Whewell, W., (Mis.), Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences 1794-1866

White, Gilbert, (Nat.), The Natural History of Selborne 1720-1793
White, Eichard Grant, (Philologist & Mis.), Every Day

English 1821-1885

White, William Hale, ("Mark Eutherford"), (Nov.),

The Autobiography of Mark Rutherford . . 1857-

Whiteing, Eichard, (Nov.), No. 5 John Street . . . 1840-

Whitman, Walt, (Walter), (Poet), Leaves of Grass . . 1819-1892

Whitney, Adeline D., (Nov.), Faith Gartney's Girlhood 1824-1906
Whitney, William Dwight, (Philologist & Lexicog.),

Editor of The Century Dictionary .... 1827-1894

Whittier, John Greenleaf, (Poet), Mogg Megone . . 1807-1892

Whymper, Edward, (Travel), Scrambles among the Alps 1840-1911

Whyte-Melville, G. J., (Nov.), Kate Coventry .... 1821-1878
Wiggin, Kate Douglas, (Nov.), Eebecc'a of Sunnybrook

Farm 1857-

Wigglesworth, Michael, (Theol. & Poet), Day of Doom . 1631-1715

Wilde, Oscar, (Nov. & Poet), Lady Winder mere's Fan . 1856-1900
William of Malmesbury, (Hist.), History of the Kings

of England (De Gestis Begum) 1095-1143

William of Newburgh, (Hist.), Hist, of English Affairs 1136-1198
Williams, Eoger, (Theol.), The Bloody Tenent of Perse-
cution 1599-1683

Willis, Nathaniel P., (Poet & Mis.), Pencilings by the

Way 1806-1867

Wilson, John, (Poet), Isle of Palms 1785-1854

Wilson, Woodrow (Thomas), (Politics & Hist.), The State 1856-
Winsor, Justin, (Hist.), Narrative and Critical History

of America 1831-1897

Winthrop, John, (Hist.), History of New England . . 1588-1649

Wirt, William, (Biog.), Life of Patrick Henry . . . 1772-1834

Wister, Owen, (Nov.), The Virginian 1860-

Wither, George, (Poet & Mis.), Faire-Virtue .... 1588-1667
Wolcot, John ("Peter Pindar "), (Poet & Satire),

Expostulatory Odes 1738-1819

Wood, M. A. E. See GREEN, MRS. M. A. EVERETT.

Wood, Mrs. Henry, (Nov.), East Lynne 1814-1887

Wood, William, (Hist.), New England's Prospect . . 1580-1639
Woodberry, George Edward, (Biog. & Poet), Edgar Allan

Foe, ("American Men of Letters Series9') . . 1855-
Woodworth, Samuel, (Nov. & Poet), The Champion of

Freedom 1785-1842

A PARTIAL LIST OF AUTHORS 383

NAME Type of Work Chief Works # Dates Born-Died
Woojman, John, (Philos.), Some Considerations on the

Keeping of Negroes 1720-1772

Woolson, Constance Fenimore, (Nov.), Castle Nowhere . 1848-1894
Worcester, Joseph Emerson, (Lexicographer), Dictionary

of the English Language 1784-1865

Wordsworth, William, (Poet), Lyrical Ballads . . . 1770-1850
Wotton, Sir Henry, (Poet & Lit.), The Elements of

Architecture 1568-1639

Wyatt, Sir Thomas, (Poet), Sonnets and Lyrics, first in

England 1503-1542

Wycherley, William, (Crania), The Country Wife . . 1640-1716

Wycliffe, John, (Theol.), Translation of Bible . . . 1325-1384

Yates, Edmund, (Nov.), Running the Gauntlet . . . 1831-1894
Yeats, William Butler, (Poet & Nov.), The Wanderings

of Oisin 1865-

Yonge, Charlotte M., (Nov.), The Heir of Kedclyffe . . 1823-1901

Young, Edward, (Poet), Night Thoughts 1683-1765

Zangwill, Israel, (Nov. & Drama), The Master . . . 1864-

384 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

A Hundred Best Books

The following is a selection of one hundred books made by the

late Sir John Lubbock, Bart. (Lord Avebury). "A splendid treasury
of deep thought, of romance, of wit, of travel, and of history. ' ' — The
Daily Telegraph, London, England.

1. The Bible. Authorized version.

2. Voyage of a Naturalist. Darwin.

3. Meditations. Marcus Aurelius.

4. The Teachings of Epictetus.

5. Essays. Bacon.

6. Principles of Political Economy. Mill.

7. History of the French Revolution. Carlyle.

8. Self -Help. Samuel Smiles.

9. Natural History of Selborne. White.

10. The Pickwick Papers. Dickens.

11. The Shi-King: Chinese National Poetry (transl.).

12. Homer. Transl. by Pope.

13. Vergil. Transl. by Dryden.

14. Essays (transl.). Montaigne.

15. System of Logic. Mill.

16. Biographical History of Philosophy. Lewis (Lewes).

17. Vanity Fair. Thackeray.

18. The Shah Nameh (transl.). Firdausi.

19. Three Voyages Eound the World. Capt. Cook.

20. Vicar of Wakefield. Goldsmith.

21. William Tell (transl.). Schiller.

22. The Koran. Transl. By Sale.

23. Plays and Poems. Shakespeare.

24. Life of Johnson. Boswell.

25. Ivanhoe. Sir W. Scott.

26. Pendennis. Thackeray.

27. Thucydides (transl.).

28. David Copperfield. Dickens.

29. Childe Harold. Byron.

30. Plays (transl.). JEschylus.

31. Wealth of Nations. Adam Smith.

32. Canterbury Tales. Chaucer.

33. Decline and Fall of the Koman Empire; 2 vols. Gibbon.

34. Dialogues of Plato (transl.).

A HUNDRED BEST BOOKS 35.5

35. Don Quixote (transl.). Cervantes.

36. Plays. Sheridan.

37. Kobinson Crusoe. Defoe.

38. Poetical Works. Dryden.

39. Lives of the Greeks and Eomans (transl.). Plutarch.

40. Last Days of Pompeii. Lytton.

41. Past and Present. Carlyle.

42. Pilgrim's Progress. Bunyan.

43. Ethics (transl.). Aristotle.

44. Apostolic Fathers. Wake.

45. Novum Organum. Bacon.

46. On the Crown (transl.). Demosthenes.

47. Thoughts on Eeligion (transl.). Pascal.

48. Human Knowledge. Berkeley.

49. Morte d 'Arthur. Malory.

50. Essays. Emerson.

51. The Nibelungenlied (transl.).

52. Selections from Speeches and Writings. Burke.

53. Faerie Queene. Spenser.

54. Gulliver's Travels. Swift.

55. Politics (transl.). Aristotle.

56. Poetical Works. Sir W. Scott.

57. Arabian Nights, The.

58. Poetical Works. Burns.

59. The Imitation of Christ. Thomas a Kempis.

60. Divine Comedy (Longfellow's transl.). Dante.

61. Plays (transl.). Moliere.

62. Poetical Works. Milton.

63. Faust (transl.). Goethe.

64. The Christian Year. Keble.

65. Essays and Lays of Ancient Home. Macaulay.

66. Analogy of Keligion. Butler.

67. Odes (Lytton 's transl.). Horace.

68. Poetical Works. Wordsworth.

69. Plays. Aristophanes.

70. Poems. Gray.

71. History of England, 3 vols. Hume.

72. On the Human Understanding. Locke.

73. Essays. Addison.

74. Holy Living and Holy Dying. Taylor.

75. Essays. Hume.

76. Offices, Friendship, and Old Age (transl.). Cicero.

386 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH SPEECH

77. Works (transl.). Hesiocl.

78. Anabasis and Memorabilia (transl.). Xenophon.

79. Zadig et Micromegas (transl.). Voltaire.

80. CEuvres. Moliere.

81. Sakoontalia of The Lost Eing (trans, from Sanskrit). Kalidasa.

82. Disconrs de la Methode. Descartes.

83 — 84. Livy, History, bks. i-v; Tacitus 's Germania and Agricola
(transl.).

85. The Antiquary; steel plates. Sir W. Scott.

86. Travels, 3 vols. (transl.). Humboldt.

87. Confessions. St. Augustine.

88. The Origin of Species. Darwin.

89. Westward Ho! Kingsley.

90. Short History of the English People. Green.

91. Tractatus Theologico-Politicus. Spinoza.

92. Adam Bede. "George Eliot."

93. The Analects (transl.). Confucius.

94. Buddha. St. Hilaire.

95. Plays. Sophocles.

96. Plays. Euripides.

97. Essay on Man, etc. Pope.

98 — 99. The Kamayana and The Mahabarata; 1 vol.

100. Herodotus (transl.).

INDEX

387

INDEX

A, the letter and its varying sounds,
131.

"a," the sound and symbol in the
N. E. A. Alphabet, 293.

"a," the sound and symbol in the
N. E. A. Alphabet, 291.

Abbott (Dr. E. A.), on dropping of
inflections, 54.

Aberdeenshire dialect, 47.

Absolute (superlative) defined, 225.

Accent, American, 334 ; Robert L.
Stevenson on American and Brit-
ish, 334.

Accuracy indispensable to writing
for publication, 315.

"Act" defined, 190.

"Active voice" defined, 249.

Addison, Joseph, 323 ; on the puri-
fication of the language, 342 ;
starts "The Spectator," 137.

"Adjective" defined, 254.

"Advancement of Learning," by
Francis Bacon, 113.

"Adverb" defined, 255.

"Adverb phrase" defined, 256.

"Adverbial clause" defined, 255.

"Adverbial phrase" defined, 256.

Advocacy not lexicography, 222.

Aelle, see ELLA.

Aeronautics in the Dictionary, 223.

Aesc and Ella allies of Cerdic, 4.

Aesc and Hengest defeat Britons at
Wippedesfleot, 4.

^Ethelric, see ETHELRIC.

"Affairs and State of Germany" ;
Report and Discourse, by Asch-
am, 76.

Affectation of speech, British, 272.

African terms in English, 170.

"di," the diphthong in the N. E. A.
Alphabet and Webster's New In-
ternational Dictionary, 292.

Ain't, 340.

Albion, origin of the name, 1.

"Alchemist," by Jonson, 106.

Alfred, "the Great," 10 ; defeats the
Danes, 20 ; his works, 19 ; para-
phrases Boethius's "Consolation,"
20.

Alfred of Beverley abridges Geof-
frey's "History," 27.

Alfric the Grammarian, 22.

"Allegory" defined, 178, 179.

Alliteration in Anglo-Saxon ro-
mance, 199 ; in early English
verse, 199.

"Alphabet" defined, 239, 240.

Alphabet (English), inadequate,
132 ; (National Education Asso-
ciation), why devised, 297; num-
ber of letters in different, 239,
240.

— recommended by the N. E. A.,
288.

Alphabet, the Scientific, 275.

— proclaimed "a triumphant cre-
ation of philological genius,"
284.

American accent, 334 ; dialect, 333 ;

provincialism, 334; slang, 333,

334.
American-Indian words in English,

169.

American lexicology, 172.
American Philological Association,

286, 289^ 293, 294.
Amicis (Edmondo de) on the dic-
tionary, 226, 231.
"Amorette," by Spenser, 82.
Amsterdam, first English "Cou-

rants" printed at, 133.
"cm," the diphthong in the N. E. A.

alphabet, 292.
Analogy and correctness, 339,

389

390

INDEX

Anderida beset by Aelle and Cissa,
4.

Angevin introduced, 25.

Angles arrive in Britain, 3 ; con-
quer Britain, 5 ; found Bernicia
(Northumbria), 5; Deira, and
Mercia, 8 ; people of Kent, 9 ;
Anglia produces a literature, 14.

Anglo-Saxon, 1-10 ; words in the
Bible, percentage of, 123.

"Anglo-Saxon Chronicle," 5, 9, 10;
number and location of manu-
scripts, 21 ; specimen from, 22.

Anglo-Saxon Period, 11, 12-23.

Antwerp, Gazette of, 134.

Aorist, the, 252.

Apocrypha, Statistics of the Con-
tents of the, 123.

"Apolog" denned, 179.

"Apologie for Poesie," by Sidney,
82.

Appendix, 351-383.

"Arcades" by Milton, 12G.

"Areopagitica" by Milton, 127.

Army (British) officers' pronuncia-
tion, 271-272.

Arnold (Dr. Thomas), on the
Miracle Plays, 90; on reading,
310.

Arose used for "arisen," 147.

Arthurian romance, 180.

Ascham, Roger, 75 ; adopted, 75 ;
advice on manner of speech, 76 ;
appointed Secretary to German
ambassador, 76 ; appointed tutor
to Princess Elizabeth, 76 ; edu-
cation, 75 ; death, 76 ; Ascham
opposes use of foreign words, 77 ;
quality of his English, 75 ; re-
ceives notice and reward from
Henry VIII., 76; Report and
Discourse of the Affairs and
State of Germany, 76 ; Ascham
used double negative, 144 ; used
"news" as a plural, 155.

Associated Colleges and Prepara-
tory Schools of the United States,
Conference of, 208-211, 311.

Assonance, 199.

"Astrophel and Stella" by Sidney,
82.

"Atlantic Monthly," Havelock Ellis
in, 322.

Attic comedy, 189.

Australian terms in English, 169.
Authorship, Emerson on, 316.
Authorized Version of the Bible,

influence on the language, 123.
Authors, Partial list of, 351-383.
Auxiliary verb defined, 248.
Avebury (Lord), Hundred Best

Books, 384.
Average man, vocabulary of, 214-

219.
Avery (Elroy) on good English,

338.

Bacon, Francis, 111-116 ; "Advance-
ment of Learning," 113 ; Essays,
112, 115-116; Chancellor (Lord
High) of England, 112; Bacon
impeached and imprisoned in
the Tower, 112 ; influence on
scientific thought, 114; his "In-
stauratio Magna," 113 ; "History
of King Henry VII.," 114 ; "New
Atlantis," 114 ; "Novum Or-
ganum," 112 ; views of contem-
poraries on, 114 ; specimen from
Essays "On Learning," 115-116 ;
sudden death, 115.

Bailey, Nathan, 131, 146.

"Balades," by Gower, 46.

Bale on the destruction of books,
68.

"Ballad" denned, 192, 202, 204-205.

— (literary) defined, 205.

Balliet, T. M., 287.

Barbour, John, 48-49.

Barebone (Praise God) and the
drama, 185-186.

Barker (Richard), King's printer,
117.

"Bartholomaeus de Proprietatibus
Rerum," printed by Caxton, 56.

Baxter (C. J.) on the Scientific
Alphabet, 278.

Baynes (Prof. Spencer) on Shake-
speare's manner, 97, 98.

Beastes, beasteses, 142.

Beaton, Cardinal, 78.

Beda (Bede), his birth, death, and
work, 19.

Befel used for "befallen," 147.

Beginners, difficulties that beset,
320-321.

Belgse, 1.

Belles-lettres, 175, 176.

INDEX

391

"Beowulf," 17, 181, 203.

Bernicia, 55 ; ruled by Ida the
Torch-bearer, 5 ; united with
Deira under Oswy, 6.

Bible, English (The), 116-124 ; Ben-
jamin Franklin on the, 121 ; books
in, number of, 123-124 ; chapters
in number of, 123-124 ; character-
istics of, 117 ; Daniel Webster's
view of, 121 ; Edward Everett on,
122 ; Horace Greeley on, 121 ; In-
fluence of, 117 ; letters in, num-
ber of, 123-124 ; Macaulay's esti-
mate of, 121 ; objective case used
for the nominative in, 153 ; per-
centage of Anglo-Saxon words in,
123; Prince of Granada's statis-
tics of the, 124 ; printed by King's
printer, 117 ; rhythm of, 119 ;
statistics of its contents, 123-
124 ; style of, 117 ; time taken to
print, 117 ; veneration in which
King James version is held. 123 ;
verses in, number of, 123-124 ;
William H. Taft on, 122; words
in, number of, 123-124.

Bible, the Great, 58.

Bible-stories of Caedmon, 15.

Bishop's Bible, 116.

"Bishop's Book," 67.

Blackfriars Theater, Shakespeare's
connection with, 100.

Blades, William, on Caxton's rela-
tion to Mansion, 54, 56.

"Blank verse" defined, 198.

Blending of French and English, 35.

Boccaccio in Florence, 42.

Bohn's Standard Library, 311.

Boileau on "gros" and "grand," 141.

"Book of Common Prayer," The, 67,
151.

"Book of Martyrs," 73, 75.

Books, influence of, 53.

"Boston Evening Transcript" on
the dictionary, 212-213.

Bretigny, Peace of, 35.

Brevity, 54.

Bright, James W., 287.

Britain, Angles, Jutes, and Saxons
land in, 3.

British Museum's collection of
Caxton volumes, 59 ; collection
of "Courants," 132-135.

British power in Sussex broken, 4.

Britons beat back the Jutes, 3-4 ;
defeated at Charford, 5.

Brown (Goold), and the split infini-
tive, 156 ; "Grammar of English
Grammars," 266-267.

Bruce, The, extract from, 49.

"Brut d'Angleterre," 31.

Bryant, William Cullen, 324.

Buchanan (George), 77-80; ap-
pointed tutor by King James V.
of Scotland, 78 ; appointed tutor
to Earl of Cassilis, 78 ; appointed
tutor to Mary Queen of Scots.
79 ; "De Jure Regni Apud Scotos"
burned by the scholars at Oxford,
80 ; influence on language, 80 ;
principal of St. Leonard's College
at St. Andrew's, 79 ; translation
of the Psalms, 79 ; tutor to James
VI. of Scotland, 79; writes a
"History of Scotland," 80.

Buckhurst, Lord, see SACKVILLE,
THOMAS.

Bunyan (John), Spenser's influence
on the "Pilgrim's Progress," 85.

Burbage, James, 100.

Burke (Edmund) and precision,
317.

"Burlesque" defined, 190.

Burney, Frances, 330.

Burns, influence of Spenser on, 85 ;
split infinitive used by, 157.

Butter, Nathaniel, prints English
"Courants," 133.

Byron, influence of Spenser on, 85 ;
split infinitive used by, 157.

"Bystander" (The), London, on
English speech, 335.

Cadsant, battle of, 35.

Caedmon (Cedmon), 14; "Genesis,"
15 ; poems published, 15.

Caesar in Britain, 1.

Cambridge, England, Founding of
the University of, 23; printer
from Cologne begins work at, 58.

Camden, William, befriends Ben
Jonson, 105.

Cameron (Ruth), on books for
children's reading, 312, 313.

Canby (Professor H. S.), on read-
ing by undergraduates, 306-307.

"Canterbury Tales," 42.

392

INDEX

Carlyle (Thomas), on literature,
174.

"Case is Altered," by Jonson, 106.

"Case" defined, 244-245.

Cassiterides, 1.

"Catiline" by Jonson, 106.

Cawdrey, Robert, 130.

Caxton, William, 54-62; dates of
the printing of his books, 56 ;
press set up in Westminster, 56 ;
prints, the works of Chaucer and
Malory, 59.

Celtse, 1.

Celts found by the Romans, 1.

Cerdic arrives on shores of South-
ampton Water, 4 ; ally of Aesc
and Ella, 4 ; defeats Britons at
Charford, 5.

Cerdicesora, Cerdic and Cymric
land at, 4 ; located, 4.

Chandos Classics, 310.

Chansons de geste, 179.

Chappell, William, tutor to Milton,
125.

Characteristics of poetry, 194.

Charford scene of British defeat by
Cerdic, 5.

Chatham (Earl of), how he acquired
his vocabulary, 220.

Chaucer, Geoffrey, 36, 159 ; his life
and work, 40-44 ; foreign words
in, 44 ; in the "Canterbury
Tales," 165 ; forms "arn,"
"weren," retained in, 155 ; not
maker of the English language,
159.

Chaucerian, English specimen of,
42-43.

— Period, 11, 34-39.

Chautauqua Institution, Dr. Fer-
nald's address before the, 265.

Chesterfield's (Lord), "Letters to
his Son," 329.

Chester Mysteries, 91.

Chesty, 341.

Chettle collaborates with Ben Jon-
son, 106.

Children, books for, 311-312.

Child's memory severely taxed, 270.

Chinese terms in English, 169.

Choate (Rufus), habit of reading,
307.

"Christian Work and Evangelist,"
Editor of (quoted on the split
infinitive), 158.

"Christis Kirk on the Grene," 47.

"Chronicle of Cologne," first pub-
lished, 51.

Churchmen check influence of min-
strels, 34.

Cicero on literature, 174 ; on the
use and command of words, 220.

Cissa lands at Cymenesora, 4.

Clarke, Adrian prints an English
Courant at the Hague, 133.

Classic, Sainte-Beuve's definition of
a, 309-310.

Classical philology, 238.

Clause (adverbial) defined, 255.

Clofesho, Council of, 18.

Coar (Thomas), diagrams in his
grammar, 261.

Cobden, Richard, and the repeal of
the Newspaper Stamp Tax, 136.

Coffee-houses as news-centers, 135.

Cole, Dr., becomes Hooker's patron,
86.

Coleridge, influence of Spenser on,
85.

Coleridge's description of classes
of readers, 305.

"Colin Clout," 71.

Colleague as a verb, 144.

"College Exercise," 129.

Collier (Dr. W. F.), on "Paradise
Lost," 128.

Comedies by Jonson, 106.

— by Shakespeare, 98.
Comedy defined, 188.

— (light) defined, 189.

— (low) defined, 189.

— (musical), 189.
Commandement, 141, 142.
Committee, Members of National

Education Association Committee,

287.

Committee on Pronunciation, Nat-
ional Education Association, 298,

299.
Common people, Ascham on the

speech of, 76-77.
Comcedia palliata, 188 ; prcetexta,

188 ; tabernaria, 188 ; togata,

188; trabeata, 188.
"Comparative degree" defined, 254-

255.

INDEX

393

Comparative literature, 176.
- philology, 238.
"Comparison" defined, 254.

— in rhetoric, 195.

Complaint of Henry, Duke of Buck-
ingham, 94.
"Comus," 126.
"Confessio Amantis," 45.
Confusion of grammatical forms, 24.

— of spelling. 53.

Congreve (William), Plays of, 93;

"fetch a walk" used by, 150.
"Conjunction" denned, 256.
"Conjunctive pronoun" defined,

246.
Construction, artistic, 175.

— on correct, 339.
"Constructive faculty" or imagina-
tion defined, 175.

Conway on the Bible, 121.

Cook (Professor Albert) on the

vocabularies of Shakespeare and

Milton (note), 215.
Cook (Professor H. Caldwell) on

pronunciation, 271.
"Coordinate conjunction" defined,

256.

Correct use of words, 310.
Correctness of form in English, 339.
Corruption of Speech, On the, 332-

348.
Corruptions of English described by

"The Bystander," London, 335 ;

undergo refining process, 348.
Coster, Lorenzo, 50.
Coster cuts wooden type, 51.
Council of Clofesho, 18.
"Courants," English, the early, 132-

135 ; extracts from early En-
glish, 134.

Coventry Mysteries. 90.
Coverdale, Miles, 67, 70-71 ; trans-
lator of first complete English

Bible, 70.
Craik, Dr. George L., on English,

77 ; on Shakespeare, 102.
Cranmer, Thomas, 60 ; Bible, 67.
Cridda, King of Mercia, 6.
"Crist," 18.
Cross (Wilbur L.), on the Novel,

182, 183.

Crusades, effect of the, 35.
Cullum on uses of "task" and "tax,"

146.

Curiosity (scrupulousness), 143.

Curious (exact), 143.

Curves and Curlicues used to indi-
cate pronunciation confusing,
270-271.

Cushman (Charlotte), on the
drama, 187.

Cut that out, 337.

Cymen lands at Cymenesora, 4.

Cymenesora identified, 4.

Cymric lands, 4.

Cymry attacked by Picts and Scots,
3.

Cynewulf identified ; his works, 18.

Dale, Phyllis, 345.

Dana, Charles Anderson, 323.

Danes partition Deira, 6.

Danish incursions, effect of, 22-23;
words in English, 161. 168, 169.

Dante's "Divina Commedia," 189.

D'Arblay, Madame, 330.

De Augmentis Scientiarum, 113.

Defoe's "Review" pioneer of En-
glish periodical literature, 136.

Degree defined, 254.

Deira colonized. 6 ; extinct as a
political division, 6 ; located, 6 ;
partitioned by Danes, 6 ; ruled by
Ella, 6.

De Juri Regni Apud Scotos, 79.

Dekker, Thomas, collaborates with
Ben Jonson, 106.

Delany, Mrs, "fetch a walk," used
by, 150.

Delany, Hon. John J., on lack of
knowledge of English literature,
337.

"Demonstrative pronoun" defined,
246.

Depravation of language, 339.

De Quincey on literature, 174.

Descent of Picts and Scots, 3.

"Disiderative verb" defined, 250.

De Superbia, 42-43.

"Devil is an Ass," 106.

De Vinne, Theodore L., and the In-
vention of printing, 51 ; on punc-
tuation, 268-269.

Dewey, Dr. Melvil, member of
N. E. A. special committee on
phonetics, 287.

Diacritics, scientific alphabet dis-
penses with, 278.

394

INDEX

Dialect, American, 333.

Dialects, Northern group of, 12-13.

— Southern group of, 13.

— spoken, 12-13.

— Aberdeenshire and Tweedale,
preserved, 47.

"Dialogue Concerning Heresies," by
Sir Thomas More, 63.

Diaries, 329-330.

Dickens, Charles, 323 ; on slang in
English, 342.

"Dictes and Sayings of the Philos-
ophers," 56.

Dictionaries are a luxury, where,
336.

— publication of, 130.

— vocabularies of the, 172.
Dictionary, Amicis on the, 228-229.
Dictionary, as a Text-book, 233-

258 ; as an educative medium,
235, 258 ; entertaining character
of, 230 ; first restricted to the
English language, 130 ; how to
benefit from the, 220, 235-258 ;
Supreme Court of language, 233 ;
value of the study of, 220, 223.

"Didactic poetry" defined, 192, 206.

Difficulties besetting pronunciation,
270.

Diffusion of slang, 343.

Discommodity, discommodius, 143.

Discourse (representative) defined,
176, 177.

Disraeli (Benjamin), change in
political conviction of, 326.

Discommode used for "incom-
mode," 143.

Distraught used for "distracted,"
148.

"Divorce" by Milton, 127.

Doggerel sung by Minstrels, 34.

"Donate" printed, 51.

Dots and dashes used to indicate
pronunciation confusing, 270-271.

Double negative, uses of the, 144.

Drama, influence of, 89-93; lewd
and iniquitous according to
Barebone, 185-186; under the
Restoration, 93.

Drama (the) and its subdivisions
defined, 184-190.

"Dramatic lyric" defined, 192, 200.

"Dramatic monologue" defined, 205.

"Dramatic poetry" defined, 192,

205.

Drayton, Michael, 101.
Dryden, "arose" used for "arisen''

by, 147 ; on Milton's work, 124 ;

mixed forms used by, 153 ; plays

of, 93 ; Shakespeare decried by,

104 ; on Spenser, 85 ; "worser"

used by, 144.
Dugdale on the Coventry Mysteries,

90.
Dutch or Low German words in

English, 163, 168.
Dutch words in English, 161, 163,

168.

"e," disappearance of final, 59 ;

elision of the letter in English,

142 ; the letter and its varying

sounds, 131.
"e" the sound and symbol in the

N. E. A. Alphabet, 293.
Earle (Prof. John), split infinitive

condemned by, 157.
Early English Texts, 13.
Early Middle English period, 11;

characteristics of, 23-34.
Early Modern Period, 53, 54-124.
East Anglia, counties embraced by

kingdom of, 8 ; submits to Offa,

7.
East Anglian kings descended from

Uffa, 5.
East Saxony, counties embraced by

kingdom of, 8.
Ebbsfleet, 4.

Eclectic English Classics. 311.
"Edinburgh Review," 152.
Editions, recent, of "Anglo-Saxon

Chronicle," 21.
Education, first important work on

English, 76.
"Education," Milton's tractate on,

127.

Edward the Confessor, 24.
Edward III. and English in law

pleadings, 27.
Edwin, son of Ella, 6.
Effect of the Renaissance. 24.
Egbert, King of Wessex, 7.
"Elegy" defined, 201.
"Elene," 18.
Elizabeth, Princess, taught by

Roger Ascham, 76.

INDEX

395

Elizabeth, Queen, favors Shake-
speare, 101 ; and Thomas Sack-
ville, 74 ; and Sir Philip Sidney,
80.

Ella (Aelle) at Cymenesora, 4 ;
founds kingdom o£ South Saxons,
4 ; rules Deira, 6.

Ellandum scene of Mercian defeat
by Offa, 7.

Ellis (A. J.), on number of sounds
in English, 298, 299-300.

Ellis (Havelock) and grammar,
264 ; on duty of writers, 326 ;
on the logic of thought, 328 ; on
Pepys, 330.

Ellwood on "Paradise Found," 128.

Emerson (Prof. O. F.) on first
official use of English, 14 ; on
French words in English, 165 ;
on the forming of a vocabulary,
219 ; member of N. E. A. Com-
mittee on phonetic system, 287.

Emerson (Ralph Waldo) on author-
ship, 316; editor, 323.

Emotions, the, 192.

End-rime, 199.

Engles, see ANGLES.

English : by whom originated, 1-
10 ; effects of the crusades on, 35.

— alphabet unphonetic and in-
adequate, 131, 132 ; Bible, 116-
124.

— (correct), based on good usage,
139.

— (bad), offensive, 332.

— deposes French, 27.

— German view of the study of,
335-336.

— growth of, 11, 221.

— its vocabulary, 160-161.

— indifference to philological
study, 13.

'•English kin," 9.

English of Sir Thomas Malory, 62.

— of Sir Thomas More, 63-65.

— no longer the Anglo-Saxon
tongue, 159.

— number of words in, 171.

— as presented in the Standard
Dictionary, 235-237.

— state of at Milton's birth, 130.

— mixed tongue, 77.

— Modern, 53, 124-138.

— (newspaper) quality of, 137.

English of the pioneer press, 134,
135.

— its relation to German, 10.

— serial appears, the first, 136.

— of Shakespeare and of Milton,
146-147.

— speech, "The Bystander" on,
335.

— spelling, 130. .

— in Johnson's time, 131.

— Standard Dictionary definition
of, 236.

— texts neglected, 13.

— tongue, 10.

— Tudor, 53.

— of Tyndale's New Testament, 66.

— people united under Offa, 7.

— vocabulary reconstructed, 24.

— words, sources of 20,000, 163.
Englishmen fighting, 50.
"Epicorne" by Jonson, 106.
Epic of Beowulf, 17.

— poetry, 192, 198, 202-205.
- verse defined, 192.

Epics classified, 203.

Erasmus's "Paraphrase of the New

Testament," 72.
Erroneous vowel-pairing, 276.
Errors of speech in commercial

life, 337.

"Essay" defined, 177.
Essays of Francis Bacon, 112.
Essex, reduction of, 5, 7.
"Esthetic art" defined, 175.
Ethelbert, King of Kent, 9.
Ethelric (^Ethelric) usurps Deira ;

defeated, 6.

Etymology defined, 241.
"Evening Post," New York, 324.
"Evening Sun," New York (Editor

of), on slang, 342.
Everett (Edward) on the Bible,

122 ; on literature, 174.
"Everyman in His Humour," by

Jonson, 106.

"Everyman's Library," 311.
Exaggeration of language, 346.
Explorations, results of, 170.
Extraught for "derived" or "ex-
tracted," 148.

"Fable" defined, 178, 179.
"Faerie Queene" by Spenser, 83, 84.
"Farce-comedy" defined, 189.

396

INDEX

"Farce" defined, 189.

Farquhar, Plays of, 93.

Fell used for "fallen," 147.

Fernald (Dr. James C.), on "fiction
and romance," 178 ; on gram-
marians, 265 ; on literature, 178 ;
o n "m e t e r," "measure,"
"rhythm," 197-198 ; on poetry,
191 ; "Synonyms, Antonyms, and
Prepositions," 224-225.

"Ferrex and Porrex" by Sackville
and Norton, 94.

Fetch used for "accomplish," 149.

"Fetch a turn," 149.

"Fetch a walk," uses of, 149-150.

Fetches, 150.

"Fiction" defined, 177-178.

Fielding, 341.

"Figure of speech" defined, 194.

Filipino words in English, 171.

First foreclosed mortgage against
Gutenberg, 53.

First official use of English words,
14.

Fisher, John, 73.

"Five Books of Moses," Tyndale
translates, 65.

"Flour and the Lefe," 42.

"Folk-ballad" defined, 204, 205.

"Folk-song" defined, 205.

Foreign Element in English, 159,
173.

Foreign terms in English, number
of, 171-172.

Foreign words used by Chaucer,
165.

Forms, mixed, 153.

Forsook used for "forsaken," 147.

Fowler (Orson Squire) on in-
dividuality, 325.

"Fox" (The), by Jonson, 106.

Foxe, John, "Book of Martyrs,"
73, 75.

France, printing in, 57.

"Franciscanus" by Buchanan, 78.

Franklin, Benjamin, on the Bible,
121.

French and its appearance in En-
glish, 24; blending of, with En-
glish, 35 ; books, early transla-
tion of, 35 ; little known in En-
gland, 44.

French prevent completion of print-
ing of Great Bible, 58.

French words in English, 11, 24,
163, 166-167, 170.

Frenchman casts first type in En-
gland, 59.

"Frequentative" verb defined, 251.

Fuller (Bishop) on sinapi, 140.

Function (the) of the dictionary,
212-232 ; of Grammar, 259-269.

Funk (Dr. Isaac K.) on "Albion,"
1 ; on Caxton's "Recuyell of the
Historyes of Troye," 56 ; princi-
ples of lexicography, 222 ; secures
expert assistance, 225-226 ; uses
Scientific Alphabet, 284.

Funk & Wagnalls New Standard
Dictionary of the English Lan-
guage, N. E. A. Committee's Al-
phabet used in, 302-303.

"Future tense'' defined, 252.

Gaels in North Wales and the Mid-
lands, 3.

Galileo visited by Milton, 126.

"Game (The) and the Play of
Chesse," 56.

Gardiner befriends Ascham, 76.

Garnett (Richard) on the Paston
Letters, 329.

Gautier (Theophile) on the dic-
tionary, 226 ; on words, 231.

Gay, Thomas, 147.

"Gazette of Antwerp," 134.

"Gender" defined, 244.

Geneva Bible, 116.

"Gentleman's Magazine," The, 137.

Geoffrey Gaimar, 27.

Geoffrey of Monmouth, 27.

German language, its relation to
English, 10.

— troubadour, 181.

— words in English, 163, 170.
Germany, invention of printing

owed to, 57.

— Report and Discourse of the
Affairs and State of, 76.

Ohostes, ghosttses, 142.

"Gipsies Metamorphosed," 106.

Gladstone (William Ewart), change
in political convictions of. 326.

"Gleeman" defined, 179, 181.

Globe Theater, Shakespeare's con-
nection with, 101.

INDEX

397

Golden Fleece, Philip institutes
order of, 50.

Good usage dictates the correct in
English, 139.

"Gorboduc," 93.

Gosse (Edmund) on the poetry of
the trouveres, 180.

Gould (Edward S.) on law of
language, 262 ; views contro-
verted, 263.

Govea (Andrew) accompanied by
Buchanan to France, 78 ; death,
79.

"Government of the people, by the
people, and of the people," 38.

Gower, John, 36, 44-46.

Grammar, 241-257 ; knowledge of,
desirable, 259 ; an anatomical
science, its value, 264 ; the first
English, 261 ; function to .follow
after, analyze, and describe, not
to dictate, 261 ; not indispen-
sable, 259 ; unknown to some
masters of English, 263.

Grammarians correct grammarians,
259 ; the duty of, 264.

Grammatical forms confused, 24 ;
rules worthless, if not based on
usage, 260.

Granada, Prince of, 123-124.

Grand, 141.

Grandgent, Professor Charles H.,
287.

Grant, Ulysses Simpson, on the in-
fluence of the Bible, 120.

Gray, Thomas, 142.

Great Bible, 58.

Great Charter, 25.

Greek Comedy, 189.

Greek poetry, divisions of, 192.

Greek terms in English, 161-162,
163.

— tragedy, 188.

Greeley, Horace, 121, 323.

Green, John Richard, 4; on settle-
ment of Angles, 5.

Greene, Robert, on Shakespeare,
104.

Gros, 141.

Grossart (Dr. A. B.) on Barebone,
186.

Grosseteste urges retention of
French as the literary language
of England, 35.

Grotius (Hugo) meets Milton, 120.
Growth of English, 11-138.
Guardian (The), established, 137.
Guiana, Raleigh's Narrative of a
Cruise to, 110.

Had got, 340.

Had went, 340.

Hague (The), English "Courant"
printed at, 133.

Haldeman, Dr. Samuel, 287.

Haley (Dr.) on the reading public,
305.

Hall, Fitzedward, 346.

Hallam (Henry), on Hooker, 88;
on Bacon, 112 ; on the Bible, 123.

Harris, Dr. William Torrey, pro-
nunciation and spelling, 283-284,
287; on the sound of "ch," 291.

Harrison on Heywood, 72.

Hathaway, Anne, 100.

Ilazlitt (William) on big words,
319.

Ilearne (Thomas) issues the
"Rhyming Chronicle," 29.

Hebrew words in Bible, 124.

Heer, 154.

Hempl, Dr. George, 287.

Hengest and Horsa aid Vortigern,
3 ; defeat Britons, 4.

Henry IV. of England an exile, 36.

Henry VIII. and the Church of
England, 66 ; and the religious
houses, 67 ; Coverdale's Bible
dedicated to, 70 ; rewards
Ascham, 76.

Henry (O.), 206.

Hercules, Pillars of, 1.

Heriot (James) befriends Bu-
chanan, 78.

Her>n, 154.

Herodotus, 1.

"Heroic verse" defined, 198.

Heterogeneous character of En-
glish, 11, 159-173.

Heywood, John, 72.

Hickes (George), fragment from
Caedmon, 16 ; on sources of En-
glish words, 162.

Himer, 154.

Hindu words in English, 169.

Hiser, 154.

His'n, 154.

398

INDEX

Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis An-

glorum, 19.

Historic plays, Shakespeare's, 98.
"History of the Britons," character

of, 27 ; extract from, 28-29.
"History of English Kings," 27.
"History of Scotland," 80.
"History of the World," 109-110.
Hizzen, 154.
Hoccleve, Thomas, 155.
Holinshed (Raphael) on "taske,"

146.

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 323.
Holste, Lucas, 126.
Holy Land, English soldiers in, 350.
Hone (William) on the abolition

of religious houses, 68.
Honorius, 3.
Hooker, Richard, 86-89.
Home (Thomas Hartwell) on sta-
tistics of the Bible, 123.
Horton (Dr. Edward A.) on the

modern sex novel, 309.
"Household Words," 342.
Howard (Henry, Earl of Surrey),

69-70.

Howell, James, 329.
Huloet, Richard, 130.
Humanitarian, change of meaning,

213.

Hungarian terms in English, 169.
Huntingdonshire, Proclamation to

the people of, 25.
Huxley's (Thomas) definition of

literature, 174.

"I," the sound and symbol. See AI.

"i" sound, the so-called long, 292.

"i" in "marine," the sound of, 293.

"I done it," 347.

Ida the Torch-bearer, 5.

Idealism in literature, 184.

Idler (The), started by Samuel
Johnson, 137.

Idyl, the, 192, 200, 203-204.

lerne, 1.

Illustrated Times (The) issued
without stamp, 136.

"II Penseroso," by Milton, 126.

Imagery in rhetoric, 194.

"Imagination" defined, 192.

Imitation, tendency toward, 328.

Immigrants, the teaching of En-
glish to, 303.

Impartial, 141.

"Imperfect tense" defined, 252.

"Impersonal verb" defined, 250.

Incommode, 143.

Increase of one's vocabulary, the,

220.
"Indefinite pronoun" defined, 246-

247.
Indianapolis Journal (Editor of),

on vocabulary of average man,

214, 217-219.
Individuality in its relation to the

state, 325 ; in writing, 325-331 ;

shown in letter-writing, 328-329.
"Induction to the Mirrour of Mag-
istrates," by Sackville, 94.
Infinitive, Split. See SPLIT INFINI-
TIVE.
Inflation of dictionary vocabularies,

221.

Inflections, 24, 53, 54.
Influence of the Bible, 120, 122-123.
— of the Drama, 89-93.
"Insight" defined, 192.
Instauratio Magna, by Francis

Bacon, 113.
"Institution of a Christian man,"

67.
Instruct used for "instructed,"

149.

"Interjection" defined, 257.
"Interludes," by John Heywood, 72.
"Interrogative pronoun" defined,

246.
"Intransitive verb" defined, 247-

248, 250.
"Invective," 326.
"Irregular verb" defined, 253.
Italian words in English, 161, 163,

167-168.

Jacobs (Dr. Joseph), on average
man's vocabulary, 215 ; Editor
of "Howell's Familiar Letters,"
329.

James I., King of England, favors
Shakespeare, 101 ; fosters trans-
lation of Bible, 117.

James I. of Scotland, 46-47.

James V. of Scotland, education of
the sons of, 78.

James VI., the "British Solomon,"
79.

INDEX

399

Jewel (Bishop) befriends Hooker,
86.

John (King) and the Great
Charter, 25.

Johnson, Dr. Samuel, 14, 131 ;
starts "The Idler," 137 ; "curi-
ous" defined by, 143 ; "colleague"
defined by, 144 ; lexicographer"
defined by, 222, 342.

Jongleur, the, 34, 180.

Jones (Dr. Daniel) on English
pronunciation, 272.

Jonson, Benjamin, 105-108 ; on
language and style, 107-108 ;
on Francis Bacon, 114 ; on
Shakespeare, 97, 101 ; on the
strophe, 202.

Jonson, Broer, printer of English
"Courants," 133.

"Juliana," 18.

Jutes defeat Britons and land, 3 ;
settle in Kent, 3 ; settle in Isle
of Wight and Hampshire, 7.

Keats (John), Influence of Spenser

on, 85.
Keble (John), on the sixth book of

"Ecclesiastical Polity," 88.
Kent, Jutes settle in, 3; under

Mercian supremacy, 6-7 ; submits

to Offa, 7.

Keynor identified, 4.
Kingdom of West Saxons founded,

5 ; of Deira formed, 6.
King James version of the Bible,

see BIBLE.

"King's Book," The, 67.
"King's Quhair," The, 46, 47.
Kipling (Rudyard) on American

English, 333-335.

Kittredge (Prof. George L.) identi-
fies Malory, 61.

Ladd (Prof. George T.) on imagi-
nation, 193.

"Lady of the May," by Sir Philip
Sidney, 80.

"L' Allegro," by Milton, 126.

Lamb (Charles) on Spenser, 85.

Langland, William (Robert), 47-
48 ; alliterative character of his
verse, 48.

Language, subject to syntactical
license, 53.

Language, efforts of grammarians
to confine, 157.

— number of words in English,
171.

— (English) as presented in the
Standard Dictionary, 235-237.

"Language" defined, 237.
Language purifies itself, 341.

— speech of the people the true,
344-345.

— test of, 345.
Languages of Britain, 9.
Lappenberg, Johann Martin, 4.
Large (Robert) Caxton's master,

54.
Late Middle English Period, 11, 34-

49.

Latimer, Hugh, 73.
Lawrence the Sexton, 50.
"Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity," by

Richard Hooker, 86, 88.
Layamon (Laweman), 31.
Learn used for "teach," 151.
"Learning," Francis Bacon's Essay

on, 115-116.
Lee (Sir Sidney) on Shakespeare,

98.
Leland's (fruits of) commission to

preserve literary collections, 67-

68.

Lesser used for "less," 145.
Less happier, 145.
Letter-name and its sound, lack of

relation between, 275.
Letters (number of) in different

alphabets, 239-240.
Letter-writing, individuality shown

in, 328-329.

Leveling of inflections, 24.
Libraries, effect of Henry VIII.'s

edicts on the, 68.
"Life and Reign of Edward V.,"

by Sir Thomas More, 63.
"Limiting adjective" defined, 254.
Linguistic character of the Bible,

123.

Lippincott's Magazine, 347.
Literature : its Elements, 174-211.

— American Association of Col-
leges and Preparatory Schools
selections for the study of En-
glish, 208-211.

400

INDEX

Literature, Professor Henry Seidel
Canby on the reading of English,
306-307.

— Hon. John J. Delany on lack
of knowledge of English, 337.

Literary ballad, 205.

Lithgow (William), "fetching a
walk," 150.

London, English "Courants" first
appear in, 133.

London Gazette issued, 135.

Lord's Prayer (the) in Kentish
dialect, 46.

Louis XIV.'s aversion to "gros,"
141.

Lounsbury (Professor Thomas R.),
on authors using split infinitive,
157 ; on grammars, 260 ; on cor-
rect English, 340 ; on corrupt
English, 346, 347.

Lowell (James Russell), on Spen-
ser, 85 ; an editor, 323.

Lowth (Bishop) on "wrote" for
"written," 147.

Lubbock, (Sir John), Hundred
Best Books, 310, 384-385.

"Lycidas," by Milton, 126.

Lyly, John, "most brightest" used
by, 146.

"Lyric poetry" defined, 192, 200.

Macaulay's (Lord), description of
Milton, 124 ; Essays, 323 ; on
Barrere, 327 ; on Milton, 327.

MacKellar (Dr. Thomas) on Cax-
ton's books, 56.

Madden (M. J. P. A.) on relations
of Caxton and Mansion, 56-57.

Mair, John, 78.

Maetzner's classification of prepo-
sitions, 257.

Malory, Sir Thomas, 61 ; described
by Caxton, 61.

Manchester Union (The) on num-
ber of words in the Bible, 124.

Mandeville, Sir John de, 36 ;
"Narrative" of his travels. 36;
extract from his "Pilgrymages
in Jerusalem, etc," 37.

Mansion, Colard, 55.

Manso, patron of Tasso, meets
Milton, 127.

Mantegazza, Paolo, 229,

Maori terms in English, 169.

March, Dr. Francis A., Sr., 287.

Margent used for margin, 142.

Marsh (Professor George P.), on
Anglo-Saxon speech, 8 ; on
neglect of Anglo-Saxon and Old
English, 13 ; on the contents of
dictionaries, 164, 165 ; on the
dictionaries of his day, 221 ; on
the study of the dictionary, 223 ;
on speech corruption, 340.

Martyrs, Book of, 73, 75.

Mary (Queen) appoints Roger
Ascham her Latin secretary, 76 ;
increases his pension, 76.

Mary Queen of Scots, Buchanan
appointed tutor to, 79.

Masters of English ignorant of
grammar, many, 263.

Matthews (Professor Brander) on
the split infinitive, 158; on the
use of foreign words in English
169 ; on the vitalizing element
of slang, 344-345 ; on style, 345.

Matthews (Sir Tobie), appreciation
of Francis Bacon, 114.

Maxwell (Dr. William H.), member
of N. E. A. special committee on
phonetics, 287.

Meiklejohn on English sounds, 132.

Meistersinger, the, 181.

Melodrama, the, 190.

Memory (child's), unnecessarily
taxed in learning pronunciation,
270-271.

"Men of the March," 6.

Menage (Gilles) on Louis XIV.
141.

Mercia (kingdom of) settled, 6;
counties embraced by kingdom
of, 8.

Mercians supreme, 6 ; decline, 7.

"Meter" defined, 196-198.

Metrical character of verse, 196.

Middle comedy, 189.

Midlands (language of), dominant,
44.

Milton (John), extent of his vo-
cabulary, 102 ; life and works,
125-130 ; on "Education," 127,
319 ; thirty-line sentence by, 319-
320.

— and participial inflections, 148-
149.

— use of "distract," 149,

— use of "fetch my round," 149.

— use of 'forsook," 147.

INDEX

401

Milton (John), use of "instruct,"
149.

— use of "margent," 142.

— use of "suspect," 149.

— use of "to be mistook," 147.
Milton"s characterization of Ed-
mund Spenser, 84.

Milton, vocabulary strength of, 215.

Minnesinger, the, 181.

Minstrels, 34, 179, 180.

Minto (Professor William) on
Sidney, 81.

Miracle play, 89-91, 185.

Mirrour of Magistrates, Induction
to, by Sackville, 94.

Mistook used for "mistaken," 147.

"Mode" denned, 251.

Modern English, 12, 53, 124-138.

Modern Language Association, 287.

Modern Period, 49, 124-138.

Mohammedan (terms from) world,
used in English, 171.

Monasteries centers of learning, 34.

Monks, the, 23-34.

Monodrama, 192.

Monolog (dramatic) defined, 205.

Montagu (Lady Mary Wortley),
329

Moralities (the), 91.

Morality play, 185.

More, Sir Thomas, 62-65.

More better, 145.

More happier, 145.

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Full text of "Essentials of English speech and literature : an outline of the origin and growth of the language : with chapters on the influence of the Bible, the value of the dictionary, and the use of the grammar in the study of the English tongue"

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