Srr.
COPYRIGHT DEPO
THE ESSENTIALS
OF
POULTRY RAISING
A TEXTBOOK FOR VOCATIONAL
AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS |
BY
B. F. KAUPP, B.S., M.S.
nt
Professor Poultry Science, North Carolina Agricultural Col.ege
B. F. JOHNSON PUBLISHING CO.
RICHMOND, VIRGINIA
Copyright, 1920, Ra eS ee
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FOREWORD
EIU 2 5 Ape. 126
It is to meet the need of vocational agricultural secondary
schools that this effort has been put forth to arrange in
sequence those facts that the student needs in elementary poul-
try work. It is intended that these chapters shall be given in the
classroom at the time of the year when suitable material will
be available for the corresponding laboratory practice periods,
though each chapter, being complete within itself, allows the
assignment of the chapters in any order the teacher may choose.
Working diagrams and photographs are provided for these
practice periods, in order that the work of the teacher may be
lightened. | ) |
Suggestions are made for library references for the labora-
tory periods which should accompany each lesson, and out-
line suggestions are given for two major projects, with two
minor projects that dovetail together. There is also included
a school demonstration to show that crossbreeding for two
generations means scrubs. In addition to the twenty-two les-
sons and the twelve laboratory exercises accompanying them,
thirty-two additional laboratory exercises are suggested, together
with fourteen skills. |
Under the above arrangement, it is believed that a complete
course, so far as it goes, can be given in twenty-five periods only
and that, by additional laboratory exercises and skills, these
hours can be stretched to fifty or even seventy-five or a hundred
periods, should it be the desire of the teacher to do so. Many
of the laboratory exercises will extend over at least two periods
if the work is completed satisfactorily: for example, the con-
struction of the combination sitting and brooding coop.
I wish to thank the following persons for valuable sugges-
4 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
tions and advice in arranging the subject matter of this book:
the men of the Department of Vocational Education of the
North Carolina State College of Agriculture; the two classes
of Farm Life School principals who studied at State College
during the summer of 1919, and Professors L. E. Cook, W. D.
Barbee, and O. B. Jones.
West Raleigh, N.C. to B. F. KAUPP.
CHAPTER,
I.
II.
III.
— IV.
CONTENTS
PAGE,
The History of Poultry and the Poultry Industry . 9
The External Structure of the Fow! ; 14
How Poultry Is Classified 17
How to Select Birds for Breeding . 27
How to Select Laying Hens . 34
The Necessity of Air and How to Ventilate the Boulery
House 38
To Remodel a Peas: gas. or to Make a New. ae 42
The Construction of Poultry House Equipment . 48
Fences and Yarding Chickens 54
Contagious Diseases of Poultry hina ae in FISH 58
The Digestive Tract of the Fowl and Its Function . 62
Poultry Feeds and Their Values 65
Feeding Layers and Breeders 71
Candling and Grading Market Eggs 75
Construction of the Combination Sitting dk Brooding
Coop 82
Selecting Eggs ing Becchink eas: egies a Hien - 85
Artificial Incubating and Brooding . 89
Feeding Chicks, Goslings, Ducklings, and ‘Paulie 096
Fattening Poultry and Shipping Poultry Products 102
Diarrhea in Poultry 106
Mites, Lice, Scaly Leg, and less of Bealiry TIO
Worms Infesting Poultry 113
Poultry as an Important Bué-coriie. on ‘the ae 116
Suggestions for Projects and Laboratory Exercises 121
A Few of the More Common Questions That May Be
Used for Study and Review . 125
(5)
ILLUSTRATIONS AND DIAGRAMS
FIGURES.
A Bronze Turkey Hen .
A Cold Storage for Eggs and Dressed Poultry
The Sections of the Male Fowl. .
A Buff Plymouth Rock Cockerel and the Cup He pe
A Pair of Indian Runner Ducks . Se Cine
A Pen of Prize-Winning Light Brahmas
A Barred Plymouth Rock Hen
A Barred Plymouth Rock Male
A Dark Cornish Hen . ..
A Two-Year-Old White Piioak Beck Male
A First Prize Winning Single-Comb Rhode Island Red
Male Bird
A North Carolina Riate Poultry Club Memhecs Flock of
Single-Comb Rhode Island Reds . e a eon
A Graph Illustrating Increase in Egg Pesdection
A Utility Single-Comb White Leghorn . ;
A Cull Single-Comb White Leghorn, Showing W ae Re
Two Years from Pure Bred to Mongrels .
Diagrams of an Open-Front Poultry House, Showing CH
rents of Air ;
Diagrams of a Poultry ence
A Grain Storage Bin
End of a Grain Storage Bin Lee * a iy Mash Hopper
Diagram of Nests eee cere e :
The Droppings Box and Epes
The Digestive and Respiratory Tracts of a Bowl aie
A Graph Showing the Average Percentage of Eggs to
Expect é
A Graph Shige the Ptakinstion nt the Pikes ‘3 Bese
A Graph Showing Egg Production ae to Pay
. A Home-Made Candler
The Combination. Sitting and Bi cetine Ces
An Oil-Burning Incubator .
A Diagram of Hover and Range a
A’ View of an Outdoor Mash Hopper .
PAGE.
8
12
15
18
19
20
21
22
Fig. 1. A BRONZE TURKEY HEN.
(Bred by Miss Mahaney, Maine.)
Turkeys are raised principally for Thanksgiving and Christmas dinners.
(8)
The Essentials of Poultry Raising
CHAPTER I
THE HISTORY OF POULTRY AND THE
POULTRY INDUSTRY
’ 1. The Origin of the Fowl. From, biblical history we learn
that fowls are probably as old as man himself. The modern
fowl originated from the Galus Bankizva, which apparently was
first observed on the Isle of Banca near Borneo.
2. Kinds of Fowls. At the present time there are several
hundred kinds of fowls, varying in- size from the bantam,
weighing but a few ounces, to the Jarge Brahma, weighing
twelve to fourteen pounds. In addition to those fowls com-
monly called chickens, there are water fowls, such as geese
and ducks, and turkeys, guineas, and pigeons, all of which are
raised and kept to furnish people with food in the form of
eggs and meat. |
3. Poultry in America. There have been developed in Amer-
ica many breeds of fowls, such as the Rhode Island Red,
Wyandotte, and Plymouth Rock. America is the home of the
turkey and of the Cayuga duck.
4. Purposes for Which Poultry Is Kept in America. In
America there are three kinds of poultry keepers, as follows:
first, farmers who-keep small flocks for both eggs and. meat;;
second, city people who keep a. few hens on the back lot for
eggs and occasionally for meat as well; and, third, the com-
mercial poultryman who keeps hens for the production of eggs
for market.
5. Magnitude of the Poultry Industry. The poultry products
in the United States amount to over a billion dollars annually.
10 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
6. How the Surplus Eggs Are Marketed. Eggs are sold di-
rectly to the consumer by the producer on the town lot or the
farm, or by the commercial poultryman. They are sold to stores
or traded for groceries or dry goods for the family, and the
grocer in turn sells them to the consumer or to the city com-
mission man in case lots. The grocer also sells to hotels and
restaurants as well as to commission men. In many com-
munities, clubs are formed and a business agent is selected;
the eggs are collected at one point, graded, placed in thirty
dozen cases, and sold to city commission men or directly to con-
sumers’ circles in the cities. :
7. Fattening Establishments for Poultry. Throughout the
United States there are many centers where poultry fattening
plants, with capacities of 10,000 to 50,000 fowls, receive young
chickens, mostly cockerels, weighing from two to three pounds
each. These young birds are fed a fattening mixture or feed
for a period of fourteen days and are then killed, dressed,
placed in cold storage, and sold according to grade. Many car
lots and case lots are shipped to different. points, especially to
the large cities. In many of these establishments the birds are
fed ground feed with buttermilk. The milk gives the birds an
excellent flavor, and in markets like New York city such birds,
when dressed, bring five cents per pound more than those not
milk fed. |
8. How Fattened Poultry Is Marketed. In many of the larger
towns there are commission merchants who buy eggs and poultry
and ship them to the city markets. In some of these towns the
large packing establishments, such as Armour and Company and
Swift and Company, have buying offices. From these places
the poultry and eggs are sent to the packing houses, where the
eggs are stored and the fowls are fattened, slaughtered, and kept
in coolers till times of scarcity.
9. Storage for Dressed Poultry and Eggs. The bulk of the
eggs are laid by the hens in the months between February and
The Essentials of Poultry Raising Ii
July, and most of the young fowls for market are raised in the
months from April to September. Some means of preserving
a part of this food from the season of plenty to the season of
scarcity is essential. To meet this need, large storage build-
ings have been constructed of brick or cement and have been
provided with rooms that are kept at the proper temperature
for preserving eggs or dressed poultry for several months.
10. Eggs in Car Lots. Buyers of large quantities of eggs in
large cities ship eggs in car lots. These cars hold 400 (or more)
thirty-dozen cases of eggs. The cars are refrigerated, with ice
compartments at each end of the car which are kept filled
with ice. The cars are shipped to the large northern cities,
such as New York and Boston. A string of cars containing
eggs and dressed poultry is constantly going from the West to
the East over the regular railway routes.- Thus there are local
commission merchants who buy eggs from the producer in
dozen lots, larger city commission merchants who buy only in
thirty-dozen case lots, and still larger dealers who buy eggs
only in car lots. —
11. Turkey Production. In many of the middle western states
large numbers of turkeys are raised. In some places, espe-
cially in Texas, they are driven to market on foot. Turkeys
are raised principally for holiday dinners, especially Thanks-
giving and Christmas. |
12. Duck Production. In many places large numbers of ducks,
principally of the White Pekin variety, are raised for broilers.
This is a very profitable venture on Long Island, where over
one and a half million ducks are raised every year for the
Jewish trade of New York city.
13. Capon Production. Capons are produced quite extensively
in many sections. The soft “roasters’” of the south shore of
Massachusetts and the Philadelphia capons, produced by the
farmers of New Jersey, have become especially well known.
14. The Magnitude of the Poultry Industry. In 1912 the
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The Essentials of Poultry Raising 13
poultry products ot the United States were greater than the
_ wheat or potato crop. They were greater than the total hog
or mule production and equal to two-thirds of the hay crop, to
70 per cent of the value of all milk cows, and to 73 per cent
of that of all other cattle.
15. Poultry in Other Countries. Great Britain has been one
of the leading countries in the production of poultry. She
has developed many ‘useful breeds: the Dark. Cornish, the
Orpingtons, and the Sussex. South Africa, Australia, and New
Zealand are well advanced in poultry raising. The blood of
many of the best breeds is traced to China.
16. Egg Production Records. Apparently Australia holds the
world’s record for high egg production. An Orpington hen laid
334 eggs in one year. America has produced a Single-Comb
White Leghorn, Lady Eglantine, who laid 314 eggs in 365 days.
CHAPTER IT
THE EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE FOWL
Note to Teacher: ' The student is to mount a feather from each part
of the plumage of a male bird.
17. The bird is divided into the following principal parts:
head, neck, back, saddle, tail, wing, breast, and body.
The head is divided into comb, face, wattles, eye, beak. The
comb may be single comb, rose comb, v-shaped comb, or pea
comb. The single comb has a base which attaches the comb
to the top of the head. It is provided with a blade and small
spikes projecting upward from the comb. Some breeds of fowls
have five spikes, others six. The rose comb has a fleshy body
attached to the top of the head. It has a flat top, provided
with many small spikes projecting upward and a large spike
projecting backward. The v-shaped comb, as the name im-
plies, is shaped like the letter v. The pea comb consists of
three small stngle combs arranged side by side, with the two
outer combs low and the middle one slightly above the other
two. The face is the unfeathered part at the side of the head.
The wattles are the two flat, leaf-like structures hanging pendant
from the under portion of the lower jaw or mandible. The eyes
and ears are located on the side of the head in the region of
the face. The ear lobe is a fleshy mass extending downward
from the ear opening. It is smooth and its color is either red
or white, according to the breed of the fowl. The beak con-
sists of an upper part, or upper mandible, and a lower part, or
lower mandible.
18. The neck is divided into the neck hackle and the cape.
The cape is the lower and outer edge of the neck hackle and
resembles a cape,
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 15
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Fig. 3. THE SECTIONS OF THE MALE FOWL.
1, beak; 2, nostril; 3, comb; 4, crest of head; 5, face; 6, eye; 7, ear;
8, ear-lobe; 9, wattle; 10, hackle, neck; 11, front of hackle; 12, breast;
13, cape; 14, shoulder; 15, wing bow; 16, wing front; 17, wing coverts,
wing bar; 18, secondaries, wing bay; 19, primaries, flights; 20, primary
coverts; 21, back; 22, saddle; 23, saddle feathers; 24, sickles; 25, smaller
sickles ; 26, tail coverts; 27, main tail feathers ; 28, body feathers ; 29, fluff ;
- 30, thigh; 31, hock; 32, shank; 33, spur; 34, ball of foot; 35, toe; 36, toe
nail. (R. P. J.)
19. The back is that portion between the hackle and the saddle.
20. The saddle is located in that portion between the back and
the tail. In the male it is provided with long flowing hackle
feathers somewhat resembling the neck hackle.
16 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
21. The tail is divided into the main tail, sickle, and covert
feathers. The main tail feathers consist of a row of stiff large
feathers, arranged in v-shape, just under the sickle and covert
feathers. The sickle feathers are the large curved feathers ex-
tending over the top of the tail. At the base of the sickle and
main tail feathers there are smaller feathers that cover the base
of the first two.
22. The wing is divided into the following parts: fies bow,
bar, secondaries, primaries, bay, and coverts. The wing bow
is the upper and outer third of the wing when folded and looks
like a bow. The wing bar is located just back of the wing bow
and in some breeds makes a distinct bar. “The secondaries are
the large stiff feathers located on the part of the wing nearest
the body, and the ten large stiff feathers on the outer end of the
wing are the flight or primary feathers. In some birds, when
the wing is folded, there is noted a three-cornered white space
at the back portion of the folded wing’: this is called the wing
bay. The flight coverts are small, stiff feathers which cover
the roots of the flight feathers.
23. The front part of the bird below the cape or hackle is Whe
breast. |
24. The sides of the bird constitute the body proper, and the
posterior part is occupied by the cushion or vent fluff.
25. The leg is divided into the thigh, knee, tibia or drum-stick, |
hock, shank, spur, foot, toes, and claws. The thigh is the femur |
or that region around the first bone of the leg. The knee is the | |
first joint of the leg. The tibia or drum-stick is the second bone |
of the leg, sometimes incorrectly called the thigh. The hock |
is the second joint of the leg. The shank is the unfeathered |
portion of the leg or the bone below the hock. The spur is
located on the inner and lower third of the shank and is best |
developed in the male bird. The foot is provided with four |
toes, three extending forward and one backw rard. Each toe has. |
a claw. |
CHAPTER III
HOW POULTRY Is CLASSIFIED *
Note to Teacher: The school flock and nearby pure-bred flocks should
be visited for the purpose of studying breeds and varieties. Among the
first things to be taught are the simple points whereby one differentiates
between the breeds. ‘Examples : The Wyandotte has a rose comb, while
the Plymouth Rock has a single comb. An Orpington has a white beak
and shanks, while the Plymouth Rock has a yellow beak and shanks. A
Light Brahma has feathers on the shanks; the Columbian Wyandotte has
bare shanks.
26. National Poultry Organization. American poultry fanciers
have formed an association called the American Poultry Associa-
tion. This association determines the breeds and varieties of
fowls: which shall be recognized as pure-bred fowls and worthy
of being called Standard Bred.
27. American Standard of Perfection. The American Poultry
Association publishes a book called The American Standard of
Perfection. This publication gives the classification of all breeds
and varieties recognized by the American Poultry Association.
28. Classification of Poultry. In the classification of poultry
the following terms are used:-class, breed, and variety. Thus
a Barred Plymouth Rock would be classified as follows:
Class Breed Variety
American | Plymouth Rock Barred
29. Class. By class is meant the country in which the breed
was developed. Example: the Plymouth Rock was developed
*For reference book as to details of Breeds and Varieties, see The
American Standard of Perfection, published by the American Poultry
Association.
For reference to a, of Breeds, see Poultry Culture Sanitation and
Hygiene, published by W. B _ Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa.
18 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
in America, hence it is placed in the American class. The Dark
Cornish was developed in England and therefore it is in the
English class.
Fig. 44 A BUFF PLYMOUTH ROCK COCKEREL AND THE
CUP HE WON.
(Bred at North Carolina State College plant.)
This bird is considered the best type and color.
30. Breed. By breed is meant the type, or shape, of the bird.
Thus we speak of the Plymouth Rock type, .or the Wyandotte
type.
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 19
31. Variety. By variety is meant the feather pattern, or type
of comb, or both. Example: the Single-Comb Rhode Island Red
Fig. 5. A PAIR OF INDIAN RUNNER DUCKS.
(Bred by Patton, Charlotte, N. C.)
These ducks are raised principally for eggs.
20 The Essentials of Poultry Ratsing
and the Rose-Comb Rhode Island Red; the White Plymouth
Rock, or the Barred Plymouth Rock.
32. Type and Variety. All varieties of the same breed have
the same shape or type.
33. Some of the Most Common Fowls. Among the most com-
mon standard-bred fowls are the Single-Comb Rhode Island
Fig. 6. A PEN OF PRIZE-WINNING LIGHT BRAHMAS.
(Bred by J. A. Pons, Asheville, N. C.)
The Light Brahmas belong to the Asiatic class. They are chiefly
raised for meat.
Red, Rose-Comb Rhode Island Red, Barred Plymouth Rock,
White Plymouth Rock, and White Wyandotte—all belonging to
the American class. Of the English class there are the White
Orpington, Buff Orpington, and Dark Cornish, The Single-
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 21
Comb White Leghorn and the Single-Comb Black Minorca
belong to the Mediterranean class.
34. Common Varieties of Turkeys. One of the most common
varieties of turkey is the Bronze. The male Bronze turkey at
two years old should weigh thirty-six pounds, and the hen
twenty pounds.
Fig. 7, A BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK HEN.
(From Poultry Culture, Sanitation and Hygiene.)
The Plymouth Rocks belong to the general purpose or utility class of
fowls. They are raised for both eggs and meat.
35. Common Varieties of Geese. One of the most common
varieties of geese is the Toulouse. The gander should weigh
twenty-five pounds, and the goose twenty pounds.
36. Common Varieties of Ducks. The White Pekin duck is
raised most generally for meat. It has white feathers and a
3 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
yellow skin. It will reach a weight of about six pounds at
ten weeks old. The young duck raised for market is called
a broiler duck. The adult duck should weigh eight pounds
and the adult drake nine pounds. |
37. Indian Runner Ducks. Some varieties of ducks are kept
Fig. 8. A BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK MALE,
(North Carolina Experiment: Station.)
The Essentials of Poultry Raising Z
for egg production alone. The Indian Runner is the best egg
producer, often laying close to 300 eggs in a single year. The
Indian Runner drake should weight four and one-half pounds
at one year old, and the duck should weigh four pounds at
one year old.
Fig. 9 A DARK CORNISH HEN.
- (Bred by Ward, New Jersey.)
The Cornish is raised for meat. Note the full broad breast.
i, ll,
—_———
24 The Essentials of Poultry Raising ..
Fig. 10. A TWO-YEAR-OLD WHITE PLYMOUTH ROCK MALE.
(Bred by North Carolina State College.)
This is a utility bird.
11.
The Essentials of Poultry Raising
A FIRST PRIZE WINNING SINGLE-COMB RHODE
ISLAND MALE BIRD.
Rhode Island Reds are one of the best utility breeds.
25
The Essentials of Poultry Raising
26
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HOW TO SELECT BIRDS FOR BREEDING
Note to Teacher: The class should be taken to the school and nearby
| flocks to study constitutional vigor. As this study will come in the fall,
the summer flocks should still be available.
38. Purposes for Which Birds Are Kept. Birds are kept for
egg production, meat production, utility (general purposes), or
) for ornamental purposes.
| 39. Egg Production. The Single-Comb White Leghorn and
| _ the Single-Comb Black Minorca have been bred for high egg
| production and are among the most common breeds kept for
the laying of eggs. The small body of the Single-Comb White
| Leghorn makes her the best and most economical egg producer.
She will consume about ten pounds less feed for body main-
tenance than the birds of larger breeds. By proper selec-
| tion, the larger breeds can also be bred up to very high egg
production.
40. The power of high egg production is transmitted by both
| the male and female birds.
| 41. Meat Production. Some breeds are raised particularly for
: meat production because the quality of their meat is superior
to that of other breeds. The Dark Cornish (Fig. 9) is one of
| the best of the meat breeds.
42. Qualities of a Meat Fowl. A meat fowl should have a
deep keel, well fleshed over, making a round, plump breast. The
skin should be soft and kid-glove-like to the touch.
43. Utility Fowls. Utility or general-purpose fowls are raised
for both egg production and for meat. They are especially
recommended for the farm, where both eggs and meat are de-
sired in fairly large quantities. The Barred. Plymouth Rock,
$<
=
Ps
28 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
White Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, and Buff Orpington are
among the utility breeds.
44. Ornamental Fowls. Some fowls are raised largely because
of their beauty. Among the ornamental fowls are the White-
Fig. 13. A graph showing that a flock of common hens bred to com-
mon males produced pullets. which laid approximately as many eggs as
their mothers. The mothers (1) averaged 89 eggs per hen per year and
their daughters from the common males (2) laid an average of 92 eggs
each. These same mothers, bred to males that were from high egg pro-
ducing hens for many generations (4), produced pullets that laid an
average of 135 eggs per hen per year (5), or an increase of 35 per cent.
This was brought about by the high egg -production males. Brothers of
these pullets (6) were bred to the common pullets from the first mating
(3), and the pullets (7) from this mating laid an average of 122 eggs
per hen per year, or an increase of 24 per cent in egg production. This
lesson tells us that high egg production is transmitted by the male to
his daughters and that the male also transmits high egg production to
his sons and his sons to their daughters. (North Carolina Experiment
Station.)
Crested Black Polish and the Japanese Bantams. The other
Bantams are placed by some authorities among the ornamental
fowls.
45. Selection of the Male Bird for Breeding. The male should :
possess all the characteristics of his breed and variety and
should have an abundance of vitality.
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 29
46. Indications of Vigor. The crow of the male should be
strong and clear, his movements active, his attention to the
hens marked, and his comb and wattles well-developed. Red
Fig. 14. A utility Single-Comb White Leghorn. This bird is of good
constitutional vigor. Note well-developed head, comb, wattles, ear lobe,
body, and the bright eye. This bird laid 223 eggs in one year. (North
Carolina Experiment Station.)
comb and wattles and a readiness to banter and to crow at the
sight of a new male are indications of health.
47. Selection of the Hen for Breeding. The hen should show
the. characteristics of her sex, with a refinement of the head
and body not noted in the male,
30) The Essentials of Poultry Raising
48. Indications of Health and Vigor. The hen should be in-
dustrious. She should be scratching, foraging, and singing a
considerable part of the time. A red comb, face, and wattles,
and a marked happiness indicate health.
t
\
\
A
Fig. 15. A cull Single-Comb White /Leghorn, showing weak constitu-
tional vigor. This hen laid 36 eggs in one year. Note lack of develop-
ment of the head, comb, wattles, ear lobe, body, and the dull eye.
(Cornell.)
49. Age of Breeders. Select only mature birds for breeding.
Birds should be up to standard weight.
50. Age for Mating. It is preferable to breed from birds that
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 31
are more than a year old. If pullets or cockerels must be bred
from, it is preferable to mate the old male to pullets and the
young male to hens. If pullets and cockerels must be mated
together, they should be mature, that is, hatched early.
51. Objects of Poultry Breeding on the Farm. The objects of
breeding poultry on the farm are: first, to bring a flock of
mixed breeding up to a level with the best individuals of that
flock, and, second, to fix certain characteristics, such as large
egg production. In breeding poultry we wish to fix the follow-
ing characteristics: constitutional vigor, high fertility, high egg
production, early maturity, besides other characteristics which
the breeder may desire, such as a particular feather pattern.
52. Lack of Constitutional Vigor. The lack of constitutional
vigor is indicated by lack of proper development of the head,
comb, wattles, ear lobes, and body. Such a bird is easily cowed
by other birds.
53. Good Constitutional Vigor. Good constitutional vigor is
shown by a well-developed head, comb, wattles, ear lobe, and
body. The bird stands squarely on its feet. In males, vigor is
noted by the crow, attentiveness to the hens, and readiness to
banter and to fight when a strange male comes around. (Com-
pare Figs. 14 and 15.) |
_ 54. Length of Time After Mating Fowls Before Saving Eggs
for Hatching. If hens have not been running with male birds
before being mated, eggs may be saved for hatching purposes
at the end of six days. If the hens have-been running with
males before being mated, it will be necessary to wait twenty
days before saving eggs for hatching.
95. Selecting Turkeys for Breeding. Select turkeys of good
size. Turkeys for breeding should be mature, of good weight,
and of good constitutional vigor. Do not breed from birds with
deformed backs, crooked breasts, or wrytails.
56. Selecting Ducks for Breeding. The largest specimens
should be selected. The drake is considered at his best the first
32 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
two years of his life. The duck should be more than two years
old for breeding purposes.
57. How to Distinguish Sex of Ducks. The drake seldom —
quacks and has a harsh voice. The drakes are usually larger
than the ducks and have a curled feather at the front and top
part of the tal.
58. Selecting Geese for Breeding. The gander may be aed
the first season, but the goose should not be used as a breeder
until she is one year old.
59. Number of Females to Mate to Each Male. Among the
larger breeds of fowls ten to twelve hens may be mated to one
male. Young males will take more females than old males. In
the smaller breeds, such as the Leghorn, twelve to fifteen females
may be given each male. One male turkey may be mated to as
many as fifteen females. One gander may be mated to two or
three geese. One drake may be mated to four or five ducks.
60. Results of Crossbreeding. Do not crossbreed, as the sec-
ond generation will be scrubs. Scrubs do not produce eggs that
are uniform in shape, color, and size, and the birds are never
uniform in color or size. If a product is not of the best quality,
the producer will not receive the highest market price for it.
Study Fig. 16 for results of crossbreeding.
The first year a Single-Comb White Leghorn was mated with
Light Brahma females and the progeny were uniform. The
second year these birds were mated together and the progeny
of this second breeding were nothing but scrubs, producing eggs
and birds of different shapes and sizes. This always happens.
Never crossbreed.. Always breed pure-bred poultry; then your
product will be uniform and you will receive the best prices.
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 3 33
Fig. 16. TWO YEARS FROM PURE BRED TO MONGRELS.
S. C. W. Leghorn. The First Cross. Light Brahma.
Resuit F’ Generation Cross (F* Generation).
CHAPTER V
HOW TO SELECT LAYING HENS
Note to Teacher: The class should be taken to the school and nearby
flocks to practise taking measurements and for observation of the other
characteristics indicating good and poor layers. Allowance must also be
made for fingerbreadths, as the standard fingésbread is: based | on the
fingers of the average-sized man. as Se re re ee
61. When to Cull Hens. Hens foun be culled pe year in
July or August, or as soon thereafter as possible.
62. Physical Condition of Laying Hens. In order that a hen
may lay well, she must have a sound body. The bird must be
vigorous and healthy. Vigor and health are shown by a bright,
clear eye, an active disposition, and a well-develop |
63. Physical Condition of Poor Laying Hens.
hens are shy, while good layers are tame and easily handled.
A poor laying hen goes to perch early. Her toe nails are long,
indicating that she has not been scratching like the good layer.
The poor layer usually is the last bird to leave the — in the
morning.
64. Physical Defects. Laying hens should be free from such
physical defects as a crooked beak, excessively long toe nails,
eyelids that overhang so that the bird cannot see well, scaly legs,
or anything that would tend to keep the bird from getting an
abundance of feed.
65. In the yellow-skinned birds, such as the Leghorn, Ply-
mouth Rock, Rhode Island Red, and Wyandotte, the yellow
color fades out 4s laying goes on. Skin tests cannot be carried
on in birds with a white skin.
66. Bleaching of Beak and Shanks. In Leghorns the beak will
be entirely bleached by the time the bird has laid thirty eggs.
The shanks will be bleached out by the time the bird has laid -
sixty eggs.
The Essentials of Poultry Ratsing 34
67. Conditions of Vent. The vent of a laying hen is soft,
flabby, large, moist, and white. In a non-laying hen the vent is
hard, dry, small, and yellow.
68. Body Changes Due to Laying. As a hen comes into lay-
ing, the ovary, in which the yolk of the’egg is formed, becomes
very much enlarged. The oviduct, where the albumin or white
of the egg is formed and where the shell is manufactured, like-
wise grows much larger. ‘The intestrnes increase 30 to 40 per
cent in length and bulk. All these increases in the bulk of the
abdominal organs make changes in the bony relations necessary.
The breast bone is drawn downward and its lateral processes
are pushed downward and outward. The pelvic arches are
widened. 3
69. Measurements. The distance between the posterior end of
the breast bone and the laybones, or pubic bones, in a heavy
laying hen is four or more fingers in breadth. If the measure-
ment just referred to is four fingers in breadth, it indicates that
the hen will, in all probability, lay over two hundred eggs and
should be kept for a breeder. Allowance must be made for
hens large in body, as the above measurements are estimates on
White Leghorns. In a hen measuring four fingers in breadth
between the posterior end of the breast bone and the laybones
(pubic bones), the distance between the laybones, or pubic
bones, wili probably be three fingers in breadth. The measure-
ment between the posterior end of the breast bone and the lay-
bones is called capacity. The distance between the laybones is
called pubic span.
70. Hens to Discard. Discard as layers all birds that measure
less than three fingerbreadths in capacity and less than two
fingerbreadths in pubic span.
71. Upward Tendency in Egg Production. Later, as more
birds of the flock measure four fingers in breadth in capacity and
three fingers in breadth in pubic span, discard all that do not
measure more than three fingerbreadths in capacity and two
fingerbreadths in pubic span, | |
30 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
72. External Sex sede reiriieahue 57. The comb and wattles are
sex organs. :
73. Changes in External Sex oveeels in dune and in Non-
Laying Hens. As a hen comes into laying, her comb grows
congested, red, oily, very flexible, pliable, and soft. The wattles
undergo similar changes. As the hen goes out of laying con-
dition, the comb again shrinks, becomes dry, hard, covered with
white scales, and stiff. On the day of laying, the comb will
be hot to the touch.
74. The Abdomen of a Non-Laying Hen. In non-laying hens,
the fat accumulates in the abdominal wall and the wall becomes
hard to the touch.
75. The Abdomen in Laying Hens. As a hen comes into
laying, the abdomen becomes soft and the skin velvety in tex-
ture.
76. Laying as a Pullet an Indication of Laying Qualities. The
good laying hen begins to lay early as a pullet. Very heavy
producers in the Leghorn breed will begin to lay at about five
months of age. The poor layers begin very late, many of them
not commencing until spring.
77. Molting as an Indication of Egg Production. Heavy layers
do not go into full molt till late in the fall. Low producers will
quit laying early, many of them as early as July and August—
in fact, the latter part of June—and go into full molt.
78. Heavy Laying Hens Undergo Vacational Molt. A vaca-
tional molter casts a few feathers, during which time of molt-
ing she does not lay. She then begins laying, and growing
feathers. After a few days she again stops laying for a few
days, during which time she casts more feathers. She keeps up
this process for a space of twenty-four weeks, undergoing a
complete molt, and at the same time continues laying, though
not so frequently as before she began her vacation.
79. Wing Molting. The wing molting is very characteristic
in the vacational molters, There are ten primary feathers. Be-
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 37
tween the primary feathers and the secondary feathers is a
short feather called the axillary feather. The first primary
feather to molt is the feather next to the axillary feather. It
takes six weeks to molt this feather and grow it again. Two
additional weeks must be allowed for the molting and growing
of each of the other primary feathers, making twenty-four weeks
in all. When one feather is cast in one wing, it is noted that
the corresponding feather in the other wing is also cast.
80. Culls in the Flock. In unculled flocks, where breeding for
high egg production has not been carried on, there will be at
least 35 per cent of unprofitable fowls to be eliminated from
the flock. |
CHAPTER VI
THE NECESSITY OF AIR AND HOW TO VENTILATE
THE POULTRY HOUSE :
Note to Teacher: Visit a properly ventilated house and one not |
properly ventilated.
81. Oxygen of the Air. Air contains an element called oxygen.
Oxygen is essential, for if air is withheld from the bird for a
very few moments it will die.
82. How the Bird Obtains Oxygen. The bird obtains oxygen
by breathing air into the lungs. The air passes through the
nostrils, windpipe (trachea), lungs, and into the bladder-like
structures extending from the lungs, called air sacs.
83. How the Oxygen Is Taken Up. The lungs and air sacs
are lined with minute blood vessels in which blood circulates
and takes up the oxygen from the air, carrying it to the tissues
of the body where it is needed to maintain life.
84. Carbon Dioxide from the Body. In the performance of
the vital processes within the body of the fowl, there is formed
a poisonous gas called carbon dioxide. This carbon dioxide
must be got rid of or the bird will die.
85. How Carbon Dioxide Is Got Rid Of. The blood absorbs
the carbon dioxide and carries it to the lungs, where it is given
off to the air. Thus the breathing in of air furnishes oxygen
and the breathing out of air eliminates the carbon dioxide.
86. Ventilation Required in Poultry Houses. Poultry houses
must be properly ventilated, so that a fresh supply of air will
be always present and sunshine can find its way into the house.
87. Methods of Ventilation. There are two methods of venti-
lation: ventilation by diffusion and ventilation by draft.
88. Ventilation by Diffusion. Fig. 17 shows an open-front
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 39
house with no ventilator in the back. In this type of house the
air passes in at the lower part of the open front and gradually
diffuses back to the birds on the perch poles. The air surround-
ing the birds is warmer than that in the front of the building,
and the heated, polluted air passes upward and out of the house
at the upper part of the open front.
Fig. 17. A diagram of an open-front poultry house for Southern cli-
mates with no ventilator in the back. This illustrates ventilation by diffu.
sion. The air passes in at the lowest point of the open frunt, gradually
diffuses back over the birds, then passes upward as it becomes warmed
and finally exudes through the upper part of the open front.
89. How to Make Houses Cool in the Summer Time. Straw
lofts absorb the heat from the roof and make the houses cooler.
The straw loft is made by tacking a two-inch mesh chicken
netting to the under side of the rafters and packing the four-inch
space thus made with straw. This will make the house venti-
lated by diffusion much cooler. It is best to provide a ventilator
40 The Essentials of Poultry Ratsing
in the back of the house and keep it open in the summer time
and closed in the winter. me:
90. Ventilation by Draft. Fig. 18 shows a cross section of a
house built for a cold climate. It is provided with a ventilator —
at the back and an open front. The air passes in one opening
and through the house and out of the opposite opening. The
front opening is provided with a drop curtain, which consists
ot a wood frame covered with muslin. In the summer time
this curtain is kept up, as shown in the picture, and in the
winter time it 1s closed down. The fronts of such houses are
Fig. 18. Diagram showing currents of air through a poultry house.
The air enters at a, passes under the droppings boards at b and g, but no
draft strikesethe birds on the roost at f. The air passes through the
house, as indicated by the arrows, and out at c. For cold climates it is
desirable to have a front drop curtain immediately in front of the birds
and at the front of the house, as indicated in the drawing. The curtain
material must allow of the passage of air through it. (From Poultry
Culture, Sanitation and Hygiene.)
also furnished with one or more windows to provide light when
the drop curtain is down. It will also be noted that the house
is sealed as far up as the front of the dropping boards. A cur-
tain is provided at the front of the droppings boards which, as
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 4I
in the case of the curtain at the front opening, is raised during
summer and let down during winter nights to keep the hens
warm. Ceiled roofs or straw lofts are necessary in the poultry
houses of cold climates, to prevent “sweating” of the walls of
the house.
CHAPTER VII
TO REMODEL A POULTRY HOUSE OR TO MAKE
A NEW HOUSE
Note to Teacher: Have class remodel or construct a house.
91. To Remodel a Poultry House. It is often necessary to
remodel another building to make a poultry house. Repair the —
roof so that it will not leak when it rains. The sides and back
should be stripped with slats, that there may be no cracks
through which a draft will pass to the birds. A ventilator
should be cut in the back as high above the perch pole as pos-
sible. This will prevent a draft directly upon the birds. The
front must face the south. Make an opening as illustrated in
Fig. 19. The opening should extend the whole length of the
house and be three feet wide. The lower edge of this opening
should be thirty inches above the ground. Cover this opening
with one-inch mesh chicken netting. If the building has a board
floor and is raised above the ground so that there is no harbor
for rats underneath, it may be well simply to repair the floor and
make it tight. If the building has a dirt floor, fill it in with
clay, gravel, or cinders until the inside level of the floor is
above the surrounding ground, so that the floor will remain
dry during rainy and snowy seasons. The ground should slope
from the house, in order that the water may drain away from
the building.
92. Construction of a New Poultry House. The plan of con-
struction of the small colony house here presented provides for
two perch poles eight feet long, which will accommodate twenty-
five birds. Twice this number can be provided for where the
birds run outdoors all the year round. If the climate is cold,
a window should be provided and twenty-five birds should be
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 43
the limit for the winter months. The floor may be of concrete,
cinders or gravel, dirt, or boards. If it is concrete, there should
be eight inches of crushed rock or cinders well tamped in with
two inches of cement surface. The top inch should be made of
one part cement to two parts sifted sand and the balance of
six parts of coarse rock and sand to one part of cement. Bolts
should be imbedded in the cement foundation so that the sills
may be bolted down. The top of the foundation should slope
about one inch to the front. If the floor is of cinders or gravel,
it should be four to six inches deep and thoroughly tamped.
With the gravel or cinder floor, the sills furnish a harbor for
rats that cannot be prevented. If the floor is of dirt, it should
be filled in four to six inches above the surrounding ground
so as to ensure dryness during wet seasons. If the floor is con-
structed of boards, flooring should be used. The floor should
be twelve to eighteen inches above the ground. In winter the
space under the house should be boxed in.
The sides, back, and front walls may be constructed of plain
sheathing boards, nailed on perpendicularly, and these boards
should be covered with heavy tar paper, or a good grade of
boxing boards, planed on one side and battened, may be used.
Weather boarding is sometimes used. The most satisfactory
walls are made from pieces of four-inch flooring driven tightly
together. The roof should be covered with sheathing laid closely
together. The surface of the sheathing may be covered with
metal shingles, wood ES. or prepared roofing. The house
should be painted.
Where it is desired to keep the cost down, the framing ma-
terial may be secured from the forest and hewn out, and the
studdings may be set in the ground. The sills, being nailed
to the studding set in the ground, will be above the surface of
the floor and thus harbors for rats will be avoided.
The front of the house is eight feet high and the back six
feet. The front opening is three feet wide, which allows an
44 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
abundance of sunshine to enter the house. Plenty of sunshine
in the house ensures a ey sige Gi healthful conditions tor
the birds.
The water rack is eighteen inches high, an elevation that pre-
vents the birds from scratching litter into the water, and thereby
contaminating it.
The front opening is thirty inches from the floor. The drop-
pings board is arranged horizontally and is thirty inches above
the floor.
The perch pole is ene inches above the droppings eer It
is made of lumber, two inches by four, with corners planed off
and laid flatwise. The perch pole should fit loosely into notches
in its supports so as to be removable in case of mites.
The nests should be at least eighteen inches from the floor.
93. Capacity of Perch Poles. Two feet of perch pole space
should be allowed for each three hens.
94. Size of Nests. For small breeds, such as Leghorns, the :
nests should be fourteen inches square. For medium-sized birds,
such as Rhode Island Reds, the nests should be fifteen inches
square. For the large breeds, such as the Brahmas, the nests
should be sixteen inches square.
95. Floor Space. Where birds are kept indoors two or three
months or more, as they are in cold climates, four square feet
of space per bird should be provided. Where birds run out the
_ entire year, as in warm climates, less floor space is required.
96. Poultry House Equipment (see Chapter VIII). The fol-
lowing is a list of materials for the house:
Front corner posts, 1 piece, 4x4 inches, 16 feet long.
Sills, 4 pieces, 4x4 inches, 12 feet long.
Back corner posts, 1 piece, 4x4 inches, 12 feet long.
Rafters, 6 pieces, 2x4 inches, 14 feet long.
Plates, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long.
Cross pieces for front opening, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long.
For broody coop, 1 piece, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long.
Perch poles, dressed all sides, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 10 feet long.
Supports for droppings board, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 10 feet long. ©
jw mae
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 45
Perch support, 1 piece, 2x4 inches, 8 feet long. ;
Lattice for broody coop, and water platform, 2 pieces, 1x2 inches, 8
feet long.
Flooring for front, 4 pieces, 4 inches wide and 16 feet long.
Flooring for front, 9 pieces, 4 inches wide and 10 feet long.
Flooring for ends, 41 pieces, 4 inches wide and 14 feet long.
Flooring for back, 22 pieces, 4 inches wide and 12 feet long.
Flooring for droppings boards, 8 pieces, 4 inches wide, 12 feet long.
Battens for droppings boards and door, 4 pieces, 1x4 inches, 12 feet
long.
For roof, No. 3 sheathing, 196 feet.
Hardware:
Hinges for door, roosts, 3 pairs.
Chain to raise roost poles, 2 feet.
Good prepared roofing, 196 square feet.
Wire netting for front and sides of broody coop, 3 yards, one-inch
mesh, 24 inches wide.
Wiref or front of house, 3% yards, one-inch mesh, 36 inches wide.
97. Construction Notes. The front and the rear corner posts
are four by four inches. The rafters are two by four inches
and are placed two feet apart. There is a projection of the
roof, one foot back, front, and sides. The front elevation of
Fig. 19 shows the open front. ‘The front opening is covered
with one-inch chicken netting. For cold climates part of this
opening is provided with a window and the open part with a
drop curtain (90). The house should face the south. The front
elevation shows a hole, twelve inches square, to allow the hens
to pass out and in. This is guarded by a door which can be
shut at night to keep the rats out, thus preventing them from
consuming mash. It also keeps out minks, skunks, opossums,
and other enemies of poultry. The nests are placed just below
the droppings board, or along the side wall. The first perch
pole should be fourteen inches from the back wall of the house:
and the perch poles should be twelve inches apart and fourteen
inches from the front edge of the droppings board. The drop-
pings board is made in eighteen-inch sections, so that it may
be removed for cleaning and disinfecting. The water rack is
eighteen inches square. It is constructed of two-inch strips laid
two inches apart and supported by two by four-inch braces,
46 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
Right Hand End Elevation
2.
Storage 827
ash Hopper
Floor Plan :
_ Fig. 19. A suitable poultry house for 25 to 50 birds. The front eleva- |
tion indicates the position of the ventilator in the back, the position of
the nests, a perch pole, the front opening for the hens, and the open
front. The front is 12 feet wide and 8 feet high. The left-hand eleva-
—_———
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 47
'
4
Mash Hopper
af
ee ee
Front Elevation
tion shows the position of the mash hopper, broody coop, and end view
of the nests, dropping board, and perch poles. The right-hand elevation
shows the location of the water rack, door, storage bin for feed, nests.
dropping board, and perch poles. The front of the building is 8 feet
high and the back 6 feet. It also shows the four-inch footing extending
into the ground. The floor plan shows the location of the mash hopper
and grain storage bin, out of danger of getting wet, and the location of
the dropping board and water rack.
CHAPTER VIII
THE CONSTRUCTION OF POULTRY HOUSE
EQUIPMENT
Note to Teacher: Have class construct poultry house equipment.
98. The Poultry House Equipment. The poultry house equip-
ment consists of a grain storage bin, holding one hundred
pounds, for the grain feed commonly called scratch feed; a
mash hopper, holding one hundred pounds, for the dky mash
which is to be kept before fowls at all times; the nests, fur-
nishing one nest for each four hens; a droppings board box and
scrape; a water pan for water and milk; a record board and
record sheets for keeping the flock record; litter for the floor
in the form of shredded corn stover, straw, or leaves ; litter,
such as straw or excelsior, for the nests.
99. Construction of the Grain Storage Bin. The following
list of material is needed to construct one grain storage bin:
2 boards, 1 inch by 12 inches, 14 feet long.
1 board, 1 inch by 6 inches, 12 feet long.
1 pair strap hinges, 8 inches long.
YZ pound &d. nails.
100. Construction Notes. The back of the bin is thirty-two
inches high and the front eighteen inches high. The bin is
twelve inches wide and four feet long, with a partition in the
center dividing it into two chambers. The steep angle of the
top prevents the birds from roosting on it.
101.. Construction of the Indoor Mash Hopper. The follow-
ing list of materials is needed to construct one indoor mash
hopper:
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 49
2 boards, 1 inch by 12 inches, 14 feet long.
2 boards, 1 inch by 8 inches, 16 feet long.
1 board, 1 inch by 4 inches, 16 feet long.
1 board, 1 inch by 6 inches, 4 feet long (for ends).
1 pair strap hinges, 8 inches long (for top lid).
1 pair butt hinges, 2 inches wide (for lid at feed opening).
6 %-inch rods, 6 inches long (for divisions of feed opening).
102. Notes on Construction of the Indoor Mash Hopper. The
tends are made of one twelve and one six-inch board. The six-
inch board is placed at the back so that the joint does not come
too near the front. The back of the hopper is thirty-two inches
_ Fig. 20. A—A grain storage bin four feet long. The front eighteen
inches high. The end twelve inches wide, cut to an angle for the top.
| The top lid open, showing the middle partition and the two compartments.
) B.—The dry mash hopper with lids open. (1) The strip preventing wast-
ing of mash, just above which can be seen the iron rods.
| high, It is made of two twelve and one eight-inch boards. The
: bottom is twenty inches wide and is likewise constructed of one
twelve-inch and one eight-inch board. The eight-inch board is
placed at the back so that the angle board covers the joint at
the bottom. An eight-inch board is placed in the angle at the
back and bottom so that the mash will readily feed down. The
front board, which is placed at an angle, extends to within four
inches of the bottom or floor. This prevents the too rapid feed-
ing of the mash. A two-inch strip is placed on the front of the
50 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
hopper opening and extends over the opening about one inch,
to prevent the birds throwing the mash out with their beaks.
The feed opening is four inches wide and extends the entire
length of the hopper. A lid is provided for this opening and
is hinged at the back edge and provided at the end with a hook
and eye, so that it may be left up for the birds to secure the
mash, or it may be put down to keep rats out, in case the hens
require mash only part of the time. One-fourth-inch iron bars
are placed across the feed opening so that the birds cannot get
their feet into the mash. At the end there are three compart-
— =
—~
SWS aaa
Fig. 21. A, the end of a grain storage bin. B, the end of a dry mash
hopper.
ments formed by three partitions, which extend to the top.
These are for grit, shell, and charcoal. The larger compart-
ment will hold one hundred pounds of dry mash. The top is
constructed at a steep slant so that the birds cannot roost upon
the top of the hopper. The opening into the top of the hopper
is twelve inches wide. -
103. Construction of the Nests. The following list of ma-
terials is sufficient for the construction of six nests:
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 51
1 board, 1 inch by 14 inches, 8 feet long (for partitions).
1 board, 1 inch by 8 inches, 7 feet long (for door).
8 boards, 1 inch by 4 inches, 7 fect long (for bottom, front, back, and
run board or step).
2 boards, 1 inch by 2 inches, 7 feet long (to nail netting to).
2 pair strap hinges, 8 inches long.
1 piece netting, 24 inches wide and 7 feet long.
1% pound &d. wire nails.
Y% pound chicken netting staples.
104. Notes on Construction of the Nests. The nests are con-
structed with the inside compartments fourteen inches square.
The top and bottom are provided with a strip two inches wide
Front View
Fig. 22. The nests. The top view shows the wire netting and run
_board. The front view shows the hinged door. The end view, showing
the end of the run, entrance opening, door, top, and bottom.
extending around the outer border, to which one-fourth-inch
mesh wire netting is stapled. The front opening is covered with
a board eight inches wide and is hinged at the bottom and hooked
above, so that by letting it down the nests may be got at. The
bottom strip to which this is hinged is four inches wide, and
there is a strip along the top border two inches wide, to which
the door is hooked. There is a strip, four inches wide in the
back and at the lower portion of the nests, which retains the
52 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
nesting material. A run board or step, four inches wide and
extending along the entire length, furnishes a step for the birds
to hop upon when entering the nests. This strip is held in
position by a cleat and a space two inches wide is provided
between the step and the nests. The partitions are located
fourteen inches apart (Fig. 22). :
105. The Construction of the Droppings Box. The droppings
box is sixteen inches wide, twenty-four inches long, and eleven
Side vrew
Fig. 23. The droppings box and scrape, showing side and end views
of the box, and top and front views of the scrape.
inches deep. It is provided with a handle. The handle is made
from two pieces, one inch by two inches, bolted to the sides of
the box, and a piece of a broom handle held in position at the
top by boring two holes in the top part of the upright pieces. |
The box should be constructed of some light wood such as white
pine or cottonwood and should be of thin material (Fig. 23).
The Essentials of Poultry Raising a =.
106. Making the Scrape. The cross piece or body of the
scrape is made of one-inch by four-inch material, cut to a feather
edge at the lower part of the blade of the scrape. To the body
of the scrape, a handle about thirty inches long is nailed. The
scrape part should be eighteen inches long (Tig. 23).
CHAPTER IX
FENCES AND YARDING CHICKENS
Note to Teacher: Visit farm showing fencing material in use.
107. Kinds of Posts. The kinds of posts used for fencing are
wood, steel, and cement.
108. Kinds of Wood Posts. Wood posts are round, split, or
sawn. Round wood posts are made from small trees or from
the tops of larger trees. - Rourid posts should be peeled. Split
posts contain more heart wood than round posts and will last
much longer. Sawn posts contain more of the heart wood than
either of the other two. They are sawn five inches square.
Heart wood lasts longer than the outer portions.
109. Durable Wood Posts. Certain woods last longer than
others. Among these more durable woods are hedge, white oak,
cedar, and elm. |
110. Posts Not Durable. Among the posts that are not so
durable may be mentioned hickory, black oak, and pine.
111. How to Make Posts Durable. If the posts are round or
split, peel off the bark. This can be done with a draw knife.
Soak with creosote the part that goes into the ground and twelve
inches above the ground line. Such woods as pine and hickory
can be made to last for more than ten years by this treatment.
112. Steel Posts. Steel posts are the most durable, but are
quite expensive. The end posts and the corner posts are set in
a block of cement eighteen inches wide and two feet long. The
end posts have a steel brace? which is likewise set in cement,
and the corner posts have two braces, both of them set in
cement. The wire is stretched tightly from one end post to the
other and held by line posts. The line posts are driven about
eighteen inches into the ground and are used to hold the fence
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 5
C1
in position. Only a heavy wire fence is used with steel posts.
113. Cement Posts. Cement posts are made in molds and con-
sist of one part cement to two parts of finely sifted sand. The
posts are made eight feet long, so that they may be set three
feet in the ground, leaving five feet above ground.
114. Reinforced Cement Posts. Reinforced cement posts are
_ made by placing wire or old strips of iron in the center of the
post as the cement is poured. This strengthens the post. Cement
posts not reinforced will break easily. Reinforced cement posts
seldom break and will last a lifetime. Cement posts are made
eight feet long.
115. Three Kinds of Wire Fencing Material for Chicken
Fences. These are the six-sided mesh, a light wire, the three-
sided mesh wire, slightly heavier than the six-sided mesh wire,
and the heavy poultry wire.
116. The Six-Sided Wire Fencing. ‘The six-sided light wire
fencing material is the most commonly used, but is the least
durable of the three kinds. There are different sizes of meshes,
namely: three-fourths inch, one-inch, and two-inch mesh. It is
difficult to stretch this wire and make a neat, lasting fence. It
is likely to sag at the top and not fit tightly at the bottom. The
bottom can be made to fit tightly on the ground by using stakes
made from one-inch by two-inch sticks, twelve inches long, with
a nail driven through the top in such a way that, in driving the
stake down, the nail will catch the lower strand of wire and
hold it close to the ground. A barbed wire can be stretched
along the top and the top strand of wire lashed to this barbed
wire, either with pieces of baling wire or with hog rings. A
board panel made by using a one-inch by four-inch strip, both
at the ground and at the top, to which the wire can be nailed,
makes a fence of better appearance.
117. The Three-Sided Wire Fencing. Recently there has been
placed on the market a wire netting of two-inch mesh and of
heavier wire. This netting can be stretched in the same manner
56 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
as the six-sided mesh netting. It is somewhat more satisfactory
than the six-sided mesh netting. | 7
118. The Heavy Poultry Wire. More recently there has been
put on the market a heavier fence, made from a wire similar to
that used as fencing material for hogs and cattle. The meshes
are rectangular. The spaces next to the ground are one and
one-fourth inches, that is, the lower wires are one and one-
fourth inches apart; the spaces gradually widen as the top is
approached. The top wires are only six inches apart. This
fencing can be used with wood, cement, or steel posts. It is
generally used with steel posts. With steel posts, such fencing
is quite expensive, but steel posts are the cheapest in the long
run, as they will last much longer than any of the other kinds.
119. How to Set Posts. It is best to set posts from thirty
inches to three feet in the ground. [ill in the ground gradually,
tamping the dirt thoroughly from the bottom of the hole to the
surface of the ground. If too much dirt is filled in before it is
thoroughly tamped, the bottom of the post will not be held
firmly and will soon become loose.
120. Bracing Posts. All end posts must be braced from the
wire side and all corner posts must be braced in two ways.
121. Standard Height of Poultry Fences. The standard height
of poultry fences is five feet, or sixty inches.
122. Fencing Poultry on the Farm. On the farm, the garden
and not the poultry should be fenced. Fowls should be allowed
the run of the farm, as they will forage in the summer for much
of their feed in the form of waste about the barn and fields.
They will consume bugs and insects, which make excellent
animal food for them; while by consuming bugs and insects,
they protect the crops against these pests. Poultry running
over the farm deposits droppings, which aid in fertilizing the
ground.
123. Fencing Poultry on the Town Lot. If poultry is kept
on a town lot, it may be advisable to fence this in to prevent the
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 57
fowls from annoying neighbors. When birds are shut up in a
pen, it is necessary to compensate them for the loss of insects
and green feed which they would secure on the range. The lot
should be divided into two parts, one being sown in rape, cow
peas, or oats, depending on the season, while the flock should
be kept in the other part. By this means, green feed may be
provided the year around.
CHAPTERS
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES OF POULTRY APPEARING
IN FALL
Note to Teacher: Bring into the classroom a bird with one of these
diseases.
124. Roup, sorehead, swollen eyes, and diphtheria most often
occur in the fall. |
125. Cause of Roup. Roup is caused by a germ. A germ or
bacterium is a vegetable organism so small that it must be mag-
nified one thousand times by the microscope in order to be
visible. Roup affects the nose and nasal passages of the head.
126. How Roup Is Spread. The germs of roup may live in
the yards and hen houses from one fall or winter to the next.
The disease may be spread by a chronic carrier, that is, a bird
that has had it and has apparently recovered but that still
gives off the germs. Such a bird will sit around on the perch
much of the time. It has a pale face, dried down, hard, stiff
comb, and _is light in weight. It will be observed occasionally
to sneeze; and if examined closely, a small amount of dried
scab around the nostril will be seen, besides a very thin dis-
charge, scarcely observable and of an offensive odor. Such a
bird should be killed and its head and body burned, as it con-
stantly deposits this discharge, containing the germs of the
disease, in eating and drinking. As soon as the weather con-
ditions are such as to favor the development of roup, the disease
again breaks out. Roup may be spread by introducing a sick
bird into the flock, or by shipping a bird in a coop in which
a roupy bird has been kept, or by placing birds in runs or houses
where birds sick of roup have been kept.
127. How You Can Tell Roup. A bird may have a light or
ee
MT ci a
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 59
a severe attack of roup. If the attack is light, there will first
be noticed:a slight discharge at the nose, the bird will be dull,
and will not appear to feel well. It does not leave the perch
and house as soon in the morning as usual and does not scratch
for food as usual. The feathers may appear rather rough. In
severe cases great depression will be noticed in the bird. The
discharge from the nostrils is great and of a very offensive odor.
An accumulation of this matter may clog the cavities of the
head, when a lump below the eye will be observed. The bird
will appear weak, will not eat, stands around in a tucked-up
posture, rapidly becomes poor in flesh, and soon dies.
128. Treatment of a Bird With Roup. A bird with roup should
immediately be removed from the flock. If the disease is of a
severe type and you think the bird is sure to die, immediately
kill it and bury or burn the head and body to prevent the spread
of the disease. If you think it will get well, you may treat it.
If the trouble proves to be only a common cold, one treatment
may effect a cure. Have an assistant hold the bird with the
head down. Use a small one or two-dram hard rubber syringe
which has the nozzle filed down so that you can insert it into
_the bird’s nose. Inject through the nasal passage a warm solu-
‘tion of common baking soda. Use one-half teaspoonful of
common baking soda to half a cup of warm water. This will
cut the accumulation and leave the inflamed mucous lining clean,
so that a drug can now be applied that will relieve the inflam-
mation. Inject a small quantity of the following mixture through
the nasal passage:
Onl Haine ee ee 30 drops
Git enealypis wise So ests, 30 drops
Beatient eee oe 10 drops
Oil petrol Se a ee 2 ounces
Repeat this treatment twice a day.
By holding the bird with head down, the material forced
through the nasal passage will not get into the windpipe. The
60 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
strong hard rubber syringe will drive the material clear through -
the nasal passage and out into the mouth through the slit in
the upper part of the mouth. If the bird’s head is held down,
this material will run out of the mouth and not infect the wind-
pipe (trachea) and thus cause complications. Always wash the
hands in a 4 per cent solution of some standardized coal tar
disinfectant dip before handling other birds. |
129. How to Prevent Spread of Roup. Thoroughly clean the
yard and house. Spray the house thoroughly with a 4 per cent
solution of some standardized coal tar disinfectant dip. Such
a dip can be secured at any drug store and should have a
coefficiency of at least 5 per cent. Put permanganate of potash
in the drinking water. Get a fruit jar and fill it with water.
Place in this water crystals of permanganate of potash until
some of it is left in the bottom undissolved. When the drink-
ing water is prepared for the flock, pour in enough of this stock
solution of permanganate of potash to make the water slightly
purple. Always promptly remove all birds with roup from the
rest of the flock and look out for the chronic carrier.
130. Swollen Eyes. Usually but a single eye is found to be
swollen at a time. The germs of roup are responsible for one.
kind of swollen eyes. In this kind, the lining of the eye will
be noticed to be red or inflamed. There will be an accumula-
tion of a white, clot-like matter. When the bird sleeps at night,
a small amount of this material dries along the outer edge of
the eyeball, with the result that the bird cannot open its eye
in the morning. The material continues to accumulate and the
eye becomes enormously swollen.
131. How to Treat Swollen Eyes. Gently press open the eye-
lids with the thumb and finger. Remove with a small pledget
of cotton this white, clot-like mass and inject a small quantity
of soda solution, as in the case of roup (128). Then inject a
small quantity of the oil, as in roup. Repeat this treatment
twice a day. A 10 per cent solution of argyrol or a 1 per cent
solution of zinc sulphate may be used. |
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 61
132. Diphtheria or Avian Diphtheria. This is the mouth type
of roup. When roup occurs among birds, each bird should be
caught and its mouth opened to see if there are any sores
within. These sores may cover quite a surface and are accom-
panied by a gummy, cheesy material. In such a case the bird
shows symptoms much like those described above in nasal
roup (128). It cannot eat, and these sores may extend down
into the throat. With a dull knife, scrape all the material off
and burn the surface with a stick of nitrate of silver till all the
parts are white. Repeat this treatment in a few days if the
sores do not disappear.
133. How to Tell Sorehead. ‘The first sign of sorehead is a
depressed condition of the bird. It does not appear as lively
as usual, and small pimples appear on the comb, face, or wattles.
These are hard and red and gradually become larger. If the
disease is a severe one, the top becomes sore, and these sores
spread over much of the unfeathered part of the head. Some-
times the disease is very light, causing only one or two small
pimples or sores on the comb or wattles and not depressing the
bird very greatly. The disease may be spread by mosquitoes
or it may be spread like roup (126). |
134. How to Treat Sorehead. Take the same steps as in
roup (128). Apply some of the oil preparation as used in roup
and sore head (128) and repeat in about three days. Two
applications often result in a cure. The pimples and sores may
be touched with tincture of iodine or burnt with a stick of
nitrate of silver.
CHAPTER XI
THE DIGESTIVE TRACT OF THE FOWL AND aR,
FUNCTION
Note to Teacher: Hold postmortem and demonstrate all parts of the
digestive tract of a hen. A laying hen preferred. For reference reading
see Anatomy of the Domestic Fowl, published ii W. B. Saunders Co.,
Philadelphia, Pa.
135. The Organs Through Which Food Passes. The food —
is taken up by the beak and, by a backward movement of the
tongue and a jerk of the head, is thrown back into the throat
and passes down the first part of the esophagus (No. 2, Fig 24).
The esophagus gives passage to the food to the crop (No. 3,
Fig. 24). The crop is simply a storehouse for food. From the
crop the food passes through the second portion of the esophagus
to the proventriculus, a spindle-shaped organ just in front of the
gizzard (No. 4, Fig. 24). The proventriculus secretes a strong
acid and pepsin, in which the food soaks before it passes to the
gizzard. From the proventriculus the food goes on to the giz-
zard (No. 5, Fig. 24). The gizzard is provided with strong
muscles.and has a thick pad lining it. In the gizzard the food
is ground and is mixed with a ferment secreted by glands in
the gizzard walls. This ferment is pepsin and aids in digesting
the food so that it can be used by the body. From the gizzard
the food passes into the loop or the first portion of the small
intestine (No. 6, Fig. 24). Here it is mixed with a fluid which
is manufactured by the pancreas (No. 13, Fig. 24). From the |
small intestinal loop the food passes into the floating or free
portion of the small intestine, where it is mixed with a fluid
secreted by the intestinal wall. All of these fluids contain
ferments which digest the nutrients of the food and resolve them
into a state in which they can be absorbed by the blood and
The Essentials of Poultry Raising
Fig. 24. The digestive and respiratory tracts of the fowl: 1, tongue;
2, first portion of esophagus; 3, crop; 4, proventriculus; 5, gizzard; 6,
duodenum or small intestinal loop; 7, free portion of the small intes-
tine; 8 large intestine or rectum; 9, mesentery or web supporting the
intestine; 10, caeca or blind pouches; 11, cloaca; 12, anus; 13, pancreas;
14, liver; 15, spleen; 16, larynx; 17, trachea; 18, lung.
O4 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
used to nourish the body. No. 14, Fig. 24, is the liver, which
secretes bile or gall and from which gall is poured out into the
small intestine about fourteen inches from the point of origin
of the latter. The bile aids in the digestion of the fats of the
food; indeed, without it fats cannot be digested. From the small
intestine the food passes into the two blind pouches called caeca,
which are shown at No. 10, Fig. 24. From this point the food
continues into the large intestine, shown in No. 8, Fig. 24. Both
the caeca and the large intestine contain glands in their walls
and secrete a fluid which contains ferments of aid in digesting
the nutrients of the food. From the large intestine the food
that is undigested and unabsorbed passes into a sac called the
cloaca and is then passed out. 7
136. The spleen (No. 15, Fig. 24) is a small body shaped much
like a horse chestnut and is a blood-forming organ.
137. The Organs of Breathing or Respiration. The air passes
in at the nostrils, through the nasal passage, out at the back
part of the roof of the mouth, into the throat, and then into
the windpipe, as shown in No. 16, Fig. 24. The air next passes
through the windpipe, into the lungs (No. 18, Fig. 24), then
into the air sacs.
CHAPTER XII
POULTRY FEEDS AND THEIR, VALUES
a
138. What a Nutrient Is. A nutrient is a substance which can
be taken into the body, digested, and absorbed. When a nutrient
has been digested and absorbed, it is capable of nourishing the
body. |
139. Kinds of Nutrients Required. There are three kinds of
nutrients required. They are protein; starches and sugars, called
carbohydrates, and fats, called hydrocarbons.
- 140. What Protein Is and Its Function in the Body. Protein
is the only nutrient of poultry feeds containing nitrogen. Pro-
tein aids in building up muscles, bones, and intestinal organs.
If a surplus is taken in, it goes to form fat in the body.
141. What Starches and Sugars Are and Their Function.
Starches and sugars contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and
are used in, the body for the production of heat and energy, much
as an automobile uses gasoline for the production of heat and
_ energy. Ifa surplus is taken into the body, it is converted into -
fat or is stored up as glycogen until it is needed by the body
for combustion.
142. What Fats Are and Their Function. Fats, like starches —
and sugars, contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but in dif-
ferent amounts. Fats are similar in function to starches and
sugars. They are used to produce heat and energy, and a surplus
left over is stored up as fat in the body of the bird.
143. These three groups of food nutrients must be in the
proper proportion to give the best results.
144. Corn. There are three kinds of corn of interest td poultry
feeders. These are flint, dent, and sweet corn. Corn does not
make a complete feed by itself. It must be given with other
grains and is then one of our very best feeds.
mS The Essentials of Poultry Raising
145. Forms in Which Corn Is Fed. Corn is fed whole to lay-
ing hens. Cracked corn is fed to chicks and to young chickens |
on range. Ground corn or corn meal is used in the ground mix-
tures for young chickens, in the mash for the birds on range,
and for laying hens. Gluten feed if a by-product of the corn
used in the manufacture of starch and is rich in protein. It
is therefore one of our most useful high protein vegetable feeds
for mash mixtures.
146. Wheat. Wheat is richer in protein or muscle-building
nutrients than corn and is fed as whole wheat to young chicks,
growing chickens, and laying hens. Cracked wheat is fed
to baby chicks. There are three by-products of wheat, namely:
shorts, middlings, and bran. These by-products are used in the
mash mixtures for both young and old birds.
147. Rye and Barley. Rye and barley are not quite so good
for feed as wheat, but may be used as a substitute when found
necessary.
148. Oats. Oats are one of the standard feeds, both for old
birds, as whole oats, and as crushed oats in the mash for young
and old birds. Hulled oats and pinhead oats are used in feed-
ing young chickens.
149. Rice and Buckwheat. Rice and buckwheat are not used
extensively, but can be used partly as substitutes for wheat,
corn, and oats.
150. Cottonseed Meal. Cottonseed meal is rich in protein, but
it contains a poisonous substance called gossypol. If too much
is fed, it has a bad effect on birds, causing them to become sick
of it, lose their appetite, and even die. Not over 10 per cent of
cottonseed meal should be fed in the mash feed. If not more
than 10 per cent is fed in the mash, it proves a good feed for
young chicks and for laying hens. Cottonseed meal sometimes
causes dark brown yolks in the eggs. Most people object to
these brown yolks, though they in no way render the eggs
unwholesome. | :
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 67
151. Soybean Meal. Soybeans, like cottonseed, are used by
the oil mills for the production of oil. After the oil is pressed
out of the ground soybeans, the residue is ground and sold in
the market as stock feed. Soybean meal is very rich in protein
and is one of the very best feeds for both chicks and laying hens.
152. Peanut Meal. Peanuts are ground by the oil mills and
their oil extracted by hydraulic presses. After the oil has been
pressed out, the residue is ground and sold in the market as
stock feed. Peanut meal is rich in protein and is one of the
very best feeds for poultry, both young and old.
153. Velvet Bean Meal. Velvet bean meal, consisting of
ground pods and beans, is injurious to both young and old
birds and is not recommended for poultry feeding.
154. Meat Scrap, Fish Meal, and Blood Meal. Meat scrap,
fish scrap or meal, and dried blood or blood meal are used as
poultry feeds. These are called animal feeds and furnish our
birds with animal protein. Animal protein is essential if the
maximum growth or the maximum egg production is expected.
If the birds run on range, they will get their animal feed in the
form of bugs and insects, but in the winter time and when shut
up, as in back lots, it is necéssary to furnish them with animal
food.
155. Milk. Milk is a common form of animal food for
chickens. It may be fed as sour skim milk, in semi-solid forms,
as those bought from some of the creameries, as dried butter-
milk, or as buttermilk direct from the churn. Buttermilk is a
common feed for chicks and is of aid in preventing diarrhea. —
156. Green Feed. Green feed is essential for growing birds,
as well as for breeding and laying stock. This may be furnished
by allowing them to run on a green field, or by supplying them
with sprouted oats, mangels, collards, or cabbage grown during
the summer. | 7 ; |
157. Spoiled Feeds. Spoiled feeds such as moldy grain, mill
feeds, or moldy table scraps must be avoided, as birds are easily
made sick by spoiled food.
68 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
158. When and How to Plant Grazing Crops for Poultry.
Grazing crops can be provided most of the year for poultry
In part of January and February, and this especially holds true
in the mountain section, it 1s necessary either to sprout oats or
provide mangels or turnips. For best results in egg produc-
tion, birds must be provided with succulent feeds.
The tabulation on the next page will be found useful informa-
tion for the beginner:
69
The Essentials of Poultry Raising
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70 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
Oats may be used for either summer or winter grazing. Rape
can be raised spring, summer, and fall if there is sufficient
rainfall. Soybeans and cowpeas can be raised spring, summer,
and fall as a yard rotation crop, if there is sufficient rainfall.
Turnips and mangels make the best root crops for winter feed-—
ing. Collards and cabbage, as well as lettuce raised in cold
frames, also make excellent succulent feed. In raising mangels
it is best to plough the ground deeply in the fall. The freezing
will pulverize the ground and tend to make it in better condition
for the crop. Good black loam soil is the best. The ground
should be manured. If manure is not available, fertilize by dis-
tributing four to five hundred pounds of fertilizer to the acre.
Plant the mangel seed in rows two and a half to three feet apart,
sow thick, later thin out, leaving one strong beet stock to each
ten inches. The rows should be ridged, the top of the ridge being
about two inches above the surface of the ground. The seed
should be planted about one inch deep. Gather the root crops
as late in the fall as possible. Bury in the ground until ready
to use them. To do this, place about six inches of straw on
the ground, then pile or windrow, cover mangels or turnips
with about six inches of straw or hay and cover with dirt. In
securing the dirt, take that close around the piles of roots so
that there will be drainage away from the pile, which will thus
keep dry. The roots thus prepared should keep till January
and February, when they are most needed. During the fall and
early winter grazing crops may be used.
CHAPTER XIII
FEEDING LAYERS AND BREEDERS
Note to Teacher: Have student mix feeds for flock.
159. Water Supply. Laying and breeding hens must have a
fresh and pure supply of water at all times. Especially in hot
weather, water should be kept before the birds without fail. The
water containers must be scrubbed or washed out: use the hand
to remove the slime which has accumulated on the sides and
bottom of the pan. Impure water and polluted water pans are
fruitful sources of bowel troubles in hens.
160. Green Feed Essential. Green feed can be provided by
allowing the hens to run on green fields or plots planted for
them; or, if they are in a back town lot, green feed must be
carried to them. Each hundred fowls should receive not less
than four pounds of green feed per day. |
161. Regularity of Feeding. Regularity is one of the most
important items of feeding. The green feed must be given each
day at the same time. The grain feed must be given at the
same time mprning and evening.
162. Breeding Birds Must Be on the Ground. It is necessary
for all breeding birds to be out on a grassy run if a high degree
of fertility is to be expected.
163. Grain Feed and Mash. Grain feed should be given morn-
ing and evening. A pint measure of grain should be scattered
in deep litter for each twelve hens in the morning and the same
quantity in the evening.
164. Dry Ground Feed or Mash. Mash consists of a mixture
of ground grain and mill by-products. Dry mash should be
kept before the birds at all times. Birds on the range will not
consume much mash during the summer, when foods such as
72 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
waste grain, bugs and insects are so abundant. Later in the
fall or in the winter they will consume more, since the mash
is used by the birds as a filler. If the hens become too fat, it
may be necessary to keep the dry mash hopper closed part of
the time. | |
165. Value of Exercise. Exercise is essential for the best
results in laying. In the winter time this exercise can be given
by placing a deep litter, such as straw, leaves, or shredded stover,
on the floor of the hen house, and throwing the grain feed into
this, which causes the hens to scratch for their grain. For this
reason grain feeds have been called scratch feed.
166. Minerals for Poultry. Breeding and laying hens need
lime and grit. Most feeds are deficient in lime. If the birds run
at large, it may be secured from the fields, but if the birds are
kept on the back lot, crushed oyster shell should be provided.
Birds at large will find sufficient grit in the form of pieces of
pebbles and cinders, but if they are kept in a restricted enclosure,
crushed limestone should be provided. The limestone will also
be a source of lime needed in the body in the manta of
egg shells and for other purposes.
167. Sufficient Nutrients. If grain alone is fed and the birds
do not have a fruitful range or do not receive an ample supply
of table scraps, they will not lay many eggs. The white of the
egg is pure albumin and the yolk is made up of albumin and
fat as well as coloring and mineral matter. The albumin must
come from the protein of the feed. Grains do not furnish a
sufficient amount of protein for heavy egg production.
168. Reasons for Feeding Mash. Mash contains by-products
and animal feeds rich in protein and is essential for high egg
production. A mash should contain animal food in the form
of meat scrap, fish scrap, dried blood, or dried buttermilk. and
at least one by-product high in protein content, such as soybean
meal, peanut meal, cottonseed meal, or gluten meal.
169. Hot Mashes. Hot mashes given at four o’clock in the
on egg production.
The Essentials of Poultry Ratsing
evening during the winter months have a very stimulating effect
Use milk or water and bring the mixture
to a boil. Use enough water or milk to mix with one ounce of
mash per bird. Make the mash crumbly moist and as hot as you
can bear your hand in. Vegetables, such as shredded mangels,
cabbage, or collards, should be boiled in the water or milk.
170. Formulas for Grain Mixtures:
ee erst as 2g es 5 10 pounds
2 jab UA ARS eee it omeeerenete mea 10 pounds
Rae Ps oe oo 20 pounds
(LE 2: eee -. 10 pounds
eminem ete Fr 20 pounds
Wheat: See ine ie ered 10 pounds
oo gyn Gc lie Mt nr nae 10 pounds
oo: Ee) (Re ease ee 10 pourids
2S NR iD Eel a ae Poo ame 60 pounds
ee 40 pounds
ot SPARTA, aii Sete ae eae 20 pounds
171. Formulas for Mash Mixtures:
Re NER NE ee 3 quarts
ES pe seein art a 8 quarts
Ta) So Ot os Sea ee 3 quarts
Siiseatt sinteetiries 4 quarts -
JA TS) RES” Se lin ie 3 quarts
Birds given milk to drink.
gr eas Sis eee 3 quarts
Wiest snaidionps es 4 quarts
Poe Sei | ee ae eens LP: 3 quarts
Birds given milk to drink.
If birds are not given milk to drink, add one quart of meat
scrap to the last two mash mixtures.
Wihtent bran 20 pounds
Dalia? mia tS 525 ee er 20 pounds
ae fps fe | SRN ie a SeaE ES 10 pounds
74 The Essentials of Poultry Raising —
172. Average Weight and Volume of Feeds:
One quart | One pound
weighs measures
TEED. a, (pounds). (quarts).
PVCS SOU encod dour ec inc ee ee is 0.8
Corky sae Desi yey ha bk Ge) 2 ast gaat 7 1.5 0.7
Ceti s Wee el de a ee ea eg 0.6
CxstyOtinied, SUE ach icc a : 1.5 0.7
Ghluatin feet ice). ee, ee Lia 0.8
Cyanine (Sit gn i oe Bee 1.7 0.6
RJUER TRE oN a ate 0.7 1.4
Cate IN: i oc ee 1.0 1.0
[| a) UMS Wie UR IME Se emieae y ANT RE . 1.6 0.6
Sa WR) at} RMON EDEN RES see MEDD HDS Bi 0.8
TORY, PAN sac.) ces ala ate be ee Lee te 0.5 2.0
Wheat itddlings ‘(Hout)....2c002. hole 1.2 0.8
WV MEME SUSCCINGE, fhe faeces dee a Ree eee 0.8 He
Wheat, «whole 035002) Oe ee ee 1.9 0.5
*
CHAPTER XIV
CANDLING AND GRADING MARKET EGGS
Note to Teacher: Have student candle and grade eggs.
173. Losses From Careless Handling of Eggs. It has been
estimated that the annual loss from the careless handling of
eggs amounts, in the United States alone, to $90,000,000. It is
estimated that about 70 per cent of this loss occurs before the
eggs arrive in town.
174. How to Prevent Losses on the Farm. Remove the male
birds from the flock immediately after the breeding season and
market no fertile eggs. Provide roomy nests and plenty of
clean nesting material, preferably dry shavings or straw. Do
not allow broody hens on the nests. Keep the nests clean and
sanitary. Collect the eggs regularly, at least once a day in mod-
erate weather and more frequently in very warm weather. Carry
them at once in a clean basket to a cool, dry cellar and cover
_ them with a clean cloth to prevent dust from settling on them
and also to prevent evaporation and fading. Do not pack eggs
loose in a box when taking them to market, but rather secure
a suitable egg case and thus avoid breakage. Market as fre-
quently and as directly as possible.
175. Males Not Necessary for Egg Production. The male
birds are not essential for egg production. They have to do
with the fertilization of the egg but not with its formation.
Hens should not be mated except when eggs are desired for
hatching.
176. Blood Rings. When the germ in the egg begins to
develop and then dies, after three to five days, there will be
noted a red ring in the center of the egg. This is the blood
ring.
76 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
177. Production of Small Eggs. Pullets lay small eggs. Mon-
grel hens often produce a large percentage of small eggs. Eggs
should weigh one and a half pounds to the dozen or forty-five
pounds net to the thirty-dozen case. Small eggs should not be
marketed unless there are more than are needed for home use;
then they should be sold separately.
Fig. 25. A graph showing the average percentage of eggs to expect |
of a flock each month. Note the heaviest production is in April and
May. Compare with graph 26 and note that the greatest production is
in the time of year when eggs are lowest in price.
178. Grading According to Color. If large and small eggs
and white and brown eggs are in the lot to be graded, the eggs
should be divided into four lots, as follows: large browns and
small browns, large whites and small whites.
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 77
179. How to Ship Market Eggs. Market eggs should be
shipped in thirty-dozen cases.
180. Construction of the Thirty-Dozen Case. A thirty-dozen
case is made up of two compartments, each of which holds five
three-dozen fillers. The fillers are the strawboard cells in which
c Q : : . + S
{e)
eee ae y
8
SSS ee eee
3 Se i eS ee a
aa te Oe
Fig. 26. A graph showing the fluctuation of the prices of eggs each
month in the year. The figures along the sides are the prices of eggs
each month. Blank line indicates the average prices paid in North Caro-
~ lina and the broken line shows the prices paid on the New York market.
Compare with graph 25 and note that the high prices are in the time
of year when the fewest hens are laying.
_the eggs are placed. Each filler holds three dozen eggs. Be-
tween the fillers are the flats. A flat is a square piece of heavy
strawboard just the size of the compartment. There is left a
half-inch space above and the same space on the bottom of the
78 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
case for a thin layer of excelsior. This excelsior acts as a buffer
and aids in preventing breakage.
181. Hauling Eggs to Market. Do not haul the filled ego
cases in a lumber wagon. A spring wagon or auto truck is
required, as the jar of a wagon without springs will result in
the breakage of two or three dozen eggs in each case.
% Hens LAYING NECESSARY TO PAY FORK FEED.
Z ; 7 S e - = a
w v 2 w
: <q ww oo 2a
ott tL
'1Enmtiicg@i:<- —
Pouirtry Derr /SVC AeM Cole ece
Fig. 27. A graph showing the percentage of hens of any one flock
that must lay each month to pay for the feed of the entire flock. Com-
pare graphs 25 and 26, giving monthly prices, and note that the greatest
number must lay in the months when the prices of eggs are lowest.
182. Shipping Eggs for Hatching. Eggs for hatching should
he packed in special parcel post containers. These containers
can be purchased in the market. A container should hold just
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 79
fifteen eggs. Each egg should be wrapped in soft paper, fine
hay, or excelsior before being placed in its cell to insure a
“springy” nest for it. Sawdust, bran, or cottonseed pack too
closely and are not suitable.
183. Points in Grading Eggs. Eggs are graded according to
freshness, cleanliness, size, color, and soundness of shell.
184. Cracked Shells. Broken shells are called blind checks,
Fig. 28. A HOME-MADE CANDLER.
checks, dents, and leakers. Blind checks can be determined
only by the candle test. A crack that is visible is called a check.
If the shell is dented and does not leak, it is called a dent. If
the crack or dent has a broken shell membrane, the egg con-
tents will leak, and such an egg is called a leaker.
185. Use of the Candler. Fig. 28 shows a home-made candler.
SO The Essentials of Poultry Raising
The egg is held before the candler with the large end up and
inclined at an angle of about forty-five degrees. Slightly jerk
the egg sidewise and the yolk will be noted as a dark central
mass. If the egg is fresh, the air cell, about the size of a dime,
will be seen at the large end of the egg.
186. Change in the Size of the Air Cell. As soon as an egg
is laid, the air cell begins to enlarge, a process due to evaporation
through the shell. If an egg is kept for some time, the air cell
will be enlarged in proportion to the amount of evaporation that
has taken place.
187. What to Look For. Your object in candling is to see
that all the eggs you place on the market are good for food,
for if you guarantee your eggs and have a uniform product,
with all eggs up to standard size (177), you will receive more
for your product than those selling a poorer product. Always
seek a market that will pay a premium for a good product.
Look for and reject those eggs that show a blood ring, a blind
check, avery dark superficial yolk, which indicates a heated
egg, a large air cell, any black objects in any part of the egg,
or chick development.
188. An Egg Chart:
FRESH. EGGS *
BEFORE THE CANDLE OUT OF THE SHELL,
Air space: Not enlarged; less than White: Firm and thick; opales- |
three-fourths inch in diameter. ~ cent; reflects the light.
White: Firm and clear. Yolk: Spherical and firm; chick
Yolk: Dimly seen through the spot small with no sign of hatch-
white as a shadowy object indis- ing. Color is uniform* for the
tinct in outline. The chick spot entire yolk, but varies from light
is not visible. yellow to deep orange, and is
Distinguishing characteristics: occasionally olive green.
No shrinkage and general firm Distinguishing characteristics:
conditions of white and yolk. General firm condition of white
Edible. and yolk. White, opalescent.
* The color of a white egg before the candle is yellow with a pinkish tinge, that
of a brown egg is pinker, and that of a dark brown egg is almost red. In each in-
stance the color deepens in the region of the yolk.—U. S. Dept. Agr.
The Essentials of Poultry Raising i ae
HATCH-SPOT EGG
BEFORE THE CANDLE OUT OF THE SHELL
Air space: Usually enlarged. White: Thin and clear; no opales-
White: Thin and clear. | cence; does not reflect the light
Yolk: <A distinct reddish glow as strongly as does a fresh egg.
around the germinal spot, which Yolk: Bears a hatch spot; is flat-
is visible; usually located above tened, being especially weak
the middle of the egg. around the embryo.
Distinguishing characteristics: Distinguishing characteristics:
Reddish glow on the yolk. Hatch spot on the yolk.
Edible. ;
Occurrence: Chiefly during warm weather or hatching season.
STALE EGG
BEFORE THE CANDLE OUT OF THE SHELL
Air space: Enlarged; the lower JVhite: Thin; no opalescence; does
wall may be movable in outline. not reflect the light as much as
White: Thin and clear. does a fresh egg.
Yolk: Definite in outline; some- Volk: Flattened, and occasionally
times weak, and may occasionally may have light, mottled areas.
have dark, mottled areas. Distinguishing characteristics:
Distinguishing characteristics: Thin, white, and flattened yolk.
_ Enlarged air cell and increased
contrast between white and yolk
as compared with a fresh egg.
Edible. ,
Occurrence: Among eggs not marketed promptly... |
189. Marketing Eggs in Clubs. It is good practice to form
a school club under the direction of the principal. The eggs
are brought to the school, and each pupil candles his own eggs
and places them in the proper grade, taking home any that are
not first class. Many such clubs have found it possible to secure
from ten to eighteen cents per dozen more than producers around
them who did not candle and grade their eggs and sell under a
euarantee. Pure-bred hens make a uniform product.
CHAPTER XY.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE COMBINATION SITTING
AND BROODING COOP
Note to Teacher: Have students make a combination sitting and
brooding coop and paint it, ready for use.
190. Natural Incubation. By natural incubation is meant
hatching chicks with the hen.
191. Natural Brooding. By natural Ae is meant brood-
ing or rearing chicks with the hen.
192. What the Combination Sitting aa Brooding Coop Is.
The combination sitting and brooding coop is a small coop
with an extension run. The hen is set and, after hatching, is
housed in the coop and allowed to run out into the extension
run. The hen is confined to the run and the chicks are allowed
to roam at large for grass, bugs, and insects. |
193. List of Material for One Combination Sitting and Brood-
ing Coop:
_ 1 bunch of plaster lath.
2 boards, 1 inch by 8 inches by 12 feet (for bottom, siden and back).
6 pieces, 2 inches by 2 inches by 12 feet (for framing ‘for run and
house).
1 piece of rubberoid, 3% feet square.
3 hinges 4 inches long (two for side door and one for front lattice
strip).
3 four-inch hooks and eyes (for top and side door).
194. Dimensions of House. The floor is two feet square. The
back is eighteen inches high. The front is two feet high. The
floor is provided with boards where rats are troublesome. The
roof is made to overreach four inches on all sides. The roof is
covered with rubberoid. The front is slatted, allowing spaces
for chicks to pass out. One slat is hinged in the center, as is
shown in Fig. 30, No. 6. If this slat is placed in position, with
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 83
the hinge on the inside, the hen cannot push it out. The house
is provided with a hinged door on one side. The side door is
kept fastened with a hook and eye. The top 1s held down with
a hook and eye on each side, so that the wind cannot blow it off.
Fig. 29. The combination sitting and brooding coop. A, the open
door; B, the top; C, the extension run. The figures give the dimensions
of the various parts.
195. Notes on Construction. The roof is of a shed-like struc-
ture and so made that two-inch by two-inch framing material
fits over the top of the building like a hood. The bottom may
be made removable and of eight-inch board. This renders it
possible to use the coop in cold weather; and in summer time,
if rats do not interfere, it can be removed and the chicks allowed
to roost on the ground. The framing material of the coop is
two-inch by two-inch. Notches are cut out of the floor to fit
tightly around the framing. To keep rats out of the coop, make
84 The Essentials of Poultry Ratsing
a frame of one-inch by four-inch material and tack on the front
of this one-half-inch sand screen or netting. This is placed in
front of the coop at night. Three eight-inch boards, one cut to
an angle, make the side. Hinge the middle board to the bottom
one and use a hook and eye to fasten it to the top board.
196. The Extension Run. The extension run is the length of
a plaster lath. The framing material is of two-inch by two-inch-
Fig. 30. The sitting and brooding coop. 1, the left, showing angle :
to cut board; 2, the side door open; 3, the top; 4, the front slats; 5, the |
removable bottom; 6, the hinged removable slat. Dimensions of the
various parts are given. |
planking. The framing pieces are cut eighteen inches long and |
nailed together with 20d. spikes. There are three frames, con- }
sisting of four pieces each, one arranged at each end and one
in the middle of the run. The slats are placed four inches apart, |
with a five-inch space at the bottom for the chicks to pass out =
and in. One of the top slats is removable. This allows feed- — |
ing and watering from the top of the run. |
CHAPTER XVI
SELECTING EGGS FOR HATCHING AND SETTING
A HEN
Note to Teacher: Have the students select eggs for hatching and
make nest. .
197. Kind of Eggs to Select. Select only well-formed eggs
Do not select eggs with ridges around the middle, or eggs
that are undersized. Avoid those that have thin shells. those
with small ends enlarged, those that are short and round or
abnormally long. Ill-shaped eggs should be discarded, as the
progeny would not be desirable and they would not hatch well.
The average hen egg is 2.27 inches long and 1.72 inches in
diameter. No egg less than two ounces in weight should be
set, as the markets of the future will grade according to weight
per dozen. | 3
198. Age of Eggs for Setting. Do not set eggs over two
weeks old. Preferably, eggs should not be over one week old.
The sooner an egg is set after laying, the better the hatch.
199. Care of Eggs for Hatching. See that the breeding hens
have clean nests. Place the eggs in a clean basket or other
container and leave it in a dry, cool place. Cover with a cloth
or paper. Remember that hatching changes occur in eggs kept
at temperatures above 70° F. and that an egg freezes at 28° F.
Do not allow broody hens to remain on the nests of the laying
hens. Hauling over rough roads or rough handling may cause
internal injuries that would interfere with the hatching qualities.
200. Hatching Expectancy. Out of fifteen eggs set under the
hen, on an average one may expect ten chicks, and if they are
shipped a distance by parcel post or express, eight is the average
per sitting. Set fifteen eggs under each hen.
muvee
86 The Essentials of Poultry Ratsing
201. Vigor of Chicks. If the hen is irregular in sitting and
stays off the nest too long, thus allowing the eggs to become
chilled, or if the eggs are in an incubator and the temperature
is irregular or too high, the chicks will be more or less weak.
A large egg hatches a large chick, and this chick outgrows
the small, runty chick hatched from a small egg. Immature
cockerels produce weak chicks. Improper care and feeding of
the breeding stock also tend to the producing of weak chicks.
202. When to Hatch Chicks. The utility breeds, such as the
Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds, and Wyandottes, should
be hatched in February and March. The smaller egg producing
breeds, as the. Leghorns, should be hatched from the last week
in March to the first week in May.
203. Average Length of Time Required to Hatch Eggs. Hen
eggs hatch in twenty-one days, goose eggs in thirty days, duck
eggs in twenty-eight days, turkey eggs in twenty-eight days,
guinea eggs in thirty days, and pigeon eggs in seventeen days.
204. How to Set a Hen. Make a frame fourteen inches square
and six inches high. Place it in the center of the combination
sitting and brooding coop. Use as nesting material excelsior
or fine hay. With the hand round out the nest well, so there
will be no pockets in the corners for the eggs to roll into, and
thoroughly press down the center, making a good U-shaped nest.
Secure a hen that is broody and place her on the nest with one
egg. Hang a burlap bag in front of the coop and on the second
day take the hen off and feed and water her. If she goes back
on the nest, she may be set on the following day. The sitting
coop makes it possible to keep clean water and feed before the
hen at all times and allow her to come off when she chooses.
Dust the hen with insect powder when she is set and again
when she is taken from the nest with chicks.
205. The Kind of Hen That Makes the Best Mother. ‘The
best mothers are the larger breeds, as the Rhode Island Reds
or the Plymouth Rocks. The hen should be well-feathered and
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 87
of good temper. To determine if a hen is ready to set, place
the hand under her; if she nestles over your hand, she is likely
to make a good sitter and mother. A pullet does not usually
make a good mother.
206. Sign of a Sitting Hen. When a hen becomes broody,
she will be noted to stay on the nest longer than usual and in
a day or two will remain on the nest all the time. She will now
ruffle her neck feathers and cluck if disturbed.
207. Structure of the Egg. If an egg is boiled its structure
can be studied. The parts from the outside inward are as fol-
lows: lime shell, outer and inner membranes, albumin, and yolk.
The outer and inner membranes separate at the large end, form-
ing an air cell. Two hard masses or shreds of albumin, called
chalazae, are formed at the poles of the egg in the albumin. The
yolk is surrounded by a delicate membrane. On the top of the
yolk there is located the germ called the blastoderm. When
an egg is laid, the yolk is nearly in the center of the mass of
albumin. The yolk gradually becomes more superficial, until
after a week there is only a thin layer of albumin between the
yolk andthe shell membranes. There is always a layer of
albumin between the yolk and shell up to the twenty-first day.
208. How the Egg Is Formed. The volk is formed in the
ovary. The rest of the egg is formed in the oviduct or egg
canal, which is eighteen to twenty inches long. In the first
portion the albumin or white of the egg is formed; in a follow-
ing portion the shell membranes are formed; and in a part still
farther along the shell is formed; then finally the color is fixed.
209. When to Candle Incubating Eggs. It is best to set six
hens at one time. Candle the white eggs on the fifth day and
the brown eggs on the seventh day. If the egg is infertile it
will be clear. These eggs are good for food and can be used
on the home table, but should not be sold, since the shaking
they must undergo in hauling will addle many of them. If they
are not wanted for table use, keep them and later boil them
88 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
and feed them to the baby chicks. After the eggs have all been
candled (185), count the infertile ones and estimate the percent-
age of fertility. It is well to candle eggs again on the sixteenth
day. This is to remove the dead germs. At this time the air
cell will be noticed to be very large; if the germ is dead, the
air cell will be cloudy and the germ or chick will not be so
large as the live chicks.
210. Eggs set in the incubator do not hatch as well as those ©
set under hens. It is seldom that more than 50 to 65 per cent
of all eggs placed in the incubator hatch. The greatest number
of deaths occur during the latter part of the first week and
during the latter part of the third week of incubation.
CHAPTER XVII
ARTIFICIAL INCUBATING AND BROODING
Note to Teacher: The student should study and make drawings of
the various parts of an incubator.
211. Artificial Incubation. By artificial incubation is meant
hatching eggs with an incubator.
212. Artificial Brooding. By artificial brooding is meant rear-
ing chicks with a brooder.
213. Kinds of Incubators. ‘There are small and large incu-
bators. The small incubators are of various capacities, some
holding ‘sixty eggs, others 120, 144, 150, 200, and 240 eggs.
The largest incubators are called mammoth because they hold
from 1200 and 1800 to several thousand eggs.
214. Fuel Used in Incubators. The fuel used in incubators,
both small and mammoth, is oil, gas, or coal, or electricity may
be employed. | |
215. Methods of Heating Incubators. Incubators may be
heated by hot water or by hot air through a diffusion diaphragm.
216. Construction of the Small Incubator. The small incu-
bator consists of three essential parts: an insulated and venti-
lated box called, the body, a heating device, and a heat-regulating
device.
217. The Body of the Incubator. The body of the incubator
is supported on legs. The heating device is attached to the side
of the body, except in those incubators heated by electricity or
by stoves.
The body is divided into three chambers: an upper, a middle,
and a lower. The upper chamber is the heating apartment, and
is separated from the egg chamber by a diaphragm in those
incubators that are heated by diffusion. In the hot-water system
go The Essentials of Poultry Raising
the chamber is occupied by pipes. These pipes are not separated
from the egg chamber.
-The eggs occupy the middle chamber.
AN OIL-BURNING INCUBATOR.
Fig. 31. 1, body; 2, heat diffusion diaphragh lowered; 3, egg tray;
4, thermometer; 5, nursery tray partly drawn out; 6, lamp; 7, heating
drum from which air passes into incubator; 8, glass door; 9, damper bar;
10, damper disc; 11, balance weight; 12, candler; this metal chimney is
used with the incubator lamp in a dark room to candle eggs.
The lower chamber is provided with a canvas-covered tray,
and is called a nursery chamber. A glass door is placed in
front, so that the chicks, as fast as they are hatched, are
s
The Essentials of Poultry Raising Oi
attracted by the light and, coming forward, drop down into
the nursery tray.
218. Heat Necessary for Incubation. An incubator thermom-
eter must be provided. The bulb of the thermometer should
be at the upper level of the eggs. The temperature should be
103° F. at all times. If the temperature accidentally goes to
105° F. there is danger of killing the germs, and if it goes
~
Fig. 32. Incubator with front removed. Egg trays and nursery drawers
in place in left-hand side of incubator, and egg trays removed from right-
hand side. |
to 110° F. it is probable that all of the germs will be killed.
219. Leveling and Starting the Incubator. The incubator must
be level. Do not put eggs in the incubator till you have it
regulated to 103° F. and can hold it through the day and night
at that temperature.
220. Care of the Eggs During Incubation. The eggs must
be turned once a day after the third day. Eggs not turned
92 3 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
during incubation will not hatch. Do not turn the eggs after
the eighteenth day. On the eighteenth day close up the incu-
bator and do not open again till the hatch is over. Opening
the incubator during the hatching may kill many of the chicks.
221. Candling Eggs. See 209. ;
222. Conditions Essential for Artificial Brooding. Dryness
and a constant supply of fresh air are essential. An even and |
proper temperature must be maintained. |
223. Kinds of Brooders. There are two kinds of brooders,
indoor and outdoor. There are also heated brooders and cold
brooders. Sufficient space and sunlight must be provided.
Chicks must not be allowed to become chilled. Fifteen minutes
of exposure to cold may result later in diarrhea, causing heavy
losses and an unthrifty condition in those that survive. Small
oil-burning hovers, with capacities of fifty, one hundred, or
more chicks, may be purchased.
224. Construction of the Cold Brooder. The small cold
brooder is usually made eighteen inches square and eight inches
deep. A frame made of one-inch material is held by cleats at
the upper part of the box. Three ventilating holes are bored
at each side of the upper half. The upper half and lower half
are hinged at the back. Over the inside frame there is stretched
cheese cloth or muslin. On this there is placed a feather pillow
or woolen quilt material. The muslin sags in the middle. The
chicks keep warm by their own heat. The cold brooder has
not come into general use owing to the danger of the chicks
becoming chilled.
225. Deflector Hovers for Large Flocks. When flocks of 500
to 1000 are brooded together, large hovers with hoods made of
metal and heated by coal stoves are used. The temperature
under the hovers should be 100° F. for the first month and then ~
eradually lowered.
226. A Special House for the Hover. A special house, six
feet square, has been designed for the 100-chick hover. This
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 93
same house may be used as a range house for the chicks after
they are eight weeks old and no longer need artificial heat.
227. List of Material for the Hover and Range House:
Runners, 1 piece, 2x6 inches, 14 feet long.
Sills, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long.
Plates, 1 piece, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long.
Corner posts, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long.
Rafters, 4 pieces, 2x4 inches, 8 feet long.
Front stud and door facing, 3 pieces, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long.
Batten for door, 1 piece, 1x4 inches, 8 feet long.
Four-inch flooring for sides, ends, front, and floor, 52 pieces, 12 fect
long.
Roost poles, and rests for same, 2 pieces, 2x4 inches, 12 feet long.
Hardware:
Hinges for doors, 1 pair, 4 inches, for back ventilator ; 2 pairs, 8 inches,
tor two front doors. ‘
Hasps for doors, 2 pairs.
Rubberoid for roof, 64 square feet.
Chicken netting, 1 piece, 34-inch mesh, 30 inches by 6 feet.
Chicken netting, 1 piece, 1 foot by 3 feet, 34-inch mesh.
Nails, 6d. wire, 3 pounds.
FRONT ELEVATION
94 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
ANGLE OF DOOR
WHEN OPEN
END ELEVATION
ie
are | NTILATOK
BACK ELEVATION
Fig. 33. A house for a 100-chick hover and range house for chicks.
The end elevation shows the position of the hover. After the chicks are
eight weeks old, the hover is removed and perch poles are placed six
inches above the floor for the chicks to perch on. This building is five
feet high at the rear and seven feet at the front. The back elevation
shows the ventilator and the front shows the position of the storm door,
Jarge door, and trap door through which the chicks pass out and in,
The Essentials of Poultry Raising oS.
228. Notes on Construction. The front ventilator prevents
driven rains from wetting the house. Chicks are allowed to
run out when the weather is favorable. If this house is to be
used in cold weather, a small window sash must be placed in
the front close to the floor. This will allow light and sunshine ©
in the house for the birds. The sash can be made to slide and
the opening should be covered with three-fourths-inch chicken
.wire. This will allow the keeping of the window open on
warm days.
The sills are placed on ae two sled runners, made of two-inch
by six-inch oak. This makes it possible to move the house from |
place to place. The sills are placed two feet apart and covered
with flooring. There are four corner posts made of two-inch
by four-inch lumber and a front and back plate of the same
material. The rafters are placed two feet apart and covered
with sheathing, which is covered, in turn, with rubberoid or
shingles.
There is a ventilator in the back near the top of the building.
This is covered with three-fourths-inch mesh netting and there
is a door which opens into the room. This door is hinged at
the bottom. The front wa!l has a thirty-inch door extending
the entire width of the building and hinged at the top with three
strong eight-inch strap hinges, so that it may be propped up
as indicated in Fig. 33. The front has an opening at the floor
level which may be closed at night, or there may be made a
netting door. The front also has a door near the end so that
one may enter the building. This ee prevents rain
from drenching the house.
CHAPTER XVIII
FEEDING CHICKS, GOSLINGS, DUCKLINGS,
AND POULTS
Note to Teacher: The student should be given exercises in mixing ©
chick feed and in feeding chicks.
229. Feed Requirements for Chicks. Young chicks require
about one pound of protein or muscle-building material to four
of starches, sugars, and fats combined.
230. Mashes Necessary for Chicks. The amount of protein
required by chicks makes the feeding of mill by-products ae
other by-products of high protein content necessary.
231. When to Feed the Baby Chick. Forty-seven per cent of
the yolk of the egg is incorporated in the abdominal cavity in an
abdominal yolk sac as abdominal yolk and is sufficient for the
food requirements of the chick for more than three days after
it is hatched. Do not feed the chicks till after they have been
hatched seventy-two hours.
232. First Feed of the Baby Chick. The first feed of the baby
chicks should consist of sour curdled milk or fresh buttermilk.
This feed should not be given before the chicks are seventy-two
hours old. In the case of incubator chicks, they should be taken
from the incubator and fed some sour milk the third day after
the first chick -thatches. The second day the chicks should be
given two light feeds in addition to the milk, and the third day
they should be put on full feed. By following this method, the
digestive organs are gradually brought into play and time is
allowed to use the stored up food of the abdominal yolk sac.
(Examine a baby chick just out of the shell, or one that has
died while pipping out, for the abdominal yolk sac.)
The Essentials of Poultry Raising | Q7
The first solid feed for the baby chick may consist of some
hard-boiled egg, mixed with bread crumbs, and made soft with
sour milk.
After chicks are on full feed they should be given mash, mixed
with sour skimmed milk or buttermilk, so prepared as to be
crumbly, three times a day, and a scratch feed twice a day.
233. Formulas for Dry Mash:
POmueamte Mea | 246256. aes: 33 pounds
a RR 3 ne oe a 67 pounds
Peanwe meal <2... ieee ee eS 33 pounds
OE 2 a eee eae eee 67 pounds
Ground oats ...... pee ea ae ee 28 pounds
et Hees i ge i pu 28 pounds
Witteat middiimps 72222. 28 pounds
Meat rca) 2053 be tt 16 pounds
Wheat: bran] 1.2 ee i pOUnGS
Wyitcal Shorts 262 ts ys 3. Sto 10 pounds
Sorry sey 5 pounds
Be Bt ee 5 pounds
234. Formulas for Grain Feed:
Ree ER 0k os ee 5 pounds
Beet ists oes a ee Be 5 pounds
Ot aemee CUE ee oe 10 pounds
Cracked wheatis se 10 pounds
arse tet Was. 1. parce eee ane 10 pounds
Peateed Corn 202 Th eee 5 pounds
Wheat scréenings:! 2.00 4.. 10 pounds
PVAPCA ET tog AO tal as 20 pounds
SIR, Oi orien Ciena 15 pounds
ts Sa ae eat se 10 pounds
235. Grit and Shell Essential. On the first day provide fine
grit, such as sand. Keep this before the chicks at all times.
as the gizzard must contain grit to aid in grinding the feed.
98 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
236. Fresh Water and Clean Dishes Essential. Fresh, clean,
pure water must be kept before the chicks at all times. The
water and milk containers must be scrubbed once a day. Spoiled
milk and feed which has been allowed to lie around are a fruitful
source of diarrhea.
237. Feeding Boards Required. Feeding boards one or two
feet square on which the chicks may be fed are advisable. As
soon as the chicks have finished eating, these boards should be
scrubbed in a 4 per cent solution of some standardized coal
tar disinfectant and allowed to dry before the next feeding.
238. Effects of Chilling. Do not allow the chicks to become
chilled. If the chicks are with a hen she will take care of them,
but if they are brooder chicks, they must be put back under
the hover as soon as feeding is over if the weather is cold.
Chilling results in- fatal diarrhea.
239. Effects of Overcrowding. Do not overcrowd the chicks,
either those with the hen or those in the brooder. Do not over-
crowd chicks on range. Disease and death always follow over-
crowding. | :
240. Effects of Overheating. If chicks are subjected to high
temperatures in the hover and then allowed to cool off quickly,
sickness and heavy losses result.
241. Look Out for Cannibalism. Chicks often commence to
eat each other’s toes. Immediately remove the chick attacked.
In such cases, the chicks need more protein. Give them exercise
and plenty of meat meal and milk.
242. Dispose of Chicks That Have Had Diarrhea. Toe punch
all chicks which have had a severe attack of diarrhea, and do
not save them for breeding purposes, but sell them for broilers.
243. Chicks Old Enough to Range. As soon as chicks are
old enough to range for their feed, give them grain morning
and evening. Discontinue the wet mash and keep dry mash
before them all the time. An outdoor mash hopper shown in |
Fig. 34 may be used.
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 9G
_ 244. Wasting the Feed.» Chickens hook out some of the feed
with their beaks and waste it. To avoid this, cut out a piece
of one-inch poultry netting a little smaller than the inside of
the hopper. Allow this to rest on the feed.
_ 245. Suitable Location for Rearing Turkeys. An orchard or
wood from which the underbrush has been cut makes ‘an ex:
cellent range.
246. Suitable Feed for Poultry. Cottage cheese, buttermilk
or curdled skim milk is excellent. Oats, corn, and wheat make
good grain feeds.
a ae é
Fig. 34. A, angle view of aff outdoor mash hopper. B, end diagram
of same. This mash hopper is provided with three small compartments
one for grit, one for charcoal, and one for crushed oyster shell. The
large compartment is for dry mash.
247. Grit Is Essential. Young turkeys must have grit in the
form of sand or crushed limestone.
248. Must Be Free From Vermin. Dust the hens when they
are set and again when they are taken from the nest. Keep a
lookout for lice and mites, as these parasites will kill the young
_ turkeys.
249. Feeding the Poult. The first feed should be given the
young poults seventy-two hours after the first poult has hatched
The first feed should consist of sour milk or buttermilk. On
+
vo
100 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
the following day, the poults should be given a mixture of hard-—
boiled egg and soft bread crumbs. After the fourth day this
may be replaced with hulled oats, cracked corn, and cracked
wheat. |
250. Rainstorms and Dew Fatal to Poults. Young turkeys
must not be allowed to run in the grass when the dew is on
or allowed to be in heavy rainstorms.
251. Mash Feed for Young Turkeys. Young turkeys should
be given one of the mash feeds outlined under chick feeding
(233). This should be given three times a day till they are
eight weeks old. After that time the poults should be allowed ~
to run to the dry mash hopper and secure their mash in dry
form when they like.
252. Suitable Places for Raising Ducks and Geese. Young
ducks and geese need a shady, grassy run and should not be
raised with chickens or turkeys. |
253. Feeds Suitable for Young Ducks ae Geese. All feed
given to young ducks and geese should be in a wet form, as
dry feed may clog up the nose. Ducks should have plenty of
water in shallow dishes. Green feed in the form of sprouted
oats, short grass, or range grass is essential.
254. When to Feed Ducklings and Goslings. Young ducks
and goslings should be fed on the third day after the first one
begins to pip out of the shell. They should then be given four
times a day ground feed mixture made wet with water. Do not
ceive ducklings or goslings milk. They must have plenty of grit.
255. Good Feeds for Ducklings and Goslings:
Corn meal i:.1.).. eee 2 pounds
Wheat bran... tee ee 2 pounds
iGOr Meee eee 1 pound
No. 2 Gout ae be Se 1 pound
Green Stull... Ass ee 1 pound
Wheat? brast sli jes Se ces 10 pounds
Wheat. middlings....4c..-2ui0 5 pounds
COT WREST <...2 Se a ee ee 3 pounds
Meat or fish strapnic. cc aie: 2 pounds
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 101
Na Baie CO Ra eal ee oe 10 pounds
RVeat Hea a pee Go 10 pounds
Meat SD a ae 4 pounds
256. The following is a list of materials for the outdoor mash
hopper:
For ends, partitions, sides, and top, 2 pieces, 1 inch by 12 inches, 16
fect long.
For run board and piece by the side of the run board, 2 pieces, 1 inch
by 4 inches, 12 feet long.
For base pieces, 1 piece, 2 inches by 2 inches, 12 feet long.
Rubberoid, 1 piece. 4 feet long by 34 inches wide.
Hooks and eyes, 3 inches long, for fastening down top, 1 pair.
Round %-inch rods, 5 inches Tong, 20.
Nails, 7d., 2 pounds.
257. Notes on Construction of the Outdoor Mash Hopper.
The top is removable and is held down with two hooks and
eyes so that the wind cannot blow it off. The top is made of
two twelve-inch and two four-inch boards. It is braced with
two pieces of two-inch by two-inch pieces at the outer edge of
the mash hopper. The top is covered with rubberoid roofing
tacked tight over all edges.
The ends are made of one-inch by twelve-inch boards and are
nailed at the bottom to a two-inch by two-inch base, which pre-
vents the mash from getting wet. The sides are made of one-
inch by twelve-inch board and placed at an angle as indicated
by the dotted line in Fig. 34, B. The partitions, three in number,
are made of one-inch by twelve-inch board sawed at the same
angle as the roof and sides. (See Fig. 34, A and B.)
The bottom is made of one-inch by twelve-inch board, two
feet six inches long, and is nailed to the two-inch by two-inch
base supports. :
The run board is made of one-inch by four-inch board and
is nailed to the base support. A strip, one inch by four inches,
nailed to each end, prevents the mash from being wasted, and
the bars are placed four inches apart at the feed opening.
CHAPTER XIX
on POULTRY AND SHIPPING
. POULTRY PRODUCTS
“~
258. Poultry Should Be Fattened for Market. Hens and young
birds intended to be sold in the market should be fattened before
being marketed.
259. Length of Time for Fattening. The birds should be fat-
tened fourteen days. |
260. Milk-Feeding Fattening Fowls. Milk-fed fowls pees. asi
superior flavor, and in many markets, such as that of New York,
dressed milk-fed broilers bring a premium of five cents a pound.
261. How Poultry Is Fattened. Hens or frying chickens are
placed in small coops about thirty inches square and fed morn-
ing, noon, and night.
262. How Much to Feed Fattening Chickens. Fattening chick-
ens are easily thrown off their feed; when once thrown off, they
will not fatten well. Give just as much food as they will clean
up in twenty minutes and then take away any left over. «Do
not let them have so much food that they get sick of it. Keep
their appetite keen.
263. What to Feed. One part each of ground feed and two
parts of buttermilk or sour skim milk give the best results. .
This makes a mixture of about the consistency of batter and
must be fed from a trough.
264. Feed Mixtures for Fattening Chickens:
Worn mend cig as 9.5 pounds 1
Wheat middlings ........................ 9.0 po&nds
Red: deg Geur. 3 ee, 8.3 pounds |
Ment meal. uc: 5c 2 2.5 pounds |
Soybean meal 60 33 pounds |
Wheat middlings .:.......02..0........ 33 pounds |
Cort “mies! <3225 5 aa 34 osu i
_ a
Ehe Essentials of Poultry Raising 103
265. The following formulas are good mixtures for fattening
hens: ,
etal tneale ese eh et 24 pounds
Wheat nuddismes ....- 2: 6 pounds
POU i oo ec 4 pounds
Rett eee 2 pounds
Wieat-saorts 6 1 pound E
Cros wits ok 1 pound
As sas 0 | "eae ne eee 8 pounds
266. Market Grades of Fowls. In the market old hens are
called fowls; old male birds, roosters or cocks; young chickens
of 34 to 2% pounds, broilers; of 214 to 4 pounds, fryers; of
4 to 8 pounds, roasters. |
267. How Live Poultry Is Shipped. Live poultry is shipped
in standard-sized shipping crates which can be purchased in the
market.
268. How Eggs Are Shipped. Eggs are shipped 1 in thirty-
dozen case lots. a
269. To Whom Shipped. Eggs may be shipped to Ss
commission merchants, who are usually located in the large
cities.
270. Cost of Sitipping: The cases will cost approximately
thirty cents each for the case, flats, and fillers. The express
costs will vary according to distance. The commission man will
charge 5 per cent for selling. Eggs may be sold directly to
consumers, clubs, hotels, restaurants, or city retail stores. This
will save the commission man’s charge of 5 per cent for selling.
TO PRESERVE EGGS FOR WINTER USE
271. Kind of Eggs to Preserve. Eggs for preserving purposes
should be clean, fresh, not over three days old, and of absolutely
sound shell, as cracked eggs are unfit. Infertile eggs are pre-
ferred. These may be placed in the liquid each day if desired.
272. Kind of Container to Use. A glazed earthen jar is prefer-
able, though other containers, as galvanized or glass containers,
104 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
may be used. Do not use wood or any other material which may
give off an odor to the liquid, as the eggs will absorb these
odors and as a result will be given an objectionable taste. The
container should be provided with a lid to prevent evaporation ;
or in case no lid is provided, a paper can be securely tied over
the top to prevent evaporation of the solution. After thoroughly
cleaning the container, scald it. |
273. How Large a Container to Secure. Eggs vary so in size
that it is impossible to give, in each case, the size of the
container needed. The following, however, will accommodate
average-sized eggs; one-gallon capacity for 40 eggs, two-gallon
for 80, three-gallon for 120, four-gallon for 160, a for
200, ten-gallon for 400.
274. Waterglass Method. Waterglass (sodium thee may
be obtained at any drug store at a cost of about fifty cents a
quart. If the stores do not have it, a request should be made
to order a supply. |
275. How to Prepare the Waterglass Solution. Waterglass
comes in bottles and is about the consistency of strained honey.
Use one quart of the waterglass to nine quarts of clean boiled
water. Mix thoroughly and allow to cool before pouring: over
the eggs.
276. Testing the Eggs. Eggs should be candled to determine
if they are perfectly fresh and that the shell is not cracked. Do
not use thin-shelled eggs or those which are dirty. Do not wash
them before placing in the container. To test these eggs, use
the candling device sent with any incubator, any commercial -
candler which uses an electric bulb or lamp, or a home-made
candler made for the purpose. |
Secure a box about the size of an ordinary shoe box, cut a
hole at the end and one in the center of the side; set the box
on end and place the lamp in it. The hole in the top should
be directly over the top of the lamp chimney and the hole in
the side should be directly in front of the middle of the chimney.
The Essentials of Poultry Ratsing- 105
This latter hole is the one to be used in candling. Take this
apparatus in a dark room, when, by holding the egg over the
hole in the side of the box, the light from the lamp will be
reflected through it. If the egg is fresh you will note a small
air space about the size of a dime at the large end. If this cell
is larger the egg is not fresh, as the size of this air space
indicates the age. The balance of the egg should appear rather
dark, with the central part the darkest, as this is the yolk and
the light is not transmitted through it as freely as through the
white. If there is a blind-check, you can detect the crack in
candling. } ;
277. How to Place Eggs in the Container. Place the eggs in
the container with small ends down, as this end is the stronger.
Place layer on layer till the eggs are within about two inches
of the top of the jar. Now pour over the waterglass liquid,
completely filling the jar, so that the top row is covered about
two inches deep. Cover tightly to prevent evaporation.
278. Where to Place the Container. The container should be
kept in a cool place, and where objectionable odors will not find
their way to the jar.
279. Quality of Preserved Eggs. Eggs preserved by the
waterglass method may be used in any form for the table and
for cooking, except for poaching. They may be scrambled,
boiled, and fried. In boiling it is best to puncture with a pin
the large end of the egg so as to allow the air from within,
when heated, to pass out, and thus prevent breakage. In taking
eggs out of the solution, wash the jelly-like material off with
clean cold water. Eggs may be taken out just as they are
needed. Always remove them from the jar with clean hands.
CHAPTER XX
DIARRHEA IN POULTRY |
- 280. Cause of Diarrhea in Baby Chicks. Diarrhea in baby
chicks may be due to allowing them to become chilled, as is
often the case in raising chicks with a brooder. Fifteen minutes
of exposure to severe cold while quite young may result in fatal
diarrhea and the loss of many birds. When more feed 1s given
than the birds will eat quickly, it often spoils and causes
diarrhea. Stale milk and moldy feed are sources of trouble.
Unsanitary utensils are dangerous; the water and milk con-
tainers must be cleaned out once a day. This is done best by
using a brush or even the hand to rub the walls and the bottom
of the container. |
~ 281. Contagious Diarrhea of Baby Chicks. A contagious.
diarrhea is due to a germ. This form affects the baby chicks_
as soon as they are hatched, and in the first week often a*many
as 80 per cent of them contract the disease and die.
282. How Chicks Become Infected. The baby chicks become
infected by eating or drinking contaminated feed and water, or
the hen that lays the egg may have an ovary that is diseased.
A hen with an ovary infected with the germ of white diarrhea
will lay eggs containing the germs and the baby chick will be
infected when hatched.
283. How to Tell When Baby Chicks Have White Diarrhea.
The disease appears within two or three days after hatching
and heavy losses occur the first week? The bird shows the fol-
lowing signs of the disease: drooping wings, ruffled feathers,
sleepy appearance, little or no appetite, abdominal yolk not
properly absorbed, a whitish or whitish-brown frothy discharge
from the bowel which adheres to the vent fluff, eyes closed part
of the time, and a lack of interest in the surroundings.
The Essentials of Poultry Raising | 107
284. What to Do for White Diarrhea. Keep the hover and
run thoroughly clean. Disinfect once a week with a 4 per cent |
solution of some standardized coal tar disinfectant dip. Give
the birds, in the drinking water, one thirty-grain tablet of
sulphocarbolate compound. Each thirty-grain tablet should con-
tain ten grains each of sulphocarbolate of sodium, sulphocar-
bolate of calcium, and sulphocarbolate of zinc. Fresh butter-
milk is an excellent remedy.
285. Disposition of Chicks With White Diarrhea. All chicks
that die should be burned. Toe punch all chicks with diarrhea
and do not save them for breeders, but sell them for broilers
as soon as they are old enough. |
286. Contagious Diarrhea Occurring at About Ten Days of
Age. A contagious diarrhea, caused by an animal organism
called” the coccidium tenellum, affects chicks later than the
bacillary white diarrhea described above and causes the greatest
death rate at from ten days to two weeks of age. The symptoms
are much the same as in white diarrhea and the treatment is
similar.
287. Diarrhea of Adult Fowls. Adult fowls suffer most from
diarrhea due to contaminated water. Fowls may drink polluted
water from a contaminated pool or the water pans may be
allowed to become foul.
288. What to Do for Diarrhea in Adult Fowls. Diarrhea of
adult fowls yields to the sulphocarbolate compound treatment
(284). The permanganate of potash treatment is cheap and is
very useful (129). |
289. Fowl Cholera. Fowl cholera is a contagious disease. It
is due to a germ. |
290. How to Tell Fowl Cholera. In severe forms of the dis-
ease, the first signs may pass unobserved and the bird be found
dead under the roost in the morning. If the disease is less
severe, the first sign will be dullness and moping about. The
bird will not eat; the feathers are ruffled. The bird becomes
fae et The Essentials of Poultry Raising
prostrated, and the bowel discharges or droppings are of a
yellowish-green color and semi-liquid. The comb is dark or
even black, the bird walks with a swaying gait, trembles, and
may even have convulsions. Most of the birds of the flock
will die.
291. How the Disease Is Spread. Birds may contract the dis-
ease by coming in contact with other birds that have it. A
bird sick of the disease may be introduced into the flock. A
bird may be shipped in coops in which sick birds have been
shipped. Birds may be placed in houses or runs where birds
suffering with cholera have been kept.
292. What to Do for Cholera. Give the sulphocarbolate com-
pound (284); keep permanganate of potash in the water (129).
Thoroughly clean and disinfect the premises with a 4 per cent
solution of any standardized coal tar disinfectant dip having a
coefficiency of at least one to five (1:5). Burn or bury in lime
all birds dead of cholera.
293. Blackhead in Turkeys. There is a disease of turkeys
called blackhead because the head and neck are supposed to
turn black. |
294. How to Tell When Turkeys Have Blackhead. The
turkey appears sick, mopes about, eats little or nothing at all.
The wings droop, the feathers are ruffled, and the bird sits
around much of the time. It has a thin, watery discharge from
the bowels of a greenish-yellow color. The bird gradually
becomes poor and usually dies in a week or two.
295. Age at Which Turkeys Suffer Most. Turkeys fourteen
to sixteen weeks of age are most likely to become affected and
die. .
296. How Turkeys Contract Blackhead. Turkeys contract
blackhead by running with hens that harbor in their intestinal
tract the single-celled animal parasites that cause it, though
the hens themselves do not develop the disease. Turkeys
also contract the disease by running with turkeys that have
|
’
:
——S OE = ee eee ee Oe eee
'
=a. . |
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 109
chronic cases or by running on ground on which diseased
turkeys have run before.
297. What to Do for Blackhead. Give the aiphbeartolte
compound (284) and remove the birds to a clean woods run.
Many shady runs should be provided if one is to raise turkeys.
An abundance of buttermilk and good wholesome feed should
be given.
298. How the Internal Organs Appear in a Turkey That Has
Died of Blagkhead. Open the turkey, and if it has died of black-
head the liver will be spotted, that is, covered with small round
spots of dead liver tissue. One of the blind pouches (caeca)
will be greatly enlarged.
CHAPTER XXI
MITES, LICE, SCALY LEGS, AND FLEAS OF POULTRY *
B Note to Teacher: Have students study mounted specimens of para-
s1tes.
299. What the Red Mite Looks Like. Red mites vary in size
from one-fourth of a pin head to a pin head. They vary in
color from almost white to bluish-red and red. |
300. Where Mites Are Found. Mites are found on the under
side of the perch poles and in the cracks where the perch poles
rest upon the support.
301. When Mites Attack the Fowls. The mites attack the
fowls at night and leave them before morning, locating them- .
selves on the under side of the perch poles. ; |
302. Effect Upon the Birds. Mites suck the blood and where
they are numerous they will kill young birds as well as old ones.
They are often found in the brooding coop and in nests of sit-
ting hens. In birds that are badly infested, the comb becomes
pale and the bird weakens and finally dies.
303. How Mites Multiply. Mites multiply by laying their
eggs in the cracks of the perch poles, on droppings boards, and
even in nests. They multiply very rapidly in hot weather.
304. How to Tell When Birds Are Infested. Examine the
under part of the perch poles, and if mites are present they will
be observed in small clusters. There will be noticed white fuzzy
material in the cracks. This material is the shed skins or molts
of the young mites.
305. What to Do to Rid the Birds. of Mites. Thoroughly
clean the droppings boards, floor, and nests and sweep down
* For reference, see Poultry Diseases, published by The American Jour-
nal of Veterinary Medicine, Chicago, III.
— i -*
:
:
:
:
:
.
= 1 Seat lee
The Essentials of Poultry Raising IIT
the walls, then spray the house thoroughly with a 4. per cent
solution of some disinfectant dip of a coeffhiciency of at least
five. Saturate the perch poles, on all sides and at the places
where they rest on their supports, and the wall for a con-
siderable space around with kerosene, carbolineum, or gasoline.
Repeat this once every day till the mites disappear. Spray the
house once a week till it is certain that no mites lurk around.
306. Lice of Poultry. There are one or more kinds of lice
for each kind of poultry. |
307. What the Louse Looks Like. The louse is light in color
and rather thin and nazrow. It is about five or six times as
large as a full-grown mite and can be seen running around next
to the skin of an-infested hen.
308. How to Tell When Hens Are Infested With Lice. Catch
the hen and push the feathers back the wrong way. Examine
in the region of the vent and body fluff. If lice are present
they will be observed.
309. Where Lice Are Found. \Vhen lice are present, they are
always found on the birds unless brushed off accidentally.
310. How Lice Multiply.. Lice multiply by laying eggs and
cementing them to the feathers. Here they hatch in a few days
and then soon develop into the adult stage, to multiply again.
The eggs are laid in clusters and can often be seen on the web
of the feathers, especially in the region of the vent.
311. How to Treat Hens With Lice. Birds with lice should
be dusted with lice powder containing at least one-fourth of one
per cent of free nicotine. This louse powder can be made as
follows: Take two pounds of tobacco stems or leaves and place
in a pan and cover with water. Boil for thirty minutes and pour
off the liquid. Boil down this liquid to about one-half of a tea-
cup. Put this into a half teacup of crude carbolic acid and
add an equal amount of gasoline. To this mixture add plaster
of Paris till the plaster is only slightly moist and pass the entire
amount through a fly screen sieve. Use at once. This quantity
hE Gales 8 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
will take about two quarts of plaster. If “Black Leaf 40” can
be secured or any pure nicotine such as is used by florists, add
fifty drops to four ounces of gasoline and mix with plaster of
Paris, as above, and pass through a fly screen. This latter makes
a much better mixture and will take about one quart of plaster.
Commercial insect powder can be purchased, but one should
make sure that it contains at least one-fourth of one per cent
of free nicotine. .
312. Scaly Leg. Scaly leg is due to a scab-producing parasite.
313. Appearance of Scaly Leg. In scaly leg the affected shank
is covered with thick scales. The parasites are found under these
scales where they multiply. :
314. How Scaly Leg Spreads. Scaly leg spreads from the
introduction of an affected bird into the flock or from the
placing of birds in quarters where scaly leg birds have been
kept.
315. What to Do for Scaly Leg. Saturate the shank once —
every ten days with kerosene. Saturate the perch poles with
kerosene or carbolineum.
316. Fleas of Chickens. The most common flea is the stick-
tight flea.
317. How the Sticktight- Flea Attacks the Bird. The stick-
tight flea attaches itself to the skin of the head and upper part
of the neck. |
318. How the Sticktight Flea Multiplies. The sticktight flea
multiplies by laying eggs which fall off and hatch on the ground.
Sandy localities furnish the most favorable place for the multi-
plication of this flea.
319. What to Do for Birds Infested With the Sticktight Flea.
Dip the neck in kerosene. Do not get the kerosene in the eyes
of the bird. Lard mixed with a small amount of sulphur may
be applied to the infested parts.
CHAPTER XXII
WORMS INFESTING POULTRY
320. Internal Parasites. Most of the internal parasites are
worms. Small numbers of worms do not do any noticeable
injury, but large numbers interfere with the health of the fowls
and sometimes cause death. ©
321. The Gapeworm. The gapeworm, as it is taken from the
wind pipe of an affected bird, is about one inch long, round in
shape, and forked at the head end. The small worm is the
male and the large worm the female. |
322. Injury Done by Gapeworms. The gapeworms hold on
to the mucous membrane lining of the windpipe or trachea and
as they grow in size gradually close the opening so that it is
difficult for the bird to breathe. As soon as sufficient obstruc-
tion takes place, the bird dies for lack of oxygen (83). The
gapeworms also suck blood.
323. How the Worms Multiply and Spread. The female pro-
duces eggs, which are scattered over the ground. Other birds
eating contaminated food or drinking contaminated water be-
come infested. The worms at this stage are very small and
burrow through into the windpipe, where they accumulate in
clusters and gradually grow as described above.
324. How to Prevent the Spread of Gapeworms. Be sure
that every gapeworm is destroyed by burning. ~
325. How to Treat the Affected Bird. Double a horse hair,
or strip all the barbs off a feather except the tip, and pass it .
down the windpipe (trachea) as far as possible and withdraw it,
-at the same time giving a twist as you do so. Usually the worm
will be brought out.
326. Tapeworms of Chickens. There are several varieties of
tapeworms that infest the small intestine of the fowl.
BPAGE The Essentials of Poultry Raising
327. Structure of Tapeworms. The tapeworm consists of a
head, neck, and body. The head is slightly larger than the neck
and is provided with suckers, and, in some varieties, with small
hooks with which it holds -on to the intestinal wall. The neck
in some varieties is short and in others it is long. The seg-
ments which make up the body grow from the lower end. Each
segment is a complete individual within itself, fertilizing itself,
obtaining its own food, and maturing hundreds of eggs. As —
fast as the segments at the end of the worm are filled with
fully developed eggs, they detach themselves and pass out to
contaminate the feed and water consumed by other fowls,
thereby infesting them. The tapeworm has no digestive tract.
It lives by absorbing the digested nutrients of the intestines in
which it grows. 7
328. Size of Tapeworms. Tapeworms of fowls vary in size
from those just large enough to be seen to worms three or four
inches in length and an eighth to one-fourth of an inch wide.
329. The Intermediate Host. Some of the tapeworms pass a
part of their life in other parasites or animals; among these
intermediate hosts are house flies, snails, and earth worms. The —
fowls devouring these worms and insects containing the larvae
become infested.
330. Treatment of Birds Infested With Tapeworms. To each
fifty birds use one-half* pound of finely chopped tobacco stems.
Steep the tobacco in hot water for two hours and mix with
mash. Two doses should be given two days apart. The treat-
ment should be administered in the morning on an empty crop
and no feed should be given during the day of the treatment.
The birds treated should be moved to houses and yards free
from the infestation. The yard can be disinfected by using one
gallon, one to one thousand bichloride of mercury, to each ten_
square feet of space. The houses should be thoroughly cleaned —
and the same solution used in them as on the ground.
331. Effect of Large Numbers of Tapeworms Upon the Bird.
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 115
Tapeworms rob the bird of food nutrients. The bird becomes
unthrifty, the feathers are ruffled, it loses flesh, does not eat,
has a deranged digestion. Growing birds are stunted, while
laying hens fall off in their yield of eggs.
332. The Large Round Worm. The large worm infests the
small intestine. It is about two inches long and white in color.
333. How the Large Round Worms Multiply. The large round
worms multiply by laying eggs which pass out with the drop-
pings. The feed and. water become soiled and other birds eat
this soiled feed and become infested.
334. Conditions Produced and Treatment. The conditions pro-
duced are similar to those observed for tapeworms (331) and the
treatment should be the same (330).
335. The Small Round Worm. The small round worm is found
in the blind pouches (caeca). Large numbers of them will
produce similar symptoms to those produced by other worms
(331). This worm is round in shape and white in color. Its
method of multiplication is the same as that of the large round
worm (332). The treatment should be similar to that for tape-
worms (330). |
CHAPTER XXIIl
POULTRY AS AN IMPORTANT ENTERS
ON THE FARM
336. Importance. The growth of poultry and egg production :
on business lines in the United States during the past two
decades has been remarkable. No class of live stock is so uni-
versally raised as poultry. Eggs are very high in the life-
giving principal, vitamine, and are being used more and more
in view of the high price of other meat-food products. The
products of poultry rank in value next -to those of the diary
or to the animals slaughtered for food. About one-sixth of the
total value of animal products in the United States is credited
to poultry. The demand for. poultry and-eggs has increased
much more rapidly than the supply. With the close applica-
tion of business methods in marketing farm products, and the
keeping of more poultry on a single farm or marketing through
clubs, the excess of better poultry products can be put on the
market to an advantage.
337. Opportunities. Poultry raising as a ine of the
farm can be successfully carried on in connection with orchards,
as in fruit growing; in cultivated lands, as in corn or cotton, or
in fields where other large plants are grown; and in connection —
with pastures. Poultry have been turned into vineyards, after
the crop is harvested and until next year’s blooming time. In
these vineyards, the chickens devour bugs and other insects
which prey upon the bushes, trees, and plants. Many orchard-
men keep chickens in their orchards, in small flocks, to consume
the worms and other insects that destroy the fruit. Usually.
these flocks consist of about twenty-five birds, or about five
birds per acre. Often portable houses are provided for chickens
* ’ |
i
r i
- ‘ .
a FH ¥,
The Essentials of Poultry Raising t17
in fields where the grain has been removed. The birds devour
the insect life, manure the ground, and protect the next year’s
crop by destroying insect life. which would have otherwise
hibernated to do damage the following year. One hundred hens
will void one and one-half tons of droppings a year. Each ton
of poultry fertilizer is worth, at the present price, $25.00.
338. Poultry in Connection With Dairying. Poultry and dairy-
ing go hand in hand. In a dairy there is usually much waste
skim milk, and, at times, buttermilk. Milk makes quick growth
in chicks. Recently the North Carolina Experiment Station
demonstrated that chicks fed ground feed, mixed with milk,
made 30 per cent greater growths than other flocks fed the
same ground feed without milk. The Indiana Experiment
Station recently showed that hens fed*ground feed and grain
and no milk or animal food laid an average of 59.35 eggs per
hen per year, while other flocks fed the same ground feed and
grain and milk averaged 183.5 eggs per hen per year.
339. Utilization of Waste. The waste of foods from the table
and kitchen is often sufficient to keep a dozen hens. On the
average hundred-acre farm there is enough waste in yards and
around the barn and nearby fields to more than supply one-half
the food for fifty hens.
340. Little Capital Required on the Farm. On the farm
poultry raising can be begun with little capital. An old build-
ing may be remodeled at a small cost, or much of the framing
material can be secured from the farm woodyard, and oftentimes
logs may be hauled to nearby sawmills and sawed into boards
for the construction of poultry houses. The flock can be orig-
inated in the fall by buying some good birds, or baby chicks
may be purchased in the spring and a flock of pullets be raised
during the summer months. If the farm has a flock of mongrels,
eggs from pure-bred flocks may be purchased during March and
April and a flock of pullets raised for the next year’s breeding
and egg production. In this case the cockerels, being pure bred,
118 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
can be sold at more than food prices as breeders, the culls being
used on the family table. ,
341. Relation of Profit and Investment. There is no branch
of live stock that gives such quick returns as poultry. Pullets
hatched in the spring, if properly cared for and fed, will be in
full laying condition in six or seven months and, if properly
housed and fed, will lay all winter when eggs are high-priced.
Poultry raising is a branch of live stock production that can be
adapted both to men and women or to boys and girls. Modern
facilities make marketing easy. According to the 1910 census,
the average income from poultry from each farm in the United
States was $92.39. It is no doubt much more now. There is
no reason why several hundred dollars cannot be made on every
farm each year from poultry, in addition to the supply of a
part of the meat food for the table and clothing and groceries
for the family, since eggs and poultry are traded at the country
store for these commodities. The New Jersey Experiment
Station has shown that the farm income from poultry for capital
invested and labor given was greater than for dairy, truck, or
general farming.
342. Requirements for Success. The requirements for success —
may be summed up in a few words, as follows: the culling of
the flock each year; the keeping of profitable hens only; the
keeping of vigorous males with good capacity; proper houses,
care, feed, and range; the hatching of pullets at the right time ©
of the year for winter laying. |
343. Utilization and Distribution of Labor on the Farm. Small
flocks can be kept with very little extra labor by so arranging
the poultry work as to have it come in the list of chores. Where
small flocks are kept, hatching can be done with the hen by
using the combination sitting and brooding coop, so that the
hen needs attention but once a day while hatching and three
times a day while brooding. The chicks, after they are weaned
and turned on range, should be given dry mash in an outdoor
— a
a os
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 119
mash hopper and grain and water three times a day, and the
laying and breeding stock should receive like attention, using
in this manner chore time in which to do the poultry work.
This department of the farm will give the largest return for
the time spent on it. Where poultry raising constitutes a main
department of the farm more time will need to be apportioned
for it, but if correctly planned and carried out, it will pay a
good profit.
344. Tenant and Landlord’s Shares Where Poultry Are Raised
in Partnership. From data collected by the North Carolina
Experiment Station, the following division will be about equita-
ble: In cases where the landlord furnishes all the feed, he is
entitled to 50 per cent of the returns when all the feed is pur-
chased in the market. In cases where the landlord furnishes
the land, buildings, equipment, and pays the taxes and other
land costs, he is entitled to 25 per cent of the returns; where
the tenant furnishes the breeding stock and all the labor, he
is entitled to 25 per cent of the returns. Where the landlord
and tenant pay equally for the feed and other supplies are fur-
nished as above outlined, then they should share equally the
returns from the sale of eggs, birds, and the young stock.
345. Labor and Return of a Hundred Hens as Compared to
a Family Cow. Warren estimates that the amount of labor
required to care for a family cow would amount to a man’s
work for fifteen days, and a horse’s for two days. Elliot and
Brown estimate that the returns from this one cow would be
approximately $70.60. The North Carolina Experiment Station
has found that 100 hens will require about eighteen days’ farm
labor a year and two horse days, and should bring in a net
revenue of $1.80 per hen, or $180.00. It requires approximately
nine pounds of feed and 0.12 of an hour’s labor to produce a
dozen eggs. Two hundred to two hundred and fifty hens can
be kept in one’ flock with very little more labor than a hundred
hens. The following summary is taken from the records of
the North Carolina Experiment Station;
120 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
A Small Commercial Flock Owned by J. E.
Average tiumber of hens for the year. ee 233
Total cost @f feed ‘for the yéar 20 eee $ 598.51
Incidental expenses for thes year..i22 22002 4 eee S895 5 5%
There were ‘laid during the year202. 7 2.33 eee 32,877 egg
The total gross receipts for the year were... $1,159.79
Twenty days’ labor at $2.50 per day would be... 50.00
The house ‘and’ equipment cost... ee 250.00 ©
Six per cent for deterioration would make........ 2.222... 15.00
The ‘gfossimcome per hen was..200..5 oo 4.97
The interest at six per cent-on money invested in feed was... 35.88
The net income ner hen Was. ee 1.80
CHAPTER XXIV
SUGGESTIONS FOR PROJECTS AND LABORATORY
EXERCISES
Suggestions for Project Study
Note to the Teacher: These are mere suggestions. It is intended
that the teacher shall make the detail outlines to suit local conditions.
Two Major Projects (160 Hours Each)
1. To raise twelve pullets.
Secure 4 hens.
Make combination sitting and brooding coops (193).
_ Select suitable eggs (197).
Feeding and care (232).
Select for vigor (53).
Select for mating the following year (47-53).
2. To care for the home flock.
Cull hens (61-79).
Reconstruct house or construct new one (89-106).
Construct poultry house equipment (98-106).
If in the country, birds on range. -—
If-on town lot, fences and fencing (107-123).
Rotation in green feed (158).
Feeds and feeding (138-158).
Grading and marketing eggs (173-188).
Project earning report for the year 19—.
Time covered by project, ————— to
Inventories :
Beet OF Proietti se
gy AT iy 22) a 2 See Ae OE LA Ns Ses ee $—_—__—___—_—
Paid self for labor, bonis at —— cts. per hour, $————_,
ot which $————_ was cash.
Expenditures and receipts :
Total expenses (inventory, all labor, etc.)_.. erst ue
Total receipts (inventory, prizes, etc.) Bee Y2., SH
[fe cy | SS 2) a ee ae
Gross profit, including amount paid self for
SEE SES OE aE Oe eae armen
of which $———— was cash, as above
stated.
Chief source of gain
122 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
A Demonstration Project
(Double Major if Done by Student at School Requiring
Two Years to Complete)
3. School project showing results of crossbreeding (60).
Two Minor Projects (80 Hours Each)
4. To raise ten capons.
Select suitable cockerels as to age, size, and breed.
Caponizing.
Care and feeding.
Fattening.
Minor No. 4 can be used in conjunetion with Major No. 1.
5. To raise sufficient mangels, collards, or cabbage for the flock
for winter feed (158). Estimate one-half pound green feed for
twenty-five birds per day for the months when no green feed
can be had from the field.
Minor No. 5 can be used in cuca cay with Major No. 2.
Laboratory Practice
The following suggestions for additional laboratory exercises
are given to meet the need where more time can be devoted to
poultry study than that indicated in the body of the text.
The number following each topic refers to the reference text-
book in which the student should look up the subject.
a. before the number indicates Poultry Culture, Sanitation and
Hygiene.
b. before the number indicates American Standard of Perfection,
c. before the number indicates Poultry Diseases.
d. before the number indicates Anatomy of the Domestic Fowl.
Where no letter is given the reference is to this text.
1. Clean and spray house. Mix spray and study spray pumps (c-3).
2. Visit poultry show. Study breeds and quality of individual birds
and compare same breeds with your birds (b-all).
3. Hold school or inter-school poultry and egg show (a-25, 27).
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 123
4. Harvest litter and other poultry materials as feed.
5. Cull and market non-producing hens from nearby flock (61-80).
6. Cull young stock of your own or nearby flock (45-53).
7. Dig and store root crops (158).
&. Feeding a flock for egg production (170-171).
9. Mate up breeding pen (45-50).
10. Study incubator and make drawings of same (213-218).
11. Study hover and make drawing of same (a-24).
12. Construct nests (104).
13. Make insect powder and dust hens (311).
14. Mix feeds for flock (170-171).
15. Candle and grade market eggs (185-188).
16. Visit flock. Each student should compare good birds of his breed
with those of others (b-all).
17. Study parts of hard-boiled egg (207).
18. Fattening, killing, DCB Ine, and trussing (a-27 and 264).
19. Caponizing (a-25).
20. Draw plan for colony house: make list of material and estimate
cost (a-6), (92 to 100).
21. Make outdoor mash hopper (256- 257).
_ 22. Make combination sitting and brooding coop (192-194).
23. Make droppings box and scrape (105-106).
24. Study egg cases, egg cartons, shipping crates for live birds, and
other equipment (a-25).
25. Make feeding boards and hoppers for small chicks (237).
26. Remodeling a nearby poultry house (91).
27. Dissect and study digestion and egg-forming organs of a hen
(d-175), (135). 7
28. Judging fowls (b-all). | ‘
29. Records and accounting (a-28). ?
30. A study of diseases, such as sorehead, roup, and blackhead (125,
280, 299, 301, 320).
31. To put up a fence correctly (119-120). q
32. To lay paper and shingle. :
Skills to Be Verified and Judged by the Teacher
1. To catch and hold a fowl correctly.
ed Wa an a broody hen from the nest and place her in a broody
Oop.
3. To handle small chicks, mark them for identification, and put on
leg bands.
4. To enter and work in a house or pen without disturbing the fowls.
5. To clean and disinfect drinking utensils.
6. To distinguish sexes at an early age.
7. To tell a pullet from a hen. |
8. To identify the common breeds.
9. To estimate the weights of fowls.
10. To evaluate and identify the common feeds.
11. To keep a correct egg and feed account.
124 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
12. To test eggs incubating for fertility.
13. To put down eggs for winter use.
14. To mark eggs for identification.
Diary of Andy Jackson, Junior Poultry Keeper,
West Raleigh, January, 1919
Dr. Cr.
Feb. 1. Bought from Exp. Station, 50 S. C. Rhode tie |
isisnd. Red €g2$...0 ca.) Sea eee ee $ y
Left for incubation at station.
7. vee and tested eggs and found 5 infer-
tile
14. Culled out 2 more eggs.
21. 40 eggs hatched.
22. Borrowed 3 broody hens from Mother.
23. Paid for incubating and carrying chick-
a 11, ee NATED RAINES OENIE NE act 8, 1.50
24. Mixed chick feed in sour milk.
Cost ml eed ecco ei i eee a 1.50
‘Made 2 water fountains...n3 koe eee 50
PAROS I COODR...6. iin di dhananiocie a iasinua eee 2.00
March 1. poue. 50 more S. C. Rhode Island Red re
ee. ese te oe ee
Left to be incubated.
Pe TY RRS ene RMAC ck dA 5.00 e
21. 35 eggs hatched. Paid for incubating............ 1.50 ?
Cleaned and painted coop with carbolineum 50
Moved first lot to alfalfa range.
Installed second lot in coop.
April 1. Built Zogdlony houses. nae 5.00
15. Separated cockerels from pullets.
May 1. Caponized 20 cockerels, borrowed instru-
ments.
Nov. - 1.. First pullet laid egg.
Jan. 1. Sold 15 capons, weight 8 pounds each, at ;
50. cts. pound..<.....cse. ls ee $ 60.00
Inventory: 20 pullets at $2.00 each.........0....... 40.00
5 cockerels to sell as breeders at $3.00 each 15.00
$ 29.50 $115.00
Profit for year’s venture, $85.50.
Cl mh eh e.,CUh LC ii al
CHAPTER XXV
A FEW OF THE MORE COMMON QUESTIONS THAT
MAY BE USED FOR STUDY AND REVIEW
CHAPTER I
1. What are the principal purposes for which poultry is kept?
2. Has America been prominent in the development of the world’s poul-
try? Name some breeds developed in Amcrica.
3. From what sources does the supply of poultry and poultry products
of the large cities come? ©
4. At what time of year are the bulk of the broilers raised?
5. What means are employed to assure an even supply of broilers to
city people the year round?
6. How much money do the poultry products of each year represent?
7. Are there any means provided for fattening, dressing, and refriger-
ating poultry on a large scale? Discuss fully.
8. When thousands of cases of eggs accumulate at the large storing
and distributing centers, what is the most economical way of shipping to
other large consuming centers?
9. What class of people consume most of the water fowls and where
-are there large duck farms?
10. What country holds the record for the largest number of eggs laid
by a single hen in a year? How does America rank?
CHAPTER II
11. Is there any difference in the structure of the feathers of the
various plumage parts of the male bird? Discuss this difference.
12. Discuss the different types of combs and examine the birds of the
different breeds you have in the flocks, noting the kind of combs each
breed has.
CHAPTER III
13. What is meant by standard-bred fowls?
14. Who determines which fowls shall-be recognized as standard?
15. What is the American Standard of Perfection?
126 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
16. If you are told that a certain bird is of the American class and
that it is a Barred Plymouth Rock, which of these words indicate class,
which breed, and which variety, and what is meant by class, breed, and
variety?
17. Name some of the fowls which are most popular and give a reason
why these birds and not others are prominent.
CHAPTER IV
18. What are the various purposes for which birds are kept? What
reason can you assign for the non-combination oF all these qualities in
one breed?
19. Which breeds are bred most for high egg production? Are these
birds the most economical? Give reasons for your answer.
20. Is high egg production transmitted by both male and female fowls?
What proof have you for your answer?
21. Name the best meat breed and give reason for your answer.
22. Which are the most common utility birds and why? What is a
utility bird?
23. In selecting a male for breeding, name some of the points that
denote good vigor. What are some of the points that denote poor vigor?
24. What are some of the indications of a good hen for breeding
purposes?
25. If you have a flock of pure-bred birds but the average number of
eggs produced is below a hundred, how would you go about raising
the average of the flock from year to year?
26. What are the principal objects of poultry breeding on the farm?’
27. If you are going to mate birds and the hens have been running
with males from which you do not want chicks, how long will you have
to wait after making the new mating before you save eggs for hatching?
If hens have not been mated, how long will you have to wait?
28. If you cross a Leghorn male on Brahma hens, what will be the
result of the crossing? Is this crossing advisable? Give reason for your
answer.
CHAPTER V
29. At what time of year should hens be culled? Give reason for your
answer.
30. If you are culling hens in August and one hen has old plumage,
another is in full molt, and a third has an entirely new coat of feathers,
how would you rate them as to high egg production,—that is, which
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 127
.
would be the highest producer,, which next highest, and which the
poorest? Would you sell any for food, and if so, which ones?
31. What are some of the signs of a poor producer? of a high pro
ducer?
32. If a Single-Comb White Leghorn has a bleached beak and shanks
at least how many eggs has she produced?
33. Why does the abdomen enlarge as a hen comes into laying? If
a hen measures four fingers in capacity and three fingers in pubic span
about how many eggs should she lay?
34. What is the appearance of the comb and wattles of a laying hen?
of one not laying?
35. If one pullet begins to lay at five months of age and another at
eight months of age, estimating egg production from November 1 to
November 1, which will lay the greater number?
36. What is a vacational molter?
CHAPTER VI
37. What will be the effect upon the birds if kept in a house insuff-
ciently ventilated? Give reason for answer.
38. What is carbon dioxide? What will happen if the body does not
get rid of it?
39. What method. of ventilation will give the purest air? Why?
CHAPTER VII
40. What changes would you make in remodeling a house where the
roof leaks; the ground is lower than the outside ground; there are no
ventilating openings; the house is not battened; has cracks on all sides
and faces the north? |
41. Describe the different kinds of floors that can be used in con.
structing a new poultry house. Which is the most durable?
42. What is meant by an open-front house?
43. Why should.the perch poles be loose?
44. What advantage is the water rack?
45. How many feet of perch pole space will you need for fifty birds?
CHAPTER VIII
46. Name the poultry house equipment and tell what advantage is it
to have a house fully equipped.
47. What advantage is it to have a grain storage bin that holds 100
pounds?
128 ‘The Essentials of Poultry Raising
CHAPTER. 1X
48. What makes the most durable post? Why?
49. How can you make a wood post more durable?
50. A post hole was dug thirty inches deep, the post put in and
hurriedly filled in with dirt and tamped thoroughly on top. It was—
found that the post was loose. To what was the looseness due?
51. What kind of poultry wire is the most durable?
52. How would you handle poultry on a town lot?
CHAPTER X
53. What disease is likely to appear among your flock in the fall?
54. A bird is poor in flesh, has an offensive discharge from the nose,
a swelling below the eye, and feathers ruffled. What is likely to be
the disease? Give the treatment.
55. A bird has sores on its comb, face, and wattles. What is the
disease and treatment?
56. Among the birds that have a discharge from the nose there are
found some birds having sores in the mouth, with an accumulation of
cheesy material. Name the disease and treatment.
CHAPTER XI
57. What is the name of the storage reservoir at the base of the neck
where the feed is stored? (This is noted after a bird eats a full meal.)
58. In opening a fowl two long blind pouches are found. What is
the name of these pouches?
59. A loop of the intestine has lodged between it a si: whitish gland.
What is the name of this gland?
60. In examining the internal organs there is found a large, round,
thick-walled structure containing feed and grit. What is the name of
this organ? A small organ lying close to the liver is observed. What
is its name? f
CHAPTER XII
61. Ohio Bulletin No. 291 reports an experiment on the value of range
for hens. One of the trials gave the following results for a period of
882 days:
Cost of Value of
Feed Eggs Eggs
Mortality. Per Hen. Per Hen. Per Hen.
Confined 2.2 os 23.23% $1.96 241.1 $4.22
On range. 34 15.53% 1.97 278.3 4.85
—
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 129
What was the difference between the value of the eggs on range and
confined? How much would this amount to in a flock of fifty hens?
How much range should be provided for fifty hens? Suppose you were
to consider the difference in the value of the eggs produced as rent for
the range, would this be a satisfactory rent for the land? From the
table given, what other advantage do you see in the range?
62. What is the relative value of meat scrap, fish scrap, and skim
milk for laying hens? (See Purdue University Agricultural Experiment
Station Bulletin 182.)
63. From the results of experiments, would it pay better to feed
buttermilk to poultry or to hogs?
64. In what sections of the United States were prices of poultry and
poultry products highest for the ten years’ average from 1902-1911? In
which states highest? (See Warren’s Farm Management, p. 576.)
65. What evidence can you find that pure-bred poultry pays better
than mongrels or crosses?
66. What are the three nutrients required in poultry feeds?
67. Why is it necessary to feed mash in addition to grain feed?
68. How do peanut meal and soybean meal rank as poultry feeds?
69. What is likely to be the result if you feed 30 per cent of velvet
bean meal in mash?
70. If spoilt table scraps are fed to chicks, what is likely to be the
result? Suppose the table scraps are fresh: what.will be the result?
71. If you raise mangels for winter feed, when should they be planted,
when harvested, and how kept till winter?
CHAPTER XIII -
72. Hens have diarrhea with a greenish-yellow discharge; in looking
around the place foul water containers are found. What effect, if any,
might this have upon the health of the birds?
73. A flock of birds are fed irregularly, sometimes at six o’clock in
the morning, at other times at nine, at other times, not at all. They
are given similar treatment in the evening. What effect will this have
‘on egg production? Note the behavior of a flock about feeding time.
_ 74. Why is it necessary to feed mash with grain feed?
75. If hens are on range on a farm, will they get feed that will take
the place of the meat scrap of the mash? What is it?
76. If birds are underfed, what effect will it have upon their laying?
77. Name the grains used for scratch feed; the feeds used for mash.
I 30 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
CHAPTER XIV
78. How much money is estimated to be lost each year from the care-
less handling of eggs? Where does most of this loss occur? What can
be done to prevent it?
79. In flocks where you do not want to save eggs for hatching, is
there any advantage in not having males with the hens?
80. What is the simple method of grading eggs for market?
81. Cases of what size are most economical for handling eggs?
82. What is the danger of hauling eggs in a farm wagon over rough -
roads? |
83. What is the best way of shipping eggs for hatching?
84. What is meant by blind checks, checks, dents, and leakers?
85. An egg under the candler shows an air cell the size of a dime: of
what age is the egg? Another shows an air cell as large as a quar-
ter: of what age is this egg?
86. What is the advantage of marketing eggs in clubs?
CHAPTER XV
87. Chicks are hatched by an incubator: is this natural or artificial
incubation?
' 88. What are the advantages of the combination sitting and brooding
coop on the farm?
CHAPTER XVI
89. Eggs for hatching were separated intc two lots: in one were
uniform, well-shaped, large eggs; in the other were round, long, and
thin-shelled eggs; others with ridges around them, under-sized, some
abnormally large and some short. Which group is best for hatching
purposes?
90. John Smith has some eggs he has been saving for hatching; he
has some broody hens on the laying nests; he collects the eggs every
day, sometimes every two days, and the eggs are twenty-five days old
and have been kept in a warm room. Are these eggs suitable for use
as setting eggs? s
91. If you want to raise fifty pullets, and estimate that half of the ©
chicks raised will be pullets, how many eggs will you need to set to.
produce the required number?
92. You wish Leghorn pullets to begin laying in the fall when eggs
are high-priced. When should you hatch the chicks to produce these
fall and winter laying pullets?
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 131
93. You have two hens that want to sit,—one a small hen like a Leg-
horn, another a large, well-feathered hen. Which will make the best
sitter and mother?
94. What are the signs that tell you when a hen wants to sit?
95. What are the different parts of an egg and where is each part
formed?
96. In candling eggs, on the fifth day one egg appears clear and
another looks as if a spider were in the center: tell about each egg.
On the sixteenth day in candling, the air cell is large but clouded and
the dark mass within is not quite so large as in another egg which
has a clear, large air cell: tell about each of these.
97. Can you expect as large a hatch with an incubator as with a
hen?
CHAPTER XVII
98. If you put two hundred eggs in an incubator, how many chicks
should you expect?
99. Describe the construction of an incubator. How do you prepare
the machine for operation and at what temperature should it be run?
100. Mrs. Jones ran her incubator with even temperature but did not
turn the eggs during incubation: will any of the eggs hatch?
101. You are going-to run a two-hundred-egg incubator and produce
three consecutive hatches. What size brooder and how many brooders
will you need? :
CHAPITER-X VIII
102. When should the chick receive the first feed and why?
103. Mr. Smith wishes to grow his Rhode Island Red chickens to 1.5
or 2 pounds weight by the end of eight weeks, but has nothing but corn,
oats, and wheat screenings to feed them from the time of hatching: is
it necessary for him to secure other feeds to make this forced growth,
and if so, what mixture do you recommend?
104. A small flock of chicks were fed and then allowed to stay out-
‘side the hover in cold weather for an hour, becoming chilled: what was
the probable result?
105. If chicks are allowed to eat feed that has lain around and become
sour, what is likely to be the result?
106. Is grit necessary, and if so, why?
107. What kind of feed will you give to young poults? goslings?
ducks?
132 The Essentials of Poultry Raising
CHAPTER XIX
108. What is the usual length of time of fattening fowls for market?
109. Is there any advantage in feeding fattening birds buttermilk?
110. Mr. Brown began fattening his broilers by giving them an extra
amount of feed, allowing a surplus to lie in the trough before the birds
at all times: his birds were off feed and did not make satisfactory ga
Was there anything wrong with his method of feeding?
111. How is live poultry shipped to market?
112. How are market eggs prepared for shipping and what are the
costs of marketing?
113. Is there any advantage in preserving eggs for home winter use?
CHAPTER XX
114. What are some of the most common catises of diarrhea in chicks?
115. What is white diarrhea? How do you tell it? How do chicks
become infected, and what is the best thing to do to stop it?
116. Mr. Osborne went to a friend’s poultry yard where the hens were
dying of fowl cholera and handled the birds, besides walking around in
the yard. Was there danger of his carrying the disease to his flock?
117. How can you thoroughly disinfect a poultry house and yard?
118. How can you raise turkeys so that they will not have blackhead?
CHAPTER XXI
119. A flock of birds have pale faces and combs; some have been
found dead under the perch poles in the morning; the birds’ feathers
are ruffled, and a fuzzy white material is noticed in the cracks of the
perch poles: what do you suspect to be wrong and what further investiga-
tion is necessary?
120. How do you examine a bird for lousiness? How do you treat
lousy birds?
121. Where do lice multiply? mites?
122. A hen has thick scales on her legs and presents an unsightly ap-
pearance: what is likely to be the trouble and how do you cure it?
123. A chicken has a few small black objects sticking to the un- —
feathered part of the head and neck: what are the parasites and what
is the treatment?
CHAPTER XXII
124. In dressing a chicken, a round worm about two inches long and
white in color is found in the intestine: what is this worm and is the
meat of the chicken fit for food?
The Essentials of Poultry Raising 133
125. How do worms multiply? How do birds become infested with
them? How do you get rid of worms? i
126. What is the structure of a tapeworm, and does a tapeworm eat?
127. How do birds become infested by tapeworms?
Final Examination
128. Write an article for a farm paper on the opportunities in the
poultry industry in your county.
129. What are the advantages of increasing poultry on our farms
from the standpoint of farm management, including the relation of
investment to profit, utilization, and distribution of labor, etc.?
130. Compare the man labor required to care for a hundred hens for
a year to that for one cow for the same period, including profit, invest-
ment, labor, etc. : :
131. What price may be secured for fowls marketed as eggs, broilers,
young breeding stock? (Ref. N. J. Bul. 329.)
132. Make a survey of several farms in your community and report
in full on the poultry.
INDEX
Abdomen, of laying hen, 36, droppings box, 52.
of non-laying pens 36. mash hopper, indoor, 48, 49.
Age, of breeders, 30. nests, 50, 51.
_ for mating, 30. poultry house, 42.
Air cell of egg, 30. outdoor mash hopper, 101.
Artificial brooding, 89. sitting and brooding coop, 83.
brooders for, 92. Cotton seed meal, 66.
construction of brooders for, 92. Cross mere: results ob; aa.
and incubating, 89. Culling hens, 34,
Culls of flock, “yy.
Barley, 66.
Beak, bleaching of in laying hens, 34. Deflector hover, 92.
Bin, grain storage, 49. Diarrhea, 106. ”
Blackhead of turkeys, 108.
How to tell, 108. rete see 106.
treatment of, 109.
Bleaching of shanks and beak due to Distance poe ee
laying, 32. : :
Body changes due to laying, 35. epenapnig So 52.
Bracing posts, 56. -
Breeders, age of, 30. Ducks or 33.
ia ind hens ee 29. raga
males for, 28. .
ducks for, 71. Eggs, blood ring, 75.
geese for, 32. candling, 75
turkeys for, 31. car lots, 11.
Breeding birds, 69. cases, 77.
Breed, 17, 18. fillers, 79.
Brooding, natural, 82. : flats, 79.
Buckwheat, 66. cold storage, 10.
. cracks in, 79
Carbon dioxide of body, 38. fresh, 80.
how got rid of, 38. grading, 76.
Candler, use of, 79. grading according to color, 76.
hatch spots, 80.
hatching, how to ship, 78, 85.
hauling to market, 78.
Candling eggs, 78.
Cannibalism, 98.
Capacity of perch poles, 44
ee how marketed, 10, 77, 103.
ase Leanieplcye iy length of time required to hatch, 85.
when to hatch, 86. losses on farm, 75
Chicks on range, 98. marketing in clubs, 81. :
Chilling, effects of, 98. points in grading, 77.
Cholera, fowl, 107. preservation, 103. _
how to tell, 107. kinds of containers, 103.
treatment of, 107. water glass, 103
Class, 107. production, 27.
males not necessary to, 33.
‘molting, as an indication of, 36.
upward tendency in, 35.
size of air cell of, 188.
production records, 13.
Classification of poultry, 107.
Combination sitting and brooding me
Common fowls, 20.
Corn, 65. E :
cracked, 66. cxercise, value of,
meal, 66. ° Extension runs, 103.
Construction, of artificial brooders, 92.
of cold brooders, 92. Farm poultry, 31.
of coops, 83. Fats, 63. ;
of combination sitting and brooding Fattening establishments, 10.
coop, 83. for market, 10.
Fattening poultry, 102.
length of time required for, 102.
feeds for, 102.
Feeds, 65.
barley, 66. ~
blood meal, 67.
buckwheat, 66.
corn, 65.
cottonseed meal, 66,
fish scrap, 67.
grazing crops, 68.
green feed, 67.
when to plant, 69.
grit and shell, 97.
meat scrap, 67.
milk, 67.
oats, 66.
peanut meal, 67.
rice, 66.
rye, 66.
soybean meal, 67.
spoiled feed, 67.
velvet bean meal, 67.
water, 98.
wasting, 99.
weights, 74.
wheat, 61.
boards, required for, 96.
Feeding, chicks, 96, 97.
chickens, 73.
ducks, 96.
geese, 100.
goslings, 100.
poults, 100.
regularity of, 71.
turkeys, 99.
Fencing and yarding, 54.
farm poultry, 56.
on town lot, 56.
posts, 54, 55.
standard height, 56.
wire, 54, 55.
Fleas, 112.
how they multiply, 112.
stick tight, 112.
treatment for, 112.
Floor space, 46.
Fowls, cholera, 107.
common, a
origin of, 9.
kinds of, 9.
structure of, 14,
Galus Bankiva, 9.
Geese, 21.
Grading eggs, 76.
Grain mixtures, 73.
Grain storage bin, 48,
Grazing crop, 67.
Green feed, 67.
Grit for chicks, 97.
Hatching eggs, 85.
Hens to discard, 35.
Hopper, mash, 48.
House, construction of, 42, 145.
equipment of,
floor space of, 44,
for hover, 92, 93.
Index 135
nests in, 44.
plans of, 46, 47.
remodeling ‘of, 42.
ventilation of, 38, 40.
Hovers, construction of, 95.
deflector, 92.
house, 92.
Incubation, artificial, 89.
body of incubator for, 89.
candling eggs in, 92.
care of eggs in, 91.
construction of incubator for, 89.
heat necessary in, 91.
kinds of, 89.
leveling in, 91.
methods of heating in, 89.
natural, 82.
oil-burning, 90.
parts of incubator for, 89.
small-incubator for, 89.
Indications of vigor, 29.
Kinds of fowls, 9
incubators for, 89.
Laying hens, how to select, 34.
abdomen. of, 36.
abdomen, condition of, 32, 36.
beak of, 35.
body of, 35.
condition of, 32.
measurements of, 35.
sex characters of, 36.
shanks of, 35.
vent of, 35.
Lice, 108.
effect on birds of, 10.
how to find on birds, 110.
how they multiply, 110.
treatment for, 110.
Market, fattening poultry for, 10.
Marketing, eggs, 103
in clubs, 81.
surplus eggs, 10.
Market grades of fowls, 103.
Mating, age for, 30.
number of females to male in, 32.
time to save eggs for, 31
Mash hopper, 48, 101
Mash, 71
dry, i242;
formulae for, 72.
hot, 22.
mixtures 02°73.
reasons for feeding, 72.
Meat fowl,
qualities in a, 27.
Meat scrap, 67.
Measurements of laying hens, 35.
Milk, 67.
Milk fattening poultry, 102.
Mites, 110.
effects on birds of, 110.
how they multiply, 110.
treatment for, 110.
where found, 110.
136 Index
Molting, indications of in egg produc- Scrape, droppings, 59.
tion, 38. Scaly legs, 112.
vacational, 36. appearance of, 112.
= : treatment of, 112.
Natural brooding, 82. Selection of males for breeding, 27.
incubating, 82. eggs for hatching, 85.
Nests, construction of, 50. for vigor, 29.
sizes of, 44. hens for breeding, 29.
Nutrients, 65. laying hens, 34.
carbohydrates, 65. Set a hen, ee to, 84.
hydrocarbons, 65. Sex characters of laying hens, 36.
kinds of, 65. Sex of ducks, how distinguished, 30.
protein in, 65. Shipping poultry, 103.
required, 72. Shanks, bleaching of due to laying, 34.
Organs, of digestion, 62. Sitting and brooding coop, 82
of breathing, 64 Sitting hens, 86
of respiration, 64. Sore head, 61.
Origin of fowls, 9. how to tell, 61.
Ornamental fowls, 38. treatment of, 61.
Oxygen of air, 38. Soybean meal, 67.
how needed, 38. Spoiled feeds, 67. .
how taken up, 38. Shipping eggs, 77.
Overcrowding, effects of, 98. BR Laie poultry, 10.
Overheating, 98. Starch, 65.
Perch poles, 44.. Steel posts, 54.
Physical condition of laying hens, 34. Structure of fowl, 14.
Physical defects of laying hens, 34. Sugars, 65.
Peanut meal, 67. Swollen eye, 58.
Posts, bracing of, 56. treatment of, 58.
yi -
urable, 54.
not durable, 54. Turkeys, 21.
reinforced concrete, 55. as
setting of, 56. Utility fowls, 27. :
steel, 54. Upward tendency of egg production, 35.
wood, 54.
Poultry house construction, 42. Vacational molt, 36.
remodeling, 42. Variety, 17, 19.
ventilation, 36, 40. Velvet bean meal, 67.
Poultry, breeding of on farm, 31. Vent, condition of in laying hens, 33.
: classification, 17. in non-laying hens, 35
fattening of, 10. Ventilation, by diffusion, 38.
in other countries, 13. by drafts, 40.
in America, 9. required in poultry houses, 38.
magnitude of industry, —. Vigor, lack of, 31.
national organization for breeding, 17. of chicks, 86.
purpose for which kept, 9. selection for, 29, 30.
standard, 17. good constitutional, 31.
Production, capon, 11. Volume of feeds, 74.
duck, 11
egg, 11. Water glass, 103.
meat, 27. supply of, 71.
turkey, 11. | : hi Wheat, 66.
Pullet, indication of laying qualities Wire fencing, 55.
the in, 36.. Worms, 113.
Qualities of hens, 35, 36. gapeworms, 113.
laying hens, 36. how spread, 113.
meat fowls, 27. effect on birds, 113.
Range chicks, 98. treatment, 113.
Results of cross breeding, 32. tapeworms, 113.
Rice, 68. structure, 114.
Roup, 58. size of, 114.
cause of, 58. treatment of, 114.
how to prevent, 60. large round, 115.
spread of, 58. condition produced.by, 115.
how to.tell, 58. treatment for, 115.
treatment of, 59. small round, 115,
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