Full text of "Etymological researches; wherein numerous languages apparently discordant have their affinity traced, and their resemblance so manifested as to lead to the conclusion that all languages are radically one .."

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Ex Libris
C. K. OGDEN

/Z/e^a )i c/e>- cd^cu^'- a/, c^. ,y4 .

THE LIBRARY

THE UNIVERSITY

OF CALIFORNIA

LOS ANGELES

ETYMOLOGICAL RESEARCHES

WHEREIN

NUMEROUS LANGUAGES APPARENTLY DISCORDANT

HAVE THEIR

AFFINITY TRACED,

AND THEIR RESEMBLANCE SO MANIFESTED AS TO LEAD TO THE CONCLUSION

THAT

ALL LANGUAGES ARE RADICALLY ONE.

THOSE CHIEFLY CONSIDERED AND COMPARED

ARE

ENGLISH, WELCH, GALIC, MANX, GOTHIC, DANISH, SWEDISH, M^SO-GOTHIC, PERSIAN, SLAVONIAN,

LATIN, GREEK, HEBREW, CHALDEE, ARABIC, LAPONIC, ETHIOPIC, COPTIC, TURKISH,

PERSIAN, SANSCRIT, AND THE LANGUAGES OF INDIA.

BY JOSEPH TOWNSEND, M.A.,

RECTOR OF PErrSEY, jriLTS; LATE OF CLARE HALL, CAMBRIDGE.

AUTHOR OF "A JOURNEY THROUGH SPAIN," 2 VOLS.; AND "GEOLOGICAL AND MINERALOGICAL RESEARCHES, DURING A PERIOD OF WORE
THAN FIFTY YEARS IN ENGLAND, SCOTLAND. IRELAND, S\V1TZERLAND, HOLLAND. FRANCE, FLANDERS AND SPAIN."

bath:

PRINTED BY GYE AND SON, MARKET PLACE;

AND SOLD BY SAMUEL BAGSTER, No. 15, PATERNOSTER RO\V, LONDON.

MDCCCXXIV.

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THE

WORKS or THE REV. JOSEPH TOWNSEND. M. A.,

ARE

I. TRAVELS THROUGH SPAIN, 2 Volumes, Quarto. Price £ 2 : 2 : boards.

II. GEOLOGICAL AND MINERALOGICAL RESEARCHES, during a jieriod of more than fifty years in England, Scotland,
Ireland, Switzerland, Holland, France, Flanders, and Spain. One Volume, Quarto. Price £ 1:1:0, boards.

III. ETYMOLOGICAL RESEARCHES; wherein numerous Languages apparently discordant, have their affinity traced, and
their resemblance so manifested, as to lead to the conclusion that all Languages are radically one. Those chiefly considered and com-
pared are, English, Welch, Galic, Manx, Gothic, Persian, Slavonian, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, Laponic, Ethiopic, Coptic,
Turkish, Persian, Sanscrit, and the Languages of India. One Volume, Quarto, £1:1:0, boards.

*,• The two preceding Articles were published in 1613, under the title " The Character of Moses established for Veracity as an Historir.u, recording
Events subsequeut to the Deluge."

IV. SERMONS, on the Being of God, &c. One Volume, Octavo. 8s.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Language i

Abbreviations • 25

Transpositions 29

Orthography • • 30

Investigation of Radicals 39

First Inhabitans of Britain 59

English Language 70

English and Greek SI

Welch Language 153, 24S

Galic ditto 172

Manx ditto 252

Gothic Languages- ■ • 238

Runic Characters 247

Bardic ditto 248

Pelasgian ditto 248

Danish Language •• 247, 353

Swedish ditto 26 1

Danish and Greek 266

Swedish and Greek 279

Maeso Gothic Language 26i

Persian ditto. >-» 301

fAQS.,

Sanscrit Language ♦ 308

Russian ditto 331

Slavonian ditto 351

Latin ditto 363

Greek ditto 372

Greek and Hebrew, their Affinity 395

Laponic and Hebrew 401

Hebrew Language 407

Chaldee ditto 411

Arabic ditto ■' 415

Syriac ditto 417

Ethiopic ditto 420

Coptic ditto 422

Turkish ditto 423

Tower of Babel and Confusion of Tongues 424

Dispersion of Mankind 428

The Call of Abraham 431

Pastoral State 433

Population >> 435

The Deliverance of Israel from Egypt • • • • 435

THE

CHARACTER OF MOSES, &c.

ON LANGUAGES.

JtJ-OSES informs us, that after the deluge and before the dispersion
of mankind, the whole earth was of one language. This fact it will
not be difficult, independently of revelation, to render probable.

That men united in community should have one language, is perfectly
agreeable to common observation. It might be sufficient therefore to
demonstrate, that all mankind are descended from the same progeni-
tors, and at a given period constituted one family. This, 1 trust, has
been accomplished in a former volume, and, if so, from this it will
follow, that they had one language. I shall here, however, take a
different course, and by examining to a considerable extent the appa-
rently discordant languages, which have prevailed in the world, shall
trace their resemblance, and, should I be able to demonstrate, or even to
make it probable, that all the languages, with which we are acquainted,

VOL. II. B

and consequently, by a well founded analogy, that all languages have
an affinity and are radically one; the arguments adduced to prove, that
the human race descended from the same progenitors, and at a distant
period constituted one family, will be abundantly confirmed.

In proceeding to this arduous undertaking the most skilful etymolo-
gist must tremble; when he calls to mind the number of languages,
which have been, or now continue to be spoken in the four quarters of
the globe, and considers how little resemblance they retain to each
other in meaning, orthography, and ^ound.

Yet if we remark the influence of climate on the organs of speech, on
the productions of the earth, both in the animal and regetable kingdoms,
on the nature and number of our wants, with the means of supplying
them; if we consider our occupations and pursuits, which differ, not
only in the savage, but in the civilized stages of society, according
as men subsist either by the fruits of the earth spontaneously produced,
by hunting, by fishing, by flocks and herbs, by the plough, by arts and
manufactures, or by all these united and combined with commerce ; if
we make allowance for the effects of government and political economy
on the thoughts and discussions of mankind, according as they either
live without property and laws, or establish property and submit to
laws; if we reflect on the difference in the vocabulary of those, who
have religion compared with such nations as have none; if we pay
attention to the variety of terms required to express ideas connected with
these various conditions of mankind, and the accidents, which influence
the choice of terms; we shall readily conceive, that a language, originally
one, may have split into a multitude of forms, which preserve little re-

semblance to each other, or even to the parent language, from which
they all proceed.

When a nation passes from civilized to savage life; the vocabulary gra-
dually becomes contracted. But, when it emerges from this state; a
necessity instantly arises of inventing a multiplicity of new expressions,
suited to it's increasing wants, to it's progress in the arts and sciences, to
it's customs, occupations and pursuits, to its religion, government and
laws.

But should a colony go forth, and, being separated either by alpine
mountains, by wide and rapid rivers, or by the ocean, lose all connexion,
all intercourse and communication with the parent state; and should this
colony have been composed of fishermen, of hunters, of noniade hordes,
or of the illiterate vulgar, who have few ideas beyond objects of the first
necessity, and consequently few expressions; the change of language
might be rapid, and, when, at a distant period, this little colony should
have risen up into a nation ; it might be difficult to trace the affinity be-
tween their language and that of the country, from which they originally
came.

Colonies again proceeding in like manner from this colony, might
scarcely retain a vestige of resemblance in their expressions, either to
their remote progenitors, or even to each other.

Mr. Planta, in his interesting history of the Helvetic confederacy
(vol. I. p. 13) shews clearly, what the want of communication effects in
changing languages. For, speaking of Switzerland, he says, " In a
country, like this, where every valley is the whole world to its inhabi-
tants, the nearest neighbours are frequently such strangers to each other

B 2

as to differ widely in many of their customs, and sensibly so in their
dialects. Among the mountains of the Grisons, the Romance is spoken,
but there are as many dialects of this as there are vallies and villages."

The same has been noticed by all travellers in similar situations,
throughout the globe, and wc universally observe, that the language
of little and detached communities is less permanent, than that of a
great nation, because among them capricious changes are quickly com-
municated and readily adopted eiiher in pronunciation or in the intro-
duction of new terms. Professor Pallas tells us, that Caucasus exhibits
more than twenty-two dialects of eight or nine distinct and several lan-
guages, and that Kamtschatka, whose population, when first discovered
by the Russians, seemed to he but just commenced, contained nine
dialects of three discordant lanouawes, more distinct and better charac-
terized, with much less affinity, either among themselves, or when com-
pared to the languages of Europe, than these have to the ancient Celtic.

The same observation nearly is made by Charlevoix, respecting the
Indians of New France, among whom he traces three mother tongues,
and observes, that the dialects of each are as numerous as their
villages.

From what has been said, it will appear, that should three fami-
lies, diverging from one point, spread themselves with their flocks over
new settlements, in opposite directions, to such a distance as to have
no subsequent communication either with the parent stock, or with
each other; the language of their descendants would, in a few genera-
tions, differ nmch from that of their progenitors. And in similar cir-
cumstances, such divergencies from given points being frequently re-

peated during a succession of some thousand years; should we attempt
to investigate the affinity of these ancient languages; we should, from
every point of divergency, have new analogies to trace, the discordancies
would multiply, and before we could arrive at the first language, scarce
a vestige of resemblance might remain.

When detached communities, or wandering hordes are surrounded
by other hordes, with whom they are incessantly engaged in war, and
are cither subduing or subdued ; it cannot be expected that they should,
for any length of time, preserve their language pure. In such circum-
stances they must inevitably blend a multitude of languages together.

In new colonies, such as I have above described, poverty of language
leads to change ; because one single expression is obliged to represent
many distinct ideas, which, in numerous instances, have but a remote
analogy. A vivid imagination seizes the most faint resemblance, and
compels the same term to serve for various purposes. A word thus used,
if happily applied, gives dignity to language, rivets the attention, fixes
itself in the memory, and, if universally approved, passes current as
a classical expression. Poverty of language gave birth to metaphois,
but their beauty recommends them to our use. Like our garments,
they niay have originated either in regard to decency, or in weakness
and in want: but they are now resorted to for ornament, and give grace
to our discourse. These are the hieroglyphics of all nations, the elements
of Symbolic writing, even among nations who have adopted the use of
alphabetic characters.

Thus in various languages heart is used for benevolent affections, a
rocTc for security, a sword for war, a staff for support, light ^or pros-

perity, darkness for adversity, a shadow for protection, a horn for strength,
glory, courage, and sleep for death.

All nature supplies the orator with metaphors. Thus the public
speaker, the poet, and the clown, all equally contribute to change a
language.

With a view to grace, or to supply the deficiency of suitable expres-
sions, other tropes are admitted in discourse. Thus a part is substituted
for the whole, as in German Jlinte, in English fusil and firelock, are
used for musket. The genus frequently becomes the species, and specific
distinctions being overlooked, the term appropriate to one species is
applied to others. Thus in Danish riste means to broil, and stege to
roast. In Welch Ffordd means a road in general, whilst road is confined
specially to the passage of a river. In England these expressions are
reversed. Derw in W^elsh, like the corresponding term in Greek, means
oak, but drewo and drebo in the Slavonian dialects mean tree in general,
like pre7i in Welsh, which is allied to 't^p^vo; a term exclusively confined
to oak. Our word tail claims affinity to Tskog extremity: but tal in
Welch is now confined to the forehead, although formerly it was ex-
tended indifferently to head and tail.

From inattention to distinctions the male expression becomes female,
and the female is taken for the male, as in the word hen derived from
hane, which in Gothic signifies the male bird, as hcina does the female.
In Finland kana is confined to the female, and kucku to the male, answer-
ing to coq in French, and to cock in English. Connected with kucku
we have kuklein of German, kuckling of the Swedes, and chicken in

English, all indifferently applied to the male and female offspring of
the hen: but in either Canarese or Sanserit and in Spanish chico is a
little one.

In like manner the distinctions of age, sex, and condition, marked
in our words cow, bull, ox, steer, heifer, arc confounded in bos of the
Greek and Latin. In Galic agh comprehends every one of these, with
doe and hind, whilst bois and bo are restricted to the cow. In Welch,
ych, like our word ox, and the Russian bole, is confined wholly to the
castrated bull. Gaw in Sanscrit and Persian, means both cow and bull.

The terms Sheep, Ewe, Ram, Wether, with numerous others, are sub-
ject to the same caprice.

Such confusion arises from the transmission of terms without specific
and precise ideas.

Ignorance of the language, either in new settlers, or in occasional
visitors, is a very frequent cause of error. In no instance has this been
rendered more evident than in the names of rivers. We meet with at
least five Avons in Ireland, and more than six in England. We have
four rivers which bear the name of Team, Tama, Tame and Tamar, be-
sides the Tavy and Taw of Devonshire, the Tafy, Tivy, and Towy in
Wales, theTay, Teviod, and Tweed, in Scotland, and theTove in North-
amptonshire; yet neither Avon, Tame, Taw, Tay, Tove nor Tafy were
originally proper names; but meant river in general, the former being
essentially the same word with the Galic Amhuin, pronounced Aven, or
the Latin Amnis: and the latter with TOTaif^oj, as we shall prove in the
progress of our work. The rivers Wey, Wye, and Medway are the Galic
Obha, pronounced Owa, nearly resembling the French word Ean.

The rivers Asc, Esk, Isc, Usk, Isis, Oise and Ouse, with Ax, Ex and
Ux, which give their names to their several market towns, were merely,
like Obha, water, a stream, a river. So Rhine, the name of one river,
is no other than Rine, the Saxon appellation for stream, Gunga, is both
a generic and a specific term, meaning both river and the Ganges. In
like manner the Frith of Forth is literally the Sea of Sea, because neither
Frith nor Forth were originally proper names, but the latter was the same
word with mp^i^-eov, and the former with Fretum. Loch Linnhe, Loch
Lomond, and Lacus Lemanus, as used by Caesar in his Commentaries,
are repetitions, because Lemanus, or, in Tartarian, Liman, like Llynn
in Welch and Galic, and Xif^wi in Greek, means a lake, or an extensive
sheet of water. It is possible that Lynn in Norfolk may have derived
its name from hence. Lincoln anciently looked down upon a lake,
the termination Coin is Colonia. In Pinkerton's Geography, we meet
with Lake Loch Nor, that is Lake Lake Lake, for neither of these
words is a proper name, but Loch in Celtic, and Nor, both in Tartarian
and in Hebrew, mean lake in general.

By accommodation and general consent, the instrument and cause
are frequently substituted for the effect, or thing, produced. Or a
quality may be used to represent the animal or thing, in which that
quality is eminently found, as Avhen Homer uses the term 'tttuB. for a
hare, an animal distinguished for timidity, and for its endeavour to con-
ceal itself. The time is put for whatever is connected with it. Thus
middag in Sweden means dinner, and joiirnee in France, may be indif-
ferently day, day's work, journey, battle, pay.

In like manner the containing may stand for the contained, as cup

for drink, the pitcher in Spain for the heel, iiiuUon, bacon, &c. stewed
in it; and in every country, the tal)lc for the food which is placed
upon it. Camp means a phiin, or an army \\iUi its tents and equipage;
but in German it is used for a battle. The matter, of which a thing
is made, is taken for the thing itself, as, for instance haunt which in
German means a tree, is a beanKJn English. Cuirasse, that is coreacea
leather becomes a coat of mail.

The sign may supply the place of the thing signified, as uiien either
throne or sceptre is used for regal power.

A word, once diverted from its original signification, finds no rest, but
passes on in slow succession, and is made to represent, from time to time,
some new idea, as caprice may dictate, or necessity require. A learned
Abbe, who, flying from the tyranny of Robespierre, found refuge in
this island, was so obliging as to shew me a Chinese word, which in its
primary signification means to suck. This he traced through its various
ramifications, in a connected series till he found it terminate in near a
thousand difl^erent and distinct ideas.

Frequently the metaphorical acceptation of a word remains, when the
original meaning has been long since forgotten. 'J'hus it is in capricious,
which refers to the wild and sportive gambols of the kid, as sincere does
to honey, when it is free from wax: yet these expressions never suggest
an image to the mind, either of a goat, of honey, or of wax. In like
manner, pugno gives us the notion of a battle, whatever be the imple-
ment of war; but excites in us no image of the first, although pugno is
derived from pugnus. The same observation will apply to affront, insult,
backbite, counsel, conspire, &c. Sec.

VOL. II. c

When new terms, whether invented or imported, have been received
into a language, it frequently happens, that the correspondent ex-
pressions are laid aside, or acquire new significations. This we observe
in rival, knave, villain, rascal, churl, for these formerly conveyed the
several notions of neighbour, boy and man-servant, villager, lean beast
and rustic, precisely as the terms queen and quean, one of which is a
title of the highest dignity, Ihe other of reproach, are no other than
quena, which at first meant simply woman, then a wife, and in Sanscrit
a daughter. So among the Romans, hostis, an enemy originally, signi-
fied a stranger; and fronj these independent meanings may be derived
our word host, used for one who receives strangers, and for a multitude
of armed men.

Thus ail in Hebrew is a ram, in Arabic a stag: caper a goat in Latin,
a boar in Greek. Bos in Galic means the hand, and bas the palm of
the hand. Bys, bez and bes, the correspondent words in Welch, Cornish
and Armoric, mean a finger; but besoa, in the language of Biscay, is
the arm. These have a striking resemblance to pes or '^ovg, which con-
veys the notion of a foot, but occasionally of the whole leg, and which
may have originated in bus (d13) to trample under foot. Should it be
granted, that the Celtic tribes derived their bos, bys, bez, and bes from
either TTouV or Din; such licentious use of terms could not be considered
as more extraordinary than, that pare should signify the hand in Sanscrit
and in Welch, the foot in Russian and in Persian, the hoof in Armoric,
and indifferently either hand or foot in English, whilst in Greek it means
only the action of the hand or of the paw in grasping.

Putain French, and puta Spanish, mean a prostitute, but in Sanscrit
a wife.

Buwch is in yVelch an ox, in Russian a hull, in French and German a
he-goat; but /3wvi is a she-goat. Ungula in Latin is the nail, but in
Sanscrit the finger. Wife in Enghsh is a married woman, in German a
woman, though unmarried.

Bi'ithil in Welch is a trout, but in Cornish a mackerel. Cescr in Welch
is hail; in Armoric casaire is a shower; Lis in Welch a palace, in Galic
a house. Mam, Welch, is mother, in Galic a nurse. Dafad, Welch,
a sheep; damh, pronounced daf, is in Galic, ox. Gobhar in Galic is
a goat, in Irish a horse. Dant, a tooth in Welch, is in Galic a morsel.
Cjnnog, Welch, a pail, is a churn in Galic. Llug in Welch, and Xuxvj
in Greek, mean light, but look in English, is either the action of the
eye directed towards an object, or the appearance of any thing wlien
viewed.

A remarkable change of meaning has taken place in our words right,
just and true, of which the latter now contains the notion of verit}^ as
the two former do of equity, although originally right signified merely
that, which was directed, just that, which was commanded, and truth
had no reference but to fidelity, and to that confidence, which tried
fidelity inspires.

True, truth, troth and truce, or in old English trew, troweth, treoth
and trewse, are certainly allied to trow; yet trow was not originally
equivalent to cogito, concipio, imagino, but to confido, not to uKvi^eiz,
but to ^appft). In this acceptation it agrees with treowan, treowa and
treothe Saxon, vertrouwen, Belgic, treu and trauen German, trua Ice-
landic, tro Swedish, tree Danish, trauan and trauaida Gothic, and with
true, as used by Shakespeare, all which imply fidelity, confidence and
trust. c 2

In these languages, the expression for thought, imagination, belief
and verity have not even the most remote resemblance, not tlie most
distant affinity to our words true, trow, troth, truth and truer, to the
Saxon treowian, or to any of its derivatives.

Verity is related to the German wahr and Latin verus, the Frencli vrai,
and to the Spanish vero. To convey this notion we have in tiie Slavonic
line istinna, stability; as, in Hebrew, Chaldee and Syriac, Ameth (J^D^^)
implies that, which is durable, whilst in Russian vieriu and viera mean
fido, and fides, vieryu, credo, and derznost is used for confidence. The
Greek expression fl:A;i&f/a: means that which is not concealed.

It were now therefore absurd for any one to say, that a curve becomes
a right line, Avhen directed to be made; that, justice has no specific
meaning of its own independently of a command, or that iniquity in
judges may be perfectly consistent with rectitude.

This change in the meaning of words is palpable in the well
known adage summum jus summa injuria, which, though rightly
understood, is agreeable to verity, yet, etymologically taken, is a
contradiction in terms. A skilful rhetorician, fond of parodox and
conscious of superior talents, to amuse himself and others in some
idle hour, may play with terms; but even at the festive board, when
surrounded by his friends, he will not maintain, that trow and truth
have not changed their meaning, or that in the modern acceptation
of the term, truth universally prevails, that all villagers are villians,
that every servant is a knave, that rustics are churls, that every
woman is a quean, and that verity has no existence beyond the wild
conceits and opinions of mankind: (see Home Tooke's, Ep. pt:) this

propensity in nations to change their vocabuhiry is ucil described by
Horace.

As, when llie forest, willi (he bending year,

First shods (he leaves, which earliest appear;

So an old nice of words maturely dies,

And some, new-born, in youth and vigour r>se:

Many shall rise, that now forgotten lie,

Others, in present credit, soon shall die;

If custom will, whose arbitrary s\v:iy.

Words and the forms of language must obey.

But rhongh in one hingu:tge, or dialect a word may become ob-
solete and perish, or have its meaning changed, yet in the kindred
languages, it may be retained as classical in its original acceptation.
Numerous instances of this might be adduced from the several
dialects of Celtic, from the Welch, Cornish, Armoric, Irish, and
Galic, compared with the Gothic languages. Many of these have
been noticed by Lluyd, and not a few of them will occur to us
in the progress of our investigation. Some nations may have lost
the primitive expression, whilst its compounds exist. Thus for in-
stance, the Galic teine and the Welch tan, mean fire, but these words
were laid aside in Latin and in French, in which, however we find
txiinguo and eteindre. In old English we have tine and tind to
kindle, which have given birth to tinder.

OF COMPOUND WORDS.

The natural progress of languages, after names had been invented for
the various objects of sense and articles of first necessity, seems to
have been, by some modifications of these names, to express such quali-
ties or actions, as were most readily suggested to the mind on the
contemplation of those objects. Certain it is, however, that in the
introduction of appropriate terms, whether for things, for persons, for
places, for actions, or for qualities, all nations have avoided the
multiplied use of arbitrary sounds, and, availing themselves of such
as were uncommonly understood, have been satisfied with indicating
by them, as nearly as possible, the properties by which the object in
question is characterized and to be distinguished from all others.

This propensity gave rise to compound expressions, which, when
well chosen, become perfectly descriptive of the thing intended to be
known. As for instance, when the Irish for a flint say dragart, or
when the Germans call it by the name of feuerstein, they indicate that
species of stone, which gives fire by collision v/ith steel. For a fin
the latter use flossfeder, floating feather, and for a telescope fcrin'o/ire,
that is the reed or tube by means of which tliey discern distant bodies.
Some of the German compounds seem to be ill connected, as for in-
stance, when they call a roe hirshkuhe, and a fawn Urachkalh, the former
meaning literally the cow, and the latter the calf or the hart. Other
compounds excite a smile in foreigners, as for instance, hand-shoe when
used for gloves, and finger-hat which means a thimble.

Such is the difficulty of inventing expressions for new objects, that
the element in which any thing is produced, the country from which
it comes, or even the mode of conveyance often serves to mark the
specific difference, and then the most remote analogy, the least dis-
cernible resemblance is taken for the generic term. In Galic CMmm,
a little dog, in English becomes a rabbit. Meerkatze, that is a sea
cat, is in Danish and Dutch a monkey. Blodigel, that is blood eel,
in Denmark a leech. The rein deer is distinctly renn thier, the running
animal. When the Koroeki first saw an ox, they caUed \i t-uski olehn,
that is Ki'.ssian rein doer. Tlie people of Otaheitc called horses mio-hty
hogs. A lion when first beheld at Rome, was a Numidian bear. In
Galic a wolf is iiiadradiialla, wild dog, and a bear is mathghabhuin a
wild calf. In Wclcli a badger is daearfochyn, an earth pig. The Celtic
tribes, whether Galic, Welch, or Cornish, describe the otter as a water
dog. In Sanscrit this animal is uch-a closely allied to vBup of the Greek.
The Persians call a mole, deaf mouse. When the Romans saw the
elephants of Pyrrhus, they considered these animals as Lucanian oxen.
Elephus itself may have been derived from aleph an ox in Hebrew.

Similar expedients for the invention of new terms have been uni-
versally resorted to. Thus we have sea horse, sea cow, sea hog, sea
calf, which last is in Welch, morlo in armoric lue m6r.

Even the most distant resemblance will suffice for both the gene-
ric and specific term, as in our word pineapple, which is neither
an apple, nor fruit of the pine tree.

The Greek language is remarkably fond of compounds. Thus for
instance we see Kciirvpov for embers, in which the fire may seem to

be extinguished, but is yet alive, and needs only to be moved for
the admission of fresh air, an action well expressed by txvce^i>i'7:vp7iv.
Of their compounds, some are to be admired for elegance; some are
remarkably comprehensive, and others excel in the force and energy
of their expression. Sach are Xvx.xvy'eg the dawn, y-cckXiyvvcu-t, alxindant
in beauteous women, SopvE,evog a brother in arms. Some compounds
are so much contracted, as to conceal to a certain degree their
component parts. Thus it is with Sxwi; compounded of Sx and y.vxic,
which united, mean precisely I gnaw, in Galic cnaoighim, that is
I t.ear in pieces Avith my teeth; for y.yxu implies sinij)iy lo divide,
whether by cutting, rending, or t(aring, without reference to llie
teeth. This additional notion of the instrument, by which the divi-
sion is effected, seems therefore to have been conveyed by Sx, and
if so, this particle may have been contracted from the orienial dant,
which is in Galic a morsel, but in Hindostani, Sanscrit, and Welch,
a tooth, as dendan is in Persian, agreeing thus with dens dentis of
the Latin, or oBovg oJovtoj of the Greek.

In every country the expedient resorted to in giving names to persons
and to places, has been to combine expressions and form new compounds,
descriptive of a person, or the place in question.

Among the fJebrews it ai)pears, that wlien tiie new-born infant
was to be distinguished by a name, they had rccouise, not to arbi-
trary sounds, but to such woi"ds, as being commonly in use, de-
scribed the circumstances attendant on the l)irti). "I'hus it was in the
names of Cain, Abel, Seth, Noah, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Isianael,
&c. all explained in sacred writ. So in the German names, Alaric

is universal king; Ariovistus, much honoured ; Aliobrogos, the moun-
taineers; jVfarsi, the marslilandcrs. A similar practice prevails among
savage tribes, as may be particularly noticed in America.

The names of places have been taken from either local circum-
stances, or some remarkable event to be thus recorded, as at Beer-
sheba, Bethel, Gilead, Eshcol, Bochim, all particularly mentioned
and explained in Scripture. In every country, local names, lead to
the knowledge of the ancient languages, because they are descrip-
tive of the situation, whether mountainous or level; in a valley or
a glen; wet or dry; woodland or pasture, open or inclosed; cultivated
or wild ; whether it has a rock, a castle, a well, a river, a bridge, a ford,
a mill, a church, a lake, &c.

In Germany there is not a village, but what is indebted for its name
to something general and special in its situation. The general terms are
bach a stream, brvick abridge, busch a thicket: dorp a village; fels a
rock; berg an eminence ; burg a castle; feld a field; hausen, from haus
a house; hofF a court; holttz or holz a forest; kirch a church; mulen,
from muhle a mill ; munster a convent ; stein a stone ; thai a valley ;
vbrde a ford ; wald a forest. In Wales every gentleman's seat carries an
accurate description in its name.

The natural progress of language, after having invented names for
things, one would imagine, should be to fix upon terms descriptive of
qualities or indicating action. Hence the origin of verbs and adjectives
may besought for in the correspondent substantives; but by observation
it is found, that in all languages the verbs, however formed, with their
inflexions, give birth to innumerable nouns, as may be particularly

VOL, II. ]»

noticed in the Saxon, Greek, and Hebrew. All the other parts of speech
flow from these, claiming kindred to the nouns and verbs, of which they
are abbreviations. This has been demonstrated by Lennep, in his Greek
Etymology, and, as far as relates to English, by the most able critic of
our age ; and Noldius in his Concordance has transmitted to posterity, a
work written by Christian Koerber, which proves the same thing respect-
ing the Hebrew particles.

But though all nations start from the same point, and acknowledge the
same principles; they yet take different routs, and in the evolution of
ages find themselves exceedingly remote in their expressions both from
their common ancestors and from each other. Hence the vast variety
observed in their adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions. But as these
are all derived from nouns and verbs ; so from them proceed formative
particles, whether prefixed or suffixed to other nouns and verbs.

Here then we have an abundant source for diversity of speech, where
the languages are acknowledged to be radically one. This will be dis-
tinctly seen, if we pay attention even to a few of the prepositive parti-
cles introduced into the principal languages of Europe.

In Greek, wc have

1st. Tiie intensitive a apparently derived from ocyxv as in af&Xog,
uy'kccog, aTtag, izoXXteg.

2nd. Tiic privative a derived from aVtu as in aopxTog ajipcrog, (xXv\^six
alSvfg, atSwg, uKyi'iog, cckccog, ccvxvSpog, avopxTog, avO(T[i.og,

3r(l. The associating a derived from ^ju-a, as in ccKoXou^og and eiZe\(p'og.

It must be here remarked, that whem ^f* occurs before a labial;
it may be used for either avx. or xvev as in Kit.ittht.ov and af*/3/30T0?.

Tims in oiiu language the same prefix, derived indeed from differ-
ent particles, varies the form of words, and diverts them from their
primitive meaning, yet ever with a strict attention to the roots, from
which they are derived. In Greek we have eighteen prepositions,
each of which may be combined with every verb, either single or in
pairs, nay even in trii)le ranks, as may be observed in Homer. From
one verb, for example iic»KXco, we count more than fifty verbs of dis-
tinct meanings, and from Xeya, in it's several acceptations, we have
nearly eight hundred compounds.

The English needlessly doubles the preposition in concomitant de-
rived from con and eo.

Among the eighteen Greek prepositions I must request, that the
reader will pay particular attention to £^i, 0^1:0, m and H, because
these in one shape, or other, run through all the languages, both of
Europe and of northern Asia.

The Latin, intimately connected with the Greek, has nearly the
same particles with it, as the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, and
English, conform to Latin. The import however of these particles
is not strictly the same in all these languages, and therefore in Italy,
a Frenchman must not be surprised to find, that digiunare means
to fast.

In Slavonic, the particles prefixed, are bez, voz, vz, vos, vni; za, z,
s, k, ko, na, ni, &c. which I may possibly explain, when I shall proceed
to treat of the Slavonian lansjuage.

The Germans have two kinds of compound verbs. The first are
those that have particles inseparable from them, such as, after be,

D 2

emp, ent, er, ge, hinter, miss, um, ur, ver, verab, verun, voll, wider,
and zer, of these the two most frequently used are be, and ge.

The second are those that have particles separable from them, such
as, ab, anf, aus, bey, dar, durch, ein, fort, fur, heim, hin, &c. which
instead of being prefixed, may be carried forward, and stand alone
at the end of a long sentence.

In Angle Saxon, the prepositions used in composition are numerous.
Among those we find, a, ab, be, emb, fore, ge, g; na, ne, n, on over,
uppe, with, &c.

The prepositive particles in Belgic, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and
Maeso-Gothic resemble these, as these resemble the correspondent
particles in Greek.

In Welch we have a, ad, am, an ar, as; cyd, cym, cyn ; dad, de, di,
dir, dy, dys; ed, er, es; g, go, gor; y, ys, most of which correspond
with the preceding.

They are somewhat different in Galic; but evidently claim kindred
with the Greek. These are a, ag, ad, aith, am, an, ar; coimh; ea, eac,
eag, ean, ein, en; g, re, s, tar.

It may be readily conceived, that such a multiplicity and variety of
particles must create confusion, equal to ihat of Babel, when, in the
kindred dialects, the same root remains either single, but disguised, or
disguised and connected with different prepositions, according to the
genius of the several languages, in which the radical term has been pre-
served. Thus for instance, preserve in English and conserve in French,
answer to servo in Latin; but serve in English has a different import.
-Mendum in Latin is a defect; but to mend, in English, meaws to re-

move defects, ^xispog becomes obscure and rXayiog oblique. Wild in
English is gwyllt in Welch. Lenncr Armoric, and darllenwr Welch are
radically one, and mean a reader. Gogledd in Welch is the north ;
but in Galic we find simply Cledd, that is the left hand and therefore the
north to him, who turns his face towards the east. Llugeid the eyes in
Welch, is daulagad in Armoric. Cymnial in Welch is a joint, but in
Greek the root appears in fj^ekog. In French blesser answers to the
German verletzen, and both are found in loedere, lossus, tAv'ttw crX^ia-o-w.
Conspoid in Galic and dispute in English are radically one, for both
originate in puto.

Thus in different countries, according to caprice or accident, innu-
merable terms become variously combined, and retain only their
equivalency in import, with scarcely a vestige of similitude in form.

Among the difficulties which stand in the way of etymology, one,
and that not the least, arises from the propensity of all nations to
indicate positive qualities by negation. From this practice, the more
direct and p/oper terms expressive of qualities, have been neglected,
and not unfrequently have been wholly lost. Of the languages with
which I am acquainted, the Galic is most remarkable for this pro-
pensity, having no fewer than nine particles used in composition for
negation. We ourselves are fond of this practice, and the Germans
are so partial to it, that for many notions they have none but nega-
tive expressions. In Greek, two negatives strengthen the negation;
but with us and with the Germans, two negatives make an affir-
mative. In English, we have mortal and immortal, but JMilton
has doubled his negatives, and has left us unimmortaU

From these practices, languages which are radically one, must of
necessity appear in a vast variety of forms. But their dissimilarity
is again exceedingly increased by diversity of terminations. These are
too numerous to be here particularly noticed. Suffice it then to say,
that, numerous as they are in every language, they were originally
either verbs, nouns, or pronouns, not, as at present, absorbed in the
compound, but distinct and separate from the root. As this will be
rendered evident in the progress of my work, I shall content myself
with giving two instances froin the Greek.

In the auxiliary verb afj^i, am, the last syllable designates the person
precisely as in Hebrew. So likewise is it in all the verbs, which termi-
nate in fitt as for example /3vif*i, I go, for the simple root is jix or in
the Hebrew boa and (j-t is the pronoun.

That my conclusion is well founded will appear, when I shall pro-
ceed to trace the correspondent verb through all the languages of
Europe and of Asia, in all of which, without exception, the root is
decidedly the same. In the termination of their verbs, all lan-
guages, except Hebrew and its kindred dialects, arc apt to perplex
the novice by the creation of new themes derived from the several
tenses, the infinitives, or the participles of other verbs, which may
however, be still retained in the same, dr in son)e other tongue. Thus
in Greek we find Xe'yw Xe<yeiv, to collect, to number, to speak, allied
to which we have lego, legere, to collect, to gather, to road, as in
Icjiitis flores of Virgil. From legere the English, Dutch and Germans
have, by abbreviation, formed lere, lore, Iceren and lehren, to learn,
and these, by a reduplication of the infinitive termination, produce

lernen German, and leornian Saxon, of the same import. Our verb to
burn is evidently rcvpoetv. But other Gothic languages, as if this were
not the infinitive, have doubled the termination to form bernan and
brennen Saxon and German. So likewise in churn, from yvpoe^v the
infinitive is distinctly marked, and yet the Saxon doubles the termina-
tion and makes cernan.

Sometimes the past participle becomes a new theme, as in gird from
yvpoaiv, and then the Gothic infinitives will be in Saxon gyrdan, in
German giirten. Or this participle, formed from the infinitive, may
assume its proper termination and become a new verb, as in branden
of the Dutch, and blindan of the Saxon, for in the latter we trace
blinnan, blinned, blind, (closed,) in the former bran, branned, brand,
burnt. In like manner binden of the German, bindan of the Saxon,
benden of the Persian, and bandna of the Sanscrits and Hindostani,
may be traced to the Latin vieo a verb connected with hex a
withy.

Many of our verbs seem to be formed from the participle present of
other verbs, as for instance, gang from go, and bring from bear.
These repeat the infinitive termination in gangan and bringan of the
Gothic dialects. By the same process we may derive fengan Saxon, or
fangen German from fahan Gothic, which is allied to -rafji/ as tongs to
Taw. In like manner Staae of the Danish, connected with k(r'r\^\j.i and
e(TTcevxi of the Greek, and with istaden of the Persian, seem to have
produced staend, stand, from which we must derive standan Saxon and
Gothic. Even hangian of the Saxon appears thus to have originated
in hahan of the Gothic, to raise, to elevate, to lift on high.

These practices are common. In Greek we have numerous instances of
infinitives converted into new themes, which consequently double their
usual termination. Thus (p^'w, (pafiv, gave birth to Cp^mD, <^xLveiv and Tepa-w,
Tiptreiv produced reptrizivai, lepaxiveiv. In like manner we have gopeu, gopevwu ;
^lyu, biyyaivw; cpa, opiuu ; (panSpocc, (pcciSpwa ; oXu^eco, oXia'bxwm ; ^xp^eca
^pa(T\juo}AXi ; xpa.(a, ^paii/w; yipxScca, npxBxiua ; %a;Xaw, %a;Xaiva>, x, t, A. Indeed
there is scarcely any part of theGreekverb which hasnotgiven birth to some
new theme. It arises from this practice, that from xecXdui we have %«Xa^&',
from ^xppsu, ^txptreca, from o(ptiK(>i, o(^eiXv,aa. o(pXi(7Aa), KpXicry.xvu, o<p\bi, h(pXxua.

Attention to these remarks will enable the young student readily to
detect the radical parts of words, however complicated they may be,
and to remove the incumbrances by which they are concealed from the
unpractised eye. To such attention Mr. Tookc was indebted for the
reputation, he acquired, as the most distinguished critic of the age.
I may yet venture to add, that a knowledge of these practices will pro-
vide us with a key to most of the European and Asiatic languages. In
all of them we meet with nouns derived from verbs and verbs from nouns.
And sometimes a noun, derived from a verb, gives birth to a new verb,
which produces another noun, from which a new verb is formed, as, in
the Greek, will be evident to any one, who consults Scapula's Lexicon.
In all such changes the termination varies, as will be distinctly' seen,
when I shall proceed to the examination of particular languages more
especially of the English and the Greek.

All nations, for the sake of euphony, insert some letter, not essen-
tially necessary, in the middle of such words as would otiierwise sound

harsh, or difficult of pronunciation. This practice is so general, that it
is needless here to produce particular examples. Such however will occur
to us in the progress of our work.

From what has been said, it will appear, that languages, which seem
to be discordant, may have elementary parts, which, however disguised
by composition, are the same in all. If then I shall be able to demon-
strate, that such elementary parts exist and are essentially the same in
all the languages, with which we are acquainted, will it not be clear,
that all these languages are derived from one parent stock. This pre-
cisely is the task J have imposed on myself, and I trust it will be per-
formed to the satisfaction of my readers.

OF ABBREVIATIONS.

That which contributes more than all that has been stated, to mul-
tiply languages and to conceal their origin, is the practice universally
observed of contracting two or more syllables into one. This no where
appears more conspicuously than among the Chinese, who express each
word by one simple sound, as we contract, but on a less extensive
scale, ayoc^cfi-xi into gaze, (iXxa(pi^i^eiv into blame, tXtv^fj-ofuvv^ to alms,
'upeiTfivrepog to priest, nvpiov otnog to kirk and church, sigillum to seal,
flagellum to flail, judice to judge, calamus to halm, and nutrice to
nurse.

Sir W. Jones informs us, that the people of Tibet speak a dialect,
which, like its parent the Sanscrit, was formerly polysyllabic, but at
present consists like the Chinese, of monosyllables, to form which, with

VOL. n. E.

gome regard to grammatical derivation, it has been necessary to sup-
press, in common discourse, many letters, which we see in their books;
and thus we trace in their writings many Sanscrit words, which in their
spoken dialect are quite undistinguishable. This practice is strikingly
evident in Irish.

A writer, of great learning and more than common sagacity, has
judiciously observed, that abbreviations are the wheels of language,
the wings of Mercury, for as the first intention is to communicate
our thoughts, so the second is and ever will be to do it with despatch.

But it has so happened, that in abbreviating, few nations have adopted
the same process.

It is acknowledged, that the French, Italian, Spanish and Portu-
guese are branches of the romance language, and derived from the Latin,
and that the other European languages borrow both from it and from
the Greek. Let us then beoin our investigation with a few derivatives
from Greek and Latin, which appear in most of them, after which we
may take the abbreviated terms, promiscuously, as they occur to our
recollection.

From noXcc^xTw and colaphus the Italian has derived colpo, the Spanish
golpe, and the English clap. From the same source the French has
taken coup, and the English cuff. From constare we find conter and
cost, from audire, ouir and hear. From wE. wnTog or nox noctis, the
Italian has derived notte, the Spanish noche, the French nuit, the Welch
nos, the English night. Masculus has yielded to both France and
England male. TccXxhto; has given birth to lacte, latte, leite and leche
of the Latin, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish, to Llaeth of the Welch,
to laith, laclid and blochd of the Galic, and to lait of the French. \^ ,.

S7 ,

From tcmpus, temporis we trace tempo Italian, tiempo Spatiisli, temps
French, and time English. In like manner tectum becomes toit and
pondus poids in French.

It frequently happens, that a word in its progress of abbreviation
drops, from time to time, one or more of its elements, either in the
beginning, middle or end, as caprice directs, till scarcely a vestige or no
part of the primitive remains. This we have frequently occasion to
observe in Hebrew, and this it is, which most perplexes the young student,
because its verbs, consisting of three radical letters, are extremely dis-
posed to drop the first and third, as in tet (nn) give thou, the imperative
of Nathan (]nj} he gave. Indeed we may venture to affirm with Pro-
fessor Robinson, that such abbreviated terms constitute almost one-
half the language. (Robertson's Gram. p. 197-) Thus in the French
word ne, which is natus in its most abbreviated form, N is all that
remains of the original term yfivo(*aJ, from which the Latin is derived,
as appears by the ancient mode of writing gnascor for nascor. In
appris and compris no radical remains.

In concomitant, I is the only radical part of the word derived from eo,
ivi itum. Our English cur, unconnected with other languages, exhibits no
description of the dog intended by this word. But in Welch we find
corgi of the same import, compounded of corr a dwarf, and ci a dog,
which by abbreviation has produced cur. In like manner the com-
pound expressions begehren to ask, and entwehnen, to change a custom
in German, become in English beg and wean. The latter is the more
remarkable because wohnen, from which we derive wont, means to
inhabit, and wean now signifies to break a habit. Adjuvare became

E 2

first aider, and then aid, retaining only the preposition without a vestige
of juvo which is the root.

Catena, connected with cadwyn of the Welch, gave kette to German,
kedia to Swedish, kiaede to Danish, keten to Dutch, cadea to Portu-
guese, chaine to French, and chain to English.

From Collum the French seem to have derived cou, and the Germans
hals. The Swedes have halsa, and we have hill both allied to collis.

In our language we have acquired both rod and raft from pa^Sog.
From no'KTO} the Danes may have taken kappe, which is in the French
couper, in the Hindostani catna, in the Persian khudan, but in the

English cut.

The Swedes have both badda and basa, from TaTairo-a!, which with us are
contracted into beat and baste; corresponding to battre French, bete
Russian, bet Slavonian, peetna Hindostani, and baeddu Welch. In
like manner leifa of the Swedes, and levne of the Danes, derived from
XeiTfjv, are contracted into leave. Their kianna and niosa, yivoiay.ai, be-
come with us ken and know, their mykest and masta from [j.^icttov and
iA-iyuTov have yielded meist to the German and most to us.

In Anglo-Saxon, nabban is noti habere, nah is non habit, and nis
non est.

In Welch we find Cael lo have, but unless caffael, of which it is an
abbreviation, had still subsisted in the language, we never could have
discerned a radical affinity between habeo, and cael, nor could we so
readily have traced them, as we trace capio to the Hebrew caph the
hand.

For crusta, the Welch has both cris and crust agreeing with both
crust of the English and croute of the French.

Geber {l2i) of the Hebrew seems to have given birth to gwr of
the Welch, ger of the Persian, fear of the Galic and vir of Latin.

In Sanscrit we have nrp, a king which as I shall hereafter demon-
strate may be uvSpiav TaTvip, father of his people, in its most abbre-
viated form. In this language pt, is the radical of power both regal
and paternal, which were originally one.

OF TRANSPOSITIONS.

Transpositions help to disguise a language and to conceal its affi-
nities. Yet all nations, either for the sake of euphony, or from caprice,
have had recourse to this expedient. The Hebrews, in the conjugation
of their verbs, removed their prepositive T, and placed it after the first
radical, whenever this happened to be a sibilant; nay, they even
changed their n into D as in hitstadek (pIDVn) for hithtsadek (pivnn)
he justified hirtiself.

It has been conjectured, and with some degree of probability, that
the Helvetii of Caesar were Haefeldan, that is mountaineers. Certain it
is, that our ancestors gave into this practice, for with them, to ask sup-
plied the place of acsan, as used by the Anglo-Saxons; and by both
asce and acse, the askis of Chaucer, they intended ashes. In our old
English we have ficsas and fiscas for fish, ricsa and risca for rush. In
Scotland they use garse for grass and thretty for thirty. Borstel, Belgic,
is bristle, and brennen, German, is to burn.

The same propensity is manifest in the Celtic dialects. Anail, the
Galic expression for breath, is alan in Armoric, whence haleine in
French: — Balan in Armoric, balai in French, is banal in Welch, a broom.
Grange in Welch, is cancar in Cornish, and cancer in Latin.

In Greek we have axp'Tog and naprep'os for ^pxTog, and npxTsp'og, ypaSiv\ for
xxpSU, npiMg for ntpnog; SpL(pog for 5i<ppQg, jixpSiqog for (ipxSiqog, and ^tppz\^og
for 7rpi«f*.oj or the reverse.

The Romans converted [^op<p\^ into forma, a-KlTTTOf^at into specio and
specto, xpivw into cerno, andxplito? into circus.

From granarium we derive garner, purpose, from propositus, and garnet
from oranatus. In like manner, perhaps, the Celtic ros has become our
horse, and stagnum etang or tank.

The Spaniards say guardaldo for guardadlo, hazelo for hazedlo, salildo
for salidlo, daldo for dadlo, &c.

OF ORTHOGRAPHY.

Mispronunciation and inattention to orthography tend exceedingly to
increase the perplexity of the Tyro in languages, when he is endeavouring
to trace their descent and to point out their connexion.

In these respects we have only to recollect the practice of the Romans,
as appears in the best of their historians. What contusion have they
not made, out of the precincts of Italy, in the names of places, of per-
sons" and of things! Or wo may cast our eyes over the vocabularies
transmitted to us by voyagers and travellers of different nations.

But, without wandering far from home, I shall subjoin a few words
from Lye's Saxon Dictionary, by which it will appear, that our Saxon
ancestors, although good soldiers, were certainly bad scholars, and never
paid attention to orthography. With them to fetch was spelt indiffer-
ently feccan, feccean, fetian, foetian, fetigean, fetigian.

Hail might in their opinion with equal propriety be written liaegL
hagal, hagel, hagol and hagul.

Light was leht, leoht, liht, lioht.

Day was dag, daig, deg, doeg, dah, dsei, dogor.

High was hea, heah, hih, heh, heag, heg, hig, hear.

Much or great was micel, micyl, mickle, mucel, muccle, micl, micla,
micle, miccla.

No was indifferently na, ne, ni, no.

New was neow, nio, niow, niw, niwa, niwe, nyw.

The orthography of the Franco-Teutones was so irregular, that in the
same author, words appear in seven or eight different forms, as for in-
stance, buach, buoch, buah, buoh, puach, puoch, puah, puoh.

Such was the ignorance, which prevailed in Europe, that several char-
ters remain, to which kings and persons of the greatest eminence affixed
the sign of ihe cross with their own hand, for this assigned reason, be-
cause they were ignorant of letters. In the ninth century, the supreme
judge of the empire could not subscribe his name. And even in the
fourteenth century, Du Gueselin constable of France, one of the
greatest men of his age, could neither write nor read. Nay, many dig-
nified ecclesiastics could not subscribe the canons of those councils, in
which they sat as members.

As there were few, who could write ; so was the number few of those,
who could procure any thing to read. For before the invention of
printing, A. D. 1449, manuscripts were extremely scarce, and even
monasteries of considerable note had but one missal. (Robertson's
Charles V. note 10.) But to point out the difficulties which must ever
occur to those, who undertake to make us acquainted with foreign
languages, I will here subjoin a specimen from the vocabulary of a Ger-
man, who taught English.

Ahdsch, age; tihm, aim; anker, anger; badsch, badge; badhs, bath;
bof, bough; dscli'dns, chance; JscAoA, chew; ehdsch, each; dsehuck, jug;
dschordsch, George; tchdsch, teach; dschths, cheese.

In what manner his German pupils were by this vocabulary to learn
English, an Englishman may be at a loss to comprehend.

What can be more discordant than the sound and the orthography in
the subsequent expressions. High, nigh, sigh; light, fight, night;
dough, though, trough, bough, plough, and slough, when it means a
quagmire; laugh, cough, rough, tough, and slough when applied to

ulcers !

Sir William .Tones, in his Asiatic researches, has given us an example
of vicious orthography, such as, in his opinion, all foreigners are

liable to.

Law more awe day recgyewrs awe nool otruh parellyuh, Sec.

To the English ear tlie sound is in some degree preserved ; but who
would imagine, that in this sentence we have the first line of a beauti-
ful French Ode.

La raort a des rigucurs a nulle autre pareilles.

This demonstrates the propriety of adhering strictly to orthography,
as the French have done more than other nations, in deriving from the
Latin. For they have preserved the radical letters, even such as have
no influence on the sound. Thus, for example, we find asne from
asinus. Thus also tant from tantus, and temps from tempus, both
sounded like the last syllable in their word etang, and altogether inex-
pressible by any letters of the alphabet to an English ear.

Yet the most strict attention to orthography will never preserve the
sound of vowels. These arc incessantly changing, nor can this be pre-
vented whilst the same letter in every language represents a variety of
sounds. Thus in English we give four different sounds to a, in have,
had, halm, hall. E may be mute, or it may retain two sounds in be and
bell. I differs in time, tin, bird; O in bone, bog, move and dove, U
in mute, full, burst and busy.

Inability to pronounce certain consonants, is a common source of false
orthography.

'J'lie Ephraeniites for shiboloth, at the hazard of their lives, said
siboleth , nor could they pronounce it otherwise. The Greeks themselves
at the fords of Jordan, must inevitably have shared the fate of the
Ephraeujites, for they likewise would have said siboleth. 'I'he Sep-
luagint translators were exceedingly perplexed by this narration, because
the Greek language wants the aspirated sibilant. In the place, there-
fore, of shiboleth, which means an ear of corn, they substituted qcex^s
of the same import: but this leaves the narrative imperfect. They add
that an Ephraemite could not shape his lips to pronounce q^xv?, which
was not the case. Yet, from the nature of their alphabet, they could

VOL. II. F

not convey to the Greeks a true notion of the difficulty, under which
they labored.

Frenchmen and Germans are equally embarrassed with our th, and
should they attempt to say this or that thing, their efforts would be
vain. Indeed most foreigners find it difficult to catch the pronunciation
in these few words, nor can they readily distinguish the difference in the
articulation of th in thin and thine.

The Delaware Indians have neither F, V, nor R. The Chinese are
strangers to B, D, R, X and Z, and therefore substitute M for B, T for
D, and L for R.

The Mexican alphabet has neither B. D. F. G. R. nor S. In Green-
land no word begins with either B. D. F. G. L. R. or Z.

In the Sandwich and Society Islands the inhabitants having neither
C. G. K. Q. X. S. nor V. could not be taught to say Captain Cook, but
called him Taptain Toot.

The inability to pronounce certain consonants naturally leads men to
substitute others in the place of those, which they have never learnt to
articulate. But, even where no such inability has existed, the practice
of substitution has universally prevailed.

In our Greek grammar we read mutantur inter se ■3^/3$ ; nyx ; '^^^- To
the fust series should have been added (* as must be evident to every
one, who is conversant with the inflexion of the verbs.

This practice, established in Greek, Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldee,
was not peculiar to these languages, for all nations in kindred letters,
that is in letters of the same organ, whether labials, dentals, palatines
or gutturals, have been apt, either from inattention, or from affectation.

to substitute one for another, as in the interchange of B. V. F, V. W, M.
of D. T. Th. ; equally so of C. Ch. G. Gh, H. and not uniVequcntly
of D. and J. of all which numerous examples will be produced.

It is curious to observe the aptitude with which the aspirate of the
Greek either sinks througli the Spanish J. and X. into the deep and harsh
sounding guttural of the Welch and Germans, rises up through the
Eno;lish Y. J, and G. into the hard C. and K. glides along the roof in
Ch. is converted into the sibilant, becomes a labial, or is altogether
lost. Again the progress may be inverted, or the passage from one to
the other may be made per saltum, and thus G. Gh. K. C. Ch. J. and
II. may each supply the other's place, as will be demonstrated, by mul-
tiplied examples in the progress of my work.

The same liberty is claimed by the liquids L. R. ; M. N. ; respec-
tively, as in our subsequent investigations we shall frequently have
occasion to display.

Between S. and T. which, in all the languages of Europe, slide into
each other's place, there is a natural connexion. They readily unite,
and when they part, it seems to be a matter of indifference, which of
them shall be retained. Every one, who is conversant with Greek,
must frequently have made the same remark. Lucian, in one of his
dialogues, introduces a judicial process instituted at the suit of the
letter S. against her wicked neighbour T.

S. complains that T. not satisfied with incroaching on the privileges
of D. Th. and Z. letters of the same family, had even usurped a place
in numerous words, which of right belonged to her. She particularly
laments her fate, that she should be expelled from Thessaly and should

F 2

be called by the ignominious appellation of a Thettalian, that she should
be excluded from the sea (SaiXao-tra:) and that, robbed and plundered
by an atrocious villain, she should not be permitted to retain one peg.
(^rx(T(TxXov.) Nay she expressed her fears, that in process of time even
TVKx would assume the place of o-ux«.

What has been hitherto advanced, frequently supported by some
approximation to organic affinity, seems to account for many other
changes observable in all languages, more especially for the conversion
of D. into G. C. and K. or J, G. C. and K. into D. and this not
only in some of the Greek dialects, but in English, Danish, Swedish,
German, Galic, French, and in all the dialects, both Gothic and
Slavonian, diffused over the northern regions both of Europe and of
Asia.

But how shall we account for what must appear a most unnatural
practice, that of converting B. and P. into C. K. and G. or the reverse,
since these families have no organic affinity ? Certain it is, that the
lonians, Baeotians, iEolians, and the inhabitants of Attica, did this,
for Herodotus commonly used kuj^^ for 'Ttug ; the Bfeotians ^xvy,y.£g for
yvvxineg; the iEolians y.o"ov for Trofo!/ ; the Athenians •y'k£<Pxpx for ftKe(pxpx
and /3Xvi%wi/ for 7Xvi%aiv and all the Greeks r:vx\uog for wx\uo;, from which
we have 'jvxvov a^ bean.

From the same propensity the Romans said fel for pco^vi, gall, appello
for onaKXiD I arrive at. The Ethiopians say Kctrus and Kaulus for Petrus"
and Paul us. In Welch B. answers to C. and K. of the Teutonic
dialects and to such an extent did the Galic tribes adopt the practice
of converting P. into C. that the old vocabularies omit the letter P.

and in its place substitute C. or K. The Welch has P. in many words,
which in Galic begin with C. but no radical word in Welch begins
with the correspondent letter F. unless in composition, when it is used,
for M. B. It is possible, that this practice may have arisen from the
resemblance in form between these discordant letters in some of the
more ancient alphabets.

In various parts of Europe, more especially in Germany, we observe
G. and gc, as prepositive particles, answering to ga, of the Gothic, as
that, in numerous instances, does to ey. of the Greek. In the same lan-
guages be and bi correspond in composition to f-Tri of the Greek. These
prcepositions are considered by Hicks as commutable. Certain it is
that the Galic has blochd for yxXx •yxKocn'Tog milk. T!:e Germans say
gedcncken and glaubcn, we say bethink, believe. Thus also we have
blithe and glad delivered down to us by our Sa.\on ancestors, both
derived from Icetiis one with J^. the other with G. prefixed. In Greek,
among other examples, we find both jiKxnav and 'ykxnccv whence the
Romans may have derived pulegium.

When two or more consonants meet in the middle of a compound
word, the weaker is apt to be absorbed and lost in the stronger, or at
least is converted into one, which has organic affinity with it, as colligo,
commuto, aufj^Ttx^etx, tstvij.[j.xi, for conligo, conmuto, &c. But in Welch
compounds D and G are dropt, as in aneiryd for an, and deiryd annilys
for andilys, anny for an and genni.

The changes above described are governed by general rules: but every
nation assumes some licences peculiar to itself. Of all the languages
with which I am acquainted, none is so licentious as the Spanish. This

will be particularly noticed, when 1 shall proceed to treat of the off-
spring of the Latin. The changes we observe in the Spanish consonants,
although conformable to certain laws, now well understood and univer-
sally received, seem to have originated wholly in caprice. To a limited
extent the same licentiousness prevails in the Italian, and I have no
doubt, that an accurate acquaintance with the derivation and affinities
of other languages would enable us to trace the same licentiousness and
arbitrary changes in most of them or, perhaps in all.

GENERAL CONCLUSION.

The operation of any one of these numerous causes of mutation would
be sufficient in the revolution of ages to disguise a language and to ren-
der its origin obscure. But when all these concur to puzzle and perplex,
and when there is no standard of purity, to which every word may be
referred, no traditionary poems; no written records; no acknowledged
classics; no sacred books; no lexicons to ascertain and fix the meaning
of expressions ; the language will be more rapid in its changes, and the
difficulties to be encountered by the etymologist will be abundantly in-
creased.

These considerations have a tendency to produce despair of being ever
able to demonstrate, or even to make it probable, that all languages are
radically one. How shall wc trace the genealogy of words compounded
and contracted, distorted and disfigured as they are, and which have
lost their original import, and that, perhaps, not merely by some little
variation, but by a total reverse of meaning and intention ? "Who,

amidst this confusion, can distinguish order ? Or what linguist will be
able to collect from such discordant dialects, the elements of a primaeval
language? When its members have been torn asunder and dispersed by
Typhon ; what Isis, wandering through the earth, will recognize and
again unite them ?

The task is painful; but patience and perseverance, with a little
sagacity, an extensive knowledge of languages, and strict attention to
analogy, may accomplish that, which, at first sight, appears im-
practicable.

OF THE INVESTIGATION OF RADICALS.

To investigate a root, we must begin with decomposition: we must
get rid of all the prepositive particles and idiomatic terminations, with
such epenthetical syllables or letters, as may have been introduced into
the radical expression. In a word, we must reduce the term in question
to its most simple and elementary form.

For this purpose, it is necessary, that we should know whether it be
native or foreign, and have a perfect acquaintance with the language, to
which it belongs. In these words, for instance, decomposition and j9?-e-
positive, the slightest acquaintance with Latin will be sufficient to point
out their derivation, to get rid of all incumbrances, and to leave pono
as the root. These, therefore, are of Italian growth, and with them
must be ranked imposition, apposition, supposition, transposition, and
all other compounds which claim the same descent.

In the word termination, the Celtic scholar will distinguish two roots,
combined and agreeing with terfyn, a boundary, of the' Welch, derived
from tir maen, a landstone.

Should we fix on the word transuhstantiation ; we may readily get rid
of the two prepositions and of the termination. This operation leads us
to stans, stantis, sto, steti, statuui. Here then we find the root in sto,
I stand, which divested of o, its pronoun, leaves st, found equally in
stay, in iq^^^, and in numerous verbs of the same import, dispersed
amono; the nations over the whole surface of the olobe. In the Welch
annysgymmod, discord, we find three prepositions, which being rejected
leave bod, here converted into mod an habitation. In discord the root
is cor the heart.

In our word mistake, we have one single prefix to remove; but in mis-
apprehend we have three, mis, ad, and pre, which Ijeing rt jccted, leave
lieiul, allied to hand, to have, and, under various forms, to corres-
pondent terms, in all the languages of Europe and of Asia. In the verb
splendeo, L is the only radical which remains of XevAog, AaV^f'", ^«'^- '

The learned Rudbeck, in his Atlantica, has left us canons, by which
we may determine the countries, to which words belong. According to
him, that is the genuine language of a naticjn, which is commonly
spoken by the vulgar, and a word may be considered as the genuine
offspring of that language, if, in its primary sense, it is of extensive use,
and if its kindred derivatives have remote and accidental significations,
which naturally flow from the first notion.

Again, a word may be considered as native to a country, if monu-
ments and authentic records, referring to remote ^uitiquity, prove it to

have been always familiarly used and understood by the inhabitants; but
not so, if, being imported, it has been regarded as foreign and before
unknown. Thus, for instance, Venus, a word unknown in Rome before
the expulsion .of the Tarquins, is neither of Greek, Latin, nor of Egyp-
tian origin, but, in the Scandinavian Gothic, wena means to love;
wenskap, friendship; wenlig, familiar; wan, graceful ; wen, a wife, and
wenadis the goddess Venus.

The same may be said of Minerva, whose etymon must be sought for
in the Celtic, in which her characttristic attribute is expressed by Erva,
Arms, precisely as Mavors and Mais, in Sanscrit, mean great warrior.

Tliis agrees with his most important canon, " That word must be con-
sidered as the genuine offspring of the language, in which it expresses
the nature and properties of the thing in question." Thus, for instance,
caterm is cad a battle, and tarf a troop, and the word bisJiop is in Welch
esgob, in Galic easbog, eascob and eascop; in TEthiopic, yskuph; in
Arabic, uskuf and askub; in Spanish, obispo; in Italian, vescovo; in
French evesque; in Saxon, bisceop; in Belgic, bischop ; in German,
bischoff; in Danish, biscop and bisp; in Polish, biskup; in Slavonian,
epkop; in Hungarian, prospok ;• in Latin, episcopus, in Greek, fx/a-KOTro^,
which last expression, derived from fxi and o-KfTTTOfxan, denotes the watch-
ful guardian of the church. Here then we have the origin of all the
preceding appellations. Thus judge must be the legitimate offspring of
judice, qui jus dicif, and is not therefore to be sought for in any other
language but in Latin. JVing is, in Sanscrit, a bird, and is so named
because it moves in air.

Liquorice is, in German, lackritz ; Italian, ligurizia and regolizia ;

VOL. II. G

French, reglise; in Spanish regahza; PoHsh, lackricya; Hungarian,
liguiriczia, and in Latin, glycyrrhiza. All these appear as arbitrary
names, the impositions of caprice, to be transmitted from one generation
to another. But, when we arrive at the Greek, in which yXvvivpi^x means
sweet root, we know, that the plant in question has been indebted to
Greece alone for this appellation. The same may be said of alms, in
Welch elysen ; Italian, limosina; Spanish, limosna; Portuguese, esmola;
French, aumone; Saxon, aelmes; German, allmosen ; Swedish, almosor ;
Gothic, armajon ; Polish, talmuzna; Hungarian, alumisna; in the lan-
guage of Chaucer, almose and almesse ; in Latin, eleemosyna; for the
moment we arrive at eKeyi[i.O(Tuv^, we discern the root of all these ex-
pressions in the Greek aXsog, mercy, pity, compassion.

The origin of bastard and batard appears in basdardd, bas and tarddu,
i. e. base issue, of the Welch.

When we examine blasphemare in Latin, biasimare in Italian, blas-
femar, Spanish, brasfemar Portugueze, blasmier and blamer, French,
and blame, English, we must be convinced, that all these are connected.
But no where can we find a definition of the act, till we arrive at
/3Xa:a-(pvi|xfjv, to blast the fame, in which all these originate, and which in
/BXaTTfjv TVi'j (^■^[j.viv gives us distinctly the notion we are seeking.

Indeed the word fame itself, although immediately derived from fama,
or from cpvu^vi, as this may be from cpvif*.;, claims affinity to phi (HD-) in
Hebrew, and to plium (D12)) in Chaldee, the mouth.

For auspice, whether the word appear in French, English, Italian,
or Spanish, we need not look beyond the Latin, in which it originated,
and in which it denotes the inspection of birds for the purpose of divi-
nation.

Decern may be traced, though variously disguised, through all the
languages of Europe and of Asia, and may be thought to terminate in
Senx. But even here it claims no natural connexion with the preceding
numbers, nor from the Greek can we assign a reason for this term. In
its kindred language, theGalic, we have da cuig, that is twice five, which
it readily contracts into deich, the natural parent of BiKo:, and of a nu-
merous offspring.

In like manner our word marvel, in French merveille, and in Spanish
maravilla may claim affinity to meur-bheil, the finger of God, which
in Galic is the term for miracle. Our word asp seems to have origi-
nated in xa-Ttccipnv to tremble.

Chess in English appears as an arbitrary name. Tracing this word
through various countries and languages, we find shah a king, and
schach, skak, echecs, scacchi, and shah mat, check mate, that is the
king is dead. Shetrenjor shatranj, chatrang, and katuranga, mean
the four angas, or divisions of an army, infantry, cavalry, chariots and
elephants, and explain the name first given to the game of chess by its
original inventors, (v. Asiatic Researches.)

Neither ffiloges in Welch, nor pellex in Latin can be regarded as
descriptive of a concubine. But when we meet with the parent of
these words in philegesh. (^ilr>) of the Hebrew, we instantly gain a
clear and distinct notion of the thing intended, and see the attention
of a husband divided between two females, who have discordant claims
to his affection.

In German we find the word felleisen, for which Adelung gives no
satisfactory account, because this vehicle has no connexion with eisen,

that is with iron. Wallet, our conrespondent term, stands unconnected
in the Enghsh and contains in itself no description of the thing, any more
than felleisen of the German, Valigia of the Itahan. or valise of the
French. But in the old French fellouse we see all these expressions
terminate in pellis.

Our word nasty conveys the notion of filth; but contains within
itself no reason for this application. In Russian we have the origin of
this expression clearly pointed out. For in this language we find nechistui
of the same import, compounded of ne not and chistui pure.

Indeed we may venture to establish it, as a general rule, that com-
pound words are definitions and originate in that language, in wiiich
they may claim this character.

It must ever be remembered, that migrating hordes carry their lan-
guage with them; but that when a warlike chief, with his chosen bands,
subdues a feeble nation and settles in the country, the victors most
frequently adopt the language of the vanquished.

Rudbeck has one canon, to which I cannot readily assent. He states,
that a language, which has numerous monosyllabic expressions is a
parent language. The English has more than three thousand seven
hundred monosyllabic expressions, and the Chinese has none but such;
yet neither of these are, for that reason, to be considered as parent
languages. Certain it is, that all languages by abbreviations have a
tendency to become monosyllabic and therefore a language, which
abounds in monosyllables, is ancient, and these commonly are the
most anli(iuated parts of every language. New compounds are in-
cessantly created. These are abbreviated and in process of time become

monosyllabic. In deriving, therefore, a word in one language from its
correspondent expression in some other language, we must ever bear in
mind, that, unless in tlie formation of new compounds, the least ab-
breviated is coininoiily thti parent and the most abbreviated its off-
spring.

This observation perfectly agrees with another canon of this celebrated
Linguist. Nations do not commonly change a word, which is expediti-
ously pronounced into another, which is either longer or more difficult
of pronunciation, but the reverse. Would it be possible for any one to
persuade us, that colaphus was derived from cuff, or blaspheme from
blame? There are, however, exceptions to this rule. For many of the
Creek dialects introduce not only vowels, but almost every consonant
of the alphabet into the middle of their words.

In Latin we observe the introduction of D. for the sake of euphony,
in numerous verbs such as redeo, redigo, redimo, redarguo, &c. Anions
the derivatives from Greek, if such they may be strictly called, many
assume N. as for instance x^^^, scindo; Xsix<^, lingo; Sizjug, densus;
pxyclj, frango; tKX7ov, centum, &c. The Romans likewise occasionally
inserted N. in words, in which it did not commonly appear, as in
conjunx for conjux. Indeed jungo is evidently derived from jugum,
as in Greek ^ivr/ou produces ^euyvevco. This introduction of N. in Greek,
verbs and Greek derivatives has been already noticed as arisino- from
the conversion of infinitives into new themes.

Our Gothic ancestors frequently inserted N before the last syllable
to form both tjie passive and substantives derived from it, as fauratanja
portents from teihan to predict, whose passive is teihnan. The Eno-lish'

and French adopt the same practice in words, which have no claim to
the acquisition, as in render and rendre from reddere, and lantern
from laterna. Both nations take a superfluous D. in tendre and tender
from tener. Tliis j)ractice is extremely prevalent before G. as in lodge
from loser and edse from effsje, which in Greek is o-kI;. In our word
allege, the D. has not yet established itself, although it is distinctly
sounded. Both allege and lodge ma}"^ be traced up to Xeyeiv.

In Galic compounds, D. is introduced, as in Latin, for the sake
of euphony. Thusboacovv, and og young, become bodoga a heifer.

Such practice has been common: but this does not leave the ety-
mologist at liberty to suppose consonants, whenever his imagination
may suggest the necessity for their introduction. This would be a
dangerous privilege, a ridiculous expedient; because conjectures are of
little value, where demonstration is required. But if the arbitrary
introduction of vowels, consonants and syllables in the middle of a
word, would lead to endless conjectures, so undoubtedly would trans-
positions, unless supported by analogy. This practice, therefore, when
we can appeal to strict analogy, and have demonstrated the affinity
of any given language, may serve for illustration, may point out the
derivation and account for the change in particular words ; but will
never tend to prove, that any two languages are radically one.

II.

In the investigation of a root we are perfectly at liberty to consider
letters of the same organ as commutable, labials with labials, and

gutturals with gutturals ; dentals with dentals, and palatines with pala-
tines; because all nations have assumed this privilege.

But in the more unnatural changes, much discretion is required, and
an appeal to the particular practice of the nation, province, or tribe, in
which the word under examination may happen to appear.

III.

To obtain the genuine root, kindred languages must be compared
together, and the genius of each must be accurately known; because
witliout such knowledge and such comparison, one link or more may be
wanting to our chain, and we may be left with vague conjecture, instead
of conclusive evidence.

We know that French, Italian, Spanish and Portuguese are kindred
languages derived from Latin. Yet who, unless intimately acquainted
with the genius of these languages, would think of deriving the French,
or from ad horam ; aune from ulna ; aube from albus ; chaud from
calidus, coup from colaphus, pons from pulsus, outre from alter and
from ultra, paume from palma, sauf from salvus, sauvage from sylva,
taupe from talpa, fleau from flagellum, aumone from eleemosuna, faux
from falsus, doux from dulcis, mieux from melius, peaux from pelles,
vaux from valles, brebis from vervex, combler from cumulare, boulanger
from polentarius, couver from cubare, devoir from debere, ouvrir from
aperire, seve from sapa, jai from ego habeo, il a from ille habet.

In Italian the same degree of knowledge is required to connect fo
with facio, here with bibere, noja with noxa. In this language we have

48 1

c/uaro, clarus; cJiiave, clavis; c///oM, clavus; chiudere, daudere ; fore,
flos; Jiime, flumen; ghiado, gladius; ghiaccio, glacies; ghianda, glans;
ghieva, gleba; pietio, plenus ; piega, plica; pianta, planta ; pieve, plebs;
schiavo, slavus ; sc/»mso, exclusus; schiamazzarv, exclamare ; sc/«M7wcr, spuma;
sc/«e»fl, spina; se^/'e, septem ; s«e<<a, sagitta; trave, trabs; /c^/o, tectum;
vegghia, vigillia ; vi, ibi.

Tn Spa7nsh the mutations have been still more violent; for, not satisfied
with considering letters of the same organ as commutable, the Spaniards
substitute for each other such letters as have not the least pretence to
oro-anic affinity. This appears by the subsequent examples. Auseiicia,
absentia; bnho, bubo; haba, faba; haccr, facere; haia, fagus; harina,
farina; heder, faetere; hender, findcre; hierro, ferrum; hiel, fel; honda,
funda; horma, forma; huir, fugere; hurto, furtum: hilo, filum; liigo,
ficus; hinojo, f^niculum; hijo, filius; hoUcjo, foUiculus; ojo, oculus;
hoja, folium; /io??go, fungus; //orco, f urea ; homo, fornax; oreja, auricula;
viejo, vetulus; mucho, multus; 7>iuger, niulier; mojar, moliire; j/iazo,
malleus; mejor, melior; lenteja, lenticulus. 'I'his change of L into J,
which is in Spain a guttural, is violent in the extreme.

But, however familiar with this language, who would think of con-
necting hembra and femina, unless he should recollect that hombre is ra-
dically one with homo, as hombro is with humerus, liambre with fames,
legumbre, with legumen, licbre with lepus, and nombre with nomen.

The Portuguese is evidently a corruption of the Spanish; 3-61 this
dialect has preserved some features of resemblance, which to the dis-
cerning eye, mark its descent from Latin. This will ap|)ear by the
subsequent examples. Abri aperire, agiisa acjuila, bcijo basio, bexiga

vesica, bom bonus, boi/ bos, ceo coelum, chave clavis, c/iovc pluit, cor
color, dedo digitus, dereito directus, dhse dixit, doutor doctor, an in,
erva herba, /"ezVo factus, ^'z feci, /o/hc fames, /Wo frigid us, hojc hodie,
hum unus, may mater, meya media, minha mea, vwlher mulier, muyio
multus, ntvoa nebula, olio octo, ohrigado obligatus, ouvir audire, pay
pater, peixe piscis, per'igo periculum, por ponere, rcza recitare, rota
rupta, saude salus, scde sitis, telha tegula, trigo triticum, vcr viderc,
vir venire, vou vado, unha ungula.

When in French we meet with appris, how can we trace this expression
to its source without the assistance of the Latin, to which wc are directed
by its infinitive, apprendre. And when from apprehendo we have go
rid of the prepositions ud and pre, and have retained hendo witii thv'.
notion of handling; where can we discover this acceptation in a simple
verb, unless it be in jc^cv^izvw of the Greek?

Without the intermediate links, would not the most cautious etymo-
logist be thought rash in the extreme, who should pretend to detect a
connexion between prudence and e^Secc? But no sooner do we recollect
the subsequent expressions, prudentia, providentia, ^^potiSca and eiBtco than
Ave become satisfied, that the most strict affinity may subsist between
the first of these expressions and the last. And thus also we discover
identity of notion between our word prudence and vorsichtigkeit, that is
foresight, of our German ancestors.

Who, without the aid of French, German, Anglo-Saxon, and Belgic,
could think of connecting high with altus, of which it does not contain
a single element, either real or potential? But when we meet with
hault in the old French, and haut in the modern ; hoheit and hohe in

VOL, II. H

German; hooh in Belgic; hauh in Gothic; heah and hieli in Saxon; we
are disposed to think that all these may have originated in altus. To
account for the h, we should observe, that the modern inhabitants of
Gaul have been in the habit of introducing this letter in the beginning
of words derived from Latin, as for instance, huile, huit, huitre, hors
and hormis, charbon, charite.

Who again, without the intermediate languages, would imagine, that
liead is essentially the same word with caput? But when we observe haupt
in German; haubith in Gothic; hufwud in Swedish and heafod in
Saxon, — from which we confessedly derive our head; we immediately
distinguish the connexion of all these with caput, because we knoAv,
that the change between C and H is not unfrequent in the language of
our northern ancestors. Thus, in the Gothic we have hairto, cor; haurn,
cornu; in the Swedish, hud, cutis; hus, casa; halm, calamus; hoi,
coliis; haela, celare; hop, copia; in the German, hanff, canabis, in
Spanish, helar, gelare; hermano, germanus; hieso, gypsum, and by the
same process, haupt may connect itself with caput.

What affinity can the novice in languages discover between jioimeiv
and to feed, which have not one element, unless potentially, in common.
But when he sees /Soa-xcu, pasco, pascere, paitre French, batan Saxon,
beta and fixla Swedish, weiden German, all kindred languages, and all
denoting the same action ; even the novice may discern a regular pro-^
gress from ^os-yu till it terminates in feed. In connecting food to /Soto^,
he has no need of a connecting medium. The correspondent expres-
sions in the Celtic dialects seem to originate, not in ^oanu, but m

^tog and liioTog. These are biadh and buadh in Calir, buis in Cornish,
bwyd in Welch, and boat in the Arnioric.

In the derivation of ?nuch from iJ-eyxln, one link is snflicient, and
that we find in the Old English mickle, mochel, muchcl, as used by
Spencer in his Fairy Queen.

Fi7'e is certainly allied to Tup, but this would be in some measure
doubtful, had we not furs, in the ancient Irish of the same import,
and fursannadh in the modern to kindle. In German we have feuer,
in Belgic vuer, in Saxon and Swedish fyr, in Latin uro and eomburo,
in Welch pori, in Slavonian pogoraiu. These convey the same notion
with our word to burn, a word derived immediately from ^upoeiv. This
in Galic is bran, in Belgic branden, whence comes our brand AVith
these agree brinnan of the Gothic, brenna Swedish, and brenne Ice-
landic. In the Slavonian branch, from pogoraiu we have goriu Russian,
and Horim Bohemian. These kindred dialects thus compared together
throw light upon each other, and direct us to -iy:3 the genuine root
from which they all proceed. Without the assistance of Latin, Italian,
and French it would be impossible to connect savage with 'uXv^,
But every scholar knows, that sylva is allied to'uAti, selvage to sylva,
sauvage to selvage, and savage to sauvage.

From 'v'Kuhvti we stand in need of no assistance to arrive at wild.
Wild then and savage are both derived from 'u'Xvi.

The novice in languages would consider the attempt to connect •^^{^
the Hebrew word for light, with marble, as wild in the extreme. But
when we observe marmol in Spanish, marbre in French, and marmor in
Latin, we readily conceive that marble is allied to these. From marmor

H 2

the progress is easy, through [it-api^atpa) and f^aipw to 11K0» l^i^n and
111* of the same import, and every one knows that to receive a
pohsh and to shine are the essential properties of marble.

To connect dusk with shade even the novice may recollect, that
shade is anidSiov in its most abbreviated form, that dusk is derived
from Sxa-Kiog, which is compounded of Sx valde and a-mSeig umbrosus
and that both (thixSiov and a-moeig are the offspring of o-xj«.

It was the want of a diffusive knowledge of languages, which be-
trayed Bullet into the gross error of deriving Norihampton from nor
the mouth of a river, tarn a river, and ton a habitation. AVith equal
ignorance he derived Uxbridge, from uc a river, and brig, division,
(v. Pinkerton.)

I might here multiply examples of extravagant derivations suggested
by rash or unlearned men, and of difficulties solved in etymology by
comparing kindred languages together : but sufficient has been already
said to caution the Tyro against precipitancy, and much more will of
necessity appear in the progress of this work, when the several languages
of Europe and of Asia shall pass in review before us.

IV.

In tracing the origin of words and the affinity of languages, we must
be careful to examine correspondent terms.

Every language has multiplied expressions for the same notion. Vo-
cabularies, therefore, such as are given us by voyagers and travellers,
even those collected at the expense of the imperial Catharine, and by

the indefatigable industry of Pallas, are of little value to the etymologist.
They only perplex, discourage and mislead him. It is said, that the
Arabs have five hundred expressions for a lion. By periphrasis they
may have five thousand. Yet, without circumlocution, they have three,
asad, lebu and leis. In Hebrew likewise we find three, ari, labi and
laish (iwh, i^'^n'?. "*"1i<) The two last in each of these corresponding series
may be compared, and evince analogy. But should the traveller com-
pare only the two remaining terms; no resemblance would appear be-
tween them.

Such is the luxuriancy of language; such, in every nation, the minute
distinctions, which, marking a difference to the natives, yet escape the
observation and discernment of a stranger, thar even a dictionary with-
out a competent knowledge of the language, will frequently mislead.
We have, for instance, two difterent processes for preserving fruits, the
one by vinegar, the other by sugar, or a man may be preserved by the
protecting arm of a superior power. A young Russian, who was not
acquainted with these distinctions, in taking leave of a lady, from whom
he had received civilities, having searched his dictionary for suitable
expressions, turned to her with a look of ineffable gratitude, and said
" May God Almighty pickle you/' Had his compliment been paid in
French, he would have avoided this mistake.

No language is more abundant in periphrasis than Sanscrit, as will
appear, when I shall display its rich variety of elegant expressions*

The Irish have more than fifty expressions for a hill; and the Welch
have eight. These are cefn, garth, rhyn, bre and brynn, galit, moel,

and truin. From the Irish I select seven, ard, ardan, rinn, bri, maol,
meall, droman.

Now garth, ard and ardan may possibly have a correspondent term in
Latin, and may be connected with arduus; rhyn, brynn and rinn may
be either the parent or the offspring of /jjv, the nose; cefn, a ridge of
mountains, which is the exact description of the Cevennes in France,
seems to be the only term, which claims direct affinity to the Hebrew;
for giben is deviated, as in harim gabnunnim, high hills, of Psal.
Ixviii. 16. or gebin of the Chaldee, with which the Syriac perfectly
agrees. Of eight expressions therefore, for hill, in Welch, one only can
admit of a comparison with Hebrew, one with Greek, one with Latin,
and seven with Irish. Some languages are redundant in expressions;
others are exceedingly deficient. In the latter, one word has numerous
acceptations, and these, perhaps, discordant, or, if not altogether dis-
cordant, nor wholly unconnected either in kind or genera, yet perfectly
distinct, as species or varieties. Thus damh means in Galic ox, cow,
bull, ^gh means ox, cow, bull, battle, fear, a doe. Bla conveys the
seiveral notions, well, safe, healthy, piety, a village, a green field, the
sea, yellow, renown, praise, a shout, a cry.

In this diversity of acceptations we must compare only such as cor-
respond. Thus for instance, agh. when it signifies a castrated bull, may
be compared with ycA in Welch; ox in English; ux, Icelandic; auhs,
Gothic; oz, Belgic; and the affinity will be readily discenied: but it
must not be compared with cow, bull, battle, fear, or doe, in English,
nor with the correspondent terms in Belgic, Gothic, or Icelandic. In

Welch, however, some small similitude to agh, a cow, may be distin-
guished in buwch, which means the same.

What is here remarked will equally apply to similar expressions
in our own language, such as arch, asp, bait, bale, bark, baste, bay,
bear, bill, &c. in their numerous and discordant acceptations, for even
in the most copious languages the same word, if derived from diiFerent
sources, is made to convey a variety of independent meanings.

In tracing the etymology of words, we must remember, that as
verbs are derived from nouns, so innumerable nouns originate in verbs,
and that the most ancient parts of every language are the words ex-
pressive of visible objects, parts of the body, material elements,
natural relations, affections of the mind, things of the first necessity,
and such as are common to the whole race of man.

We must, likewise, in every language understand, from what parts
of the verb its nouns are commonly derived. In English, as Mr.
Tooke has demonstrated, our substantives are formed frequently by
the third person singular of the indicative, some ?evf from the par-
ticiple present, and many from the participle past. Besides these we
have numerous verbs whose indicative mood present tense is the in-
finitive of other verbs. In Greek although the most ancient nouns are
derived from the present, the future, and the perfect tenses, which
are the most ancient parts of verbs ; yet innumerable substantives are
participles.

VI.

In the investigations of etymology it may be established as a fun-
damental principle, that the genuine root can have but one original
meaning, one primary notion, and that every other sense must be se-
condary, metaphorical, allusive.

If then the several acceptations are discordant and cannot be tro-
pically derived from one primary idea; we may be certain, that each
independent notion has its proper radix, which must be sought for,
and may be fc^nd in some other, and that probably a kindred lan-
guage. Thus, for instance, in our word mean, we have 1° low in
worth, 2o intermediate, 3° to wish for, intend, 4° to hint, covertly, to
signify. All these acceptations, distinguished by Dr. Johnson, are
independent of each other, and seem to originate the first in (*£tov ;
the second in [t.e<Tov; the third in \^tvoi\^xw, and the fourth in ij.>ivv^.
In the first acceptation it has affinity with main and man of the
Welch; mion and min Galic ; minuo Latin; moin French; and maene
of the Saxon. In the second it is allied to mcadhon and maoin Galic;
medium Latin; mian Persian; and both moj-en and mesne French.
In the third to meinen of the German; to maani Arabic; and to
miann of the Galic. In the fourth it connects itself with minich
Galic; mentior Latin; and minneach of Iceland.

Dr. Johnson has attempted to mark, in words of extensive use, the
progress of their meaning, and to shew, by what gradations of inter-
mediate sense, they have passed from their primitive to their remote
and accidental signification, in order that every foregoing explanation

miflit tend to that which follows, and that the series might be regu-
larly concatenated from the first notion to the last. In the execution
of this purpose he had occasion to observe, that kindred senses being
interwoven, the perplexity could not be disentangled, nor any reason
be assigned, why one should be ranged before the other, for, says he,
when the radical idea branches out into parallel ramifications; how
can a consecutive series be formed of senses in their own nature col-
lateral. This remark is judicious, and his purpose laudable; but he
loo often failed in his attempts. Tt is here supposed, that every word
in English has one primary import, from which all others are derived.
But in no language is this the case, because all nations have bor-
rowed expressions from their neighbours, and by the process of ab-
breviation, have in numerous instances reduced these, however dissimilar
in structure, however independent, or even discordant in their orio-inal
import, to one and the same word. This will be abundantly exempli-
fied in the progress, of my work.

By multiplied and reiterated investigations, we may be able to connect
languages together, which appear at first sight not to have the least
affinity, and, for this purpose we may venture to assume the subsequent
as axioms:

1. Nations, which agree in the terms expressive of those objects,
which are of tlie first necessity to mere animal existence, and of those
actions, which are most common in savage life, however distant they
may now be, were originally one.

2. When, with this agreement, their languages differ exceedingly in
substance, and essentially in structure, though they were once united,

VOL. II. I .

they have for ages formed distinct nations, without poUtical connexion,
or social intercourse.

3. But should they agree in technical terms; the separation must
have taken place, after their common ancestors had made a progress in
the arts and sciences.

The application of these axioms will immediately connect all the
languages of Europe, and ultimately those also of Asia, and of Africa,
and of America, in which the same elementary words are found, although
variously corrupted and disguised by adventitious ornaments and dress.
For, on examination, it will appear, that the original language has ex-
isted, and does still substantially exist, diffused throughout the various
languages, which ever have been, or now continue to be spoken in any
quarter of the globe.

OF THE

FIRST INHAIBBTANTS OF BRITAIN",

xV-LL historians are agreed, that Britain was peopled from the con-
tinent ; and the condition, in which the Romans found the inhabitants,
makes it evident, that hunting and pastoral adventurers, landing at dif-
ferent times upon her shores, had penetrated far into the country, to sup-
ply themselves with game, and to find provision for their flocks.

Cffisar, in his Commentaries, informs us, that the interior of the island
was occupied by those, who were considered as natives of the soil.
These may have been descendants of the colonists, who, as the Saxon
Chronicle informs us, came from Armenia, and settled in the south.
Tiiis information is said to be confirmed by Indian and by Irish history,
from which it is collected, that Indo-Scythian adventurers came first to
Spain, and thence to the south of Britain.

We learn again from Caesar, that the maritime parts of our island were
peopled by Belgae, who originally came to it for plunder. He tells us,
that the Cantii, perhaps so called from kante, a sea coast, were the most
civilized, and had tillage, precisely as the Gauls, whilst, in the interior

I 2

of the countr}^ the chief dependence of the Aborigines for food and
raiment was on their flocks and herds; but that many painted their
bodies and went naked. Possibly, like the Gentoo casts of India, they
painted the forehead. It is now well known that they lived in huts or
mud-wall cottages, not resembling those occupied by the poorest of our
people, but round hovels, frequently sunk in the earth, covered with
poles united in a focal poinf, and then thatched with straw, reeds and
rushes. An assemblage of such miserable dwellinss constituted their
only towns, placed commonly in the midst of forests, or on the sides
and summits of their mountains. Here they sought shelter for them-
selves and for their cattle. Such are the huts composing many villages
in the neighbourhood of Mcttore, Nattan and Tourancourchi in the
East Indies.

Mungo Park informs us, that the African nations, and particularly
the Mundingoes, content themselves with such small and incommo-
dious hovels. He says " A circular mudwall, about four feet high,
upon which is placed a conical roof, composed of bamboo cane, and
thatched with grass, forms alike the palace of the king and the hovel
of the slave." (Travels in Africa, p. 22.) The situations of many such
British towns and villages have been discovered by Mr. Cunnington,
of Heytcsbury. He had two men constantly employed in searching
for them, and the result of his pursuit has been the fullest evidence,
that our British ancestors were strangers to the use of iron. They
had none but stone axes and hammers, and their arrow heads were
formed of flint like those of the American Indians. Their pottery
was fashioned by hand, not turned upon a wheel, and was baked

on the hearth in their cuhnary fires, not in a furnace. He informed
me that he had opened more than one hundred and twenty tumuli,
in which he never could discover one implement of either iron, brass,
or any other metal.

My esteemed and much-lamented friend, Mr. Edward King, in one
of his inestimable volumes, has traced the resemblance between these
rude inhabitants of Britain in all their structures, whether domestic
or designed for sacred rites, and the nomade hordes scattered over
the face of Europe, Asia, Africa and America. On this subject he
judiciously remarks, " It deserves to be well noticed, what a striking
conformity is to be found in the manners of all those called abori-
ginal people, in every part of the earth as to some usages, which
therefore shew their original connexion with the few patriarchal fami-
lies, who first peopled the globe. (Munimenta Antiq. vol. i. p. 154.)

In our island we observe four races of men, differing in personal
appearance and in language. These are the Highlanders and Lowlan-
ders of North Ihitaiii, the Welch, and the mass of inhabitants on this
side the Tweed. Tacitus was aware of these distinctions, for, in his
Life of Agricola, he remarks, that the yellow hair and large limbs of
the Caledonians prove them to have been Germans. From the hair,
the form, and the complexion of the Welch, he imagined, that they
came from Spain. And by similar observations he rendered it pro-
bable, that the coast opposite to Gaul received inhabitants from thence.
Respecting these he adds, what I shall demonstrate, that their languages
agreed.

The most ancient of the Greek Historians in his Melpomene, dis-

covers to our view, a rolling tide proceeding from the east. Wave
follows wave : they break upon the western shores of the Caspian :
they spread themselves over countries, where they find least resistance,
and even the Caucasian mountains form but a feeble barrier, to arrest
their progress. He represents the nomade Scythians of Asia, retiring
■with their flocks from this invading force, and deserting the inheritance
of their fathers, anxious only to avoid the arrows of the Massageetae,
a ferocious nation, who came from the eastern borders of the Caspian,
driven out by the more ferocious Arimaspi.

In their retreat they fall back on the Cimmerians, a less warlike
nation, who had for ages fed their flocks on the banks of the Danube,
and in the fertile plains adjacent to the sea.

l"he venerable historian of Samos, in Cimmeria, now Crimea, was re-
minded by every thing of its pristine possessors.

About 450 years before the Christian era, at the period in which he
composed his interesting work, the Celtic hordes occupied vast tracts
of country, and were scattered over the regions in which the Danube
flows.

Beyond them, in the utmost extremities of Europe, towards the
setting sun, the Cynetae, {Kvv^rxi) either fed their flocks, or, more pro-
bably, were to be numbered among the hunting tribes.

The Chinese historians assist us to trace the progress of the Eastern
swarms towards the west, during a period subsequent to that, which is
mentioned by Herodotus. For, about l6'2 years before the Christian
era, the Huns, or Western Tartars, wandering over their mountains
north of China, drove before them the Yue-Chi, Ye-tan, Jeta or Getes,

a people who inhabited on the Irtish, near the Altai Mountains.
Some of these found refuge among the frozen mountains of Tibet; but
the main body, proceeding to the west, expelled in succession weaker
hordes, till they appeared to the north of Indostan, where they became
known to the Greeks by the name of Indo-Scythians. (De Guignes
Hist, des Huns, torn. ii. p. 41.)

The Celts, called also Galatians, according to Polybius, occupied for
a time the whole of Gaul, from Narbonne to the ocean, with a part of
Italy adjoining to the Alps. But Ceesar, in his Commentaries, represents
the same tumultuous waves as still continuing to roll on towards the
setting sun, and warlike tribes, either expelling or themselves expelled,
all pressing forwards in succession towards Gaul, a country rich in
pasturage, productive of corn, and well suited for the introduction of
the vine. During the consulate of Messala and Piso, the Belgae and
Helvetii were engaged in opposing the inroads of their neighbours, who
inhabited bej^ond the Rhine. But the principal nobility among the
latter were themselves inclined to leave their mountains, and to seize
upon the more fertile plains, abundantly watered by the Rhone. The
object of their ambition was to subjugate the whole of Gaul. For this
purpose, they, two years successively, sowed all their lands, they made
peace with their nearest and most formidable neighbours, they purchased
horses and cars to the utmost extent of their ability, and chose a leader
equally distinguished for his wealth and for his high descent. This was
Orgetorix; but he died before the time appointed for their departure.
Not discouraged by their loss, they proceeded to burn all their habi-
tations, including twelve towns, with four hundred villages, and nu-

merous scattered houses, and they destroyed the corn, which thej
were unable to transport, after they had commanded every one to
provide himself with flour for three months supply. All this being
accomplished they turned their backs upon their native laud to the
number of two hundred and sixty-three thousand armed meii, assisted
by their allies, who amounted to one hundred and five thousand. Such
Avas the population of one little state, and such the nature of their
j)reparaLions for quitting their possessions, in search of new settlements
to be acquired by arms.

The issue was fatal to themselves, for Cffisar being informed of their
intentions, hastened to Geneva, collected forces, opposed their progress,
harrasscd them incessantly, defeated them in battle, and, when they
had lost two hundred and fifty eight thousand men, compelled them
to return and to rebuild the towns they had destroyed.

Having obeyed his commands, they held a general council, at the
breaking up of which they represented to hirn, that Ariovistus, king of
the Germans, had seized a third p-art of the rich country belonging to
the Sequani, and had commanded them to, evacuate another third in
favor of his allies. They assured him, that all the Gauls, unless pro-
tected by the Romans, would be compelled to do, what the Ilelvetii
had in vain attempted, to ([uit their country, and seek new settlements
far distant from the Germans.

Gffisar apprehensive lest, if he suflcred the Germans thus frequently
to pass the Rhine, they niight get possession of Gaul, as the Cimbri
and Teutoncs had done, and from thence invade Italy, he without loss
of time, led his victorious legions against Ariovistus and put his whole
army to the rout.

We have seen the Cimmerians expelled from their ancient settle-
ments by the nomade Scythians: we have traced their footsteps driving
the Gauls before them, and we hear of them at last as taking refuge
on the Cottian Alps, in Britany, in Cornwall, and in Wales. When
one swarm from this hive passed the Alps, and ventured to attack
the Romans on the Athesis, now the Adige ; when, on the banks of the
Po, they offered terms to Marius; it was with this single stipulation on
their part, that the Romans should assign to them and to their allies,
the Teutones, lands in Italy. Thus two nations unite to invade a third,
not to avenge an insult, not for plunder, but to obtain more extensive
pastures for their flocks, and a more fertile country for the labors of
the plough.

Authors have tormented themselves and perplexed their readers, by
endeavouring to fix the abode, in given periods, of all the nomade
nations. They miglit as well attempt to fix the locality of waves,
and to form a chronological chart of the foamins; billows in the ocean.
The weaker hordes have constantly given way to the more powerful, and
these have for a time occupied more fertile lands than those, which they
quitted, and from which, perhaps, they were themselves expelled.

Thus, retreatino- nations, under various denominations, whether Scy-
thians, Sacffi, Massageta?, Getae or Goti, continuing to direct their steps
towards the setting sun, spread themselves successively over Germany
and Gaul, every where compelling the Cimmerians to fly before them.
Some of these took refuge in the mountains of Armorica, whilst otherj
passed over into Britain, from which they drove the Galic tribes, and
obliged them to seek a resting place in Ireland. Here the fugitives were

VOL. II. K

again disturbed by the Menapii and the Cauci, who are supposed to
have been the Scythians of Diodorus Sicukis. These rovers took pos-
session of the south, and compelled the greatest part of Ireland to bend
in subjection to their yoke. They built numerous castles, assumed the
royalty, and gave birth to the Scytise or Scotish race of sovereigns, who
exercised dominion in that island.

From this time the Scoti were considered as the reguli and nobiles,
whilst the great mass of the inhabitants were called Hibernigenae, or
natives of the country. In this state of the community, the foreigners,
being comparativel}' few in number, soon lost their language in the Galic
of their subjects.

But although the many submitted patiently to these new lords;
yet numerous bands, principally in the north of Ireland preferring
liberty to every comfort, which could be expected in their native
land, crossed over to the north of Britain, and took possession of the
Highlands, where they are distinguished, not only by identity of lan-
guage with their progenitors, but by their diminutive stature, their
brown complexion, dark eyes and black curled hair. Whereas the
Lowlanders are tall and large, with red hair, blue eyes and fair com-
plexion, strangers to the Galic language, and accustomed only to
the Gothic.

From the ninth to the sixteenth century, these Highlanders are said
to have been subject, not to the Scotish crown, but to Norwegian
Lords.

TheCimbri, who had driven out the Gauls from Britain, were in their
turn molested by numerous swarms from the northern hive. For the

Picts of Scandinavia, the Scythians of Jornandes and of Bedc, who
had driven the Cimmerians from the Baltic, now pursued tliem, and,
invading those parts of the island which were most accessible to then),
took possession of the country as far south as to the Forth and Clyde,
which became for ages the boundary between the Cimbric tribes and
them.

Our venerable historian, Bede, who wrote about A. D. 731, speakui^
of these Cimmerians, whom he calls Britons, informs us, that, as they
were spread over the south, the Picts were for a time obliged to be con-
tented with the north.

Indeed, Tacitus, Eumenius, Ammianus Marcellinus, Gildas, Nennius,
the Saxon Chronicle, Giraldus Cambrensis, and Geofroy of Monmouth,
concur with him, and prove, what Buchanan, Lluyd, Verstegan, Usher,
Stillingfleet, Sibbald, and Sberingham agree in, that the Picts came
from Scandinavia; and their testimony is confirmed both by the lan-
guage of the country, which is distinctly Gothic, not Cumraig, nor
Galic, and by the persons and manners of the inhabitants, which are
perfectly German. *

The Picts are distinguished by Bede into northern and southern,
separated b}^ the Grampian Hills. The former are by him called
Dicaledojice, that is, in modern language, Caledonians and Vecturiones,
a word supposed to be equivalent to mariners, because in the Tslandic,
vik is a haven, vig a ship, and vikingur a pirate. These Scandinavian
adventurers, at their first arrival, passing by the Orkneys occupied the
Hebud Islands, now the Hebrides, of whose wretched inhabitants

K 2

Solinus, about the year 240, says, " They know nothing of grain, but
subsist altogether on milk and fish."

Not satisfied with such an acquisition, the Picts directed their course
for Britain, made good their landing, and, having established them-
selves in the north, they soon extended their dominion to the south.
About A. D. 430, they drove the Cimmerians to the western shores
of the island, and took possession of Cumberland and Northumberland,
with all the country between the H umber and the Forth. From hence
as opportunity offered, they made excursions, pushed forward their
conquests, ravaged the country and conducted their victorious bands
even into Kent. Their dominion, however, was not of long dura-
tion, for A. D. 460, the Saxons drove them back to their former
territories beyond the H umber. Here they remained as lords till
A. D. 547, and as occupiers of the soil till A. D. 685.

The arrival of Hengist with his Jutes, that is Goths, Avas A. D. 447.
Soon after his establishment in Britain, he assumed the diadem, in
Kent, where he fixed the seat of his dominion. By his invitation
other Saxons came, A. D. 447, and took possession of the districts,
which from them were denominated Sussex, Essex, and Middlesex, that
is to say. South Saxons, East Saxons, and Middle Saxons. Arthur
who had effectually restrained their progress, died A. D. 542. After
his death the Angli arrived and gave their name to South Britain.
These came principally from Anglen, a small territory of Sleswick in
Holstein, of which Lunden was the capital. They were conducted
by Ida, a descendant of Woden, in sixty ships, and landed at Flam-
borough in Yorkshire. This was the prince who founded the kingdom

of the Anglo-Saxons, in Nortliumberland, from whence he expelled the
Picts.

A. D. 584. The Saxon Heptarchy was established.

From all that has been said, we may collect, that the Irish and the
Highlanders of North Britain are to be distinguished from the Welch and
Cornish: that the Lowlanders of North Britain are of Gothic extract,
and that the English are principally a Belgic race, with a considerable
admixture of Angles, Jutes, and Saxons. Accordingly we collect from
Bede, that in his day four languages prevailed in Britain, the Irish,
the British or Cumraig, the Pikish or Scandinavian, and the English
or Anglo-Saxon.

All these are distantly related, and in the ascending line ultimately
terminate in one. The learned and most judicious Sheringham, in his
treatise De Origine Gentis Anglorum, has delivered his opinion, that
the hives of the north, who came from the borders of the Baltic, were
originally descended from the Chaldean or Assyrian stock, whose lan-
guage is a dialect of the Hebrew.

After all the researches I have been able to make in a lono-
life, devoted to these subjects, my opinion nearly coincides with his,
and in the progress of my work, I shall trace successively the affinity
between the English, Elemish, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic,
Gothic of Ulphilas, Persian, Sanscrit, Greek, Chaldee, Arabic and
Hebrew.

OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

The English has no pretension to originality. It is evidently a com-
pound language, Avhich has freely adopted words from every nation, at
any time connected with our island, in the way of con(|uest, or of com-
merce, and with singular address.

Dissociata locis concordi pace ligavit.

It has been much indebted to the Romans for its harmony. They
have supplied the ornaments of grace and beauty: but its nervous
strength and energy are principal!}' derived from the Goths.

The basis of our language is certainly of Gothic origin; 3'et nu-
merous expressions still remain to remind us of the Cimbri and of the
Gauls, the first inhabitants of Britain. With these many derivatives
are seen of Greek, and some of Hebrew, whose correspondent terms
are wanting in the kindred languages of Europe.

In this enumeration, I do not comprehend our modern acquisitions,
such as serve to shew our progress and improvements in the various
sciences of law, of chemistry, of medicine, of mineralogy, and of war.
These are adopted, with little variation, from the writings of the Nor-
mans, Arabs, Greeks, Germans, French.

Our prepositions are nearly the same as are used in Greek, in Latin,
and in all the languages of Europe. These, in monosyllabic expressions^
have yielded obedience, like the radical part with which they are con-
nected, to those laws of abbreviation and mutation, which I have already
noticed as prevalent in all the languages, with which wc are acquainted.

Hence it is, that, without particular attention, they escape observation,
or at least are regarded either as a radical part of the word, in which
they appear, or as accidental and arbitrary accretions, for which no
account is to be required. The most common prefixes allied to Greek,
are B. P. F, which claim affinity to eTti, and C. G. S, which are of
the same family with tn and e^, to which, in the former part of this
work, I directed the particular attention of my readers.

Compounded with B. P. and F, that is with s'ji, we find the subse-
quent expressions. Bleach, Ksvuog. Blaze, Xevaaw. Blithelaetus. Flock,
yoxog. Friend, ipxstv. Prate and (ppx^(^, derived from pe(a. Compounded
with C and G, that is with en, we have. Clink, Click, Xiyfu. Crag, pxx'^ct^
Creep, repo. Glass, gloss, Afuja-w. Glimpse, Kd[j.-4^xi. Grave, and ypadf^u,
px(p1g. Glad, Isetus.

E^ is a compound of K and S, Of these letters, the former is liable
to be dropt in composition, and then eE. becomes ys in Welch, or simply
s, in other languages allied to it. In this way, as I conceive, we may
connect the subsequent expressions. Scratch, x^P^^^'^co. Screen, xptvco.
Smear, f^up/^o. Scar, f%«p« and xs^pu. Spear, veipxa}. Scald, calidus.
Slime, limus.

Spleen, StXi^v and splen, seem to have assumed both f^ and e^ti, be-
cause we have the same notion conveyed by lien.

I have taken these examples from among such, as occurred to my
recollection. A minute investigation might have increased their
number.

Our terminations appear to have been formed, not by arbitrary sounds
and syllables subjoined, as accident or caprice directed, but by words

of determinate import, which in process of time have submitted to
those laws of abbreviation, whose influence and authority have been
universally acknowledged and obeyed.

Thus, when the person acting is denoted by the syllable er added to a
substantive or verb, as in lawyer, soldier, gardener, baker, this particle
is probably no other than wcr of tiie Anglo-Saxon, wair of the Maso-
Gothic, hai' of the Francs, air of the Armenians, aior of the Scythians,
ur and guv of the Icelandic, ger of the Persian, and fear or fir of the
Galic, which, according to the genius of this language, may either
precede the principal word, or be subjoined to it, precisely as in English
we say indifferently manly, or like a man. Indeed many of our words
retain man without disguise, as coachman, ploughman, herdsman,
husbandman.

But instead of er we frequently meet with or, as in our words de-
rived from Greek and Latin, debtor, cultivator. Here the «/• may be
gwr of the Welch abbreviated, as in ardalwr a prince, cawr a giant,
brawdwr a judge.

The Galic fear and fir are unquestionably the same with vir; and
gwr, like ger in Persian and gur of the Icelandic, is related to them
both. In fact all these arc probably geher ("13^) in disguise, with
this difference, that the latter retain the guttural, which the other
hinguages reject.

These terminations were evidently personal at first and denoted the
liuman agent ; but by degrees their use was extended to express
agency in general, as in banner, streamer, fodder, and in Welsh cadwr,
a shield derived from cadw to save.

The participle present, in English, is now formed by ivg, l)ut its
ancient termination was end, as bindend bicrnend, now binding and
burnino'. In Anglo-Saxon this was ende, as lufingendi loving. In
Gothic it was U7ids, andei, and, according to the gender, as sokjands,
sokjandei, sokjand, seeking, in correspondence with the Latin whose
participle of the first conjugation in the oblique cases, terminates in
antis, anti, ante. The change of d and g for each other, but more
especially ofd for g has been already noticed.

Our Saxon ancestors had, beside the termination end for nouns
substantive derived from participles in ende, four others, ange, inge,
onge, unge, which seem to have been originally connected with the
perfect tense of some (Ireek verbs, such, for instance, as have con-
verted their infinitives into new themes, in the manner particularly
noticed under the article of compound words.

The practice of converting participles into substantives accounts for
numerous expressions in our language, which claim this descent. Mr.
Tooke has very judiciously handled this part of his subject, has dis-
played his usual sagacity, and has thereby thrown more light upon
the English Language than all the writers, who ever went before
him.

Wachterus, a learned German, had made similar observations, as far
as relates to the past participle, giving birth to numerous substantives.
He says, " D. est litera participialis & nota originis ex participio.
Solent enim Prisci ex participiis formare substantiva & terminationem
participialem derivatis relinquere, tanquam custodem originig.. - Haec

VOL. II. L 3

una litera nos quasi manu ducit ad permulta vocabulorum secreta intelli-
genda. Sic etiam de T & Te.

It is here worthy of remark, that, as participles, whether past or pre-
sent, are apt to be assumed for substantives; so these substantives are
apt to become new themes for verbs. Thus it has happened to rift and
sift, which arc rived and sieved, and to lift, which is clearly elevatus.
Thus also swaying gives birth to swing, wrying to wring, and going to
gang, all new verbs, whose participles consequently become swinging,
wringing, ganging.

The termination th in substantives points them out as derivatives
from verbs. Thus girth is that which girdeth. Filth that which de-
fileth, and warmth that which warmeth. (v. Home Tooke.)

Among our terminations we should more particularly notice N, be-
cause it marks the infinitive in Saxon, German, Gothic, Persian, Greek,
and enables us to detect the radical part of numerous verbs, which have
converted their infinitives into new themes, as may be exemplified in
learn and churn, of which the latter is evidently fyvposiv. Of this letter,
I may say, what Wachterns has said of D, in the passage I have quoted
from his interesting work on German. Plaec ima litera nos quasi manu
ducit ad permulta vocabulorum secreta intelligenda.

I have, in my general observations on compound words, already
noticed the perplexity occasioned by the creation of new themes from
the infinitives of ancient verbs, and I have here called the attention of
the reader to this practice in the Anglo-Saxon and the English, because
it throws much light on the origin of numerous expressions in our lan-
guage, whose radical part might otherwise be hid from us.

Jsh suffixed to nouns denotes character, as in childish, selfish, whitish,
and the like. This we may have derived either from the Hindoo and
Persian asa, or from the Greek tVxw, which marks resemblance, as do
our ly and lyke, derived from aXimog.

Abstract substantives are conceived to have been formed from con-
crete adjectives by adding the termination ness, as in whiteness, hardness,
and our most distinguished linguist. Hicks, was of opinion, that the
Anglo-Saxon nesse originated in the feminine termination of the Gothic
ns, which is equivalent to nes, as in galaubeins, faith; garaihteins,
justice. This may be, and probably is so: but I must own f have some
doubt upon the subject. The ei/js of the Gothic seems to have an
affinity with e7is of the Romans, and as, in the Anglo-Saxon, the abstract
substantive may with common abbreviation be formed from the injinitive,
which terminates in N, by the addition of esse, which like ens, denotes
being in general, or the very essence of a thing; it is possible that esse,
J1T2/"' of Hebrew, was the genuine termination of abstract substantives
among the Anglo-Saxons. It certainly takes the place of itas xmn''X
of Chaldee, as in thrinesse for trinitas, both meaning the triune essence.

The terminations less and full, as in doubtless and doubtful, speak
for themselves, and sufficiently testify, that, independently of their
connexion, they have a determinate import of their own. These appear
to be no other than e/aVo-wv and /SuXXo?, of which the latter may be
nearly related to ■yto'kvg and crXeoj.

Bom indicates dominion, as in kingdom, dukedom, earldom: but
by accommodation it signifies condition, as in whoredom, wisdom.

Kick derived from rego, implies government. Head and hood as termi-

L 2

nations, are the Anglo-Saxon had, which means order, quality, and sex.

Ship, as in worship, answering to weorthscype of the Anglo-Saxon,
means dignity and office.

Shire in English appears only in the names of counties ; but in
Saxon the correspondent termination is in frequent use, as in tunscyre
a stewardship ; geferscyre, partnership. It may be the Greek KupjoTv;.,
prefecture, office, occupation, as sire and sir mean y.vpu. Or possibly
our shire may be allied to nupco.

We have other terminations transmitted to us by our Saxon ances-
tors, of whose original import I can give no account. •

As for ale, ete, ite, ote, utc, ation, etion, ition, otion, ution, ent,
ment, &c. these belong to expressions derived from Latin, either im-
mediately, or through the medium of the French, and, although now
abbreviated, were themselves, like the preceding, originally words of
distinct and specific meaning.

In English the noun is no longer subject to inflexions but the
oblique cases are denoted, as in Hebrew, by prepositions. These are
of, to, with, from, by. Our ancestors, however, had inflexions, and
varied their declensions like the Greeks and Romans. Our possessive
pronouns mine, my, thine, thy, his, her, our, your, are taken from the
genitive cases of the Saxon personals, and are not subject to inflex-
ion, but are declined, like our nouns, by prepositions.

When we shall proceed to examine the Anglo-Saxon; it will appear,
that we conform in a great measure to the grammatical rules established
by our ancestors in the conjugation of their verbs, although in the
infinitive mood wo commonly omit the final N. This, however, is

retained in burn, turn, earn, yearn, learn, harden, fasten, slaeken,
cheapen, with numerous others of tlic same form, and serves to de-
monstrate the affinity between our language and the Greek.

In deriving from Latin our modern English makes fewer changes,
than either the French, Italian, or Spanish. This will appear, when I
shall review those languages. In the mean time a few exam[)les may
suffice to shew, with what scrupulous attention we conform to the
original, as for example, abbreviate, abhor, abject, abrupt, abstract,
abound, accept, active, acrimony, acute, adapt, adhere, admire, admit,
administer, adversity, &c. These, it is evident, are not of remote an-
tiquit3\ They appear almost perfect and entire, and therefore want
that venerable aspect, which strikes the eye in the most contracted
forms. Yet even these sufficiently evince a disposition to drop their
superabundant plumage in their flight.

The English, in its derivatives, avails itself of an universal privilege, and
not only disregards all distinction in the vowels, but, like other languages,
it considers those consonants, which have organic affinity, as equivalent,
and therefore to be substituted without scruple in each others place.

Thus it has happened to the labials B, F. P. V. W, as in probare,
prove; habere, have; pila, ball; verres, boar; forare, bore; vannus,
fan; pinna, fin; pullus, foal; salvus, safe; spuma, foam; vadare, wade;
vinum, wine; vermis, worm; vespa, wasp; vallum, wall; via, wa3\

The same may be observed of the dentals, T. D. Th, as will appear
by the subsequent examples, ad, at; ede, eat; nutus, nod; habitum,
haved, had; territus. dread; tritus, tread; tectam, deck; fretum, frith;
auctor, author; tu, thou; Tpl^og, third.

The gutturals C, G, K, Ch, and Q, to which must be added the
aspirate and sibilant H and S, are subject to the same laAv, as may be
seen in crates, grate; coquus, cook; gehdus, cold; catena, chain;
heedus, kid; caseus, cheese; cista, chest; cornu, horn; caput, head;
gallina, hen; colhs, hill; clausus, sluice; vulgus, folk.

Our Ch is said to have been introduced by the Normans, and I am
inclined to acquiesce in this opinion, because, subsequent to the Norman
Conquest, Ceaster became Chester, boc was converted into beech, biro
into birch, and wic, as a termination, into wich. However, the Normans
themselves most probably derived this double consonant from their Scan-
dinavian ancestors, and from Norway transported it to Normandy. Cer-
tain it is that the Swedes pronounce K before a vowel as Ch, and the
Italians do the same by C before E and f, which the Germans sound as
ts, approaching to our Ch.

The conversion of C, K, and Q into II, is Teutonic, and pervades

all its dialects.

Like the Italian, Spanish, French and German, our language takes
the ablative case of Latin nouns, but confines this practice in a great
measure to such as increase in the genitive, as for instance, fierce, de-
rived, not immediately from ferox, but from feroce. Thus in the sub-
sequent ablative, voce produces voice, pace peace, margine margin,
fraude fraud, flore flower, hospite host, gigante giant, quiete quiet.
Yet here it may be observed, that probably in more ancient times the
nominative cases of Latin nouns were conformable to the ablatives.
Could this be demonstrated; it would remove the date of all such de-
livatives to very distant periods, or prove perhaps, that they did not ori-

ginatc in Latin, but in some more ancient language, wliicli was tlic
common parent of the Greek, of the Latin, apd of all the various tlia-
lects now prevalent in Europe. Yet possibly all the latter may be
the offspring of the Romance.

I have stated, that languages have a tendency to become monosyl-
labic. This observation, as far as relates to English, may be readily
confirmed by calling to mind a few of our derivatives from Latin. In
addition, therefore, to those we have already noticed, I may refer to
the subsequent examples, which might have been abundantly increased;
adjumentum, aid; armus, arm; cantharus, can; caulis, cole; corona,
crown; crimine, crime; debitum, debt; decanus, dean; dubitatio, doubt
expeditio, speed; exterritus, start, extraneus, strange; flagellum, flail
fragilis, frail ; labium, lip; movere, move; placere, please; proeda, prey
positus, put; radice, root; rancidus, rank; rivulus, rill; rotundus, round
spiculi, spikes; stringere, string; tegula, tile; tentorium, tent; tinnitus,
din ; trahere, draw.

These for the present may suffice. Others will occur to us in our ex-
amination of the several languages of Europe.

A considerable proportion of the English language is radically Greek,
and this independently of the vast addition made to il of late by the
rage for Greek expressions. When I say, that a portion of our language
is radically Greek, I do not mean to assert, that our ancestors, after
their departure, from the continent, borrowed terms for common use
from Greece. Nay, I am persuaded, whatever may have been the
iutercourse between Greece and Britain, that the words in question
were not imported by men of science, by merchants, nor yet by

transient adventurers in arms, but by the Gauls, the ^Cimbri, the
Belgae, and the Saxons, when they came in swarms to settle in this
Island. Nor yet is it my intention to insinuate, that these nations
in their native seats were indebted for expressions to the peninsula of
Greece; and much less that the Greeks borrowed these resembling terms
from them. No; such occasional loans would not account for the most
evident affinity, and for the strictly radical identity discernible in these
languages, and in all the languages both of Europe and of Southern
Asia, which is the fact I shall endeavour to elucidate in the progress of
my work.

Of many hundred words, either nearly related to, or remotely derived
from Greek, I here select a few.

Ache, ail, all, alms, am, as, asp, aye, babe, bake, balm, bathe, bear,
beat, better, best, blab, blade, blow, bloom, blot, boat, bouse, box,
boy, bran, bread, break, brew, bribe, brook, broth, browze, bruise,
burn, burst, call, catch, chair, chaff, chase, cheer, chick, chide, chief,
chink, chop, clack, clash, clay, clean, clew, cliff, climb, clink, clothe,
clown, cloy, club, coal, coat, cock, coil, comb, come, coop, cope,
copse, cord, core, cot, court, crab, crack, crag, creek, crib, crick,
croak, crow, cruise, crust, cup, cut, dare, dark, dart, deaf, deal, deep,
deer, desk, deuce, dew, dig, dike, dine, dip, dish, dive, dock, dog,
dole, doom, dome, door, dowr, down, downs, drag, draw, drain, drawl,
lK:c. Sec.

I have placed these words together without the intervention of the
Greek, that the eye may run quickly over them, and judge of their

venerable aspect. 'I'liey are not such expressions as arc conunonlj im-
ported, but words of daily use, which are essential to the language, and
appear in their most abbreviated forms. Now let us view their affinity
with Greek:

Ache a%o?, ail xiXsmg, all oKog, alms £X£vif*ojuvvi, am etfi^i, as &•>-, asp
meaning the aspin tree iaircupo:, aye ail.

Babe ^m^x^a, bake fienMc, balm (ixXaci\t.ov, bathe /3u^/?a), bear (Jepw,
beat and pat 'KctTuucrDi, better ^eXTepog, best fieXTicog, blab (iXccxTu, blade
^Kxqxvu, blow /SXuw, bloom /3f/SXufA£voj, blot jSXaTTTw, boat y-i^icrog, bouse
Two-w, box in its three several acceptations ^ru^, tu^oj, 'nv^ig, boy ^auf,
bran t<tu/)o;/, bread fip^flog, break fTi and piiyvuf**, ,£'7rt£ppv)%«, brew ^pvTog,
bribe jipajieiov, brook [ipox^^, broth and bruice /3/jyTov, bruise /Bpi^^tf, /Spta-w,
brouze /Spwo-Kw, burn -Trupociv, burst fTrt and pww.

Call xaXfiv, catch >taTf%eif, catch, a vessel, *Ka;Toj, chair nx^eSpa,
chaff x8(p5f, chase ^^a^'civ, cheer xaiput chick muKog, chide kvSx^w,, chief
x£(p«Xvi, chink in Anglo-Saxon cinan %«iv£<v, chop koxtw, clash and clack

xXa^w, KfKXviyfl:, fKXayov; clay yXia:, clean nxXov, clew xuXfw, cliff x.Xt';7uj;
climb, nXnt^ut, clink nXayyv], clothe j<Xw&ftv, clown %Xowvif, cloy %Xiw,
club uXocjix, coal KVjXfOf, coat nuBiov, cock y.oy.y.vl,oi, coil KUKXiO, comb
xoM, come epxoiJ'Xi, coop x*7rvi, copc, KCTro,;, coppice noTtTcc, \^w cord
%op5vi, core axpSix, cot xojtvi, court xopTog, crab nxpxfio;, crag, pii:%t«,
creek xpufv and Kp£>t£;v, crib Kpa;/3/3a:TOr, crick npexvi, croak KpwyfiOj-, crow
y.opciiSv^, cruise upwa-crOi, crust xpi>Oy, cup, xVTrekXov, cut xOttto;.

Dare Sxppsiv, dark ai^fpxvif, dart 3op«Tioi/, deaf Tv<pXor, suidas deal
BiaXsiv, deep Swlu, deer Bop^Xf, desk, disk, dish ^ia^xo?, deuce ^i^a'f, dew
Bsvu, dig 5ix£XX«, dike T£i%i3r, dine Beivveiv, dip, dive ^uttw, dock 5o>c£<5v,

VOL. II. M

(log 5a;>cOf, dole BuKeiv, doom ^^i^x, dome -^^f^v^, door ^vpc, dowr Supov,
down 5uvw, downs hotvoi, drag, draw SpxyS, dr<\\n Ivipxivw, drawl TpauXj^tiv,
droos 'Tpv^, drive Tpifioi, dusk ^afl-mor, dwell ^lauXi^fiv.

I am much inclined to think, that most if not all our verbs which
terminate in K, and more especially in nk, with many verbs in ng,
originate in Greek preterites. Of such derivations I shall here adduce
a few.

Clack, click, clang, clock, cluck are apparently allied to ^ceXea,
jtXa^w and JtXw^w, whose preterites are xixXvix*, xexXay^a, jcfxXwxa. Plunge
is probably derived from vXwca, whose regular preterite should have
been vsTrXvyna, but instead of this we find ■trenXvKce, as if it were de-
rived from tXuw, which is svlXhu in its abbreviated form. Stick is
evidently derived from ^t?^ ^*^s f<r'%a. Take is rerccax. Drink, drank,
drunk, if allied to dry, drought and drain may be the offspring of
Ivipdivco, e^ypxyxx of the same import. The connecting links may be
found in drig and driggan Saxon, droog and droogen Belgic, trocken
and trocknen, dorren and duerr German, which mean dry, drinean,
Saxon, drinken Belgic, trincken and trunck German, dreck and drick
Icelandic, drikk Danish, dricka Sweedish, driggkan Maeso-Gothic, to
drink, for both in the Gothic dialects and in Greek the double g and
gk are pronounced as ng and nk.

No one, unless aware of the mutations, to which words are subject,
would suspect that bring could be derived from (p^pu, sting from qiK^^
or that cling is related either to KoXXaa; or to lyXta. fang to -rrxca, gang
to x/w and to tw, spring wrong and wring to yvpou pang, that is paining,

to TrOVOr to ttOjvvi, or tO TfvSof.

Drag, already noticed, is the second future of hp»(j<ju.

Numerous verbs are either derived from Greek infinitives, or at least
conform to them, as may be observed in burn and churn, whicii are dis-
tinctly 'Ttvpoeiv and yvpotiv.

Some of our verbs, which terminate in ow, are derived from the first
person singular of the present tense, as for instance, blow and flow from
/SXuw, or from the second aorist of the subjunctive, as know from yvS.

Of the verbs, which terminate in M, some at least may claim kindred
to inflexions of Greek verbs in f**, i^xi, i^v^v, f*£voj, either as immediately
derived from them, or conformed to their example. Such may have
been bloom, cram, warm, swarm, storm, &c. although we are not able
to trace their descent.

In the progress of my work I shall have occasion to suggest, that our
Gothic ancestors, as it should seem, derived, not only simple, but likewise
compound verbs from Greek. In the mean time should the reader recol-
lect, that Be or B, answering to f??* of the Greek, is a common preposition
in English, he will readily conceive that £ppii%« and eppeuHa may have be-
come break, /?po%ii and brook. In like manner fTexa:, the regular pre-
terite of fTTfctj, £ira;, by assuming the usual prefix S, which answers to e^,
may have become our verb to speak.

This short sentence, I am would alone be sufficient to demonstrate,
that our language is not original; but a derivative either from Greek,
or from the parent of Greek, because in this expression the pronoun
occurs twice, for beyond a question, it is included in e^^i., from which
am is taken. I'his, however, shall be demonstrated in the progress of
my work, and in its proper place.

We find in the English language numerous words, whose etymology

M 2

has perished, and whose affinities it is impossible to trace. They appear
insulated, both literally and nietaphoricallj^ speaking, and seem to have
neither ancestor, nor kindred upon earth. In vain we search for them
in the Galic, AVelch, Teutonic, Slavonic, Latin, Greek or Sanscrit.

Other expressions have perhaps one solitary' relation on the Continent,
and some few retain a slight resemblance to words of like import in
Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac or Chaldee, such at least as may lead us to
suspect, that, once in general use, they have survived in England, after
having been for ages lost in all the rest of Europe.

Among these J am inclined to reckon hash, because hush in Hebrew
means to blush, and had, when it means ill health, because it is allied to
ahad of the four oriental dialects, which means to perish. Cream is com-
monly derived from cremor, with which it has no connexion, whilst it
evidently agrees with chserem (C3"lp) a skin. Dauh in one of its ac-
ceptations may be contracted from dealbare; but, when it conveys the
notion of defilement, it seems rather to be derived from dab of the
Hebrew, as in dabyonim stercus columbinum. 2 Kings, c. vi. v. 25.

Daw may be related to n ST of Leviticus xi. v. 14, and Deut. xiv.

v. 13.

Harm seems allied to harem (a in) injury, defect, loss.

To be in a hohble is a common expression for embarrassment. This
word in Hebrew (^1T\) means a snare. Job xviii. v. 10. Eccl. xii. v. 6;
a crowd, 1 Sam. 10, v. 5; excessive grief and perplexity. Tormina quae
hominem quasi fune arclissime constringunt. Jesa, xiii. v. 8.

Idle accords with hiddel ("^Tn) and ill with hille. {ThT\.)

Lad seems to be jaled (^'?^) Hebrew and Syriac of the same import.

Mite and jnote may be megat {^i!p.) very small.

Nick and knock agree Avith naka (HDJ) he struck.

Odd may come from jahd (in''.) one.

Rage may spring from ragaz (iJl.) of the Hebrew, Chaldee and
Syriac, which means to be exceedingly moved in mind or body.

Rein, in French resnes, may proceed from resen (lD"l) of the Hebrew,
Chaldee and Arabic of the same import.

Rogue may be allied to rag (;;■).) evil.

To rush may come from ragash (Wi!l) he was moved with violence.

Sad agrees with saved (l>i1D.) he moved slowly. Suad and suid in
Arabic mean melancholy.

Till and tillage may be deduced from telem (CD*?]!.) a furrow.

Tire is distinctly (mtO) tirah fatigue.

Track appears to be the same word with derak ("^"11.) of the Hebrew
and Chaldee, or tariq of the Arabic, a foot path, a way, a journey. In
this same acceptation the Polish has adopted droga.

Walk perfectly agrees with halek {"^bil.)

Wish may have been derived from biqesh (^*p.?) he sought with
earnestness.

To these might be added many similar to them. But I forbear, be-
cause the affinity of such words to Hebrew, not being demonstrated by
a comparative view of many kindred languages, must remain as a
doubtful conjecture, which can give little satisfaction to the mind. It
is not sufficient, that there should be some coincidence in sound and
sense, for this may be merely accidental, but, where the local distance
is great, and the examples of similitude between any given languages

are few; we should have a regular clviin, and the more closely the links
unite together, the more firm is our confidence, that our induction is
agreeable to truth.

Thus, for example, in our words high and head, deduced above in
regular gradation, the one from alius, the other from caput, the links are
so numerous and well connected as to leave little room for doubt. In
our word she, the Slavonic ese and the Irish isi point out the origin dis-
tinctly and lead us to isha ('"'t^^j of the Hebrew.

But should any one deduce each from ish of the Hebrew, merely be-
cause these words agree perfectly in sense, and nearly so in sound;
he would, in my apprehensions, be too precipitate in his conjecture,
because the proper links are wanting to the chain.

I have pointed out the affinity between Greek and English. Let
us now compare the latter with the modern languages of Europe.

It has been stated by Ca;sar that the Belgae, landing in the South
of Britain, took possession of the country adjacent to the sea, and
we know that kindred hordes from Scandanavia, and the north of
Europe, whether Angles, Jutes, or Saxons, followed in succeeding
generations, and established their language in our island. A resem-
blance, therefore, should be found between the English and the
Belfjic.

But ill the space of two thousand years since the Belgae, and of
twelve hundred since the Saxons established themselves in Britain,
considerable changes nmst have taken place on both sides of the
water, and a sensible difference should now be found betweeen the
modern Belgic and the English. This precisely is what we discover
in these languages, a resemblance and a difference.

In Belgic the article continues to be declined and to be dislingnislicd
by its gender, as in the Anglo-Saxon. The nouns have retained only
one declension, and the principal variations in the oblique cases are
made by the article

In the conjugation of their verbs, the inhabitants of Belgium, like
the English adhere to the practice of the Saxons, in having only two
tenses inflected in their termination, the others being formed by
auxiliary verbs, as ik leer, I learn ; ik leerde, I learned ; ik heb geleerd,
I have learned; ik had geleerd, I had learned; ik zal lecrcn, I shall
learn ; ik zou, zoud or zgude, leeren I should learn ; leer, loarn thou ; leeren,
to learn. In this verb, as in many others, both languages agree to
form their infinitive like the Greek by N: but although in most of
its verbs the English has dropped the final N, the Belgic pertinaci-
ously retains it.

Thus much for the resemblance, in respect to their inflexions still
subsisting between the Dutch, or Belgic, and the English. Now let
us examine a few words taken at random from these languages, that
we may be more competent to judge of their affinity.

Bake, bakken; ball, bal; band, band; bank, bank; bar, baar ; bare,
bar; bath, fead; hathe, baaden ; hean, boon ; a bear, bcev; bear, (pario)
baaren; beard, baard; beast, beest; bed, bedde; bee, bi/e ; beer,
bier; belief, geloof; believe, gelooven ; bench, bank; better, beter ; best,
de beste ; bid, gebieden; bier, baar; bill, byl; bind, hinden; birth,
geboorte; bit, gebit; bladder, blaas; bite, bytcn ; blab, uitlabben; blain,
hloedvin; blanch, bleeken ; bleach, bleeken; bleat, bleeien; bleak, bleek ;
bleat, blaet.en; bleed, bloeden; blind, blind; blith, blyd; blue, blaauw ;

block, bloh ; bloom, bloessem ; blow, hlaazen ; blush, bloozen ; boat, boot ;
board, berdt; bone, been; book, boek; boom, boom; boor, boer; born,
gebooren; both, beijde; bound, gebonden ; ho\f , boog ; a box, bits; box,
boxboom ; brave, braaf; brain, hrein; brand, brand; breach, break;
bread, brood; break, breeken; breast, borst ; breed, broeden; brew,
broiiuen; bride, hruid; bridge, brug; brine, breyn; bring, brengen;
broad, breed; brood, hroedsel; brood, \\ braeden ; brown, bruin; buch,
bock; bulb, bol; bull, bul; burn, branden; bush, bosch; by, by.

Cake, A-oeA:; calf, kalf; cdi\m,kalm; can, A:a« ; cap, kap; cape, Araop
chaff, Arq/'; chain, keten; chance, kans; chap, gacupen; chaste, kuisch
cheap, goedkoop; cheer, cier; cheese, kaas; chew, kaauwcn ; chick, kuiken
chill, killen; chin, kin; chop, kappen, choose, kiezen, clad, gekleed
clap, klappen; claw, klaauwen; clay, Hei; clear, klaar; cleft, kloofde;
clew, kluven; clinch, omklinken ; clink, klank; clown, kloen; cluck,
klokken; cloth, kleedt; a cock, een Aaan; cold, kout; coal, Aoo^; coast,
Atms^; comb, kam; come, komen; cool, A;oe/; coop, kuipen; cork,
ArwrAr, &c. &c. &c.

Day, dag; dead, dood; death, de dood; deaf, doof; dean, deken;
dear, dierbaar; do, rfoe/t; deep, rfie/j; to die, sterven; a dish, schotd,
dry, droog; duck, didken; &c.

Earth, aarde; fat, ue^; fen, wen; fish, mcA; five, t)j//; flarae, v/aw;
flax, vlas; flea, t;/oo; to flie, vliegen; a fly, t^/ieg; floor, vloer; forth,
wor^, four, vier; fraud, bedrog; free, wj/; fresh, verscl^; frost, wrs/;
full, vol. Sec.

(jaiii, winste; gape, gapen; guess, gissen; give, geven; glad, fe/yrfe
and vrobjk; gold, ^ozif; good, ^^oe</; goose, gons; great, groo^; gripe,
gri/pai, guttur, goo/, &c.

The Dutch or Belgic has vader, moeder, suster, brooder, &c. &c.

These examples are sufficient to shew the affinity between the two
languages, and the nature of the changes, which have taken place in
them, since their separation; but the more minutely any one compares
them together, the more clearly will he see, that they are radically one.

Considering this affinity, and a similar affinity between the Dutch or
Belgic, and the German, two kindred dialects of the Teutonic, which
was the ancient language of those fierce invaders, who are represented
by Caesar as uniting their forces with the Cimbri, to break in upon the
Roman empire; we may naturally expect to find some similitude between
the English and the German, yet as they branched off during a remote
period from the common stock, it is not to be expected, that the like-
ness will be perfect. For as in persons, who are distantly related, a fa-
mily resemblance strikes the eye, yet in each individual some distinguish-
ing feature Avill appear; so precisely is it with these languages.

To trace the analogy, we must call to mind, what has been delivered
respecting the substitution of one letter for another in those of the same
organ, as happens to B. P. F. V. W. M. which in the practice of all
nations have been esteemed equivalent. We have seen that this privi-
lege extends to T. D. Th. and equally so to C. G. K. Ch. J. Q. In like
manner, H. S. T. and Z, though they have no organic affinity, yet
readily lake each other's place.

Ge, as an affix forms nouns, and verbs, and the participle past. This
may be contracted into G.

With this clue, let us attempt to trace the affinity between the German
and the English, confining our researches chiefly to monosyllabic ex-

VOL. II. N

pressions, as having the highest claim to antiquity, and leaving a com-
parative view of the inflexions, till the German language shall pass more
immediately in review before us.

Bake, backen; ball, ball; band, band; bank, banck; bare, bar; as in
barfuss, barefooted: bath, bad; bay, bai/e; beam, baum a tree; bean,
bohne; bear, (ursa) bar; bear (pario) geb'dhren; beard, hart; bed,
bette ; bee, biene; beer, bier; belief, glaube; believe, glauben; bench,
banck; better, besser; best, beste; bid, gebieten; bill, beil; bind, binden;
birch, bircke; birth, geburth; bit, bissen; bite, beissen; bladder, blase;
bleach, bhichen; h\eat, blecken ; h\eed, blui en ; blind, WintZ; block, block;
blood, blut; bloom, blume; blow, (flare) blasen; blue, blau ; boat, boot;
board, brett ; bond, binde; bone, beiti; book, bitch; boor, bauer ; bore,
bohren; born, gebohren; both, beyde ; bound, gebunden ; bow, (flectere
curvare) beiigen; bow, (arcus) bogen; box (pyxis) buchse, box (buxus)
buchs-baum; brand, brand; breach, bruch; bread, brot ; breast, brust ;
breed, bruten; brew, brauen ; bride, braut ; bridegroom; brautigam.;
bridge, briickc; brief, brief : hnng, bringen: hro'dd, breit : brood, bruten :
broth, briihe: brother, bruder; father, vater; mother, mutter; sister,
sclmester; brown, braiin; buck, bock; build, bilden: burn, brennen:
burst, bcrsten: by, bey: chaff", kaf: calf, kalb: kettle, kessel : scratch,
kraizen : cow, ktdi.

Dam, Da)nm ; dance, tanz ; daughter, tochter ; deaf, taub ; death,
iod ; deep, tief; dip, t a iijf en , d\sh, tisch ; dove, taube ; duch, taucken ;
dveam, irautn; diive, treiben; drip, triefen; drill, trillen; drink, //7/JcA"e»;
(Irf)p, Iropf; (h'oss, truscn; drunk, tnmck; dry, ti'ocken: dumb, stumm;
dung, dtingtn: dale, ilial: dare, durj'en: deal, theilen : dear, tlieuer: deed,

that: deer, thier: dew, thau: do, thun: done, getliim: dun, our pro-
vincial term for clay in mines, tlioii: door, thnrc and tliov. .

Folk, volck: fowl, vogel: full, I'o//: foot, /"//«: bead, haupt, hate, /ms.v.

Let, lasseii: love, Uehen: lot, foo.ss: midday, mittag: night, nacht:
nettle, nessel: nut, 7i?<ss: ox, oc/ia': rain, regen: saw and say, sagen:
saddle, sattel: scuttle, schussel: seven, sicben: shade, schatte : shave,
xchaben : shear, scheeren: sheath, scheid: shed, scheiden: sheep, schaaf:
shine, scheinen: shoe, schuh: shove, shieben: sieve, sicb: sleep, schlaf:
sloe, schleen : soap, seife: sore, schxsar: speak, sprachen: stand, stehen:
suck, saiigen : swallow, schwalbe.

Tale, zahl: tame, zahmen: teat, dutte: ten, zcJm: than, dcnn: thank,
dancken: that, dass: thatch, dach: then, dann: i\\eve'\w, darinnen, dren,
and dahin : thereupon, draben and daran : thereover, druber : there-
under, drunter : thereby, dabey : therefore, dafur: thief, c?ie6: thievery,
dieberey. thick, dick: thickness, dicke: thin, dun: thine, dein: thing,
dmg: think, dencken: thirst, durst: thirsty, durstig: this, dieser: this
«ide, disseit : thistle, distel; thither, dorther : thorn, dorn: thou, du:
thought, ge dancke: tongue, zunge; threaten, drohen and drauen: three,
drey: thresh, dreschen: through, durch : throng, drangeji : thrash, drossel :
thumb, daumen: thunder, donner: turn, drehen.

Two, zwey; twelve, zw'dlf; twenty, zwanzig; twig, zweig; twinge,
zwirigen to swink, to strain, to constrain; twixt, zwischen, and twilight
zwischen light, that is betwixt the two lights.

Verily, warlick; weapon, wafen; weigh, wdgen; waWow, zpalzen;
what, was; water, wasser; way, weg; world, welt; whiten, weissen ;
widow, wittwe; week, woche.

N 2

In this selection, under the letter b, I take, as in the Belgic, every
analogous expression, confining myself, however, principally to our
monos3']lables, because these shew their remote connexion. In the
other parts I call the attention to such only, as either in German or
English, have changed one or more of their consonants. Had I not thus
limited my choice, my vocabulary must have exceedingly increased, and
in the monosyllabic alone, Avould have exceeded twelve hundred. In the
age of Chaucer, the dissimilarity to our modern language is equally strik-
ing, as will appear by some few of his words, whose orthography has
been changed the most: Askis, ashes: bath, both: bole, bull: bone, boon:
boon, bone: bothum, bud: cale, cold: ceisse, seize: cesse, cease: chese,
choose: chiver, shiver: dawe, day: ecke, each: egg, edge: eighe, eye:
fee7', five: fore, far: fra, from: freten, to eat: heed, head: heere, hare:
heire, hair: hegge, a hedge: ich, I: Horn, lost: iyeve, given: kele, to cool:
kist, cdst: kitt, cut: knave, a servant boy: Icgge, to allege, to lay: fer,
leer, empty : Icre, to learn.

In short, whether we examine the Dutch, the German, or the ancient
language of Charlemaigne, and even of the more remcfte ages, to which
the Gothic of Ulphilas has been referred, and compare these with the
English, either in the days of Chaucer, or in more modern times; we
shall be equally convinced that, however they may differ in their acci-
dental forms, their elementary parts are perfectly the same.

I might here institute the same comparison between the English and
Swedish, Danish, Icelandic, Russian, Polish, and other Slavonian dia-
lects, spoken in the vast extent of country stretching eastward, between
the Baltic and the Northern Pacific Ocean, to which I might add the

Persian and the Sanscrit; but the affinity between these languages will
be more properly displayed, when I proceed to treat of them particularly
in the progress of my work.

I shall now examine what advantage may accrue to us from an ex-
tensive acquaintance with kindred languages; if we are solicitous to gain
a critical knowledge of our own.

Dr. Johnson commonly referred to the Anglo-Saxon, and where this
failed him, which seldom iiappened, he sought his derivations from the
French, the Dutch, the Latin, or the Welch. But, not being an adept
in languages, he could proceed no further.

A reference to the Anglo-Saxon is a reference merely from our modern
diction to the ancient, and marks the change, where a change has taken
place, but is of little value to the etymologist, unless it should assist
him in detecting the affinity with other languages, and in tracing words
to the fountain, whence they originally came. The most perfect ac-
quaintance with the languages, to which he refers, if our researches are
confined to them, will never lead us to a critical knowledge of the
English. To attain this, it is needful, that we should possess all the lan-
guages of Europe, ancient as well as modern, and be able to distinguish
their connexion, both with each other, and with the oriental languages,
to which, as to a common centre, they ultimately tend.

For want of this information, in vain did Dr. Johnson, attempt to
mark the progress of meaning, and to shew by what gradation of inter-
mediate senses, words have passed from their primitive to their remote
and accidental signification. This will appear by selecting a few ex-
pressions out of many, which might be produced, were I disposed to

multipJy examples. With these I shall intersperse some of our particles,
as best adapted to show the origin and affinities of the English language..
In this selection I confine myself to monosyllables.

An means, according to Johnson, one, or any, but it is likewise used
ibr if in the Lowland dialect of Scotland. In Shakespear it frequently
occurs. " An I may hide my face, let me play Thisby too." In more
vulgar language it signifies as if, " I will roar you a?i 'twere any night-
ino-ale." [n the first acceptation it claims affinity to £v, and runs
throuc^h all the languages of Europe. In the second it is tav of the
Greek, an of the Latin, den of the Swedish, wann of the German, cen
and in (]n. ] k) of Chaldee, and perfectly agreeing with ini (Di<) of
the Hebrew, which may be the genuine parent of our word if.

And; in Belgic endc ; in German und; Teutonic unte; in French
et; Italian e; Spanish y and e; in Polish iets; Hungarian es; Slavonic
da audi; in Latin etiam, atque ; in Greek ii^f ; in Sanscrit ato.

Our word is certainly connected with, and may probably be derived
from amid-; Saxon, to add. But both and and annd may possibly be
allied to hi, and to od {Ip) of the Hebrew: and the N may be in-
serted as in render from reddere.

As, appears to be the same word with w?, of the Greek, ez of the
Armenian; and asa of the Persian; and may possibly be related to
Caasher (it^'i^D) of the Hebrew.

At. Tliis word does not extend beyond the bounds of the Roman
Empire, and therefore directs our attention towards ad and apud, that
is ad pedes. In Hebrew we have atzel (7^^) imad 0?V.) and (n^)
but without immediate links Ave cannot connect these to add.

Aye, has three meanings.

1. Intimating assent and consent, hke yea, it agrees with our
French, gea Saxon, and ja German. This may be accordingly either
aio, as in plautus, vel ai vel nega ; or it may be, as suggested by
Mr. Tooke, ayez and not improbably avi.

2. Conveying the notion of infinite duration it is allied to «£?.

3. Asa lamentation; ay me, or wo is me, may be oV"*, Hei mihi.
(in) bo. Heb.

Baste means,

1. To beat with a stick. 2. To pour dripping on meat whilst roasting.

3. To fasten needle-work with long stitches.

These are independent of each other. The first is by Dr.
Johnson derived, and very properly, from bastonner, and baston a staff,
which may originate either in (ixqz^o) or in TajTatra-c'.

The second looks towards baisteach, in Irish, a shower, and may be
connected with -rao-o-fiv to sprinkle.

The third is the Persian bastan, to bind, to connect, to join, to
fasten. Hence bastagi a ligature. From this verb, bestch which is
the participle of benden seems to be derived.

Bat, means, 1. a stick with which we strike a ball. 2. A bird. 3. A
sumpter horse. The first agrees with balaeidh, Galic, and batte, French,
a staff or club. Connected with this we have to beat, 'TrxTxira-siv. The
second may be allied to the first, because they smite with their wings.
The third, imported from France, is connected with bat and bast, a
pack-saddle, derived from (ixqxi^ci; see baste.

Boi/, referring, 1. either to colour, or, the tree, may be (pcciog.

2. To an opening in the land it is /^ioj.

3. To the barking of a dog, it is distinctly (ixvl^a.

Bear-, 1. Carry, as a burthen, 2. produce young, 3. a wild beast.

In the first acceptation it is allied to ferre and (pepetv; in the second to
pario; in the third, it is probably ferus, that is the genus for the species.

Bill, 1. a beak. In this acceptation, it may be derived from vello;
but the presumption is, that we have here the instrument for the action
performed by it; because in Galic, bil and beul signify mouth, whether
of beasts or birds.

2. A hatchet, or in common speech, bill hook, in Welch, bilwg, in
Greek ■xtXcxus, may be the offspring of the Galic beul. 3. A tradesman'?!
account, and the proposal for a law presented to parliament, is certainly
libellous.

Box, has various significations, all according with the Greek;
1. A tree, buxus in Latin, bouis in French, bosso Italian, buxo Por-
tuguese, buysa in Galic, bocysbren in "Welch, boxtreow Saxon, bux-boom
in Dutch, buchsbaum German, bukspan Polish, buszpan Hungarian.

2. A case or chest, '^vlog. Pyxis in Latin, boccys in Welch and bocsa
in Galic, boete in French, bus in Dutch, is 'rtvE.ig.

3. A blow on the head with the hand, and to fight with the fist.
]n these acceptations it is derived from tu$, and to box is distinctly
^vKTsve^. or Uvbi^axs^^u^, as used by Ilesiod. From the same root
probably we derive our words fst and Jight.

Bjj perfectly agrees with t-x] in all the rich variety of meanings,
attributed to it by Dr. Johnson, as any one may instantly perceive
if he will compare them. Indeed b>/ is hi m one of its abbreviated
forms.

No nation invents new particles for itself. They pass by inheritance
from fathers to their sons, and thongh liable to be disfigured and
abused, their descent may be traced if we compare kindred languages
together. They are well denominated by Horn Tooke tTftx TCTepoBvrcc,
winged words, and as such in a distant flight they are apt to drop
some feathers by the way, but the substance still remains.

Ey, has the same affinity to the prepositions 3 and T\2 of the oriental
nations, as it has to eV, for these likewise are radically one.

I. Does b^ denote the agent, instrument, or cause; so do 2.1''2 and
fxi. Man shall not live by bread alone, but %, &c. ow tz xpTu iJ.ovca.!^\^TeTzi
mv^pwKOg aWWi.. x. t. X. Mat. iv. 4.

Sotirj Tkf (TV{ ryviasi is by thy knowledge, 1 Cor. viii. 11. Thus we have,
the just shall live by (n) his faith, Hab. ii. 4. and with or by them (ona)
he taught the men of Succoth, Judges viii. 16. So ntt'D TiQ is very
properly translated " As he spake by Moses," Ex. ix. 35.

II. Is 63/ equivalent to at or in, noting place? So are eV* and a.
Thus Inil E,evvis eivxt is to be in a strange country. D^Dtt'a ia heaven,
^'ni^a in the earth.

III. By means according to, and after, noting conformity; so do t^i
and 3. eV* ouoi^xTi ts Trcnpoi. Lu. i. 59. after the name of his father.

C3^D\-! -)aDD3 after the number of the days, Nu. xiv. 34.

IV. By, means, not later than, noting time. In Greek we have
jTTt t" eu eVi t" (*fTOiK£,ria,', and thus we translate tV: (^vjvaj Tptig, by the
space of three months; and in Hebrew we havelp^l^,^ day break,
and DVa D1^ day by day.

YOL. II. Q

V. By means neov, beside, at hand, in presence, answering to Int
and 3 as in e^-t TroT^fio; and sTt t'/)v ^ccKxa-axv, Rev. xv. 2. ")3D injl Ezek.
X. 15, by the river of Chebar.

VI. By himself, denoting absence of all others, corresponds exactly
with £(p' exvjov.

VII. By, as the solemn form of swearing, is found distinctly in the
Hebrew D^n'?X3 Gen. xxi. 23. mn^a Gen. xxiv. 3. and ^3 Gen.
xxii. 16. by myself have I sworn.

In the kindred languages, bi Saxon, Swedish and Gothic, by Belgic,
bey German, ba Persian, and po Slavonian, are used in all the various
acceptations, either attributed by Dr. Johnson to our word, or to be
found in i-n-l of the Greek.

It is acknowledged, that the Gothic, if not the parent, is at least of
the same lineage, and closely allied to the English. In that language we
find the subsequent, in addition to the acceptations of bi already noticed.

I. Bi for, answering to tVi and 2, as used in fVi fj.i<T^afor hire, svccycc^w
for good. ^DD3 2 Sam. xxiv. 24, for silver, \^^ Deut. xix. 21. /or
tooth, and b m 3 Gen. xxix. 18. for Rachael.

II. Bi on, over, tVi twv nrvoiu y.ot.%\^ivoi, sitting on horses, and Vjnon
Gen. xxxvii. 34, on his loins.

JTI. Bi after, noting time, as in eni TBTOig after these things.

IV. Bi against t^ v^t-xg ■irxpcca-KVix^eTai prepared against you, and
"^31 mn''3 Nu. xxi. 7- against the Lord and against thee.

From what has been adduced, is it not probable that our word by,
and bi of the Gothic dialects, originate in tV*, and have a close affinity
with 2 the most abbreviated form of this preposition in the liebrcw.

No one can hold the talents of Mr. Tooke in higher estimation than
myself: yet I can never be persuaded, ihat our Saxon ancestors were
under a necessity of inventing particles, or wantonly rejected those which
came to them by tradition from their fathers. They might var}' these,
like all oth(;r nations, but they neither abandoned the old particles, nor,
without tlie least occasion for such an effort, invented new ones.

Cheer, as meaning gaiety and courage, is allied both to xalpai and to

y.iccp.

Cleave means, 1. to adhere, 2. to divide. These are discordant accep-
tations, and must therefore be derived from different fountains.

1. To adhere, in Belgic kleven, in Saxon cleofan, in Welch glynu, in
Swedish klibba, in Danish klebc, in German kleben, in Slavonic klein,
when compared with clay and glue in the same languages, all look
towards yXix.

2. To divide, to split; in Belgic klieven, in Saxon cleofan, in Swedish
klyfwa, in Danish klove, in Russian kulupatee and ras-kaluivaiu, in Sla-
vonic kliniu; all these, with zakliwiani, in Polish a wedge, claim affinity
to nXxu,

Cry. Dr. Johnson, in his Dictionary, has enumerated ten several
meanings, all supposed to have been derived from the French crier to call
out, to scream and to proclaim.

1. In this acceptation, cry well agrees with gridare Italian, grede Old
English, cfi6 Welch, schreyen German, skrige Danish, skria Swedish,
krziez and krziik Polish, y-piien of Hesych, and may claim affinity to
nftt(^o}. upccvyvf and y-yipv^.

O 2

100

2. Cry, to shed tears is certainly allied to, and may be derived from

Sxyipveiv.

In the Gothic we have tagrida, he shed tears and gr^itan to weep,
which perfectly agree with grata Swedish, graata Icelandic, greet in
Scotland, kriiten Dutch, greinen German, kiria or girieh Persian.

Deep, dip and dive, run through all the northern languages of Europe,
and seem, as stated above, to originate in Sitttw. But deep, when ap-
plied to tones, is Bov^rog.

Down, means 1. soft feathers, 2. descent, 3. elevated land.

1. For this word in the first of these acceptations we are indebted to
the Danes, Swedes, and Icelanders, among whom it is written dun and
duun.

2. Down (deorsum) has for its indirect affinities, dwfn Welch, dona
Armoric, and duffen Saxon, all meaning deep. Of precisely the same
import, we have adunes and dune Saxon, deene Russian, ndene Epi-
rotic, dnu and dno Slavonic, Polish, Bohemian and Dalmatian. All
these claim the most strict affinity with ivvia.

3. Down, for elevated land, is dun and dune Saxon, duyne Belgic,
dunes French and Armoric. These may originate in Aavog CEol. for Bavog.

Bar signifies, 1. to plough, 2. the organ of hearing, 3. a spike of
corn. These several meanings have no relation to each other*

1. Ear, when it indicates the act of ploughing, is radically the
same with harrow. It agrees with arar Spanish, aeren Dutch, aeria
Swedish, er Icelandic, oriu Slavonic, orze Polish, ar^idh Galic, and
aredig Welch, aro Latin, apou' Greek, (tynn) harash Hebrew, and harath

101

Arabic. In English we say "give the land one earth," that is plough
it once.

2. Ear, as the organ of hearing, agrees with oreja Spanish, ohr Ger-
man, eare Saxon, oor Dutch, ora Swedish, ore 13anish, eyra fcelandic,
auris Latin, auso Gothic, ousen, oucho, uscze, and assi Slavonic, Boh.
and Pol. ghus, or gosh Persian, ovxg Greek, and in its ^olic dia-
lect uap.

3. Ear of corn is a^yp.

Fair. 1. annual market, foire French, feria Latin. These originate
in lepcci v^ii,£pai.

2. Clear complexion, may be connected with (pKxpog Greek, and hair
(TiKiI) Hebrew, shining.

S. Beautiful, foeger Saxon, fager Swedish, in the Icelandic fallagur,
in Latin pulcher.

4. Honest. In this acceptation it accords with fior of the Galic,
which is of the same import with verus.

Fast. 1. as denoting abstinence from food, improbable as it ap-
pears, may be awaqoi because similar abbreviations are not uncommon.

2. As firm and strong, it agrees with pasati Slavonic, and bastan
Persian, to gird, fasten, connect besteh bound, and peiwesteh con-
nected, but should (tT2) phazaz really mean, as explained by Bux-
torf, to consolidate, to strengjthen; we should be warranted in fixing
on this as the genuine root.

3. As denoting speed it agrees with ffest of the Welch, and festino
of the Latin. In this sense it may originate in nEB.euia or in pes,
pedis, as these do in aroua- voSog, which latter may probably give birth

to amuS-^ and (TzrevBeiv, expedire to speed. I am inclined to think it
may be related to pliazaz, which means in Arabic nimble, and in
Hebrew, as appears by 2 Sam. ch. 6. v. 16, dancing with agility and
strength.

Fat. 1. a vessel, agrees with fat Saxon and Swedish, vat Dutch, fass
German, fade Danish, fata Icelandic, vatain Slavonic, fasa Polish, pa-
tina Latin, ■^a^Tav^^.

G. Well-fed, agrees perfectly with fett German, vet Belgic, foet Saxon,
and is of kin to <pxTv^, And to phatam of the Arabic and Chaldee.

FcU. 1. as a verb active, to knock down, or to cut down, and as the
preterite of fall, agrees with adfeilo Welch, feallan Saxon, vallen Belgic,
valenie Slavonic, fall Icelandic, field English, feld Saxon and German,
felt Danish, fiall Swedish, poille and pule Slavonic, polye Dalmatian,
polie Polish, pole Bohemian and Russian, feuld Hungarian: All these
agree exactly with Phalah (n'?^) he cut down.

2. The skin. In this sense it is pellis and (peXKog. , , ■

3. As cruel, it is of uncertain origin, but may possibly be allied to
D""7 2? (nephilim^ Genesis vi. 4.

Fine. 1. as a conclusion, is finis.
.2. As a mulct, is Troivvj.

3. As opposed to coarse, agrees with fion, mion, and min, Galic; main
Welch, mean Armoric, menu French, minutus Latin, and fj^eiuv.

4. As splendidly beautiful, is (paeivog. ,j,j
Flake. 1. floccus, flocke, German, flog Danish.

2. As a wattle or large hurdle, it agrees with, plaque French, vlack

103

Dutch, flake and bleck, Swedish, blick Danish, bliacka Russian, blaclia
Polish, plech Bohemian, irKx^.yiog and TrXemoo, plecto, pHco.

For has a strict affinity with or, air, and gur, Galic, er Welch, pour
and parceque, French, por Spanish, per Italian, for Saxon, voer Dutch,
fiir German, perze Polish, car French, erse Hungarian, barai and bahar,
or behri, Persian ; and these are allied to pro, vwep, woipx, and yajp ; as
faura in the Gothic is likewise, when it governs an ablative case. Indeed
pro, proe, per, irctpx, vnrep, zrpo, and yxp, are evidently connected with,
and may have (mn;;3) bagabur for their progenitor. This preposition in
Hebrew indicates the cause. It marks in whose favor and for whose sake
a thing is done, or for what price a commodity is sold.

In like manner we find v'nep vi\j.uv x-n-i^xve, he died for us, ^ap hx a-^^puTrou,
for one man, ^po vxiSuv nxi yuvxmuv [j.xxzcr^xi, i.e. pro aris and focis. Thus
in Hebrew i^OV ^'7^'^ '^\^1]3'2. (2 Sam. xii. 21.) Thou didst fast for the
child.

Because they sell the poor man for {'^\^2V'2) a pair of shoes, Amos
ii. 6. Thus likewise we read Minas viginti pro ambobus dcdi. Terence.
This preposition is of extensive use, and, according to Dr. Johnson,
admits of foi'ty distinctions. Variously applied it indicates resemblance
and character, as Seneca says pro ignoto me aspernaris; and we sa}',
you- take me ybr a Stranger. It marks exchange, reference, respect, re-
gard, intention, tendency, expectation, direction, condition, duration.
In composition it implies opposition, or negation, as in the words forbid,
forget, forsake. In this intention it agrees with its kindred languages
prohibeo, profanus, vxpaSo^og Trxpx(pvjiv Trxpxnovu.

104

Connected with for in the sanie intention is our ancient preposition
fore, as used by Shakespear in the word forefended, that is forbidden.

Fore, as a preposition signifying priority in time, place, or quahty,
has nearly the same affinities with for. Thus we have in Galic for, in
Saxon foran and fore, in Dutch veur and voor, in German vor and feur,
in Teutonic, vore, in Danish for, and in the CJothic faur and faura, which
last, when it agrees with ■rrxf.x near, or wpo before, governs either the ac-
cusative or ablative; but, when it means in the presence of, it requires
the g^enitive.

Tro, which corresponds to for^ and 'pro., which means before, have
such an affinity, that they readily usurp each other's place. Thus Cicero
writes, " Proe lacrymis non possum reliqua scribere," or, as we should
say, " For tears I can write no more," and again pro cede sedens, sitting
before the house.

In Greek, -rrpo may answer to either pro or prce, as vpo o(J)^«Xf*«v ^^«
upxi and tTcaivsiv 'Ttpo Smxioa-vvvjg aimizv. That is before, in place, time, ex-
cellence, or estimation. Nay, such is the agreement between these pre-
positions, that even rsapa, which answers commonly to per, as in 'jfxp oXoy
t" ^lov, per totam vitam, for the whole course of his life, and in like
manner to propter, as rtapa tj, propter quod, may correspond to pro, as
'jccp cvSev Ciyna^xi, pro nihilo ducere, or, as we should say, to tell for
nothing.

Considering the affinity between the Gothic and the Greek, I am in-
clined to think, that fairina, which Mr. Tooke assumes as the parent of
our word for, is itself a compound of Ttcepx and ivet as the French and
Spanish combine pro and (juia or pro quo in their pourquoi and por

105

que, for this cause. Particles arc indeed liable to the same mutations
as other parts of speech, but they pass by tradition from parents to
their children, and in all nations seem to have been retained with more
pertinacity than either nouns or verbs.

Trom, in Old English fra and fraj, answers to fra and fram Saxon, fram
and faura Gothic, fra Danish and Icelandic, fran and ifian Swedish,
and to Trarpa, w lien it governs the genitive, as in Thucidides aa:pi (ixj-iXeuic,
from the king.

In the Gothic of Ulphilas, this affinity is clearly marked, for we read
thluiliand faura imma, they will flee from him.

The Goths had likewise of, a preposition of the same import, evidently
related to the Greek u'xo, of which the Swedes retain both af and pa.

Ylapa. in this acceptation, may be allied to farain of the Hebrew,
■which, like its associates yrtrar/, yflra.9, 2lx\6. farats, contains the notion of
separation, and consequently of distance.

Fy! This interjection, in French fi, is not expressive of lamentation,
but of detestation and abhorrence. It is not therefore (p'tv, as stated by
Minsheu, Johnson, Skinner, and Boyer; but probably may be an ab-
breviation of fiend. In Saxon we have find, in Danish fiend, in German
feind, Teutonic fiant and viant, Gothic fiand, an enemy. Again, in
Saxon we have figan to hate; in Gothic faith, hateth. Hence we may
possi' ly have derived defiance.

Hide means, 1. the skin of animals. In this acceptation it agrees with
hyd Saxon, huid, haude and houde Dutch, haut German, hud Danish
and Swedish, cutis and a-wjor.

VOL. II. p

106

2. To conceal is liydan Saxon, huten German, viev^en/ Greek, and cahad
Hebrew.

3. A measure of land. In Galic we find jod, which means both a cast,
as of a dart, and a certain measure of land. Should the latter be de-
rived from the former, our search after the origin of this word may ter-
minate in (ni"') jadah of the Hebrew, he cast.

Host is 1. hospes, 2. hostis, 3. hostia; see Guest.

If, in Saxon gif, in German ob, in Gothic jabai and gabai. In
Gothic we have likewise ibai. This word seems, as suggested by Skin-
ner and by Mr. Tooke, to be derived from gifan, Saxon. In the Old
English we find yeve, yave, yeoven, yeftes, give, gave, given and gifts,
in Hebrew jahab (nn ">) he gave.

That if is equivalent to give, and etymologically connected with it, is
rendered probable not only by the affinity between an, if, and anan, to
give, in Saxon, but by the same correspondence between amam of the
Arabic, to place, propose, or state, and im of the Hebrew a position,
preposition, and the conditional conjunction if. {v. Koerberi Lex apud
Noldium.)

Yet after all that has Been said, considering the close affinity between
our northern languages and Greek, I cannot help suspecting that if may
have sprung from eivep or iWw?, as the Gothic ei, if, is indubitably h,
which seems to have the same connexion with ei^, be it, as si has with
sit. Should this be granted, it will follow, that if originates in jehi, be
it, of the Hebrew.

In the Icelandic, which is one of the most venerable languages of

107

Europe, ef indicates doubt. Tlieir word tnncf and our old expression
an if, seem to unite the two conditional conjunctions la-v and tn^ep of
the Greek.

J«, 1. When used to designate time and place, is common to the Latin,
Italian, Belgic, German, Swedish, Gothic, and is evidently the same
with en French and Spanish, and fv Greek.

The Galic has ann, the Welch yn, the Swedish o/?, the Arminian een,
and the Gothic and., answering to fvTor.

The Lowland Scotch say hen, and the Hungarians ban, hen and bcnne^
which may be considered as compounds.

2. When used as a negative, it is evidently iv of the Greek, as appears
by civccf^vtix impurity, avxiSaia impudence, xuxiTioi innocent, avenXeiitTws
unceasing, perfectly corresponding to ain of Hebrew and of the oriental
nations.

Just. Home Tooke has taken much pains to confound the meaning
of this and of many other words : but the well-intentioned philologist
should be ever mindful to preserve them from confusion, by accurately
marking, not merely the original meaning, but the changes, which, in
process of time, have taken place in the use of terms. Under this
impression we must observe that just, when it means

1. Regular and lawful, is certainly derived from jubeo and justura :
but by accommodation its meaning has been extended to equitable,
upright, virtuous, exact in retribution. Injury, the negative term, has
been frequently confounded with damage by those, who do not consider,
that there may be damnum sine injuria.

108

■ 2. Nearly, is juxta, jouste, old French, jusque, modern.
Lap has three distinct notions. 1. To lick up, or feed by quick
reciprocations of the tongue. In this sense it agrees with lappian
Saxon, lappen and slabben Dutch, liippem German, lappia Swedish,
la'per French, and all these may terminate in XaTrTttv.

2. To lap over. 'I'his agrees with flap. In Saxon we find laeppe,
in German lappe, in Swedish lapp, in Icelandic laf. In Greek Xo^Ij;
a scale and Xai^og a tattered garment. The lap of the ear, which is
in Danish ore lap, and in German ohr lapplein, appears to be Xo/3o;
in the Greek.

Lopin of the French has been referred to Xo^oi, but as it means a
fragment of flesh, or bread, seized in haste and privately conveyed
away, it rather seems to be alHed to kXott'', precisely as hhftus of the
Gothic is y-XivTVi;. Connected with this we have lift, as used by
Dryden for robbing or plundering, and shoplifter, the common appel-
lation for one who pilfers, whilst he pretends to purchase.

3. The mother's lap, in Swedish lapp, may refer to noXTrog.

Left from the verb leave, in Swedish leifa and lefwa, is XfiTrw, but
the left-hand is lajvus and terminates in Xccior.

Let. 1. To permit, accords with luidhasam Galic, laisser French,
Jcclnn Saxon, and Icxiten Dutch, Iciden and lassen German- lata Swedish,
lade Danish, Ictan Gothic, lasciare Italian, laxarc Latin.

\Vc have also lehct in meglehet Hungarian, I am able.

2. 'i'o hinder, to impede, agrees with lluddia and llestair Welch,
belctten and Ictten Dutch, and may be connected with late, as lluddia
is with ludded in AVclch.

109

Lie, conveys three notions, for which similar expressions are exten-
sively diffused in Europe.

1. An aqueous solution of any salt: in Latin lix, licis vvnich an-
ciently meant water, whence we have lixare and elixare to seeth.
In French lessive, Italian liscia, Spanish lexia, lixivium, AVelch lleisw,
Saxon leah, Dutch loog, German lauge, Danish lud, Polioh, Hunga-
rian, and Slavonian lug, Bohemian lauh, and Dalmatian luugh. In
Greek we have Xovw, with its derivatives allied to the preceding,

2. To utter a falsehood. This agrees with leogan Saxon, leugen
Dutch, liegen German, liigen Galic, liuga Swedish, lygan Icelandic,
]gu and lugati Slavonian, legati Dalmatian and Bohemian. These have
no correspondent term in Greek, unless it be Xoyot fables. In Sanscrit,
luj means concealment.

3. To be decumbent, is began Saxon, liggen Dutch, liegen German,
laidhim Galic, ligger Danish, ligg Icelandic, liggia Swedish, ligan
Gothic, leju Slavonian, lech Russian, lieze Polish, lig Old English.
These must all be referred to the same family with ke<yo[j.ai, as must also
lectus Latin, Hetty Welch, loje Slavonian, loze Polish, lit French, letto
Italian, lecho Spanish, lodge English, and Xtynpov Greek, a bed.

Light, 1. When used in opposition to darkness, it is allied to lecht
Saxon, to ligt and licht Dutch, leuchte German, licht and lius Danish
and Swedish, lioos Icelandic, liuhath Gothic, lois Arminian, kitch and
lutchina Slavonian, Hug and llycheden Welch, lochran, lasam, lasrach,
leos, luisne, glus and glinn Galic, luz Spanish and Portuguese, lux lucis
Latin, XevKvi, with Xu%voj Greek, and perhaps lehat of the Chaldee.

2. In opposition to heavy, it agrees with leoht Saxon, ligt and licht,
Dutch, ieicht German, liettur Icelandic, lagak and laliki Shivonian,
lagahar Duhnatian, lehko Bolieniian, legoke Russian, leger French, levis
and levitas Latin, which may possibly be alhed to XeTtTo?.

3. To descend on, or from, as for example, We will light on him as
the dew: Naamau lighted down from his chariot: Her hap was to light
on a part of Loa^: field.

In this acceptation, light has no connexion with the preceding nouns,
but, like its kindred, alihtan Saxon, and af-lichten Dutch, it claims
affinity to letayu and Jeteti of the Slavonian, answering to the Latin
volere, advolare, avolare, and volatus, from which we may derive our
vault. To alight, when applied to a bird, certainly means to descend
from his flight.

Thus we find in Russia and Bohemia letati, in Slavonia leteti, in Dal-
matia letiti, in Poland litac and litatam, which in Lusatia becomes latazi,
all meanins: to flee. Indeed letati, flee, fly, flight, volo, volueris and
volatus may be all related, and ultimately derived from phalat, which in
Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic means to fly from, to escape. In these
several dialects of one language, we see distinctly the Hebrew phalit,
one who has escaped, and phelita, flight.

Like implies,

1. Similitude, in which sense it stands in connexion with gelie Saxon,
gelyk and ghelych Dutch, gleich German, sliker Icelandic, salik, slik
and tolckin Swedish, lig Danish, galeiks and samaleika Gothic, samhluich
Galic, opleko Russian, oblicze Polish, oblizhe Slavonian, similis Latin,
semblablc French, somigliante Italian, semejanlc Spanish, scmelhante

Ill

Portuguese, and alike English, allied to which we have aXiyuor and Ti^/.tnor,
which last gave birth to talis. ^

2. Choice and approbation. In this sense it agrees precisely with
gelican Saxon, liika Swedish, leika Gothic, and yXtxof^^n, which may be
allied to the Hebrew laquah, take, choose.

Mace, may be either raacis, or massa.

Meal, signifies,

1. The edible part of grain. It then agrees with mealewe Saxon,
mael Dutch, mehl German, meel Danish, melo Teutonic, miol Icelandic,
micleny Polish and Bohemian, mlanie Slavonian and Dalmatian.

If we regard the instrument and operation, we shall not hesitate in
referring these expressions to malu Welch, molare and (xuX-^ a mill ; but
should we look for a description of the thing itself, we might find it in
the Galic, in which min-gheal conveys the notion of something fine,
smooth, soft and white.

2. Portion, part, repast. It is then moele Saxon, and has close affinity
irith mael Dutch and mahl German; but mcele Icelandic is to metCj
and when meal and mael, as in piece meal, signify a minute portion, they
agree with malo Russian, maly Polish, Lusatian and Bohemian, maal Dal-
matian, and malin Slavonian, and give birth to small. As a repast, our
word may originate in macal of the Hebrew.

3. To mix. In this notion, meal, it must be acknowledged, corres-
ponds with the Hebrew mahal, as in Isaiah i. 22. thy wine is mixt with
water. But since we find mezelar Spanish, mesler and meler French,
misceo and miscellus Latin, with (^ta-yoi^ answering to mesek Hebrew and
Chaldee, all of one family, we must consider meal as strictly connected

112

with them. Spencer, in his Fairy Queen, uses not only mell for minolc,
Init nieiit ior niingleci, whichvnay be related to f^iyi/jf^i, as mix and mixt
are to ,u/^a,' and (j^jxts;.

Mean, in its various acceptations has been already noticed.

]\Iere, conveys three distinct and independent notions ditFerino- ac-
cording to their derivation.

1. Pure, unmixed, is indubitably from merus and m^re Latin.

2. A boundary. This agrees with ma^ra Saxon, nicer Dutch, mar
Swedish, mera Russian and Slavonian, mira Dalmatian and Bohemian,
niiara Polish, mara Lusatian, and marz Persian. These connect
themselves with i^npco, I part, divide, distribute.

3. A lake. This word is extensively diffused as meaning the sea.
Thus we find mor AYelch, moir Galic, morfheirge and muir Irish, mere
Saxon, meer Cierman, mar Swedish, marei Gothic, more Slavonian,
Bohemian, Croatian and Lusatian, moral Russian, morze Polish, meri
Finland, all connected with mare Latin, and perhaps with f^upw fluo.
Certain it is that the Romans did not confine the term mare to the
sea, for Virgil applied it to a river. The French word means a pool.
In this family we have marsh, morass and mire.

Moor. 1. An extensive waste infested with humidity. This word
seems to originate in mare. In Welch it is morfa, in Saxon merse,
in Belgic maerasch, in Icelandic moor^ in Gothic marisaiv, in Danish
moratz, in French niarais and marecage, in English morass and marsh.
Vi e have in Saxon, mor a mountanous heath and barren, or uncultivated
tract of land, and moor humidity.

113

2. To moor a ship, corresponding to amarrcr in Frencli, may be
derived from mare.

3. Moor as a native of Mauritania speaks for itself.
Nail, has three acceptations independent on each other.

1. The horny substance at the ends of the fingers and toes. In Saxon
nagl; Belgic naeghel, Swedish and German nagel, Danish negel, Russian
nogti, Slavonian nogot, answering to ongle French, onghia Itahan, una
Spanish, unlui Portuguese, evvin AVeleh, unguis and ungula Latin. AH
these expressions, so various in their forms, are strictly connected with
if not derived from, owE..

2. A spike of metal by which things are fastened together, [n Danish
negel, Icelandic nayle, Swedish nagel, Finlandic naula. These may
originate in nagal, he closed, of the Hebrew. In the same connection
we find ^iXog, clavus; hoel Welch, clavo Spanish, clou French, chiova
Italian.

3. A measure of two inches and a half.

Nai/, and no, in Old English nae and na, agree with na and ni in
Welch and Galic, na, ne, ni, no, Saxon, nei Swedish, Danish and Ice-
landic, ne and ni Slavonian and Russian, nei Polish and Bohemian, ne
ni, nih and nui Gothic, na, nah, and ni Persian, no and ny Iberian, naand
nu Hindu, no and nah Sanscrit, w^ Greek, ne, ni, and non Latin, na
Chinese.

Connected with the negatives above recited, we have, none, neither,
naught, not, and in Old English nogt, which correspond with nach, nada
and nadh Galic, nad, neb, and nid Welch, niet Dutch, naht Saxon, nicht
German, nivaiht, nithan, negte Danish, nem Hungarian, niet and

VOL. II. Q

114

nechto Russian, neen Dutch, nein German, nubeen Hindu, nanka and
nafu Sanscrit.

Hcie it is evident that N forms the negation, as it docs in our pre-
positions in and un, and is in fact the radical part of all these particles.
This therefore naturally turns our attention towards ain of the Galic, in of
the Romans, an of the Vt'elch, un of the Gothic, as used for the purpose
of negation. Consequently, if my observations are well founded, all our
negatives are radically the same with ^v, a-^a, avtv, and with ain of the
Hebrew, which last, according to Kbrber, is derived from its verb aven,
he was deficient, whether in justice, comfort, wealth, or strength.

If, with Horn Tooke, we could suppose the Danish nodig to imply
negation ; to derive no from nodig, Avould be surely deriving the simple
from its own compound, and the parent from its offspring.

But nodig, like the German nothig, does not imply negation; it means
distressed, constrained. Nod, its primitive, constantly conveys the
notion of need, force, necessity, dilTiculty, distress and danger.

The negative terms in Danish, as we have seen, are nei and negte.

-»

The greatest admirers of Mr. Tooke must here confess, that he discovered
ignorance and self-conceit, when he so hastily derived our no ivom the
Danish compound nodig.

Tlie inhabitants of the north had no occasion to " wait for a word
expressive of dissent till the establishment of the Romans in Italy or of
the Jews in Palestine." No: they received their language from their
ancestors, and being all the children of one family, tliey preserved
those words, which were least likely to give way, and to be changed,
among which rse, may fairly reckon our most simple negative, though

115

not its compounds, sitcli as none, nren, ncin, nauglit, ncclito, nouirht,
nogt, not, nad, nid, nict, nalit, niclit, nivaiht, and neither, which, wich
the negative particle, have combined one, aught. Sec.

Of. Answering to, of Saxon; af Swedish and Dutch; aba and /if
' Goth, is closely allied to «^o, but varying the accent we have <2t5
which is a7ro&£v afar off.

Off, therefore, is evidently aVo, denoting like it, not merely separation,
but distance.

Pain. 1. As a sensation of uneasiness, with pangs English, and
pianta Galic, is in the singular, pun Dutch, pian Galic, pin Saxon,
trapiene Polish, pein German, peine French. These may be allied to
jrev^og and T^i^og as (iev^o; is to jicn^og.

2. runishment is poen Welch, pena Italian, Spanish and Portuguese,
peine French, pin Saxon, pina Swedish, bwntetes Hungarian, posna,
punitio Latin, and 'noiv^ Greek.

3. Labor, industry. Peine French, is allied to 'J^ovog and possibly to
TLsveqvjg, Avhicli is usually derived from 'jrtvoiJ.cn.

Fale, when it means, 1. wan, is evidently allied to pallidus Latin ;
pale French, bled Slavonian, bliadi Polish, iiaXwoo nc-xU and ttsXiSv^
Greek, which mean lividity.

2. A narrow piece of wood used for inclosures; in this sense it agrees
with pal Saxon, pael Dutch, pawl Welch, palitza Slavonian, pal Polish,
pel of the old French connected with palus and Uxcr^xXog, whence em-
paler, to empale, may be derived.

Fail for miik, balja Swedish, is JJtXKci and LlfXAlj.

Pat. 1. When it means j(it, may be ^tttw.

Q 2

116

2. To heat geiitl}', is allied to batardh Calic, baeddu Welch, beatan
Saxon, badda Swedish, bitchuiu Slavonian, bete Russian, Dalmatian,
and Bohemian, biti and bat Polish, apatot and botalom Hungarian,

Paj/. 1. To discharge a debt. In this acceptation we have payer
French, pagare Italian, pagar Spanish and Portuguese, paha and pay
Persian and SacTravi^.

2. To beat, pwyo Welch, biiu Slavonian, bye Polish, are distinctly

Pile has numerous acceptations.

1. A sharp pointed beam or pole is pael and piile Dutch, pilotis and
pieu French, pal Polish, pfahl German, pila and palus Latin. With
these agree pale and pole.

2. The head of an arrow, is pilum Latin.

5. Hair, poil French, pilus Latin.

4. Heap, piile Dutch, pile French. These are allied to pila, Tirxog
and iiO^osiv, of the same import.

o. The funeral pile seems to be connected with palenie Russian,
Polish, Slavonian and Hungarian, polati Bohemian, baal Icelandic, boel
Saxon, from which the French have poile, a stove.

6. One side of a coin.

7- Hemorrhoids, not improbably derived from TrvXaiog.

Pill, may be 1. peler, 2. piller, 3. pillule French.

Race, 1. contest in running agrees with rasa Swedish.

2. Race, or a raze, is allied to gwraidd Welch, racine French, rayz
Spanish, raet Dutch, roed Danish, rot Swedish, root Icelandic, radix
and radicc Latin, and pii^ce Greek.

117

3. Breed, kind or family, like race Frencli, agrees with the pre-
ceding.

Rase, or raze is raser French, and agrees perfectly with ^xicj, pa'juw and
«pi%(7(rw. Razor, rasoir French, and rasor with rado Latin, have the same
connection as the preceding.

Rack, 1. any instrument, by which the operation of stretching is per-
formed, agrees with astrcccan Saxon, astrecken Dutch, auss-strecken
German, strecker and vostrecker Danish. In this acceptation, rack
seems to be connected with extractus Latin.

2. Distaff is, in Hungarian rokkaszar. In Polish we find rocac and
wracac to twist.

JlocA; means, L distaff, agreeing with- rack.

2. An extensive mass of stone. In this sense it agrees with pco^, as crag
and craig Welch and Galic do with ?«:%/«:. In Hebrew we find ragam
(DJI.) he stoned.

3. To shake, move in the cradle, rocqder French, rucken German,
which may be allied to avopyd^u, Hesych: and probably is so to ragaz (rj"l)
of the Hebrew. Indeed opycx^sLv, opyi^eiv and cpytx^eiv, seem originally to
have contained the notion of rapid movement.

Route means,

1. Road, roid Galic, roin Irish, route French, braut Icelandic. These
sefem allied to rota, rheda and ride, and these again to the Chaldee and
Syrian rida to travel, and ridvan or ridan, a chariot, which in Sanscrit
is rath.

2. Rabble, tumultuous multitude, a company, a troop. In this ac-
ceptation it may agree with ruith and ruta Galic, rhawd Welch, rot

lis

Dutch, rotte German, roode Danish, rota Slavonian and Hungarian,
po^og.

3. Defeat, confusion, and flight of an army. In this sense we meet
with route and deroute French, and rotta Italian, which are probably
ruptio; as in Latin we may derive clades, slaughter, defeat, from y.Kxjig
a rupture.

Sap means,

1. The vital juice of plants. This, with subli Galic, seve French,
sifipe Saxon, sap Dutch, safft German, sapa Latin, are unquestionably
on-'og. In Welch we have not this word; but we find ?jorfJ sap, which is
allied to votij.

2. To mine or undermine, in French sapper, and in Italian zappare, is
probably allied to a-KXT^^ai.

Scale, 1. the dish of a balance; sceale Saxon, schael Dutch, sik-tal
Hungarian, scutella a little dish. In Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic,
we have shacal to weigh.

2. The squamous skin of a fish. Ecaille French, scaglia Italian, skal-
ler Danish, hal Hungarian. These seem to be allied to shale, shell and
scutella.

3, A ladder. Echelle French, scala Italian and Latin.

The military term to scale, and a scale in harmonics, depend on scala.
Seam, 1. a juncture of cloth, of planks, or of flesh, appears to be
sumentum.

2. A measure, eight bushels, may be jxyi^-x.

3. Suet, tallow, grease, is sebum.

119

Set may signify, 1. to place simply, and may be derived from sedes
Uog or the Hebrew shulh, and agrees with suid-heog, Galic, settan
Saxon, sctzcn German, sietta Swedish, set Icelandic, satjau Gothic, sidati
Slavonian, Dahnatian and Russian.

2. To plant. This may agree with satus and shathnl Chaldee, Syrian
and Hebrew of the same import. In this sense we have suidhuicam
Galic, setau Saxon, sattia Swedish, satidedum Gothic, saditi Slavonian,
sadzic Polish, szaditi Dalmatian.

3. A number of things suited to each other. In Persian we have
saziden, to be suitable This will perfectly accord with the Hebrew, seder,
order, series; and the Chaldee sadar, to set iu order.

Shaft, 1. A missive weapon ; sceaft Saxon, schaft German; these are
probably o-KV]7rTpov. In Dutch it signifies a pole.

2. A deep pit; seems to be derived from (tuxtttcii.

3. Any thing strait is scapus.

Shed, 1. to effuse, or scatter, scheiden German, skaidan Gothic,
skudda and skiuta Swedish, is probably o-ksSxcc.

2. A slight covering, may be connected with shade, and be derived
from (TuiaSiov. In Wilts, for a shed, we find skilling, and in Sweden skiul,
perhaps from a-mx.

Since, 1. from the time that, seems to be contracted from sithence.
In Saxon we have sith-than, in Swedish sedah, in German seit dem, in
Greek ttTo:, after that. In Saxon, sithian means to come, to go, sithe
time, and sith a progress.

Thence is allied to iV&ff.

2. Because, may be contracted from seen as.

120

Stick, 1. a walking staff, sficca Saxon, stecco Italian, which agree
with stia;a Swedish, and qtix^iv.

2. To adhere. Stican Saxon, stecken German, agree with q^y.oi.

3. To pierce. Steken Dutch, stechen German, stician Swedish
Siitychac Polish, agree with stacan Galic a thorn, and qi^a. c^i^a.

Tear. 1. The water which passion forces from the eyes is daigr
Welch, deor Galic, tear Saxon, traan Dutch, :z'ahre German, tar Swedish,
taare Danish, tagr Gothic, lachryma Latin, dachryma okl Latin, lagrima
Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, larme French, 5iKpy,u,a:, Bxupvo; and Bxyi;)\j.
The change of D into L, is not uncommon in the Sanscrit.

2. To lacerate agrees with torri Welch, toeran Saxon, zerzerren Ger-
man, gatairan Gothic, torgayu, terzayu and deru Slavonian, torgati
Russian, tergati Bohemian, targam Polish, torom Hungarian, daridan
Persian Teipu iaraf Hebrew.

In this acceptation tear and its participle torn, seem allied to thorn,
draen Welch, draigean Galic, thorn Saxon, doren and doom Dutch,
dorn German, torn Danish and Sweden, thaurnjus Gothic, terne Russian,
ternie and tern Slavonian and Bohemian, cziernie Polish. In Hebrew
we have darban and in the plural darhonoth, thorns.

That. 1. when it means not this but the other, looks to ^xTepx as in

tTTi^xTspx in diversum, in alteram partem. This agrees with det of Sweden.

2. Denoting fact, assertion, maxim, conclusion, purpose, it agrees

with ata Galic, thatte and that Saxon, dat Dutch, dass German,

thataci Gothic, at Swedish, uti Latin and hi.

Tliata in Gothic corresponds to ToauTo, thto and txvtx.

121

Till IS 1. the money box. In this sense it looks towards Ttko;, tolle,
tribute, expense, and TeKe^v to spend. In Saxon we have til, abundant,
rich.

2. A termination. In this use we find til and tillo Saxon, til Danish,
and tils Swedish, all which refer to TtKor the end or conclusion of a
progress.

3. To cultivate. In Welch we observe diwyllio, in Saxon ilian, tin
Dutch or Belgic tuylen. Connected with these may be reckoned cVAcr
toil. Telemin Hebrew being distinctly tillage; all these expressions may
be radically one with it.

Tire means 1. to dress, furnish. Attourer, and vetir French, zieren
German, and tire English, may originate in vestire.

2. To vex, harass, weary. In this sense we have tirian Saxon and
toirseach Galic, which seem to originate in Ttipco, and agree with terah of
the Chaldee.

TVare maybe 1. merchandise, answering to waar in Dutch. 2. To
watch, answering to fairam of the Galic. In this sense ware may take
warn and ward for its infinitive and participle.

Wind is 1. a blast of air. This agrees with gwynt of the Welch and
ventus of Latin.

2. To turn. In Spanish we have guindar, in Italian guindolare, in
Saxon windan, in Dutch and in German winden, in Gothic vindan, and
in Danish vende.

JVith, 1. answering to i*£t^. This word is extensively diffused, and ap-
pears to have been variously corrupted. We find with and mid Saxon,
mit Old English and German, mith Gothic, med, met, and ved Danish

VOL. II. R -

122

and Swedish, met Armenian, ith Iberian, niitha (pronounced mit-ha)
Sanscrit. AH these may be radically connected, because M. V. and W.
as we have seen, readily assume each others place.

It has been suggested by Horn Tooke, that with, in this sense of the
word, is derived from withe. This may have been its origin, and indeed
could we suppose, that our Saxon ancestors either sprang spontaneously
from the earth, and consequently had to invent a language for them-
selves, or that they forgot the prepositions received by tradition from their
fathers, it would be natural to conclude, that withe, a willow twig used
for uniting things together, might become first a symbol of connection,
and then a conjunctive preposition. But as our Gothic ancestors, w^ho
used withan, to join, were in possession of mith, probably derived either
from mitha of Sancrit, or from [t.e'i: and [t-eTx-, there seems to have been
no necessity for their having recourse to a metaphorical expression. In-
deed it does not appear, that they had with as a preposition, for in the
Gothic Gospels we find only mith.

2. Answering to ccvti, contra, against. It is curious, that the same
word should thus have inconsistent meanings, as appear in these sen-
tences, stand with him, and withstand him. But it seems to me, that
witJi in the latter acceptation is an abbreviation of the Anglo-Saxon
witherian, to contend, whence are derived, witherling an adversary,
withersacan to contradict, and witherstandan to resist.

Supposing then with to be allied to f^fTar, the compound ^i^sju^Hv may
Jsave given birth to witherian and to with, as denoting opposition. In
German, wider means against, and widerstehen to withst^md.

We observe a remarkable affinity between our ay^YA and by; and the

123

Saxons, in their compound prepositions, used indiifcrently cither witii or
be, as withforan and beforan, withinnan and hcinnan, withutan and
beutan, &c. This affinity may possibly have originated in the Hebrew
idiom, in which (m) hejad not only denotes the instrument, but like-
wise concomitance. By (hejad) tliy servants hast thou reproached the
Lord, (Isaiah xxxvii. 24.) Hazael took a present with him (bejado)
forty camels burthen, (2 Kings viii. 9.) Even [^eix may be this Hebrew
preposition in disguise, as ^dv and cum originate in (d;;) "im of the
Hebrew.

Within, answering to intra of the Latin may possibly be (nrT^a)
hejtha of the Hebrews. Intra itself may be ev'^v^ix as wdomu Polish
is allied to domi, or as hazaban Hungarian, ban the hoose Scotch
in the house English, and en casa Spanish, are to in casd of the
Romans.

Yard, 1. inclosed ground adjoining to a house, answers to garadh
Galic, gardd Welch, geard Saxon. The examination of this word will
be resumed.

2. A measure of three feet, agrees with gerd Saxon, gerte German.

Yet, 1. over and above answers to etto Welch, jets and itez Polish
gessto Bohemian, es Hungarian, etj Greek, gO(/e Hebrew ("liy)

2. At this time is gata {TyT\V) Hebrew.

3. Nevertheless Tna.

By attention to the various, independent, and frequently discordant
import of words, as derived from various and independent sources
we acquire clear and distinct ideas, we avoid ambiguity, and wc

R 2

124

learn to express our meaning with precision. In this beauty and utility

unite.

My principal aim, however, in the selection [ have made of sy-
nonymes, is to convince my readers, that all the languages, with which
we are acquainted, however dissimilar in form, are radically one.

Is it possible for any one to cast his eye, however transiently, over
the vocabulary here presented to his view, and not to discern this
interesting truth. The words I have chosen are, indeed, variously com-
pounded and abbreviated; they are distorted and disguised by vicious
orthography and capricious changes; yet, when stripped of their ad-
ventitious ornaments ; when they are made to approach their primitive
and uncorrupted condition ; when nothing but that, which is essential
to each word, remains; their strict resemblance or perfect identity is
distinctly seen.

AVhat I have here produced, might be considered sufficient for my
purpose, but as the truth which I have undertaken to support, appears
to me in its consequences to be of infinite importance to the happiness
of mankind; I shall produce numerous other instances in its confir-
mation.

I have assumed it as an axiom, that nations, who agree in terms
expressive of the most common actions and relations of savage life
and of those objects, Avhich occur in every climate to supply the wants
of mere animal existence, however dissimilar they may now he, were
originally one.

Let us then examine by this axiom, what agreement we can dis-
cover between the English and other nations, with whose language

125

we have an adequate acquaintance. For this purpose the expressions
I shall fix upon are chiefly monosyllabic, as being our most ancient
words. Am, are, ass, bake, be, bear, beat, bind, boat, booth, box,
break, brother, buss, call, can, cap, cart, cat, choose, cock, cook, cot,
cow, crib, crow, cup, dad, day, daughter, door, eat, egg, eight, else,
eye, father, fight, fire, five, fiaot, four, gird, give, gout, goose, guest,
have, he, head, heart, hem, hen, house, hut, I, is, king, kiss, lick, me,
might, mine, milk, mill, mix, mother, murder, name, night, nine, nose,
one, ox, raven, rob, rook, sea, seat, seven, she, six, sow, take, ten,
this, thou, three, through, time, tine, tree, two, water, Avithe, wool,
write, yard, yea, yet, yoke, young.

Am, is distinctly fif^^i in its most abbreviated fiarm, and is compounded,
as I shall demonstrate, of the verb f, together with its pronoun (xt.
As such it agrees with sum and sim Latin, com Saxon, em Icelandic,
im Gothic and Turkish, jestem Polish, em Armenian and Persian, iam
Eepirotic. This verb may originate in the Hebrew (r\'''n) Our ErigHsh
verb is extremely irregular, and this irregularity points out the various
sources, from which it has derived its discordant moods, tenses and
persons.

The pronoun p-t is still preserved in the Marhatta ml and is found
in the Welch mi and my, as in ?««' a viim I was, and ?«_?/ a I will go.
Me runs all over Europe and Asia; but in the Slavonian dialects it
is mya, and in the Hindostani it is main. All the most ancient verbs
in Greek have this pronoun in the first person singular of the present
tense, not only in the active, but also in the passive and the middle

126

voices, as I shall have occasion to observe in the progress of my
tvork. It likewise appears in the subjunctives of Latin verbs.

Are, may be traced in eram and ero, in ccr Swedish, and serf Cornish,
I am. But I shall not now enlarge, as the subject will be resumed
when I shall treat of the substantive verb m Greek.

Ass, asne French, asno Spanish and Portuguese, asino Italian, asal
Galic, asen Welch, azen Armoric, astoa Cantabrian, assa Saxon, ezel
and esel Dutch and German, asne Icelandic, asen Danish, aszna Swedish,
asilus Gothic, osel Ptussian and Slavonian, osiel Polish, oszal Dalmatian,
wefel Bohemian and Lusatian, essek Turkish, ez Armenian, asinus Latin,
Qvo;. All these are related, and their common parent may be athon of
Hebrew, of the same import.

Bake. I have not been able to trace this word in any of the Celtic
dialects. It seems to have been confined to the Gothic and Slavonic
tribes. In our Saxon we have baecan and bacian ; in German backen,
answering to bager Danish, baka Swedish, pekete Russian, pecy Bohe-
mian, peku and pezhi Slavonian, and pickel Polish. Pochten, in Persian,
means to boil; in Sanscrit pakarai and papakto mean, like TreTTTw, to
cook in general. In Polish we find pick, an oven. From one of these
we may derive our pye.

The Latin coqiio has the same relation to -Tf^lw as quinque has to the
JEoYic 'Ki[t.'Ki for TfvTf, which in the Doric dialect is xfvxe.

In Greek we find /Sf/Swxa;, pavi, and the Plirygians had /3fKKoc for bread.

The Welch have pohi.

In Arabic we have the nearest approach to our word in tabakha, an-
swering to n^ca tahah, a cook.

127

Be is in Saxon beon, in Danish boe, in Russian buivau, in Sanscrit
bhu, in Galicand Hebrew bith. In Latin we have fui, fuero, fuissc and
fore, of the same import.

So much for the present. When I shall treat of the Creek substantive
verb, I shall enlarge on our own verb.

Bear and Burthen. These words agree with fero, porto, (pfpw and
(popTiov; Avith beirim and bearadh Galic, porthi Welch, porter and fardeau
French, beran, bearan and byrthen Saxon, brengen Dutch, her and bjrth
Icelandic, boerer Danish, fora and boera Swedish, bairan Gothic, bera
and pora Slavonian, bierac Polish, berel and barnal Armenian, burdan
Persian and bhri Sanscrit. In Hebrew we find heriah (n''")^) a lever.

Bear, to bring forth, seems to originate in pario and para (ma) of the
same meaning.

Bear, as a particular animal, has been traced to ferus, '^y,p and ^vjp; but
in Hesychius we find ^apov, and in Hebrew hagar ("li/n) which are not
improbably related to ferus.

Beat, beotan Saxon, bCittre French, badda Sweden, biti Russian,
baeddu Welch, and pita Sanscrit, agree with TIxtccjitcc.

Bind, as a verb is unknown to the Celtic dialects, althouQ;h in AVelch
we have bancaro a band. To bind, is bindan Saxon and Gothic,
binden Dutch and German, bind Icelandic and Danish, binda Swedish,
benden Persian, bandha Sanscrit, and bun Chinese.

The nearest approach to this in Hebrew is abnef, a belt: but bind may
be a participle, and if so, it may be related to vieo, vietum, hex and
withy.

Boat, is bad and bata Galic, bate Welch, bateau French, baleira

128

Portuguese, bat Saxon, boot Dutch and German, baatur Icelandic,
bat Swedish, bote Russian, peta and pota Sanscrit. It may be aUied
to yu(icc7og.

Booth, is bothag Galic, bwih Welch, bod Armoric, boede Saxon and
Dutch, beit Teutonic, boot and buth Icelandic, bod Danish and Swedish,
obit Bohemian, buda Polish and Lusatian, beit Turkish, abad Persian,
beti Epirotic. In Hebrew we have bcth, in Arabic beit, in Chaldee
and Syriac, both. From the Persian abad we seem to have derived
abide.

Box, has been already noticed in its various acceptations.

Break, ipp^X^ fiegi, fractum ; is bracaim Galic, brcg Welch, breche
French, breccia Italian, brecken Dutch, breccan Saxon, brecken Ger-
man, breke Danish, broeka Swedish, brikan Gothic, breg Slavonian,
obroke Russian, fcn-aq Hebrew, Chaldean, Syriac, and Arabic. With
these agree farad, farat, faram, farats, faras, of Hebrew, Chaldean,
Syriac and Arabic of like import.

Bring the participle of bear is brengen Dutch.

Brother is barathair Galic, brawd, plural of brodyn, Welch, breur
Armoric, frater Latin, frere French, brother Saxon, breeder Dutch,
bruder German, brodur Icelandic, broder Danish and Swedish, brothar
Gothic, brate Slavonian and Russian, brat Polish and Dalmatian, bratr
Bohemian, bradt Lusatian, boradar Persian, bhai and bhala Hindostani,
and bhratara Sanscrit.

Bull and Buffalo, will be noticed under ox.

Burn has been already noticed.

Buss. For buss sec kiss.

120

Call is galw Welch, scallen German, kalla Swedish, kialtok Hunga-
rian, cal Sanscrit, kala Syrian, k^auv Greek and kol (^1p) Hebrew.

Can a drinking vessel y.xv'^xpog, cantharus is cuincog Galic, canne
Saxon, kan Dutch, kanne German, kanna Icelandic, kandc Danish,
tchuan Slavonian, kanna Hungarian.

Cap yefpxXs Greek, caput Latin, copchaile Galic, cappan Welch,
caeppe Saxon, kappe Dutch and German, kappa Swedish, kape B.->he-
mian, kaponya Hungarian, the skull.

Cart, carpentuni Latin, certwyn Welch, croet Saxon, karra Swedish,
kareta Slavonian, kar Armenian, szeker Hungarian.

Cat, cas Galic, cath Welch, chat French, gatto Italian, gato Spanish
and Portugese, kat katte Dutch, katz German, katt] Swedish, kisa
Icelandic, kot Slavonian, kotte Russian, kotzka Bohemian, kotka
Polish, katto Lusatian, keti Turkish, katussa Walachian, catti Finland,
kata Iberian, gato Lapland, kotschasch Tartaric.

CocJcy noaxKov is coileach and caolach Galic, ceiliog Welch, kilioof
Armoric, coq French, kock Danish, kokos Polish, kokos Hungarian,
cuc61a Singaleze, cubku Finlandic, gallus Latin.
Cook see bake.

Cot KotTvt cotta in Galic is a cottage, and coittair a cottager. We
have cwtt Welch, cote Saxon, kot and hut Dutch, hutte German, kot
Icelandic, kota and koite Swedish, kota Finland, kaata Lapland, keda
Persian, kodda Epirolic, kuta Sanscrit, and cotta Malay in the same
acceptation.

Cow, geo Galic, according to Vallancey. The modern Galic ha?
changed this to bo, answering to buwch and bu of the Welch. In other

VOL. II. s

130

languages we have cu Saxon, koe Dutch, kuhe German, koe Danish,
ko Swedish, coiwas Finland, kusa Lapland, korowa and koua Russian,
krava Slavonian, Bohemian, and lllyrian, krowa Polish, keuve Armenian,
gau Persian, gai Hindostan and Sanscrit.

In Latin we find mugeo, in Greek i^vaxoi, in Hebrew, Chaldee and
Syriac gagha (up}) the lowing of a cow.

Crib, in Swedish krubba, Germain, krippe is y.poc^^aTcg.

Crow, in Saxon crawe, Dutch kraai and kraye, German krahe, Danish
krage, Swedish kraka agree with corneille and corbeau French, corneja
Spanish, cornacchia Italian, corvus and cornix Latin, y.op«i and xc/;a)vv|
Greek. The Russian has voron and vorona a raven, a rook. In Polish
we have kruk a raven, and Avrona a rook. In Slavonian we find
krakain, korkaiu and grakaiu to crow, in Latin crocito, in Greek x^wC'"
but nfiZ,a and upavyz^u mean to cry out. In Hebrew we have Sip,
Compare with these raven and rook.

Cup, cupan Galic, cwppan and cib Welch, cuppe Saxon, kop Dutch,
kopp Danish, Swedish and Icelandic, kuppa, Slavonian, Hungarian
and Dalmatian, kubek Polish, kofHick Bohemian, koup Armenian, kop
Tartarian, cupa and capis Latin, with xl/tvj, nvneXXov, xv/S/3«, m-^x
Greek, and (i'"'3J) gebiag Hebrew are all related.

Dad agrees with tad Welch and Armoric, taz Cornish, taata Findland,
did Slavonian, dede Russian, ded Bohemian, dada Turkish, which in
the Hindostani means grandfather. In Epirotic wc have lati, «t7«
Greek, tfttx Thessalian, and issa Finland.

J)m/. Dia and do Galic, dydd Welch, Cornish and Armoric, daeg
Saxon, dag and dagh Dutch, tag Germain, tak Teutonic, dagur Ice=

131

landic, dag Danish and Swedish, dags Cothic, den Slavonian, Russian
and Bohemian, dzien PoMsh, daan Dalmatian, le Armenian, deghes
Iberian, devus Hindostan and Sansciit, dies L;itin, with ^zog and
Axlg are of one family.

Daughter is a word unknown at present to the Celtic. In Saxon
and Teutonic we have dohter, in Dutch dogter and dochtcr, in Ger-
man tochter, in Icelandic dooter, in Danish daater, in Swedish doter,
in Gothic dauhtar, in Slavonian dtscher and dotch, in Bohemian dey,
in Russian dotch and doke, in Persian dochtar and docht, in Sanscrit
dahitar, in Armenian dauster, in Finlandic tytter, in Greek ^vyccrvip,
in Syriac dachtira.

Dine is evidently SeiTrvsiu connected with which we find daps Latin
diner French.

Door, thorruke Old EngUsh, is dorous and fodhoras Galic, drws and
dor Welch, dor Armenian, dora and thure Saxon, deure Dutch, thur
German, dyr Icelandic, door and dor Danish and Swedish, daur Gothic,
deuro Slavonian and Russian, duira Lusatian, duri Carinth., dwer Bo-
hemian, drzwi Polish, dore Armenian, dar Persian and Turkish, dera
Epirotic, toori Javan, dwar Sanscrit and Hindostan, derwarje Bengal
derived from derwaza Persian, ^upa Greek, thara (i<")r>) Syrian, tharagh
(i^ir^) Chaldean and ("lya') shagar Hebrew.

Each has been already noticed. In Sanscrit eka means one, in Persian
her yec is every one. In Hebrew ish means a man, and each person or
thing. Ish el regehu (injt/") 1'^ S^"'!!^) everyone to his neighbour.

Egg, ugh Galic, occo Italian, oeg Saxon, egg Icelandic, Danish
and Swedish, aieka Russian, iaica Polish, iaiza Slavonian, chai Persian,

s 2

132

wegtze and iaie Bohemian, aiza Carinth, yaye Dalmatian, tai Polish, wy
Welch, ooov Greek, ovum Latin.

Eight, is ochd Galic, wyth Welch, eiz Armoric, huit French, ocho
Spanish, otto Italian, oito Portuguese, eahta Saxon, agt Dutch, acht
German, aatta Icelandic, atta Swedish, otte Danish, ahtau Gothic, ot
Armenian, osm Polish and Slavonian, wossim Russian, hesht Persian,
ashta Sanscrit, ath Bengal and oxTft), octo.

Else, elles Saxon, aljes Swedish, alias Latin, akXccg.

Ewe, othisg Galic, dafad Welch, davas Cornish, eowe Saxon, ouwe
and oye Dutch, ouzhia Slavonian, ouxa Russian, oucza Dalmatian, owca
Polish, owcza Bohemian, wouza Lusatian, iuh and ih Hungarian, awa..
Sanscrit, ovis Latin, 'oig Greek.

E^c, plural eyne, golwg Welch, oeil French, occhio Italian, ojo
Spanish, olho Portuguese, eag Saxon, ooghe Dutch, aug German, ougon
Teutonic, auga Icelandic, oje Danish, oga Swedish,, augo Gothic, oko
Slavonian, Dalmatian, Bohemian, Polish, Illyrian, ocha Russian, ocho
Croatian, woko Lusatian, oeghene pi. Tartaric, nayana Sanscrit. In
Hebrew we have a/« (]">;;) in Latin oculus, in Greek I'aac^ the eye and
y.vXx the cavities of the eyes.

Father, athair Galic, padre Italian and Spanish,, pay Portuguese, pare
French, pater Latin, fselher Saxon, vader Dutch, vatter German, fater>,
Teutonic, fader Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, fadrein Gothic, padar
Persian, pit4 Bengal, pitr and pita Sanscrit. UzTyip.

Fire has already been examined.

Five, cuig and coig Galic, pump Welch, pemp Armoric and Cornish,
'cinquc Italian, cinq French, cinco. Spanish and Portugue&e, fif Saxon,

133

viif Dutch, fiinfF German, finf Teutonic, fim Icelandic, fern Swedish
and Danish, fimf Gothic, fiynf, precop pyat Slavonian, pat Russian,
piecz PoUsh, pesch Dalmatian, bisch Tartaric, p^nch Bengal and Hin-
dostan, penj Persian, pengkan Sanscrit. TLevre, in yEolic IlffxTrf, in
Doric KevKs; whence the Romans took their quinque.

This practice of changing H into K, or P into C and K, I have already
noticed to have been common among the Athenians, Cohans, Baeotians,
lonians, the Galic tribes, as will immediately appear, and our Teutonic
ancestors.

Foot, cas and cos Galic, fot and vot Saxon, poot and voet Dutch, fuss
German, footur Icelandic, fbde and foed Danish, fot Swedish, fotus
Gothic, bos Slavonian, wut and uetn Armenian, pa Persian, padati and
pud Sanscrit, pMn Hindostan, piede Italian, pied French, pie Spanish,
pe Portuguese, pes pedis Latin, JJovg, 'j:oBog. In Hebrew we observe bus
to trample under foot.

The Welch has pedol, a horse-shoe.

From foot, the Persian has piadah a footman, and we derive fetters,
in Russian powtei, in Bohemian pauty, in Polish peta, in Persian paw,
and in Latin compedes; in Italian ceppi, in French ceps.

Four, cheathra, ceathair and ceithair Galic, pedwar Welch, padzhar
Cornish, pewar Armoric, quatre French, quattro Italian, quatro Spanish
and Portuguese, feower Saxon, vier Dutch and German, fioore Icelandic,
five Danish, fyra Swedish, fidwer Gothic, chetwerti Slavonian, chetuire
Russian, czterni Polish, chuerk Armenian, pahar and chah^r Persian,
tchethro Zend, fydor Precop. ch^ir Hindostan and Bengal, chatur San=
scrit, quatuor Latin, HfTopa. iEoUan»

134

Gird, girdle, girt, garter, garden, agree with gyrdan Saxon, gorden
Dutch, guerten German, giord Icelandic, gyrter Danish, garda and
gierda Swedish, gairda Gothic, sagraditi Slavonian, ogorodsate Russian,
ograditi Dalmatian and Hungarian, ogradzac Polish, and zaraditi Bohe-
mian. In Persian we have a rich variety of derivatives from girdiden, to
go round and to turn, answering to yvpoeiv. Gort in Galic means the ivy.

Give, in Old English yeve, yave, yeoven; gifan Saxon, geeven Dutch,
geben German, gabun Teutonic, gef Icelandic, gisve Danish, gifwa
Swedish, gihan Gothic, ja/iab (m^) Chaldce and Syrian, vahab Arabic.

Goat and Kid, gitten and gidi Welch, gaite, gaet and gat Saxon,
gheyten, gheyte and gheete Dutch, geiss German, geit Icelandic, geed
Danish, giet and get Swedish, gaitein Gothic, koza Slavonian, Russian,
Polish, Dalmatian, and Bohemian, ketzke Hungarian, getfi Tartaric,
haedus Latin. In Hebrew we haxe gedi {-^1}) a kid, geedz (t;f) a she-
goat, and gathudim (Clin;/] he-goats. In these all the preceding terms
may have originated.

In Galic this line of connexion is cut oft', and we have gobhar a goat,
though formerly it meant a iiorse. In Welch gafr, in French chevre, in
Spanish cabra, in Italian and Latin capra, look to nccTiqog, but this means
a boar.

Goose, gos Saxon, goose and goes Dutch, gas Laplandic, gaas Ice-
landic and Danish, gas Swedish, guse Russian, guss Slavonian, Iberian
and Bohemian, geoz Polish, hus Bohemian and Polish, kas Turkish and
Tartaric, gsocis Kamptschatkan, gaz Armenian, all agree.

Gander agrees with ganradh and gandal Galic, ganso Spanish, ganza
Italian, bans Hindostan, gandra Saxon, gans Dutch, and X^v of the
Greek.

135

Guest, gwestai and gwestwr Welch, gest Saxon, gast Dutch, German
and Gothic, giestur Icelandic, giest Danish, gast Swedish, gust and gost
Slavonian, gost Russian, gospodarz and gosc Polish, host Bohemian,
goozt Dalmatian, gazda Hungarian. Hospes, hospitis means both the
entertainer and the entertained. This gives birth to host, which is in
Galic osdair, in Armoric ostis, and in French hote.

Have, caffael Welch, avoir French, happer Old French, habban and
hafan Saxon, hebben Dutch, haben German, haae Danish, hafa Ice-
landic, hafwa Swedish and Finlandic, ap Sanscrit, xjisiv. The Persian
yaften means to find. These agree with gaba and caph of the Hebrew.

He, E Galic and Armoric, e and efe Welch, hy Dutch, sa Gothic,
Swedish and Finlandic, ei Slavonian, o, ez and az Hungarian, u Persian,
agree with yeh Hindostan, this man, i' Greek, hu Hebrew, Chaldean,
Syrian and Arabic.

Head, ceap, cudh and cuth Galic, iad Welch, heafod, heofod and
hoefde Saxon, hoofd Dutch, haupt and kopf German, kop Dutch,
haubit Old German, liofFud leelandic, hoffuit Danish, huvud Swedish,
hauhith Gothic, caponya Hungarian, kop-pa-lah Chinese. These agree
with caput and Ke(pxXvi, but gabah in Hebrew means high, elevated, and
gibeah baldhead.

Mr. Tooke, following Leibnits, derives head from heave. T am ready
to alfew, that these words may be related, and it is remarkable, that in
Hebrew gab means eminence, and gaphim in the plural has the same
acceptation. The verb in Hebrew is gebah, he excelled in height.

Heart, criodh and croidh Galic, coeur French, cuore Italian, corafon
Spanish, cora9ao Poituguese, heort Saxon, hert Dutch and Teutonic,

136

hertz German, hiarta Icelandic, hierte Danish, hierta Swedish, hairto
Gothic, serdts Slavonian, serxe Russian, serce Polish, serdce Bohemian,
szarcze Dalmatian, sirt Armenian, szivu and szw Hungarian, bihotza
Cant, hard Sanscrit.

Cor cordis, Ke^i^p, y^exTog. KxpSix.

Hemp, canab Galic and Armoric, hennep and kennep Dutch, hanfF
German, hampa Swedish, konople Slavonian and Russian, komope
Bohemian, konop, Polish, can nab Persian, azvuzjiig.

Hen, henne Saxon, hinne, hoen and hen Dutch, huhn German,
haena Icelandic, henne Danish, hanna Swedish, hana Gothic, kana
Finlandic.

House, hus Saxon, huis Dutch, hauss German, huus Danish and
Swedish, hus Icelandic, Gothic, and Prccop. hisha Slavonian, kushya
Dalmatian, haz and az Polish, kuzha Croat, keushen Carinth. houze
Armenian, haz Hungarian, hu Chinese, casa Latin. In Hebrew casa
means he covered.

Hut hutte Saxon and German, hute French, hytte Danish, huta
Polish, huti Bohemian. In the Gothic we find liethjo cubiculum. Kuta
Sanscrit. In some ©f the oriental dialects Jmt (tDin) means a thread
to sew together, to inclose, whence comes hait a wall. But as hut
and cot are evidently the same word, they may be equally allied to Ko*t*i.

J, mi Galic, Welch, and Marhatta. I its oblique case Welch; me
Armoric, men Persian, main Hindostani, je French, io Italian, yo
Spanish, eu Portuguese, ie Saxon, ich Old English and German, ick
Dutch, eg Icelandic, ieg Danish, lag and ga Swedish, ik Gothic, iaze,
ia and ena Russian, ia Polish, Bohemian, and Lusatian, es Armenian,

157

en Hungarian, ben Tartaiian, ego Iw'ya;. In Ilcbrew we fiave anoki,
ani and I.

Is, is Galic, sy ^Velch, est French, es Spanisii and Portuguese, is
Saxon and Dutch, ist German and Gothic, est Slavonian, Russian and
Persian, iest Polish, e Armenia, as, ast Sanscrit.

Es, est Latin, eqi. Greek. Is or jesh Hebrew. See Am.

King. In Galic we have ceann, the head, pronounced kemi ceannas,
the office of chieftain, and cinbeirt a ruler. In Welch cda and cu-
uiad signify a lord.

Among the Gothic tribes our word is more distinct. Cyning, cynig
and cyng Saxon, koning Dutch, konig German, kuning Teutonic,
konning and konge Danish, Kongur Icelandic, cunningus Lapland
and FinKand, cakunge Greeeland, konung Swedish. In German kuhn
means brave valiant. The Slavonian tribes have knyaz a prince a
general; the Huns had their cheuni, the Turks and Tartars have their
chans. In Persia we find khan, but it is not Persian; in Malay kyan,
in China kan, chong, cham and king, in Tonquin can, in Japan cunix.
From these expressions, remove the termination, and that which remains
will be equivalent to colun (1^^) of the oriental nations, a royal priest.

Kiss, cus and cusanu Welch, cyssan Saxon, kussen Dutch, kuessen
German, koss Icelandic, kyse Danish, kyssa Swedish, kukjan Gothic,
as if derived from nenvnu; kushniti Slavonian, kush Dalmatian, koshiti
Lusatian, kusati Croatian. In Greek we have nOw nvaw and nvtcrKu, and
in Homer we find Kuo-a-f. In the Slavonian we have kus the mouth,
kusain to bite, kusok a morsel, with kuss a kiss, answering to os and
osculum of the Romans, and lobzayu, allied to lip and labium.

VOL. II. T

138

Kuss may be etymologicaliy allied to buss, by the change of B and K,
of which we have seen numerous examples, and it is probable, that they
are so related, because they have precisely the same meaning, the former
in Slavonian, the latter in Galic. In Welch bus means the lip and cus

a kiss.

These words have an extensive range and a close connexion. In Latin
we find basium, in Italian basciare, in French baiser, in Spanish besar,
in Portuguese beijar, answering to pogam Galic, boesen and bousen
Dutch, poca and pocalowanie Polish, bos, boseh and bosiden Persian,
pussune Epirotic. In Galic we have puisin, a lip, which is in Epirotic
bushe. In French, bouche, the mouth, answers to bocca Italian and
boca Spanish and Portuguese. Bucca in Latin, is the cheek.

Lick, ligham and imligham Galic, llyfu and llyu Welch, lecher French,
leccare Italian, lamer Spanish, lamber Portuguese, lambo and lingo
Latin, liccian Saxon, lacken Dutch, lecken German, Sleikia Icelandic,
lickcr and slicker Danish, slika and sleka Swedish, laigvan Gothic, lizati,
lisati liju and lokaiu Slavonian, lizati Dalmatian and Bohemian, lizak,lize
and lokac Polish, lakiel Armenian, lih and lihmi Sanscrit. In Greek wc
have >.ft%w, XaTCTu, and Xx'ttx^w, in Hebrew lahac and lakak (pp7, pn7, "^n?.)

Mam, see Mother.

Me, mi Welch, me Galic, Armoric, French, Italian, Spanish, Portu-
guese and Latin, mier Saxon, my Dutch, mich German, mig Swedish,
inik Gothic, mya Slavonian, menya Russian, me Iberian, me and nai
Sanscrit, ff^f and [j-s.

Might, mocht (Jalic, gallu Welch, mcaht, maegeth Saxon, magt
Danish, Swedish, mogu Slavonian, pomogaiu Russian, mahata Sanscrit,
i^ty:tXvj, i^-fyas, i^tyi^og, magnus (nbiJl^) megala Hebrew, eminence.

1:>9

Mine, my mo (jalic, mau Wclcli, maliini Armoric, mien mon French,
min Saxon, miin Dutch, inein German, myn Icelandic, inin Swedish,
meins Gothic, moy or inoi Slavonian, Dalmatian, Pohsh and Lusatian,
mene and mena Russian. In Persian, men means I, and em mine, an-
swering to mam Sanscrit, i>ov Greek. See I.

Milk, laith, bhochd and meilg Gahc, llaeth and bhth Welch, leath
Cornish, leas and laeth Armoric, lait French, latte Italian, leche Spanish,
leite Portuguese, lac laclis Latin, meoluc, meoloc, and meolc Saxon,
melck Dutch, milch German, mioolk Icelandic, melk Danish, miolk
Swedish, melkc Laplandic, maito Finlandic, mleko and mliko Slavonian,
Lusatian, Dalmatian, Croatian, Polish and Carinth., moloka Russian,
lapte Walachian. In Greek we have yxKcc, yxKan'rog, aj^tAyw and [j^tXnx
as used by Galen.

Mill, muilionu and meilam Galic, melin and malu Welch, belin
Armoric and Cornish, moulin French, mohno Italian and Spanish, milha
and moynho Portuguese, mola Latin, mylen Saxon, molen Dutch, muhle
German, mil Icelandic, mollen Danish, mala Swedish, malan Gothic,
melnitsa and mliin and melnitsa Slavonian, mielnitsa, melneka and
melne Russian, mlin Polish and Bohemian, malom Hungarian, maliden
Persian, mylly Finlandic, ^uXvi.

Mix and mingle, measgam and cumasgam Galic, mysgy Welch, mesler
French, mescolare and mischiare Italian, mesclar and mesturar Spanish,
misturar Portuguese, miscere Latin, gemengan Saxon, mingelen Dutch,
mischen and mengen German, mauk Icelandic, maenger Danish, meno-a
Swedish, meshayu Slavonian, mieszam Polish, miser Sanscrit, ixtyvuf*
and i^i7yu, (^072 and jr.D) mezeg and mesek.

T 2

140

Mother, mathair Galic, mam Welch, mere French, madre Spanish
and Italian, may Portuguese, mother, meder and medder Saxon, moeder
Dutch, mutter German, mooder Icelandic, moder Danish and Swedish,
ama Finlandic, aema Laplandic, materi and mati Slavonian, Dal-
matian, Bohemian, Kroat., and lllyrian, matt and mate Russian, mash
and matka Polish, maike Walacian, mame Epirotic, mair Armenian,
madar Persian, ma Malay, madua Sandwich Islands and New Zealand,
me Tonquin, memme Kamptschatka, ana and eme Tartarian, me and
mu China and Siam, ma Java, matar Sanscrit, man with the nasal ter-
mination Hindostan, mama Chili, iman Samoid, maar Gilan, mata
Tamul., h^7^p, H-aVf*« and iJ.aiJ.xix, aem Hebrew, hnmcc Syrian and ijnma
Chaldean.

Murder, mort and mudhlaim Galic, murdwrn Welch. Murn in Welch
is a secret murder, and miorun Irish, means a private grudge. These
agree with meurtre French, muro Portuguese, matar Spanish, morth
Saxon, moord Dutch, mord German, mord Icelandic, morder Danish,
morda Swedish, maurth Gothic, smert Slavonian, Polish, Bohemian,
mordcrx Polish, mardasbane Armenian, murden to die and medar a
corpse Persian, martum and marty Sanscrit, mors mortis, [j.opoc, iJ.opeu.

Name. Ainm Galic, ennim Manx, henw, enw and enwi Welch, hano
Cornish and Armenian, noni French, nombre Spanish, nome Italian
and Portuguese, nomen Latin, naam Dutch, nama Saxon, name German,
natii Icelandic, naff'n Danish, namn Svvedisli, name Gothic, imya Sla-
vonian, Russian and Lusatian, imie Polish, gmcne and imeno Bohemian^
iime Daliuiitian, neve Hungarian, nimmi and cmene Epirotic, nam
i'crsian, nanian Sanscrit, nam Laplandic, nimes Finlandic, n4ma Malays

141

namam Tamulic, nim Chinese, ovof^a:. Naam and naum in Hebrew, is lie

said.

Night. Oiche Galic but ann nochd, this night. Nos Welch, nos
Armoiic and Cornish, nuiet and nuit French, notte Italian, noche
Spanish, noyte Portuguese, niht Saxon, nacht, nagt Dutch, German,
and Teutonic, noot Icelandic, nat Danish, natt Swedish, nahts Gothic,
nostch or noshtsh Slavonian, noche Russian, noc Polish and IJohcmian,
nooch Dalmatian, notz Lusatian, noaptc Walacian, nisa Sanscrit, nox
noctis Ni)^, vvKTog.

Nine, Naonar and naoi Galic, naw Welch, Armoric, and Cornish,
neuf French, nueve, Spanish, nove Italian and Portuguese, novem Latin,
nigen, nigan and nigon Saxon, negen Dutch, neun German, nyu Ice-
landic, ni Danish, nio Swedish, niun Gothic, nine Precop. inn Arme-
nian, noh, nine and nohom ninth Persian, navan Sanscrit e-^i^tx.

N.OS? and Nostrils, nez French, naso Italian, nariz Spanish and Por-
tuguese, nasus and nares Latin, nosa Saxon, neus, neuze and neis
Dutch, nase German, nos Icelandic, noes Swedish, nos Slavonian, Russian,
Polish and Bohemian, noose Dalmatian, nasa Sanscrit.

Oath. Ath Saxon, eid German, eed Dutch and Danisli, oede Ice-
landic, aith Gothic, eed and eeduth Hebrew testimony ("T^i/i"') he testified.

One. Aon Galic, im Welch, uynyn Cornish, unan Armoric, un French,
uno Italian and Spanish, hum i'ortuguese, unus Latin, an aene Saxon,
een Dutch, ein German, eyn Icelandic, en Danish, han Swedish, ains
Gothic, edin Slavonian, iedna, odin and on Russian, iedan Dalmatian,
geden Bohemian, jeden Polish, van Chinese, "iv luhg hena Chaldean.

Should the Slavonian line be here considered as the parent of the

142

rest; the first progenitor may be sought for in ahad and jehad of the
Chaldee, Hebrew and Arabic, which in the Syriac becomes hada.

0.2, bull, bullock and buffalo. Agh, scgh and bo Calic, ych Welch, eg
Armoric, bocuf French, buey Spanish, bue Italian, bos bovis Latin,
oxa Saxon, oz Dutch, ochse German, uxc Icelandic, oxe Danish and
Swedish, auhs Gothic, buik Russian and Slavonian, wol Polish, ochse
rmheniian, okoz Turkish, eker, okor, ok and eukner Hungarian, ugir
Tartaric, bo Tonquin, usa Sanscrit.

In Greek we have Bovc, in Latin bos. But Bovg means a cow, and
bos extends to the whole species, whether cow, bull, ox or heifer. So
does the Galic ash. In Welch, ych is confined to ox, and buwch to
cow ; but bu is either ox or cow, and bwla is a bull. In Galic bo is
cither a bull, ox, cow, or fawn. So bubulus in Latin means that which
is derived from an ox, bull, or cow, and bubulcus like BanoKog is
Armentarius. So bakar in Hebrew, Chaldee and Syriac denotes a herd
of cattle, whether cows, bulls or oxen. In Arabic bakar is generic
and bakarat means a heifer.

Buffalo and Bugle, is in Latin bubulus in Greek (iov^xko(7 and ^oxj^xXig,
in Welch bual, buibol in Slavonian, in Polish bawol, in Hungarian
bial. In all these the generic part of the term is evident, and classes
this animal with cows, oxen, bulls, but the specific difference is no
where so distinctly seen as in Galic, in which bo allaidh is a wild bull
or buffalo, for allaidh is Avild, Avhich leads us to ci'k<Jog and saltus.

From these terms, as I apprehend, may be derived the Slavonian
vol, the Celtic bwla and our bull.

143

Tn what manner boallaidh is related to the Arabic phahal, 1 cannot
pretend to say. See cow and yoke.

Faw is lapadh Galic, paw Welch, poot Dutch, fa Icelandic and
Swedish, fahan Gothic, p^ Persian, pdun Hindostan. May we consider
all these as related to 7r«w. In Danish patte means to seize.

Pot, is pot French, puta aud bhad Sanscrit.

Raven, bran Galic, cig-fran, i. e. a flesh crow, AVelch, corbeaii French,
corbo Italian, cuervo Spanish, corvo Portugese, corvus Latin, hra;m
and hraefen Old English, hraefn and remn Saxon, rave Dutch, rabe
German, hrafn Icelandic, raffn Danish, ranm Swedish, kavran and
vrdn Slavonian, voron Russian, kruk Polish, hawran, Bohemian, gravran
Dalmatian, chafran Croatian. In Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic we have
gorab, which is distinctly corvus. In Welch rhaib is a ravening. Voro
Latin and voron of Russia may be allied, as may be rapio and rabe.
See rook and crow.

Rook. Rocus and bran Galic, yd-fran i. e. corn crow AVelch, rocco
Italian, krook Old Flnglish, hroc Saxon, rocck and koore-kraye, that is
corn, crow Dutch, corneille French cornix. In Greek we have apcoy^j^og
a croaking, in Latin crocito, which is in Polish krakam, in Flungarian
korrogok, whence we derive both crow and rook. See raven and crow.

To rook, that is to deceive and cheat, seems rather to be allied to
roka* Hungarian a fox, than to the bird, because, although voracious,
the rook has never yet been charged Avith fraud.

Boh. Robam Galic, derober French, robar Spanish, rubare Italian,
beryppan, ryppan and reafianl Saxon, rooven Dutch, rauben and raflcn
German, rifa Icelandic, roffver Danish, riifwa and gripa Swedish, bi=-

144

raubodan Gothic, obriipati Slavonian, grabite Russian, rabowac Polish,
lobiii Dalmatian, rubnowati Lusatian, ragadom Hungarian, rubuden
Persian.

In Latin we have in rapio in Greek ap-^dco.

In Hebrew, Clialdee, Sjriac and Arabic, harab, conveys the notion
of war, plunder and deceit. Yet rob, rapine, ravish, rover, ruffian,
and bereave, may, like raven, originate in gorab of the Hebrew.

6Va, sail and sailin Galic, swi Armoric, sae Saxon, zee Dutch, see
German, sioor Icelandic, sio Swedish, saihva Gothic, soo Finlandic, zea
Iberian, sue and xoi Armenian, sou Tonquin, and xu Japan. Su
Chinese and Tartaric, means water, river; saihva Gothic is confined to
lake. A sail is segl Saxon, seyl Dutch. Are these allied to sea? or
have they any connexion with velum?

Seat, saide and suidhe Galic, eisteddle and gorsedd Welch, seotole
and setl Saxon, sate, sedele and sele Dutch, sidel German, sette Teu-
tonic, saete Icelandic, sede Danish, sate and saessa Swedish, sedalishtshe
Slavonian, siedzenie Polish, sezek Hungarian, sedes, sedile; tho; Greek,
seth or sheth (n t^) Hebrew, v. sit.

Sit^ suidham and seisim Galic, gorseddu Welch, sittan, sitzan Saxon,
sltten Dutch, sitzen German, sessa Icelandic, sidder Danish, sitia
Swedish, sitan Gothic, sedlayu, sideti and sieju Slavonian, sedete Rus-
sian, sicdze Polish, sediti Bohemian, szyditi Dalmatian, nishesten Per-
sian, asitum and sidivasa Sanscrit. Sedeo. f?0M-ai. {pnm. T\r\^ and T\W-)
Satha Hebrew and Chaldee, he placed. (VnJi') Setal Chaldee, means to
set, to plant. From sit we may derive saddle. Sadhall Galic, sadell
Welch, selle French, silla Spanish, sella Italian, Portuguese and Latin,

145

sadl Saxoti, sadel Dutch, sattel German, sadul Icelandic, sadel Danish
and Swedish, sedlo Slavonian and Bohemian, siedio Russian, siodlo

Polish.

Seven, seachd and morsheisar Galic, saith Welch, Armoric and Cornish,
sept French, sette Italian, siete Spanish, sete Portuguese, septem Latin,
seofon Saxon, zevcn Dutch, sieben German, sio Icelandic, siuf Danish,
siu Swedish, sibun Gothic, siwSamoide, sedm Slavonian and Bohemian,
sem and situ Russian, siedm Polish, szedam Dalmatian, schedim Lusa-
tian, yedi Turkish, het Hungarian, heft Persian, sAth Sanscrit, septem,
Ittt*, aehag Hebrew and Chaldee, seha Arabic.

She, isa, ise Galic, hi Welch and Armoric, ea Latin, seo, heo and
hio Saxon, sii Dutch, sie German, si Gothic, ese Russian, sa Sanscrit^
In Latin we have is he, in Hebrew ish he, isha she.

Six, seisir, se and sia Galic, chw6ch Welch, huech Armoric, six
French, sei Italian, seis Spanish, seys Portuguese, syx Saxon, zes, sesse
and ses Dutch, sechs German, sex and siax Icelandic, sex Danish and
Swedish, saihs Gothic, seis Precop., shest Slavonian and Russian, szescz
Polish, ssest Bohemian, hat Hungarian, shesh Persian, zuest Armenian,
sau Tartarian, si Chinese, choe Bengal, shesh Sanscrit, sex Latin, £$
Greek, ses or shesh and seth Hebrew and Chaldee, sittet and sitt Arabic.

Son, zoon and sine Dutch, sone Saxon, suna German, sohn Icelandic,
sonus Danish and SAvedish, son Gothic, sunus Slavonian, Bohemian,
Polish, syn Russian, sun Dalmatian, viov Greek.

Sow, hog, swine, muc Galic, hwch Welch, houch Armoric, sugu and
swin Saxon, soegh, seugh, hogh, souwe and swiin Dutch, saw and schwein
German, saa and suin Icelandic, suin Danish, sugga and swin Swedish,

VOL. II. u

146

sveina Gothic, siea Finlandic, zopa and swiniya Slavonian, sweneina and
swenee Russian, swin Lusatian, swinia Polish, Dalmatian and Carniolan,
swine Bohemian, khog Persian, uc Chinese, sus Latin.

In Greek we hnve'vg, (rug aveiog, avinog and (xvivog.

Stand, i.e. siaend, sta Galic, slaan Dutch, standan Saxon, staae
Danish, stoiu Russian, istaden Persian, stan and statum Sanscrit. Sto,
sta, stans, stantis, stante, statum. Hqi^^i sqxuzi.

Take, togam Galic, tacken Dutch, tek Icelandic, tager Danish, taga
Swedish, takniti Slavonian, taknuti Dalmatian, teknauti Bohemian,
tykac Polish, t«w, Ta^co, tetcchoc, tTayov, yiTXO{/.xi.

Ten, deich and da cuig, that is twice five, Galic, deg Welch, Armoric
and Cornish, dix French, dieci Italian, diez Spanish, decern Latin, tyn,
tin, tien Saxon, tien, thien Dutch, zehen German, tyu Icelandic, ti
Danish, tiijo Swedish, taihun Gothic, thyne Precop., desiati and deset
Slavonian, Dalmatian and Bohemian, disset Russian, dzesziec Polish,
tiz Hungarian, tasn Armenian, deh or dah Persian, des Hindostan, desen
Sanscrit, Atyia.

This, so Galic, this Saxon, deze Dutch, diese German, sa Gothic,
Swedish and Finlandic, these Icelandic, tesai Russian, taya and sie Sla-
vonian, thavis and thaithan Iberian, delta and denna Swedish, ten Polish,
is Latin, ze Hebrew.

This, in Gothic, is the genitive singular, and thize the genitive plural
of sa and thata, which answer to this and that of the English, or to h
and TO of the Greek.

Thou, tu and thu Galic, ti tydi Welch, te Armoric, ta Cornish, tu
French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Latin, thu Saxon, du Dutch

147

and German, tliii Icelandic and Gothic, du Danish and Swedish, fzo
Precop., ty Slavonian, Dahiialian and Polish, tci and tui Ilussian, sen
Turc, and Iberian, ty Hungarian, tu Persian, tzo Tartaric, de Bengal,
twa Sanscrit, St), Dorice Tu, in Hebrew ata, in Arabic entn.

Three, tri Galic, Welch, Armoric and Cornish, trois French, tres
Spanish, Portuguese and Latin, thrie and threo Saxon, drie and trey
Dutch, drey German, thrys Icelandic, tre Swedish, thrins Gothic, tri
Slavonian and Russian, trzy Bohemian, trzi Polish, tria Tartaric, try
Sanscrit. T^as.

Thrice, iris and tres vices Latin, trois fois French, tris Sanscrit.

Through is ire, trid and dar Galic, trwy and drwy Welch, thurk, thruh
and thor Saxon, door Dutch, durch German and thairh Gothic. In the
Gothic we have thairs, and in French trou, foramen.

All these, beyond a question, for their symbol have a door, and ori-
ginate in this notion, as beautifully illustrated by Mr. Tooke. We find
thorruke. Old English, tharagh Chaldee, thara Syriac, and ^vpx Greek a
door. Hence it appears that our Old Enghsh thorruke and through are
from the Chaldee, and not from the Greek.

Time, am Galic, temps French, tiempo Spanish, tempo Itahan, and
Portuguese, tempus Latin, tima Saxon, time Danish, tima Swedish,
dem Persian, a breathing, a moment. Zemen Hebrew, Chaldee and
Syriac, zeman Arabic.

Tine, tind, and tinder, teinne Galic, tan Welch, Armoric and Cornish
fire. Tendan and tynan Saxon, zunden German and Teutonic, tende
Danish, t'anda Swedish, tandjan Gothic, tendra Icelandic, to kindle.
In Persian we have taw and taf, heat and tawiden to heat, to shine.

V 2

148

Indh Sanscrit kindling. Szen Hungarian, tanat Epirotic, ten Japan,
tien Chinese, fire. Tun Persian, a furnace in Hebrew is tanor (lljn)
tan, tartarian is a spark, and tinh to shine.

In Latin we have extinguo, in French eteindre and etinceler, in
Galic tentean, the hearth, tin teach, lightning, tintighe and teintidh
fiery; tinm understanding, and tinteannas great haste, in Welch tanbaid
and tanrhe fiery, tanwdd fuel, tawnr one who provides il, and tywynnu
to shine, in Chinese toung the East, in Finish tunne to know.

Tooth, dend Galic, dant Welch and Armorc, danz Cornish, dent
French, diente Spanish, dente Italian and Portuguese, dens, dentis
Latin, toth Saxon, tand and tandt Dutch, zahn German, tenn Icelandic,
tand Swedish, tunthu Gothic, atamn Armemian, dendan Persian, dant
Hindostani and Sanscrit. In Persian dendiden is to gnaw, olovg oBovrog
and Tiv^co Greek.

Shen Hebrew, Chaldee and Syriac. Sinn Arabic.

Tine English and tinne Icelandic mean the teeth, of forks, and of
liarrows.

Tree, dair and dairbhre in Galic mean the oak, so does derw in
Welch and Armoric. We have treo, treow and tryw Saxon, dre Teu-
tonic, triu and trie Icelandic, tree Danish, tra Swedish, triu Gothic,
drewo Slavonian, Russian and Lusatian, drzwo Polish, strom Bohemian,
dreuno Lusatian, dzarr Armenian, druu Epirotic, deracht Persian, dru
and tra Sanscrit.

Two, da and do Galic, dau and dwy Welch, deux French, due Italiaa,
dos Spanish, dons Portuguese, duo Latin, tu, tua, twa, twe and twy
Saxon, twee twii Dutch, zwey and zwo German, tueir Icelandic, twa

149

Swedish, tu and toe Danisli, tuai Gothic, dwa Slavonian, Russian, Dal-
matian, PoHsh and Lusatian, du Persian d6 Hindostani, dua Malay,
dwau Sancrit, Sva Greek, sheni Hebrew, thani Arabic means second.

fVa7', In Galic we have greis, greit and griasda a warrior, grim war
and griom challaire, a herald, or the man who declares Avar. In Welch
we find arfwr and arwr, a warrior, a hero, in French guerre, in Italian and
Spanish guerra. These agree with waer Saxon, weere Dutch, werre
German, baratta Icelandic, orlog Swedish, boriu Slavonian, voina Russian,
Slavonian, Polish and Lusatian, bhaarat Hindostani and Sanscrit, in
which beero means a hero, heros Latin, vjpwj Greek, to which may be
related «p^g, fV'? and megarca (nm;;^) of the Hebrew, in which lan-
guage garac ("?|-|y) means to set the army in array. Should we be
disposed to connect war like virtus courage with vir; we must then
look to gwr of the Welch, and geher of the Hebrew. If with arms,
we shall find its allies in karah Persian, arm Galic, arf Welch, ar, arf,
or, yr, urf and hiorf Swedish, arms, arrow and sword, which last is
sweord Saxon, sweerd Dutch, schwerdt German, hior Icelandc, sverd
Danish, sward, hiorf and orf Swedish, hairus Gothic, kard Hungarian,
saur Armenian, and aop Greek, These agree with zur ("11^) Hebrew,
which means war, a rock, a fortress, an enem)', and the edge of the
sword.

Warm, garam and goram Galic, gwr^s and gwresogi Welch, wearmian
Saxon, waermen Dutch, warmen German, varm Icelandic and Gothic,
warma Swedish, wram Polish, germ Persian, gurum Hindostani,
goria Cuntabrian, pogoraiu Slavonian, pori Welch, itvpoeiv Greek
and hagar Hebrew to hum. All these are related. But here the

150

Galic may be the parent of the Gothic, because that language as-
sumes M to form the first person singular of the present tense.

Water, dobhar and dur, baister and baiter Galic, dwr Welch, dowr
Cornish, eau French, waster Saxon, v/aeter putch, wasser German, uazzar
Teutonic, ytturia Cantabrian udr Icelandic, vatn Swedish, van Danish,
vatin Gothic, voda Slavonian and Dalmatian, woda Russian, Bohemian,
Polish and Illyrian, wessi and uie Epirotic and Esthonian wiis and viz
Hungarian and Croatian, dschur and dsour Armenian, sii Turc. udac
and var Sanscrit, wesi Finlandic, tiatse Lapland, ao Tonquin, doo
Japan, yoe Birman, avye and awa Otaheite, u5wp and It^ Greek,

In Hebrew, Chaldean and Arabic we have matar (■ID;^) rain and
oed ("T^) vapor.

Will, ail and toil Galic, gwyll Welch, vouloir French, velle and volo
Latin, willa Saxon, will Dutch and German, vuill Teutonic, wilia
vilja Gothic, voliu Slavonian, woleia Russian, wule Bohemian, wole
Polish, volya Dalmatian. All these agree Avith aXSof^ai, ^eXw, (*eXXa;,
^aXkoo, (iovKoy-cci, and 7"'5:^in Hoil.

Withe and Withy, withig Saxon, wede Dutch, weide German, widia
Swedish, vidde, Icelandic, weez Dalmatian, wiazek and wiazko Polish,
wist Armenian, Irtsi and £tv)j Greek. To swathe is wathan withan Gothic,
vcsatia Slavonian, vezati Dalmatian, vazati Bohemian, wiazac Polish,
wisatzi Lusatian, vieo Latin. Gwydd is in Welch a weaver, a loom
and gwyddi a quickset hedge. It must be remembered that in Welch
dd is pronounced th.

Wool, olann Galic, gwlan Welch, Armoric and Cornish, laine French,
lana Italian Spanish and Latin, wuUe Saxon, wolle Dutch and

151

German, ull Icelandic and Swedish, willa Finlandic, uld Danish,
ullo Lapland, volna Slavonian, wlna Bohemian, welna Polish, vulna
Dalmatian, wil Epirotic. In Latin we have vellus, villus pilus, in
Greek hvKog, [^xWog, and [^.vi'kov^ in Welch gwallog hairy.

Write, sgriobam Galic, ysgrifennu Welch, scrivaff Armoric, ecrire
French, escribir Spanish, escrever Portuguese, scrivere Italian, scribere
Latin, writan Saxon, schreiben, schriiven Dutch, kreiden Cierman, scri-
bere cum creta. Kit Icelandic, skrifwa Swedish, ypaCpw Greek.

Allied to these we have grave, scrape, scratch, scrub, and rub. Sgrio-
bam Galic, crafu Welch, grater French, grattare Italian, kratsen Dutch,
kratzen German, kratzer Danish, kratta Swedish, drapie, skrobie and
^iskrobuie Polish, vakarodhatnam Hungarian, %«pa3-(rw, xtxpccrlco, Greek,
rado Latin, (a^in and nln) charas, charat, Hebrew, to engrave, to
write, and cheret (o")n) a pen. From charat may have been derived
tharta.

Yard, orchard and garden, all agree, and are nearly allied to gird.

In Galic we have garadh and gort, the latter of which terms means a
field, a garden, in Welch gardd, in French and Spanish jardin, in Por-
tuguese jardim. Corresponding with these we have ortgeard Saxon,
gaerde Dutch, garten German, karto and gardon Teutonic, gaard Danish,
gard and ortegard Swedish, aurtijards Gothic, vert, varta and vertgorod
Slavonian, ogorode Russian, ogrod Polish, zahrade Bohemian, kert
Hungarian, hortus Latin, XopToj, according to Hesychius, is an inclosure.
In Swedish garda means a hedge to inclose.

Yea, eadh Galic, ie Welch and Armoric, oui French, ia Saxon, Dutch

152

and German, iai Gothic, ia Swedish, vgy Hungarian, ayi Sanscrit je/ii
(iiT^) Heb.

Yoke, cuing Galic, iau Welch, joug French, giogo Italian, yugo
Spanish, iugo Portuguese, jugum Latin, joe and geok Saxon, jock Dutch,
joch German, ok Icelandic and Swedish, aag Danish, juka Gothic, juco
Finlandic, igo Slavonian and Russian, gho Bohemian, iga Hungarian,
jugh or yugh Persian, yug Sanscrit, ^vyov Greek, whence comes ^evyvucu,
jungo, joindre French, giungere Italian, juntar Spanish, aiuntar Portu-
guese, and join. See ox.

Young and youth, oganach Galic, jeuangc and jufange Welch, jouvance
and jeune French, giovane Italian, joven Spanish, juvenis Latin, yeong,
jong and geong Saxon, jong and jonck Dutch, jung German, ungur
Icelandic, ung Swedish, junost, junota and junosha Slavonian, junoshei
Russian, juroan or jawan, pronounced joowone, Persian, yauvana and
yuvan Sanscrit, pronounced joowaun Hindostan, jo7iek Hebrew, and
ja7nk Chaldee, mean a suckling.

In addition to these examples, I must call to the recollection of the
reader the several words I have, in the preceding sheets traced through
Europe and Asia to their proper radical expressions.

And I must here repeat, that the strict affinity prevailing in these
few words would be sufficient to prove, that the nations, by which
they are now, or have been used, originated in one. But this will
be made still more evident, when I shall proceed to the examination
of their several languages, beginning with the AVelch.

ON THE

WELCH LANGUAGE.

L HE Welch have never pretended to be indigenous, either as natives
of the soil, or as the immediate offspring of some local divinity; but,
on the contrary, have been ever ready to acknowledge themselves colo-
nists, who wandered with their flocks in search of quiet habitations.

They call themselves Cymru, and boast of CJomer as their progenitor.
This descent they claim on the credit of the name they bear. But their
critics say, that, agreeably to the genius of their language, Cymry cannot
be derived from Gomer. If then it should be granted, that Cymru is
not derivable from Gomer; we must seek elsewhere for the origin of this
appellation, and may expect to find it in some term expressive either of
their mode of life, their warlike implements, their dress, their manners,
or the nature of the country in which they fixed their habitations. But
here a previous question will occur, from what language must we derive
this appellation? Must we apply to their neighbours or to themselves .■*

VOL. II. X

154

In Herodotus we find mention made of Kif^fiulpioj, of the Bo^mpog
Kt(*[j.f/)iog, and of a country called Ki[*fiepi'vi, now the Crimea. But the
reason for this name is not assigned.

The Romans speak of the Bosphorus Cimmerius, which unites the
Palus Mreotis to the Euxine, and Pliny mentions both Cimmerium, a
city of Pontus, in more ancient times called Cerberion and Cimmeris, a
city of Troas. Two several people likewise have been noticed by the
name of Cimmerii, the one near the Bosphorus, the other in a vale of
Italy between Baiae and Cumoe.

Besides these people, we read in Juvenal of Terribiles Cimbri, who
dwelt in Jutland, and I can readily believe, with Sheringham, that their
name may have been derived from their ferocity in war, because in
German kampfFer means a warrior, kampfFen to fight and kampfF a
battle. Supposing this derivation to be well founded, the name ia
question may have been both assumed by themselves and attributed, to
them by those, whose territory they were accustomed to invade.

When this appellation ceased, it was succeeded by that of German, a
word of precisely the same import.

Should we be disposed to consider the Cimbri and Cimmerii as one
and the same people, and seek the origin of their name from any lan-
guage connected with the Persian, we might conceive them to have been
distinguished as a shepherd nation, because kumra in Persian, both
ancient and modern, means a shccpfold. Or should we be inclined to
look towards the Galic; in that lansuaije we should find cumar a vallev,
and cumaraic a people living in vales shut in by lofty mountains. Thus
the 0' Briens of Cumarach, in the county of Waterl'ord, were called

155

Cumaraic, as inhabiting the valleys between Dungarvan and the Shure.
From the same circumstance, the ancient Britons of Cumberland may
have obtained their name of Cumbri.

In Welch, cwmm means a narrow valley between high mountains; but,
according to Cleland, who appears to have been a good Welch scholar,
apn is one of the most ancient Celtic words for mountain, and we know
that cime in French has the same acceptation. We find the word in
Arabic, Hebrew, Chaldee and Syriac, every where conveying the notion
of altitude. It is therefore possible that by the appellation of Cymru
may have been meant mountaineers.

There remain yet other sources, from which the Cimmerii may have
derived their name. For in Welch Cymmer, pi. Cymmerau, means the
confluence of two seas or rivers, a circumstance common to the Thracian
Bosphorus, to the northern Chersonesus, and to the Straits of Sicily, of
all which the inhabitants were styled Cimmerii.

Of the Greek term BotrTropog, we have no certain explanation. But
could we in the Celtic find either a word similar to bis in sound and
meaning, or examples of the conversion of D into B, as in the ^olic
dialect of Greek, I should be inclined, with Cleland, to consider Bos-
phorus as a corruption of Bismor, that is, two seas, and therefore equi-
valent to Cymmerau, in which case Boa-Topog KiiJ.i^.epiog would exhibit such
a repetition as we found in lacus lemanus of the Romans and loch linny
of Scotland, or such as we may observe in llychlyn of the Welch, and in
numerous other instances already noticed.

After all, should we conceive, that Cassar intended b}' indigence, to
translate the Welch term brodorion, of the same import, this, with the

X 2

156

preposition cyn, will readily exhibit cymro and cymru, and consequently
may have given birth to Cimbri and Cimmerii.

The Welch language is very valuable, and more particularly so, on
account of its ancient manuscripts, of which Mr. Owen has examined
thirteen thousand, all poetical. Some of these were written in the ninth
and others in the eleventh century. This gentleman has augmented the
vocabulary from fifteen thousand to about one hundred thousand words,
and in his inestimable dictionary, he has brought forward twelve thousand
quotations to illustrate their meaning.

It has been remarked, that there is no difference between the language
of the laws of Howel in the tenth century, or of Geoffrey of Monmouth
in the twelfth, and that now spoken. Such permanence of language may
be attributed in part to the multiplicity of writers in unremitted suc-
cession, but the principal cause of immutability must be sought for in
the nature of their poetry.

Other nations, in their poetical productions have been satisfied with
metre and the jingle of rhymes. But in addition to these, the Welch
require alhteration at certain intervals in their verses, and a perfect cor-,
respondence in this respect between verse and verse. This they have
carried to such an extent as must cramp the genius of their poets, but
at the same time and in the same degree preserve the orthography and
purity of their language.

In the sixth century the bards were numerous, and Llywarc Hen, who
was a bardic warrior attendant upon Arthur, is said to have been living
in the middle of ihe seventh century. It is well known, that the bards
held their annual assemblies, and that in the beginning of the fifteenth

157

century they met to collect tlie bardic traditions. In the year 1570,
W. Herbert Earl of Pembroke presided in their assembly, as did Sir
Edward Lewis in 1580. Even so late as 1681, a complete revisal of all
former collections took place at Bewpyr, in a gorsedd, or national bardic
assembly, of which Sir Richard Basset was the president.

The Welch alphabet is said to have had originally sixteen letters, a, b,
c, d, e, f, g, i, 1, mj n, o, p, r, s, t. But to me they seem to have
been no more than fifteen, because the character for f is merely a modi-
fication of that for p, and is precisel)' the iEolic digamma, both in form
and power, whereas in Greek this digamma is in form a modification of
the gamma, but in power is the aspirated p.

These sixteen letters are considered as radicals. The remaining twenty-
four letters of the alphabet are derivatives from them, and preserve the
fundamental characteristics of their originals, modified by additional
signs to denote the various mutations of sound, with respect either to
length, or to aspiration, from the primary. This alphabet shews mucli
thought, deep reflexion and a perfect knowledge of organic affinity in
letters.

The radical characters have a striking resemblance to the Etruscan or
Pelasgia, to the Ionic, as taken from the most ancient coins of Sicily,
Baeotia and Attica, and to the Phenician. They are analogous to the
Runic, from which they seem to have been derived: but the modern
Runic admits of curves in some of its characters, which in the more
ancient were inadmissible. In the Welch alphabet all the strokes are
straight lines, without one curve, a form best suited to the pristine mode
of writing, which was by cutting letters on either triangular, or square

158

sticks, as may be seen in Fry's Pantographia; consequently a single stick
contained either three or four lines, answering to our stave, a word still
retained in our churches. These were called coelbren y beirdd, that is
lots of the bards. ■

Tn German a letter of the alphabet is called buch stab, that is beech
staf, a book is buch, and a beech tree is buche.

In the Russian language buk is a beech, and bukva is a letter.
In AVelch gwydd is trees, and egwyddor tlie alphabet. In Irish feadh
is wood, and fead to relate. In Greek the original notion of 7pa<|)w
was I grave, a notion which has been preserved in all the languages
of Europe.

All the ancient alphabets appear to have a radical affinity. It
has been suggested, that the Welch characters are anterior to the Greek.
They are certainly more simple, and require nothing more than a
stick, and such a chisel as we discover near the old British towns,
where no implement of iron appears. It is remarkable that in German
kieselstein means a flint, and a common flint would be fully suffici-
ent for the purpose of engraving or chisseling the Welch letters on
a beechen staf.

With regard to their pronunciation, we may remark that 11 is sounded
like I in limb, w like oo in foot. Y may be i, o, u, in third, honey,
mud. C and g are pronounced hard, r is aspirated. The double
letters dd, ff and 11 are modern inventions to indicate that d, f and 1 are
to be aspirated. Yet 11, in derivatives from Greek supplies the place
©f ^X, xX, ttX and <px, as in Uifo /SXuoj, lladd nXxaig, lliaws •xXvi&og, tXeoj,
■jXeTog, llippau enXei'Xbj, llydan TtXxTVvic, llosgi (pXc^t'^o;, &c, &C.

159

The Welch has a practice peculiar to itself in its nine mutable initial
letters, called literae umbratiles, because they change and vanish like a
shadow. These are b, c, d, g, 11, m, p, r, t, which change according
to words immediately preceding them.

li B gives place to fandm. For instance bara is bread; ei fara
his bread; fy mara my bread.

2. M becomes f, mam mother; ei fam his mother.

3. P becomes B. Mh, and ph as pen a head; ei ben his head;
fy mhen my head; ei phen her head.

4. C becomes ch, g, and ngh, as car a relation; ei char her relation;
ei gar his relation; fynghar my relation.

5. G either becomes iig or is dropt. Thus gwas a servant ; fy ngwas
my servant ; ei w^s his servant.

6. T becomes th, d, and nh, as tM father; ei thdd her father;
ei d4d his father; fynhad my father,

7. D is changed to dd and n, as duw God; ei dduw his God; fy
nuw my God.

8. LI becomes 1, as Haw a hand; ei law his hand.

9. Rh is converted into r, as rhv/yd a net; ei rwyd his net.
These changes are founded on the general principles, that letters

of the same organ are commutable. The peculiarity of the Welch
language is, that they are not governed by caprice, but by fixed and
determinate laws. In many of its mutations the Welch discovers a
remarkable resemblance to the tEoHc dialect, in which we find jivpiJ-xt.
and jleXKu for f*.upfxv)^ and i^-eXXw, o-ifzaicc and aa^cus-a: for of*fx«T« and
[A«&ou(r«, . /3«/;(*tT05 for ^cepjinog, [t.a^u for 'kutcc, and Tfp£(i.iv&05 for Ttps^iv'^oj. .

160

Tlius in Welch we observe hjfaeth, hyfed and hyfedr for hymaetb,
hymedi and hymedr.

It is here not unworthy of remark, that in Athens Diana was in-
differently called Bendidia and Mendidia, which appellation they seem
to have derived from the Tliracians, with whom bendi was the sun,
and no less worthy of our notice is it, that the Iroquois, who are sup-
posed by Father Lafitau, to have descended from the same stock,
call the sun ovendi and that with them ov is equivalent to B to M
and to every other labial of the Thracians.

Nor was the practice in question confined to these nations, as may
appear by the subsequent derivatives |*op(fv) forma, fj-xXXog vellus, [j-opo;
fors, (iu;(*viKa: formica, 'zpojioG-iug promuscis. Marmor marbre. Manbeg of
India is ^x[s.^-oxvi, pambu in Tibet is mambu, and with us raomba is
converted into Bombay,

In numerous instances it is difficult to determine, which expres-
sion is original and which derivative, but in some words there can be
no doubt, for surely the original name given to the capital of Italy
was not Rhufain but Roma, and the brother of Romulus was not
Rhwyf but Remus.

The Welch nouns, like those of the Hebrew, having but one ter-
mination for the singular and one for the plural, distinguish their cases
either by prepositions, or by construction, at the same time varying their
initial letters, if mutable, agreeably to rule.

The pronouns are mi, ti, efe, hi, ni,chwi, hwynt: I, thou, he, she, we,
they. Of these pronouns the most worthy of our notice is Jncynt, which
by abbreviation, and, as a termination to the third person plural of verbs,
becomes ijnt, anl, cut, oat, answering to the Latin, init^ ant, cut.

I6i

The substantive and auxiliary verb runs thus: wyf, wyt, j\v, ym,
ych, ynt, I am, thou art, he is, we, ye, they are. Bum, buost, bu, buoiu,
buoch, buont, I, thou, he, we, ye, they have been, byddaf, byddi,
bydd, byddwn, buddwch, byddant. I, thou, he, we, ye, they shall be.

Formerly bi was used for it shall be. Bydd be thou. Bod to be.
Yn bod, being.

Oeddem we were, ydys, he, or it is. Oes there is.

Regular Verb.

Dysgu wyf, I learn. Dysgu wyt, thou learnest, &c.

Dysgais, I have learned. Dysgaist, thou, and Dysgodd, he, »Scc.
Dysgasom, we, &c. Dysgasoch, ye, &c. Dysgasant, they, &c.

Dysgaf, I will learn. Dysgi, thou, &c. Dysg, he will learn.

Dysga, learn thou. Dysged, let him learn. Dysgu, to learn.

The Welch is certainly a very ancient language, but it is idle to
imagine, that all its terms, simple, as well as compound, were invented
by the primitive inhabitants of Wales. Should then any one, however
distinguished for a knowledge of his native tongue, derive henoeth, this
night, from hen old, or should he for heddy w, this day, refer us to hedion
chaff, io hedi/dd a ]aTk, or to hediad a thing that flieth; or should he
again derive hediad from %, apt, bold, with its terminating particle edd,
we must be permitted to smile at his simplicity, because in henoeth we
are reminded of hacnocte and in heddi/w we look to hodie, answering to
heute of the Germans, idag of the Swedes, oggi of Italy, hoy of Spain,
and huy of France.

TOL. H. I Y'

162

OF THE AFFINITY BETWEEN

WELCH, SWEDISH, DANISH AND ICELANDIC.

IT is impossible for any one acquainted, even in the least degree, with
these languages, not to discern that they claim the same descent. The
numerous expressions common to them all are not such, as are usually
transported from one nation to another, either by conquest, or by com-
merce, and their resemblance is so perfect, that their radical identity
cannot be doubted. It is not my intention to have it conceived, that the
composition and grammatical construction is the same in all these lan-
guages, because in this respect they diflfer exceedingly, as all kindred
languages are apt to do after a lapse of one or two thousand years.

The affinity between the Welch and the languages, with which we shall
now compare it, will be evident by the subsequent examples.

English.

Babe

Balk

Ball

Band

Bean

Bear

Beast

Beat

Bench

H'elch.

Maban

Bale

B^l

Bancaw

Flaen

Perthi

Bwystfil

Baeddu

Maingc

StDedish, Danish, Icelan.

Babe, S.
Bielka, S. D.
Ball, S.
Band, I. D. S.
Baun, I.
Bcr, I.
Bccst, D.
I)acl(la, S.
Bank,S. D.

English.

Board

Boat

Booth

Bow

Boy

Bread

Break

Bride

Bright

ITtlch.

Swedish, Danish, Icelaa,

Bwrdd

Bord, D. S.

Bad

Baatur, I.

Bwth

Boot, I.

Bow

Boga, I. S.

Bachgen

Poiike, S.

Bara

Brand, I.

Br6g

Brcek, D.

Priodfab

Brud, I. S. D.

Berth

Biatur, I.

163

English,

mich.

Swedish, Danish, Icctaii-

EngUsh.

mith.

Sieedi.ih, Danifli, Uetan

Brisk

Brys

Frisk, D. S.

Clock

ClAcJi

Klokke, D.

Brother

Brotljr

Brodur, I.

Cod

Cwd

Kodde, I.

Brow

Bron

Briin, I.

Cook

Cegin

Kok, D.

Buck

Bwch

Buk, D.

Cole

Cawl

Kai,S. Kaa!,D.

Call

Galo

Kali, I.

Cost

Koste, D.

Can

Dichon

Kunne, D.

Crab

Grange

Krabbe, D.

Cap

Kappe, D.

Crane

Garan

Krane, D.

Cat

Cath

KatD.KattaS.

Crave

Crefu

Kref, I.

Chain

Cadwyn

Kedia, S.

Creep

Croppian

Kriupa, I.

Cheese

Caws

Kes, S.

Crop

Croppa

Krafwa, S.

Chest

Cist

Kista, I. S.

Craw

Croppa

Kroe, D.

Chin

Gen

Kinn, S.

Crook

Crwcca

Krok, S.

Clear (

Olaer

Klaar, I. D. S.

Cry

Deigrynnu

Graata, I.

Cleave (

jlynu

Klebe, D. "

Cup (

Jroppan

Kopp, I. D. S.

The few words I have here brought forwards are all monosyllabic in
the English. These [ have compared with some of the purest dialects of
the Gothic line. Had I chosen to extend my list to the other letters of
the alphabet, had I embraced the compounds and polysyllabic terms
and had I compared these with the Gothic of Ulphilas, or with the
Dutch and German branches of the Gothic, my vocabulary had been
abundantly increased. Leibnitz has selected six hundred words from
the dictionary of Doctor Davies, compared with the German, to de-

Y 2

164

monstrate, what Liv\^ before him had asserted, that the ancient language
of the Gauls and Britons was half German.

That the Celtic and Gothic languages were originally one, might still
more clearly be evinced by the names of persons, and of places, of
mountains, of rivers, and of cities.

This part of my subject has been so copiously treated of by others,
that I shall content myself with referring my reader to their works.

OF THE AFFINITY BETWEEN WELCH AND GREEK.

WHAT I have advanced with respect to the radical affinity and the
original identity of the Welch and Gothic languages, may be with equal
truth applied to the Welch and Greek.

The Welch, like the Greek, has an aspirate, where other languages
either dropt it, or in its place assumed the sibilant. That the Welch has
retained the aspirate will appear by the subsequent examples. Halen
salt, aXo$; hawyn a bridle, viv/ov; haul the sun and heulo to bask in the
sun. ^Xtoj; heb, he spake, ^^>\; heddychu to make peace, and heddvvch
quiet, viuvxia; hel to hunt, to drive, IXxoi; helyg, salix, jA/kvi; hen old,
hog; henw name, oyo\j.a; h^n sleep, vTivog; heppian to slumber, 'vnvtrv,
hercuyd to reach, Ipeyu; hobel a dart, o/SeX^s; hoel a nail, viAoj; holl all,
eAoc; liwyd, a duck, vxlog; hwch a hog, vg; hy strong, apt easy, tv, as
in hybwyll prudent, tv^ovKog; hyglod famous tv and y.\iog: hygno, easy
to be gnawed; tv and xvaw; hygryn apt to shake e'u and x^aS^xivw; hygar,
amiable, tv and %«'fis; hylosg combustible tv and (pAo^/'^w; hylaw

165

dexterous, iv and Xxi^lixva ; hylyn tenacious, ^v and yXfa; hydyn tracta-
ble, f'u and THvu; hyddal easy to be taken, eu and BtXco; hyddal muni-
ficent, en Sdvog.

Like Greek, the Welch language aspirates the initial R, as in rhanne
to part, pviyvufitt, rhwyg a rent, pnyvi, rhygnu to cut, score, p^ywii-t.

The articles, prepositions and affixes are in numerous instances similar
in Greek and Welch.

A is an augmentative answering to uyav.

Ad, denotes iteration or continuity, as does fT*.

Am, round about, a[j.(pi.

An denotes privation, like ocv and xvev.

Er is intensive, answering to epi.

Es and ys, answering to e^ and ex, as in esgus, estj'n, &c.

The numerals are nearly the same in both languages.

The formation of the singular number in Welch nouns, by affixing en
or yn, marks the affinity to Greek, Thus ser means stars, but seren
with the numeral subjoined is one star; ais ribs, asen a rib, with its ter-
mination answering to ev. We say an ass, that is one ass.

Some of the plural terminations shew the same affinity, as for instance,
brynn a hill, bryniau hills, tad a father, tadau fathers, cMst the ear,
clustau ears, men a wain, meni wains. The agreement will appear more
perfect, if we recollect that u is pronounced i. in Welch.

The verbs agree with the Greek in some of their inflexions, but they
have a greater resemblance to the Latin, which is the MoVic dialect of
Greek. In fact, Latin and Greek are radically one, and agree to a
remarkable extent in their inflexions..

166

As to tlie affinity observable between Welch and Latin, it might be
imagined, that such terms were borrowed from the Romans after the
reduction of our island to their yoke. New words however are easily
detected, and differ much from those, which bear the stamp of earlier
times. It has been well observed, that many words are found to be
allied, which in Latin were obsolete before the days of Csesar, such as
miriones, gluvia, ruma, meddix, dalivus, clueo, &c. used by Ennius,
Plautus, and the more ancient writers. The words here noticed are in
Welch muriones, glwth, rumen, meddu, delff, clyw. All the ancient
names of Romans, such as Clodius, Celius, Cinna, Drusus, Marcus, Sylla,
Silanus, are significant in Welch, but not in Latin.

What has been already said upon this subject, may be considered a^
sufficient to demonstrate an affinity between Welch and Greek: but to
see their radical identity we must examine the corresponding terms of
these kindred languages. For this purpose I have subjoined in the
Appendix a copious vocabulary, to which I must refer the reader.

OF THE AFFINITY BETWEEN WELCH AND HEBREW.

I have said, that the radical letters in AVelch are sixteen. Such is
staled to have been the number originally used in Greece, and it is
agreed that the oldest Hebrew letters were not more numerous* Indeed
sixteen were all that these languages required, before the introduction
of refinements.

A very striking resemblance between the Welch and Hebrew appears

167

in their verbs, because the third person singular is the root in both,
with this difference, however, that in Welch it is the third person of
the future, and in Hebrew the same person of the preterite. Thus we
have in Welch c4r, he will love, and in Hebrew jacaj- (ip"*) he highly
valued. Both languages are strangers to the present tense. Indeed
such was the simplicity of ancient times, that in Homer and Hesiod the
same part of the verb served for the present and the future. In con-
formity to this practice we find tioi in Greek and amem in Latin, used
for both these tenses. In Hebrew the verb has a present, future, impe-
rative, infinitive and participles. The Welch verb has the same, but to
the perfect it has added an imperfect and a pluperfect.

The pronouns in Hebrew have a remarkable agreement with corres-
ponding pronouns in Welch.

In Hebrew the first person singular is ani and in composition I. In
Welch it is mi and I in the oblique case, as in. this sentence, Christ
km prynodd I. Christ redeemed me.

The second person is in Hebrew ata, in Welch ti.

The third is in Hebrew hu and hi, in Welch hi.

The first person plural is in Hebrew nu, in Welch ni.

In Welch, as in the preterites of the Hebrew, the pronoun is sufiixed
to the verb. This appears most evident in the passive voice.

The substantive verb in Welch has some affinity to the same verb
in Hebrew, for oes, there is, and ys, now used foi- truly, agree ex-
actly with {^'}.). This agreement will be rendered evident, when I
shall proceed to the examination of the connecting link, the substan-
tive verb in Greek.

168

In some Welch nouns I is used for the termination of the plurals,
and in others we find au, which is pronounced I. Thus llestr, a vessel,
has llestri in the plural, enw, a name, has enwau, and genhedlaeth has
genhedlaethau. But, again, other plurals terminate in oedd, as llys a
palace, liysoedd. In Hebrew the plural terminates in im, but in con-
struction the m is dropt. The Chaldee in this respect perfectly ac-
cords with the Hebrew. In both the famine plurals terminate in oth,
which is the sound of oedd.

But a more striking feature of resemblance is, that, like the Hebrew
the Welch has no oblique cases, and that the deficiency is supplied by
prepositions, excepting when words are placed in reglmine, as for instance
yspryd Duw, the spirit of God, llys y brenin palace of the king. So
in Hebrew D\i'7i* n.M and in Chaldee V'^'p^: mi the spirit of the gods.
The preposition used for the dative case in Welch is I, as in i'rdinas, to
the city, and in Hebrew, 'j, L, as in (l*?'?^]r>) ten Imelek, give to the
kino', (^^.'^^'^) amar li, he said tome. In the genetive we have v^ skel
as in ^k'^ sheli my, that which is to me, a preposition compounded of
h and ^.

The Welch is one branch of the Celtic, of which we have valuable
renmants preserved by historians, and such as mark affinity between this
ancient language and Hebrew, an affinity which may be traced in the
na^mes ot the gods, of men and of sacred officers, and in the terms
of war.

The supreme divinity was called Hazizus, and was considered as the
god of war. In this name we have distinctly f^^I^ of Psalm xxiv. 8, Who
is this King of Glory? The Lord strong and mighty, the Lord mighUf
in battlo

169

Brennus appears to have derived his name from Brenhin a king, an-
swering to D3")D of the Syriac.

Paterae were the priests of Apollo, and interpreters of his oracles.
These may have been so called from "in 2, as we find the word used in
Genesis, ch. xl. v. 8.

Caenjfi. These were nine priestesses, presiding over the oracle of a
Galic divinity. In Flebrew this appellation is found in cohena a pmestess.

Tlie bards, prydyddion, whose office was to sing the praises of de-
parted warriors, may have derived their name from the phoretim of Amos
vi. 5. who chanted to the sound of the viol, and invented to themselves
instruments of music.

Alauda was a legion, and in Syriac >^ri2'7i<, answering to 2^^ in
Hebrew of the same import, means a thousand men.

Gacsum, yctKiog, a dart appears to be connected with galas of the
Chaldee, an army, and gissaa. dart. It is said of Joab (2 Sam. xviii. 14.)
that he took three darts in his hand. These in Hebrew are called shebetim,
but the Targum renders the word TPP^?- In the same connexion we
find gasntce, hired soldiers, called by Plutarch 'ye(rtrxrxi, and by Polybius
'ycet^xrat, in perfect agreement with the Syriac and Arabic.

Thyreos, long shields, we may safely connect with tharis of the Arabic
and Chaldee.

Carnon, a trumpet, is IT of Hebrew, Syriac and Arabic.

Benna, a wain, is probably allied to ophe7i of the Hebrew.

Carrus, a car, is distinctly caron (!"'"' P) of the Chaldee.

Essedura, a war chariot, a waggon. We find the same word in the
Chaldee paraphrase on Gen. xlv. 19 27.

roL. II. z

170

Gaunacum means a thick shag. Such a shag in Hebrew is called
macabar, 2 Kings viii. 15, but in Chaldce it is i*231J.

Sagum is a shag; but whether allied to pj^ Hebrew, and i^'p'^ Chaldee
sackcloth, or to 11^ Ji' Hebrew and'^i'C' Chaldee, hairy, it is difficult to
say.

Braccae, brogues, may be derived from barac of the Hebrew, Chaldee,
Syriac and Arabic.

Maniacum, a golden bracelet, is distinctly J* 3''JDn of the Chaldee.

Baraccacae, skins of goats, may be allied to the Syriac HI 3 a he-goat.

Tarian, a shield, appears distinctly in the Chaldee.

Marc, a horse, may be remec of Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic.

Supposing Sorbiodunum to have been the Celtic name of Old Sarum,
we may remark that sharab in Hebrew, Chaldee and Syriac means dry,
answering to the local circumstance of its wanting water. Thus William
of Malmsbury says of it, " Castellum erat et aquae penuria. laborans
adeo ut mirabili commercio aqua ibi vendatur." Camden says, " Est ibi
defectus aquae." Our English antiquarians therefore with propriety ex-
plains the name Dryhill.

I might extend my observations on these subjects, but I choose rather
to refer the curious in antiquities to Boxhorn, who, in his Originum
Gallicarum, has displayed a fund of literature most worthy of the age,
in which he lived.

The affinity between Welch and Hebrew will be rendered apparent to
the reader, if he will refer to the comparative vocabulary, which he will
find in the Appendix. It consists of such expressions as have occurred
to myself in the course of my investigations.

171

Having thus demonstrated the affinity between the Welch and other
languages of Europe and of Asia, it would be superfluous to examine its
more immediate rehitives the Cornish, the Armoric, the Waldensic, the
Wendish, or any other dialect still subsisting in Galacia, where St. Jerom
(A.D. 360) recognised the language of Treves. Suffice it then to say, that
scattered and dispersed as are these dialects, they are acknowledged
to be one language, which, wherever it appears, carries with it indelible
tokens of its oriental origin.

I may, therefore, with confidence adopt the words of the learned
Dr. Davis.

Ausim affirmare linguan Britanicam [tum vocibus, tum phrasibus &
orationis contextu, tum literarum pronunciatione, manifestam cum ori-
entalibus habere congruentiam & affinitatem.

OF THE IRISH AND SCOTS DIALECTS

THE GAjLIC LAMGUAGE.

X HE Irish have never had the presumption to imagine that their
primogenitors were natives of the soil ; but have been always ready to
acknowledge, that they came from foreign countries, and the only dis-
pute has been, whether they crossed the sea from the adjacent parts of
Britain, or came directly from some more distant region. Their most
approved historians are agreed, that Ireland received its first inhabitanis
from Britain.

But General Vallancey was of opinion that the original inhabitants of
Ireland came from Iran, that is from the tract of country, which extends
between the Indus and the Persian Gulpli. From thence, according to
his statement, they proceeded to the West, and sailing from Tyre, they
successively colonized Egypt, Crete, Malta, Sicily and Spain. From
Gallicia he brings them to the Western Isles, and to Gaul. His obser-

173

vations, with the facts he has brought forwards, are highly interesting,
and he has clearly demonstrated a conformity in language, customs, man-
ners, mythology, sacred festivals and religious rites between the Pagan
Irish and the oriental nations, from whom he supposes them to be
descended.

It is worthy of observation, that Bowles, an Irishman of strong un-
derstanding and of extensive information, who for many years resided
in Spain, was struck with the marks of resemblance between the customs
of the Biscayners and of his countrymen, and delivered it as his opinion,
that they were one people. As he had no bias on his mind, no favorite
system to support, and no prejudice to warp his judgment, his opinion
must have considerable weight with us.

This colony of Indo-Scythians is reported by the ancient poets to
have arrived, under the conduct of Milesius, five hundred years before
the birth of Christ. Certain it is, that he gave a race of kings to the
Irish, then known by the name of Gadelians, Scuits and Scots,

After a lapse of ages, another tribe, called Hermini, flying from TuJius
Caesar, left Lusitania, and took refuge in Ireland, where they became a
powerful clan, distinguished by the name of Eremon.

All these inhabitants were, in the opinion of Vallancev, flic genuine
offspring of Magog, not of Gomer.

It is not needful, that I should here discuss tiie question as to the
colony which first arrived in Ireland. If tiie Belgoe. were in possession of
the country before the arrival of the Milesians, they must iiave been ksv
in number, because the ancient language is not Belgic, but Phcenician.
Yet in process of time this was corrupted by invading tribes from Wales-

174

and Belgium, but chiefly by the Danes and Norwegians, who subdued
and governed Ireland for ages.

We learn from Richard of Cirencester, that about three hundred and
fifty years before Christ, the Britons, that is the Welch, who were driven
out of their country by Belgic Invaders, took refuge in Ireland. Here
they established themselves, and maintained possession of the southern
coast for about five hundred years, till the Menapii and the Cauci, two
Belgic tribes, broke in upon them, and subdued the greatest part of
Ireland. This circumstance accounts for the appellation of Dun Bolg,
given to many of the most ancient fortresses, and suggests a reason for
the term bolg being applied to signify nobility.

Subsequent to this invasion, as it is stated, the Picts took posses-
sion of the north: but it was not before A. D. 795, that these Scandi-
navians came. After them, about A. D. 853, the Ostmanni, under
the conduct of three chieftains, established themselves in Dublin,
Waterford and Limeric. These, according to Archbishop Usher, were
Livonians, and some of them came probably from Semigallia, because,
prior to their arrival, no people were distinguished by the name of Gaill,
and subsequent to this period even the Saxon invaders have always
been denominated Gaill, as well as Saso7iic, by authors. Even to the
present day the English are called Clanna Gall by the common people,
and the Lowland Scots are named Galldachd na Halbuin.

The facility, with which all these invading hordes got possession of
settlements in Ireland proves, that the country was thinly inhabited.
We have no authentic documents, no written records, before the intro-
duction of Christianity, (A. D. 432.) and have nothing to guide us but

175

the sono-s of their most ancient bards, transmitted by tradition froni
parents to their children. Even the poems Ossian, composed probably
in the fourth century, describe a nation of hunters, without the most
distant allusion to agriculture, arts, manufactures, and commerce, or even
to pastoral life. All the images are taken from uncultivated nature,
and all the incidents relate to hunting, war, and love.

When the Irish, under the conduct of a Milesian leader, crossed
over into Scotland, (A. D. 150) they either introduced their language, or
found it already there, as the language of the Highlands ; and to this
day they preserve it pure. This has not been difficult for them to do,
because they have never been driven from their mountains by new
colonies, and from their first establishment have had their poems, as
classical productions, to which they might constantly refer. With these
they are familiar, and Ossian, in the present day, is understood by the
Highlander, as perfectly as any modern poet.

That the language thus preserved by them on the mountains of North
Britain, was not the primitive language of the country, from which
they came, is evident, because it perfectly agrees with the 'modern Irish,
and because, in the tenth century, Cormac, Archbishop of Cashel, la-
mented the inattention of his countrymen to their ancient language.
From that time, in consequence of his remonstrances, schools were
established, manuscripts were collected, and glossaries were formed to
preserve from total oblivion, the venerable language of their proge-
nitors.

Some of these valuable relicts are in existence, and by them General

176

Vallancey was enabled to discover, what the language was before it was
corrupted by numerous invaders.

The difference between the ancient and the modern lansuage is so
o-reat, that none but the most learned and laborius students are able
to understand the former, which to the present day, is called Bearla
na Pheine, that is the Phoenician Dialect. With this I claim no ac-
quaintance, and therefore depend on the authority of General Vallancey,
whose extensive knowledge, accurate investigation, and strict fidelity,
deserve the highest commendation.

The elementary letters of the (Jalic language are sixteen. Tliis de-
monstrates, that they were imported during the infancy of science, and
before this number was increased by the Phoenicians, by ihe Greeks,
by the Romans, and by all the nations on the Continent. Their alphabet
had five vowels, a, e, i, o, u, supported by eleven consonants. These
were b, f, ni, c, g, d, t, s, 1, n, r.

It will immediately occur to the recollection of the student, that
the Galic letters, nearly coincide with those introduced by Cadmus,
into Greece, and it will not escape his notice, that P is here omitted,
whilst F, as the digamma-of the Cohans, takes its place. The letter P
in Galic is called peith-bhog, but probably it was beith-bhog, that is,
soft B. This was never used until after the introduction of Christianity.
In the old parchments, P and B are indifferently used, as in prutach for
brutach, a rustic, and peist for beist. When the Irish, after their con-,
version to Christianity, wrote the Latin Gospel in their own characters,
of which Dr. Parsons saw many copies, they were obliged to adopt
foreign letters for words which l)y their letters they were not able to

177

express; but it is remarkable, that in all the luanuscripls ©f their own
language not one additional letter can be found.

According to Bayer, the original Hebrew had the same sixteen letters
with the Galic, and, like the ancient Ethiopic, had no W And it is re-
markable, that the Phoenician alphabets, as given by the Abbe Har-
thelemy, by the Rev. S. Henly, and by Pocock, all omit the P. But it
is still more remarkable, that both the Ionic and Etiuscan or Pela;sgic
alphabets, essentially agree with the Phoenician and Samaritan, as ap-
pears by the Pantographia of Fry. Even in the modern Irish, all the
radical words begin with one of these elementary letters, subject how-
ever, to such mutations as will be particularly noticed.

With regard to the form of their written characters, it has been sup-
posed, that they were the same with the Greek. Casar certainly says
of the Druids, " Graecis utuntur Uteris," and this probably was in some
measure true. But the subject will be resumed, when I shall proceed
to the Danish language and its alphabetic characters. It may then per-
haps appear that the Greek character was derived either from the Runic
or the Welch.

General Vallancey was of opinion that the ancient Irish used the
Chaldaic or Phoenician letters. He proves indeed, that they occasionally
introduced a few of them : but this seems to demonstrate that they were
merely resorted to from idle fancy, or on some particular occasion. We
must however agree with him, that the Samaritan, Phoenician, and Irish
characters, have a striking resemblance in A, B, G, D, E, L, O, and R,
as may be distinctly seen in his grammar of the Irish language.

The Oghams, or sacred and mysterious alphabetic characters of the

VOL. II. A a

178

Irish, are numerous. These discover too much of art to have been the
iovention of savages, and too little of simplicity to have been adopted
for ordinary communication by a polished nation. They answer their
name being much better suited to secrecy, than to despatch, and are
peculiarly adapted for inscriptions on monuments of stone. Each cha-
racter has a perpendicular line, with one or more scratches extending
from it to the right and left, like those discovered in Egypt by Mr.
Hammer, who was the secretary and confidential friend of Sir Sydney
Smith, and those described by Du Halde, as used by the Manchoou
Tartars, (v. Archaeolog. vol. 7, p. 276.) They seem to have been taken
from the Quipoz, a method of communication, and means of recording
events, familiar to the Peruvians, and originally used by the Chinese,
who, even to the present day, write from top to bottom.

In the Ogham, as given by Vallancey, the lateral scratches to the
right and left, are never more than five on each side, answering to the
fingers, and the perpendicular may be supposed to represent the body.
Certain it is that the first numeration was derived from this source, (v.
Vallancey's Prospectus and Fry's Pantographia.) Modern Irish is
printed in Saxon characters.

The present names of letters are derived from trees. These are ailm
and olof the fir, beith the birch, gort the ivy, duir the oak, eadha the
aspin, huath the white thorn, idho the yew, (Sec.

In the Galic and the Hebrew names, six coincide. 1 Aleph and
ailm or olof, heth and beith, heth and huath, jod and idho or jodha,
nun and nion or nuin, rc.sA and ruis. Such coincidence can scarcely
be supposed to have been merely accidental. It is true, that supposing

179

trees to have been originally symbols of ideas, they might readily be-
come symbols of sounds, and then terminate in being letters. But
this does not appear to have been the progress with the Irish. They
seem to have approached as near as possible to the Hebrew or Chaldcc,
confining themselves however to the names of trees, with which they
were familiar, although by so doing they departed from the oriental
name, as happens remarkably in the instances of lamed and kaph, for
which they have substituted luis, a quicken tree, and coll the hazel.
The ancient grammarians called the alphabet faodh, thijt is the voice,
or vocal sounds. But the moderns have corrupted this word into
feadh, a wood; and from this notion, perhaps, it may have arisen, that
they have denominated most of their letters from trees, as the Chal-
deans named their five vowels from the patriarchs, prophets, and dis-
tinguished persons of antiquity. The power of the Galic letters, when
they appear either single, or in combination, requires particular at-
tention. To express the sound of e the Irish take ao, and for ee of
the English they use aoi. A, O, and U, in ancient manuscripts were
used indifferently.

Their consonants are distinguished into immutable and mutable. The
former are 1, n, r. The latter are b, c, d, f, g, m, s, t. These in
regimine take an aspirate, and then either change their pronunciation, or
become quiescent and altogether mute.

The aspirate was formerly expressed by a dot over the letter to be as-
pirated; but in Bishop Bedel's Irish Bible and New Testament, H con-
stantly supplies its place, and from his time has been universally adopted.

Bh and Mh sound like V or W. Thus bhean a woman is pronounced

A a 2

180

wean and ven, agreeing thus with Venus, venustas, Sec. Cabh or
D-ab]]ar becomes gawer, a goat, and amhuin becomes Avon, a river.

Fli is perfect!}' quiescent, as in fhuil, which is pronounced nil.

Dh and Gh are either quiescent, or sound Hke y in 3'ou, and thus

dhean becomes i/an; ghabh is sounded yabh, gheall is yeal, and (Una is

pronounced ?/«/?, as I shall hereafter more particularly notice. See p. 182.

In terminations, dh and gh are either quiescent, or become 00, as

dheanadh is yanoo, and laogh is loo. Adh and agh sound like i.

The English reader may be surprised at this custom; but en recol-
lection he will observe, that g, when followed by an aspirate, is fre-
quently quiescent in his native language. This appears in high, nigk,
sigh, thigh, blight, flight, light, plight, sight, tight, bough, plough,
slough as referring to mire, but not as the soft substance which separates
from a foul ulcer.

Sh drops the consonant, but retains the aspirate, and thus scan,
seabhoc, silog, siol, salen, seith, when aspirated, become hean, heavok,
hilog, hi), halen, and heith, and thus saladh to defile produces do haluidh,
thou hast defiled.

Th is an hiatus, like as in Persian, and thus pothar, a son, becomes
pour; but thoge, he took up, is pronounced hoge. An Irish mountaineer
is altogether as unable to sound the th, as either a Frenchman or a
Persian. Hence bheith and baith, an ox, are pronounced bo. Righe
and reith, an arm, give the sound of ri.

Bli, mh, ch, gh and th have frequently the same sound; but, what is
more remarkable is, that hy, y, i, ibh, nay even eamha, eogha and
eochadh, are pronounced like o, so that coghan becomes owen, and
eamhania becomes onia.

181

D after N doubles it, and therefore find is read finn.

G and C are both hard. These are commutable, as are B and F, T
and D, M. and N. Hence nemethae is pronounced momie. Ch, dh and
gh at the end of words readily change for each other.

The English language is still more capricious, for gh is pronounced as
f, in laugh, enough, &c. but slough becomes either slow or sluf, accord-
ing to its various acceptation.

This operation of the aspirate naturally accounts for the licentious
changes, we observe in words, and the substitution of one consonant for
another, with which it has no organic affinity. Thus when B, P, F, V,
and M, are converted into C or G, attended by an aspirate; the sound
in Galic is not in the least affected by this change: as for example, sub-
ham and sugham, I suck, fobhar and foghar, a voice, graidh and gragh,
a flock, gradh and graighim, agreeable, gorghaigh and gorthugah, hurt,
magh and madh, a mead, a plain, mogh and modh, the manner,
aoidheach, aoidhidhe, oidhe and oighidh, a guest. Here it is evident,
that sugham became suam, which any one is at liberty to write subham
without the least alteration in the sound.

In the modern pronunciation, indeed, the sound is not afiected by
these changes, because the consonant is dropt, and the slightest aspirate
supplies its place. But in detivatives the most important alterations are
produced, and such as in many instances must effectually conceal their
origin.

A sufficient acquaintance with this licentious practice will enable us
to trace the affinity of words, which apparently have no connexion. For
instance, between Ojmo^' and CEdes we c^n see no resemblance, nor shall

i82

we be able to discover their descent from one common ancestor, unless
we view them both as related to the Galic.

Here in the family of OiMg we find oighthiarna and oighre an heir, and
oi<Thidh a guest. On the other hand aoidheach, aoidhidhe, oidhre and
oidhe, a guest, with aoidheachd and oidheacht, lodging, are alhed to
aedes. But from what I have stated it is clear, that in pronunciation
not the least difference exists between oighidh and aoidhidhe, which evi-
dently refer the former to oLnog and the latter to aedes.

I have already noticed the change of D into G, as common in the
Doric, in which dialect we observe Svo(pog for yvo(pog, y-pviyvov for xvjpx^Svov,
S« for yx and S>|fJ.^T\^p for yvi^uviTvip.

Availing themselves of the same privilege, the Irish say indifferently
deal or gual, a coal, and dioscan or gioscan, gnashing of teeth. For as
they have no single letter to express the power of Y, answering to jod of
the Hebrew and jlim of the Arabic; they supply the place either by dh
or by gh. This observation I wish to impress upon the mind of my at-
tentive readers. See p. 180.

Between D and the hard G there is certainly no organic affinity, be-
cause the one is a guttural the other a dental. But G soft and D make
a near approach to each other, as appears by CJeorge and giant, when
compared with gate, get, gird and give. It is for this reason, that d has
been permitted to usurp a place before G in words to which it does not
belong, as in allege, which is universally pronounced alledge. Thus the
Anglo Saxon ecge, in Icelandic, Danish and Swedish egg, answering to
acies and aKvj, has become edge, and from gelogian of our Saxon ances-
tors, which is in French loger, we have arrived at lodge.

183

It is not my intention to write a grammar of the Galic Language:
but I think it expedient here to notice some of the laws by which
its inflexions vary.

Nouns.

In the Gahc we have two declensions; and each of these may be
distinguished into indefinite, and definite. The first declension inde-
finite, for the genitive, either takes an i, or changes a vowel v. g.

Fuaran a fountain, fuarain of a fountain, dia a day, dea of a day.
In the same case ciali knowledge makes ceil; meall a hill makes mill;
alt, a high place, makes uilt; ord, an order, becomes uird, ball, be-
comes buill, and col, a hazel tree, is cuil. But nouns in ta, de and
ca have the genitive like the nominative.

The dative takes do and the aspirate, as mathair a mother, do
mhathair to a mother. These were the only cases ancientJy made
use of.

The vocative has the aspirate with the vowel of the genitive, as
fhuarain, o fountain. Shleabh o mountain.

The ablative takes le as le fuaran, with a fountain. These two
cases have been adopted by the moderns.

The first declension definite takes the article an, an sliabh the moun-
tain, and, in the genitive case, conforms to the vocative of the inde-
finite, an shleabh of the mountain. But before nouns beginning with
b, f, m, this article is by attraction converted into am. Should the
noun begin with a vowel it only takes the euphonic t, v, g, ord a
hammer antord the hammer.

184

In rcgimine all the mutable consonants take an aspirate, and for
the sake of euphon}' n is introduced between two words, when the latter
begins with a vowel, as jar the west, a niar from the west, athair
father, arnathair our father. Thus we find go nor, agm go nargid
for go or agus goargid with gold and with silver.

Galic Fronouns.

Mi, tu, e, sinn, sibh, iad, I, thou, he, we, ye, they, si, she.— Mo
mine, do thine, ar our, bhur your; sa his, her, their.

Mi is thus declined. Nom. mi, gen. mo, dat. dhamh, ac. me, abl.
learn. — Orm on me.— Ort on thee. — Liom with me, leat with thee.—
Agam unto me, agad unto thee.

Galic Verbs.

Is mi I am, is tu thou art, ise he is, is siiin we are, is sibh ye are, isiad
they are. Bhami i was, biihidhmi and beidh me I shall be ; bith thu and
bi be thou, bithadhe and biodh se let him be; bhith, Galic of Scotland, but
in Irish do bheith to be.

The Galic has likewise sam, som, taim and tame, I am. The Irish
has fuilim I am. Bim I am, means properly I live, bitu thou art, &c.
The infinitives must have H after the first letter, if it be a consonant, and
dh before the first letter, if it be a vowel, v. g. Chruinuchadh to as-
semble, dhabachadh to ripen; but the compound dh is quiescent.

Cruinn is round, and crunnan a group. Hence cruinucham I assem-
ble, tha mi air cruinuchadh I have assembled. Cruinuchidh mi I will

185

assemble, crulnic assemble thou, cruinic mi I may or can assemble, bha
mi cruinichtc I was assembled, chruinichar mi I shall be assembled.

The proper root is considered to be, as in Hebrew, the third person
singular of the preterite: but perhaps it should be the imperative in its
most simple form, without its pronoun, as in bi of the Irish, be thou.

Like other languages, the Galic has its irregular, or more properly its
defective verbs; for, when a part of any verb becomes obsolete, a cor-
responding part of some other verb supplies its place. Thus we find
deanam 1 do, rinn mi I have done, ni mi I shall do, dean do thou, tha
mi deant I am finished, nitar mi I shall be done, made or finished.

Deiram I say, thuairt mi, I have said, their ar, shall be said. In the
imperative we have only abeir say thou. This verb is extremely interest-
ing, because it helps to display the strict affinity between the Irish, the
Hebrew, the Greek, and its jEolic dialect the Latin.

The present tense may be either berim, deirim, or abraim.

Berim is precisely fero in two of its acceptations, I say, and I bring
forth. For in the first of these acceptations both berim and fero connect
themselves with epeca andli^^. In the second they look towards HIS
and <pepw.

Deirim I say, and deir tu, thou sayest, &c, with the preterite dubhras
and dubhairt me, I said, may be derived from the Hebrew dahar, he
said, although O'Brian, in his Dictionary, and Vallancej^ in his Gram-
mar, derive deirim, by abbreviation, from ad bheirim, and the preterite
adubhairt me, I did say, from ad bhearam, T say.

Abraim I say, and abair speak thou, may be allied to the Hebrew
amar. But these are considered as abbreviated from ad bhraim, ur cor-

YOL. II. B b

186

rupted from ad bheirim. In the ancient MS. ad is prefixed to the perfect
of the indicative and to the present of the potential mood.

The future is deara me, I shall say; but the supine is labhartha,
spoken; the participle agradh, saying, both derived from other verbs, and
not from either deirim or abraim.

Toir mi I give, bha mi toirt, I was giving, thug mi, I gave, thoir give,
thoirt to give, air a thoirt given. In the future we have only bheir mi I
shall give, derived from beiram I give.

But although now defective, these verbs still exist entire in ancient
manuscripts.

Numerals.

One aon, two da, three tri, four ceithair, five coig and cuig, six she
and seisear, seven seachd and secht, eight ochd and ocht, nine naoi,
ten deich and deug, eleven aon deug, twenty fichad and fichid.

^articles.

These must be divided into such as are prefixed and such as are sufl^xed.

The prefixed particles may be subdivided into such as imply negation
and such as merely modify the meaning.

The negative particles are,

1. A, am, im, aim, amh and aimh. Thus we have amadan not
learned, a fool, from adhm knowledge; imad many, from ad one;
anihlabhair dumb, from labhairt speech; aimhgheur blunt, from geur
sharp.

187

2. Ain, an and ana ; aineolas ignorance, from colas knowledge, aincidh
a doubt, from cidh ceeing, certain; aniochd cruelty, from iochd cle-
mency; anachintach uncertain, doubtful, from cinteacht confidence.

3. Bai and be; baitibh and betibh intestate; baighal friendly; gal is
war, battle,

4. De, dea, di, dio, do, and d; dpagallam I recal, gallam I call;
dithinge dumb, ting and teangu a tongue; dibeoilh dumb, beul the
mouth ; dineart imbecility, neart, strength; diomoladh dispraise, moladh
praise; dobais immortal, bas death; domharb immortal, marbh death;
doeas hope, cas fear; doilleir dark, leir sight; daidhbhir poor, saidhbhir
rich; dligam I unbind, I separate; dluimh a cloud, hiding light.

5. Ead, eas, eag, eac, each and ei; eaban dirt, ban white; eacon
mad, con sense; eaccosmuil unlike, cosmuil like; eadtrom light, trom
heavy; easonoir dishonour, easordugh disorder; eagceart unjust, ceart
just; eidimhin uncertain, diuihin certain.

6. In, ing and iong; indearbh uncertain, dearbh certain; inlcighais
incurable, leigheas a remedy; ingglan and jongglan unclean, glan clean;
iongabhras doubtless, without a question; abra speech.

7. La; laban dirt, ban Avhite.

8. Ma, mio, mi and mith; madath unlawful, dathalaw; miochreidas
discredit, miochairdeas unfriendly; miogheur blunt, geur sharp; micheill
mad, ceill reason; mithfir weak, firsi force; mithfir ignorant, firin verity.

9. Neam, neim and neimh, pronounced neo; neamhglic foolish, glic
wise; neimhtheith cool, teas heat; neimseadh contempt, seadham I
esteem ; neotheach cold, teas heat.

"We may here remark that in Galic, positive qualities are most fre-

Bb 2

188

quently expressed by the help of negative particles, as when we say not
bad for good, and not good for bad.
The modifying particles are

1. Adh and agh lawful, adhslath lawful sovereign, slat rod, sceptre.

2. Aith and ath, reiterative; aithlionadh recruiting, aithris to re-
hearse; athalhad re-union, athchagnaHh to chew the cud; athghlanani I
refine, I cleanse.

3. An and ain very and fit for, anteas, very hot; anmhor very great,,
ambhochd very poor; anfhoth very watchful, anglonn very strong; ang-
radh doating, anmhaoin great wealth; aindear a young woman, com-
pounded of an and fear, fit for a husband ; aineach skilful in horsemanship,,
ain fit each a horse.

4. Ard, high, ar over, upon; ardshagart high priest; ardorus a lintel.

5. As, more, fada long, as faide longer.

6. Coim, comh, com, cum, con, cun, co, cu, denote association, equa-
lity; coimhbeiram I contribute; coinbhliocht a conflict; comasgtomix;
comart to kill ; conspoidam I dispute, cosmhuil and samhuil like; cumhais
a seam, a selvage, cumaiscam I mix.

7. Deagh dagh good ; deagbghuth euphony; deaghuair opportunity,
uairhour; deaghthoil good-will, toil will, daghmhuintir good people,
muinter men.

8. Droch evil, droicham I wrong; drochmhuinte insolent.

9. Fo few, little, rare; fodhuine a little man, a servant; fodhorus,. a
wicket; fola a little M'hile, that is a short day, from la, a day.

10. Foir, for, fur, before, beyond, extreme; fordhorus a porch, foir-
ncart violence; foiriongantach prodigious; iongantach wonderful, fur-
choimheadani I am provident, I heed, I care; ead, jealousy, zeal.

189

11. Gle perfection (See il, of which it may be a compound); gleghlan,
immaculate; glegheal exceeding white; geal white; gleal, id. a'Jain,
white.

12.. II and I perfection, great, well, plenty; ildealbhach well-featured;
ilghnitheach of all sorts; ile a great number of people.

13. Im about, round; imcheimnigham I walk round; imlioc bordering
on a lake.

14. In, V. ion.

15. lol variety ; iolphasadh poligamy ; iolam I change, iolar variety,
iolarda various.

16. lom association, amplitude; iomlan complete; iomorach a border;
iomchomhneart powerful, neart strength.

17. Ion and in fit, proper; iondeanta feasible, fit to be done; ionduile
desirable ; ionchoimhead conversable ; head is care, heed ; ionchon-
spoidlieac proper for disputation; inbheirt a perfect birth; infhir mar-
riageable; indioluighe solvent, diolam I pay.

18. Lan full ; lanchrodha courageous, full of heart; lantoileach satis-
faction, toil the will,

19 Mor many, great; morshluagh a great multitude; morliiach valuable:
luach value, hire, price.

20. Nios move ; niosgile more white.

21. Oirgoo;! ; oirbheart good actions; oirbhidineach venerable,

2*2. Friom chief, best, jsmne; priomhadhbhar chief cause; primhchial
excellent understanding.

23. Ro and lloi very, most; roghear very sharp, robheag very small;
rofhonn a keen desire, fonn desire; roigLeul very while, most white;
roilbhe mountains, iibhe Alps. (See U.)

190

24. Roinilie riom and reamh before ; roimheolas and reamhaithne fore-
knowledge; eolas and aitbne knowledge ; roinihraidhte aforesaid.

25. So, soi, good, apt, able, easy ; sobholadh fragrance, boluigh scented;
sobhrisde fragil, briseadh a breach ; sochla renown, cluais to hear ; sos-
beolta navigable, seoladh sailing; soicead a socket, i.e. fitting the head;
soichreidsin credible.

26. Sior constant, sioruisg constant rain, uisg water.

27. Tar, tair, answering to trans, through ; tarbheiram I transfer; tair-
bhealach a ferry, bealach a highway.

28. Uim about, v. im. uinisheolam I circumnavigate.
29- Ur and uirvery, uriosal very humble, ios low.

In addition to these particles of determinate meaning, we must notice
certain letters frequently prefixed to words, which in the Galic, as in other
languages, are either redundant or euphonic, or merely assist in the for-
mation of nouns.

These are —

B. Annach clean, banag white; ail and beal the mouth; aran and bar
bread ; arn and barn a judge; ris a king; breas a prince.

C. Leac and clach a stone.

D. Ligheac and dhgeac lawful; aonfuil and daonfhuil akin.

r. Athach and fathach a giant; uinneog and fuinneog a window ;
uirneis and fuirneis a furnace; ed and fedoil cattle; eantog and feantog a
nettle.

G. Aire and gearr a fishing weir; lear, claer and gleair clear ; leos
and glus light ; rug and grug a wrinkle ; rugach and grugach wrinkled.

M. Ac kindred, mac a son; ed to handle; mad the hand ; oide as-
sembly ; moide a convention.

191

N. Eile and nail another ; athair and nathcr a father ; ail and nail a
sting ; nallod for allod old.

S. Eisean and soisean he ; coti and scoti, toirm and stoirm, aois and
saigeas age; gib, gibbog and sguab a sheaf; greath and sgread a cry.

T. All and talla a hall ; saile and tsaile the sea : hence cinn the head
and tsaile become Cinn-tsaile in Irish, Kinsale in English.

B, F, M, C, G, and S seem to be used with the same licence in Galic
as in other European languages. Thus we find fion and mion small ; boid
and moid a vow; bladh and nioladh praise; clab and shop a lip, and
bili the lips ; breig and grug a lie ; bearr and gairid short ; bearg, fearg,
and gearg wrath.

The particles suffixed are numerous. I shall take notice of such as
most frequently occur, and their use will appear by the subsequent
examples.

1. A. Fol cover, fola a garment ; feab good, feabha honesty.

2. Ac, ach, achd, achadh and each; deabham I contend, deabhac
contentious; fior true, fireunam T verify, firineach faithful; firineachd
truth, breag a lie, breagach false; aon one, aonachd unity; foraidheach
fierce, foraidheachd fierceness; fineag a mite, fineagachadh growing full
of mites; toirbhrim I yield, I give, toirrtheach fertile.

3. Adas; dorc dark, dorcadas darkness;

4. Ad, adh, aidh, eadh, idh and uideh ; claonani I incline, claonad
inclination; saor free, saoraidh a saviour; snamhaim I swim, snamhuide
a swimmer; lomar a fleece, lomradh a shorn sheep.

5. Aighe; fiadh food, game, fiadhaighe a huntsman.

6. Ail and al, abbreviated from amhail and samhail, similis; glan
clean, glanal abstergent; claidheamh a sword, claidhamhal swordJike.

192

7. Ain; anfas dread, anfhocain danger.

8. Air, oir and coir, from fear, a man; fool flesh, feoladoir a butcher;
carb a chariot, carbadoir a charioteer; sealgaire a hunter, clairseoir a
harper.

9. Amhail and amhuil, hke. Fear, a man; fearamhail manly; dearg
red, deargamhail reddish; sioda silk, siodamhuil like silk.

10. Amhuil excessive, compounded of am for iom and uile all;
geann love, geanamhuil most lovely; sgeil skill, sgeilamhuil skilful; uisg
water, uisgamhuil full of water.

11. An, in, ain small, diminutive; beann a mountain, beannan a little
hill; fear a man, firin a little man; bad a boat, baidin a little boat; gort
a garden, field, standing corn, goirtain a little corn field.

12. Ar, art; glan clear, clannan shining; Iom bare, lomar a fleece,
lomart a shearing.

13. As; carid a friend, caridas friendship; math good, mathas goodness.

14. Mhor, mhar, mhuire, excessive; anios up, anmhor very great; fial
liberal, fialmhar bountiful; fionmhor abundant in wine; gaoth wind,
gaothmhor windy.

15 Nach and neac, see ach and ac; dighe gratitude, digheneac grateful.

16. Oo-, diminutive; realt a star, realtog a little star; fideog a small
pipe, a little worm; garadhog a little garden; guile the stomach, golog
a budget; leine a shirt, lentog a little shirt; bo a cow, bodog a heifer.

17. Sa; saor free, saorsa freedom; earadh fear; ancarbam I distrust,
anearbsa distrust; feacham I see; feabhsa science.

15. Sc; soil, light; soilse resplendent.

19. Sal and sail ; toic money, toicsail a treasury.

193

20. Ta; fioram I verify, fireanta true; lionam I fill, lionta full;
aitheantam I know, neanihaitheanta unknown ; cineal kindred, cinealta
kind.

OF THE HARMONY OF THE GALIC LANGUAGE.

EVEN a slight acquaintance with the Galic is sufficient to discover,
that it is rich and most harmonious in its structure.

For a ship it has forty terms, and as many for a house. Fire, water,
cow, cup, hand, foot, life, death, great, good and evil, with all the
common actions and objects, such as occur to nomade nations, have each
from ten to twenty words, by which a clear and distinct notion is con-
veyed. Miss Brooke, a young lady of distinguished talents, very judi-
ciously remarks, " It is astonishing of what various and comprehensive
powers this neglected language is possessed. In its compounds it is
abundant, like the German and the Greek, and one single word some-
times requires two whole lines to convey its meaning."

Her testimony coincides with the declared opinion of Archbishop
Usher, who says, " Est quidem lingua Hibernica et elegans cum primis
et opulenta;" and he laments that it should be so much neglected.

The harmony of the Galic arises partly from the liberty it has assumed,
like other languages, of changing each for the other such consonants
as have organic affinity; but principally by its absolute controul over the
vowels. Thus a speaker is at liberty to use indifferently aodach, eadach
and eudach, cloth; eile and oile, other; ard and airde, high; Deal, bil
and beul, the mouth; alaim, ailam and oilara, I nurse; bear, bior and

VOL. ir. c c

194

bir a spit; breag, breig and breug, a lie; craig, crcag, creig and creug,
a rock; dear, deor, and deur, a tear; elc and olc, evil; raod, read, rod
and rud, a thing. In all their words A, O and U are commutable, as
are the short vowels E and I.

This choice of words, and these arbitrary changes in the vowels, evi-
dently prove, that the Galic tribes paid great attention to harmony of
diction.

The facility with which the Galic language forms its compounds, to con-
vey clear and distinct notions of the things intended, will appear from
the subsequent examples, taken indifferently from either O'Brian, Lhuyd,
Vallancey, Bullet, or Shaw.

Ailm an elm, is aill maide high, timber, achbeg almost, is ach except
and beg, a little; adhailg desire, is adf fit, ail pleasure, and geastal
want; ailec a stallion, ail a stone, each a horse; aitigham I dwell, aite a
place and tigh a house; ardhamh an ox broke in to the plough, is ar
plough, damh ox; ardriogh imperial majesty, is ard high, riogh king;
arteine a flint, is art a stone and teine fire.

Bcacarna a prostitute, bean woman, carna flesh; bealdruidam I am
dumb, beal mouth, druidam I shut; bealtaine a compact, i. e. the fire of
Baal; beandia a goddess, bean female, dia God; bocar and buacher
cow dung, bo a cow, gairgin dung; bronnsgaole a flux, bronn the belly
and sgaolte looseness; bunaithigham I establish, bun bottom, aite place,
and tigh house; busiall a muzzle, bus mouth, iall a thong.

Cuiliosal, 1. vile, 2. wicked; cuileog, 1. a fly, 2. a gnat, and iosal
likeness; culgair recal, cul the back, gairam I call; culithe backbiting,
cul the back and itham I cat.

195

Daonflmil a relative, aon one, full blood; didil great love, i,e. the love
of God; dineart almighty, i.c, the power of God; diuluni I suck, did
the teat, and ullani I procure; dobharchu the otter, i.e. water dog, dob-
har, pronounced dour, and cu.

Earbog a roe, may refer to eardh timidity, or to carbull a tail and og
small. Ealadh a swan is e, a bird, and aladh wild; eondraoitham I
divine by the flight of birds, is eon or eun a bird and draoitheachad
magic; draoi is a Druid. Eunadair a fowler, is eun a bird, adbath
slaughter and air man; eunchriodhach timid, i. e. having the heart of a
bird.

Fongort a vineyard, fion wine, gort garden; fodhuine a dwarf, i.e.fo
little and duinc man; fola a liltle while, i.e. a short day; fursanam I
kindle, fur fire and sanam I release.

Gruagbhreige a wig, grug hair and bhreige false.

Ifurin hell, i. e. cold region, literally an island in a cold climate;
ioboirt sacrifice, i. e. the cake offering, derived from iob a raw cake and
thoirt offering, whence tort became the expression for cake; ithir corn
field, ith corn, tir land; ithfen, a car for corn, without wheels, ith and
benn; ithros corn rose.

Lamhanart a towel, lamh hand, anart linen; luan a greyhound, lua a
foot, an swift.

Odhall deaf, o, the ear, and dall dull ; ogbho heifer, og young, bo cow;
ogmhois June, i. c. the virgin's month.

Raidhearc eye sight, raighe a ray of light, and dearc the eye; reul a
star, i. e. ruith iul director of the rout.

Smuigeadach handkerchief, smug snot; soadh a bed, from socras ease,

c G 2

t96

rest, and adh fit; sroiniall-srein a muzzle, from sron the nose, iall a thong
and srein a rein. Trosgadh a fast from trosg a cod fish.

In the instances above produced we observe the compound expressions
melted into single words; but whenever new objects presented themselves
and new terms were to be invented, the Galic tribes avoided arbitrary
sounds, and, resorting to such as were commonly received, they gave a
concise description of the thing intended.

Thus, aite comhnuidh is a mansion, caithir rioghal a throne, crann
araidh a plough, fion abhal grapes, fear an tigh osda a host, fear
deasachad leathair a tanner, gealadoir eadaich a fuller, grianchloch a
dial, i.e. a sun clock, maide milis liquorice, i.e. sweet wood, miol mof
a whale, i.e. sea animal, mathghabhuin a bear, i.e. a wild calf, fear-
nuadhposda a bridegroom.

ABBREVIATIONS IN GALIC.

AVE have remarked, that abbreviations are the wheels of language, the
wings of Mercury. And I may here observe, that of all the languages,
with which I am conversant, I know of none that indulges to such a de-
gree in abbreviations as the Galic. Of this I have already given numerous
examples, and I may here observe, that its tendency to become monosyl-
labic has been incessant. Hence the same abbreviated word represents a
multitude of notions. These discordant terms must evidently have origi-
nated in polysyllabic expressions of the same discordant import. This
will appear from the subsequent examples.

197

A has 13 difFerept significations, distinguished by grammarians.

Agh means fear, ox, cow, bull, conflict, good.

Ai — Region, inheritance, sheep, cow, herd, swan, cause, learned.

Ail — Stone, sting, arms, rebuke, month, time, will, whilst, request,
blot, noble, modest, beautiful.

^i//— Place, steep, bank, turn, journey, course, praise, bridle.

Aire — Judge, noble, servant, attention, weir.

Ais — Hill, strong hold, covert, dependance, loan, cart, back, shingles,
bashful.

Al — Stone, rock, food, fear, horse, brood.

All — Bridle, hall, rock, cliff, generation, foreign, another.

Alt — High, nursing, exaltation, leap, joint, part, time, soon, brook,
vale, action, state, order.

Am — ^Time, moist, soft, tender. In composition, as we have seen, it
forms negation.

Atnh — Even, also, raw, naughty, fool, ocean.

An — Interrogative, evil, in, still, quiet, vessel, true, false, pleasant,
noble, pure, swift, water, one. In composition, like am, it forms ne-
gation.

Ana — Truly, fair weather, silver cup continuance, riches.

Aoi — Guest, stranger, island, hill, trade, possession, compact, swan,
knowledge, instruction, honour, respect.

Ar — Our, plough, slaughter, guidance, bond.

Arc — Arc, chest, dwarf, body, pig, adder, bee, wasp, lizard, cork
tree, tribute.

Bta — Be it enacted, village, piety, the sea, green field, cry, shout,
fruit of the womb, praise, fame, yellow, safe, healthy.

198

Car — Care, friend, crooked, deceitful, terrible, brittle, part, fish,
movement, trick, stone.

Coir — True, false, just, right, guilt, business, solitary,

Gtis — A far as, until, desire, anger, death, a deed, weight, force,
strength, sharp, value.

I — Island, low, shallow, an art, science, she.

Mai — King, prince, soldier, poet, rent, tax, wealth, slow.

Mam — Mother, hand, fist, gap, vile, base, hill, mountain, strength,
power.

Meas — Measure, mess, mast, fruit, rod, weapon, edge, point, shears,
salmon, opinion, respect, advice, foster child, tax, a grave.

Ogh — ^The ear, whole, full, pure, sincere, virgin, young woman, circle.

Oil — To nurse, to drink, a rock, infamy, reproach.

Ong — Clean, trespass, healing, sorrow, groan, fire, hearth.

Ti — God, He, Him, house, unto, until, design.

Tin — Tender, to melt, soft, fat, gross, thick, a beginning.

To — ^Tongue, silent, mute, dumb. '

Tur — Tower, journey, research, request, dry, bare, alone, weariness,
heaviness, to tally.

Ur — Fire, earth, mould, the grave, heath, valley, moist, place, brink,
border, beginning, new, fresh, very, hence, evil, slaughter, hurt, mis-
chief, generous, noble, gentle.

The nature of such compounds, subject to abbreviation, will appear
both from those already noticed and from the subsequent examples.

Comhairlc a council, composed of the preposition comh and bearla
speech; comharba joint-tenant, derived from comh and forba land;
cosmhuil like, is comh and samhuil like; comdhuigham I build, is comh

and fhod a clod'; daidlibliin poor, is do not and saidlibhir rich; fiicann

male, fir man, and ghein genus.

Tlius, by abbreviation, dobliar water, becomes dob a river, and dur

water; and thus tochdaim I am silent, is contracted into tosd, toc/td, and

to, silence.

But the genius of this language, and the nature of its abbreviations,

will be more distinctly seen, when we shall proceed to trace its affinities;
prior to which we must briefly notice some of its radical expressions.
These are comparatively few ; for the most considerable portion of the
Galic, as now spoken, seems to have been received from foreigners, who
during various periods established settlements in Ireland. These newly-
adopted words appear detached, without connexions, and wholly destitute
of both root and branches in their insulated state; not so the aenuine
language, the language of primitive expressions, such as occur in the
most ancient manuscripts. I shall produce a few of these, arranged in the
manner practised by Scapula in the Greek.

Aodhand Adudfire; adhna, heat, adnadh to kindle, aodhar fiery deso-
lation, adhan a cauldron, adhanta warm, adhbhadh a house, aoidhidhe a
guest, aoidheachdam I lodge, I entertain, aodhnair an owner, aoi pos-
session, guest, stranger, maide wood, adhmad timber.

Aon, can, ein, and en one; aona the first, aonar alone, aonarachd sin-
gularity, aonaran a solitary person, aonda particular, aonachd unity,
aonracan a widower, aonta celibacy, aontingham I consent, aontigheas
cohabitation.

Aram I plough; ar ploughing, husbandry, ardhamh an ox trained to the
plough, arach a ploughshare. Aran and bar bread, aranailt a bread-basket,

200

ancha a pantry, aranoir a baker, arbhar grain, arbharach fertile, arbh-
raisneach famine.

Ard h'l^h; ar upon, arad a ladder, ardan eminence, pride, ardanach
high, proud, ardaigham I extol, ardaghadli honour, ardarc a coat of
arms, ardorus a lintel, ardinmhe eminence, ardchomas sovereignty, ard-
chathair metropolis, ardshagart high priest, arigh chiefs, ardchnocfaire
a great baron.

Bior, a fountain; biorar water cresses, biorbhogha a rainbow, bior-
bhuafan a water serpent, biordhac watery, biorgon a floodgate, biorphota
an urn, bioror the brink of water, biorra a king's fisher, biorrach a boat,
biorrac a marsh, biorros a water lily, literally a fountain rose, biorrsnaobh
the old bed of a river, birfheadan a water pipe, birmhein moisture, bir
water, tobar and sapar a well, birra abounding in wells, birrac standing
water.

Bolg, a bag, belly, bellows, pimple; bolgam I blow, swell, blister,
sip, gulp; bolgach a boil, bolgan a budget, a quiver, bolla a bowl, blad-
der, bollog a shell, a skull, boilg a bubble, husks, boill a knob, a boss,
boilgain and bolg saighaid a quiver, beille a kettle, cauldron, boillsgeanam
I bulge, boillsgeanaibh hills, builgain a bubble, pimple, builm a loaf,
builinach a baker, builg bellows, bollsgaire a bawler, boaster, bollsair
a herald.

Breo, fire, flame; breochoire a warming pan, breochual a funeral pile,
breochloch a flint, breogam I bake, brosna a faggot, brotlach a boiling
pit, bruth red hot, bruithaim I boil, bruithne a refiner, bruithneach
sultry, brun and bran a fire brand, bruin a cauldron, bri and bara anger.

201

Caram, I love, car love lliou; cara, carad and caraida a friend, cara-
dam I befriend, caradacli befriended, caradas friendship, carac friendly,
carantac kind, caraidd a defence, twain, caraidheachd a dispute,
caraidhain I wrestle, carachdidli wrestling, carachdach athletic, accarachd
gentleness.

Craig, creag, creig, creug and cruad, a rock; creigach rocky, creagan
a rocky place, rag stiff, rigid, cruidheata and crughaldch hard, difficult,
cruadh hard, firm, steel, difficult; cruadail danger, courage, avarice;
cruadhalach hard, stingy, poor; cruadheuing rigour, slavery; cruad-
hmhuinalachd and ragmhuinalac stiff necked, obstinate; cruaidhchriodach
hard hearted; cruadhagach strict, cruadheigc distress, cruaghadh a
strengthening, cruaidheadh a hardening, cruaidhaicharn I harden, cruaid-
hcheanglam I tye fast.

Dubam, I dip, I duck; dubhshnamliani I dive; dubadh, dubhagh and
dubhogh, a pond, a lake; dubhash a tub, dabhan a pitcher, a fish hook;
dubhaigein and dubhogh the ocean, the deep, dobhar, domhar and dur
water, dob and dothar a river, dobharshoidheac a bucket, dobharchu an
otter, domhain, domhuin and doinihann deep, doimhnaicham I deepen.

Ed, handle, take, receive, gain; edim I catch, eddreimim, I catch at,
edean a receptacle, cdal treasure, edalach rich, eid and ed cattle, ed
defence, protection, edire hostages, eide tribute, eadail prey, iod a cast
or throw, iodhnach warlike; mad and mana the hand, madham a battle,
madhmann a skirmish, madhmadh a sally, madhmam I vanquish, man-
radh destruction, madhm a handful ; mam, a hand, fist, might, power. Sec.

Fail', watch thou, sun rise, sun setting; faire behold, fairara I watch,
I guard, forfairam I watch, forfhaireach a watchman, faireac watchful,

VOL. II. u d

202

fairfoiiadh warninr, forfair, forf and foraire a watch, a guard, fairgseoir
a spy, fairigham I watch, perceive, fairche a diocese, fairigh a parish,
fairughadh perception, faireog and fairadh a watching hill, fairseong wide,
open, spacious; farraidam I enquire, faruin an opening, farruineog a
lattice, furachar watchful, fuairam I find.

Fiodh a wood, a wilderness; fiadh a deer, food, a weed; fiiadha wild,
savage, a fawn, a territorial lord; fiadhach venison, fiadhaighe a hunts-
man, fiadhath a hunting spear, fiadhfhal a park, fiadh and fal inclosure.

Gahh, take thou; gabham I take, gabhal a fork, gabhlach forked,
gabhlan and gabhlog a pitchfork, forked timber, gabhalran and gabh-
altan compasses, gobha and gabha a smith; gabhalfhir the groin, gabh-
altach capable, gabhaltuidhe a farmer, gabhadan a storehouse, gabhann
a prison, gabhail spoil, booty, conquest, taking prisoners, gabhal fold-
ing sheep.

Gearrom I cut, bite, gnaw, shorten; gearradh a cut, a rent, bearra a
cut, shred, bearram I clip, shear, bearradan scissars, snuffers, bearrasgian
a razor. Gearb the itch, gearbam I hurt, wound, grieve; bearrthoir and
bearradair a barber, bearra short hair; beare, gearr and gor short;
geirrsgiath a short sword, gearghlais a gloss, a short note, gearghath a
short javelin. Gortuigham I cut, wound; gortughadh hurt; geur edged,
sharp, geurad and geire, sharpness; geuraighara and gearuigham I

sharpen grind.

Geiram I whet, I grease; geir grease; gearchuise and geurchuise sub-
tilty; geurainachd wit, gcarait wise, gcirintleachd sagacity, gort hunger,
geur, gortach goirt and gearblasda sour; geuraigham, I make sour, gor-
teog a crab-tree, gortreabhadh misery, gearg and bearg fierce, cruel.

203

cearb a cutting, carving, slaughtering, cearbhal a massacre, cearram I
kill, ceartaigliam I cut, I prune, cearail a quarrel.

Grian and grioth the sun; gris fire, griosach hot, grisgin a griskin,
groideal ; a griddle, gradanta hot, greadam I burn, groadan parched corn,
griosughani I kindle, griosaidh embers, griun a hedghog.

Ith and ioth corn; ithir corn field; ithfen a car for corn, ithdhias, an
ear of corn, itham and iosam I eat; iothlann a granary, iothros corn
rose, cockle, itheadh and iosadh eating and to eat, ithiomraidhtcach
backbiting; ioslann a pantry, a larder, iosdas entertainment, iosda a
house, iosdan a cottage.

Lamh the hand , lamhadh handling, lamhach handy; lamhcharam I
handle, lamhrachan a handle, lamhagan groaping, lamhainn a glove,
lamhainneoir a glover, lamhanart a towel, lamhiiaigh a surgeon, lamragan
fingering, lamhcheardamhuil mechanic, lamhrod a foot-path, lamhdeanas
restraint, lamchoille acubit ; glamham I seize, glammam I devour, glam-
sair a glutton, glamhin a spendthrift ; sglamham I snatch, sglamhoide a
glutton ; lapadh a paw.

Lasarn I burn, I light, I kindle; las kindle thou, lasadh kindling, to
kindle, to burn; lasach fiery, lasair flame, lasarach burning, laom a blaze,
la, lae, laoi, and lo the day; lassag faggots, lasan anger; leas, leos, leus,
and les the light ; leosam, I shine, T give light, leusach having light, Icos-
ghath a ray of light, leoschnuinih a glow-worm; leis apparently; leirsin,
seeing, lear, clear; leir sight, perception, wise, prudent; leirsmuine con-
sideration ; leirg and leas a reason, motive, cause; leur seeing, leurgus
sight ; loisgam I burn, losgadh burning, to burn ; loise and loisi a flame,
loisceanta fiery ; loirgaim and loirgaram I look for; loinear a flash of light,

D d 2

204

loinearda bright; loinneir a flashing, loinreach bright; loinnream I shine,
a trleam; loinn joy, loinneach glad, luinne mirth; luchair brightness;
hiiohe a proof, a cauldron ; luisne a flash.- a flauie, a blush ; luithe, luath,
luathas, and luas swiftness; luatham I hasten, luathmhor swift, liiathmharc
arace-horse, Inathmharcach a messenger, luatharana sea lark, luath ashes,
luatlio-hairam I rejoice, lusca blind, bios manifest, open, blosaiu I
make manifest, glus light, brightness; gluaise a gloss, cleanness, neat-
ness; gluair, glear and glor, clear, pure; gloir glory.

Laith milk ; luim, leim, lean, bleachd and bliochd milk,
leachd, kine, bliochdmhaire full of milk, bliocht profit of a milch
cow ; bleaghanam, bleagham and bledham, I milk; bladhach and blathach
butter milk; blath white, clean; bleasghanach emulgent, blaitham I
smooth, I polish, bleachdair a soother, bleid a coaxing, blanag fat,
tallow, bladairam 1 flatter, blath praise, blathliag a pumice stone.

Malcam, I bear, carry ; malcair a porter, malaid and mala a mail,
a bag; malair a merchant, malairt barter, malcaireas sale, malcaire-
achda belonging to the market, malairtach reciprocal, malratoir airgaid
a banker, maltriallach slow travelling, mall slow.

Nas a band; nasgam I bind, nase a chain, collar, ring; nasgadan
oblio-ation, nascar fortification, nasgaire a surety, nasgidh a treasure.

Ris, a king; breas a prince, breasam I reign, breaschathoir a throne,
breaschathair a royal residence, breascholbh a sceptre, breaslann a
palace, breasrod the king's highway, breasnion a royal mandate, brea-
saontaidh royal assent, breathamh a judge, breitheamnas judgment,
breitheantach judicious.

Stam, I stand; sta stand thou, stadam I stay, stop, cease; staid a

205

state, condition, staidal stately, stadtlmch apt to stop, stailc a stop,
staonaim I decline, I abstain; statamhuil stately, stadh the stays of a
ship, stabul a stable.

Teas, heat, the south; teasuidhe, tegh, teth, teith and to hot; teasgal
a scorching wind, teagh a vapor, time heat, timeac hot, teinne fire,
tinntigh fiery, tinani I melt, tinteach lightning, tintean the hearth, tioram
1 dry, tiotan and tethin, the sun.

Ur, fire; for, illumination; forsanam I shine, forreilam Ishine out,
fordharc the light, forasna illustrated, foran anger, wrath ; foranta
angry; foream and foirceadalam I teach ; goor light, goram I warm,
gorn a fire brand.

These few examples may suffice to mark the distinction, I have
noticed between the primitive language and its more recent acquisitions.
They are found in the most ancient manuscripts and records. In their
primary sense they are of extensive use. Their derivatives have renjote
and accidental significations, each of which naturally flows from the
first notion, and the common bond or radix denotes some action o^:
something.

OF THE INVESTIGATION OF RADICALS IN GALIC.

TO analyse a word we must get rid of all prepositive and terrain
nating particles, that, having completed this operation, we may, in ail
its combinations, perceive the root, either entire, or in its abbreviated
form, or in some of its mutations.

206

In Latin, Greek and Hebrew, neither prefixes nor suffixes create
embarrassment. They occasion no difficulty, because we are perfectly
acquainted with them, and in the most complicated expressions can
readily distinguish them. We are equally familiar with the inflexions
of the verbs in their most diffusive branches, and however varied or
contracted these may be, can trace them rapidly to the root from
which they spring.

Thus, for instance, should even the young Grecian meet with
xrroSsSsiyiJ^evoc, or with 'TrpoxTroSsix^evTav, he would, without hesitation, dis-
miss its appendages and fix on Seinwi*.!., BirS.Qv, or hifixi^ as the most
simple form in Avhich this verb appears. Should he proceed to analyse
such compounds as ccKOKxixqcujiq or avlcticoho'^vjjiTcti, he could not fail in
his research, but would instantly put his finger on tftif*t and ^tSwfi./, or on
i^ico and ^001, roots which have become obsolete in Greek, but are still
found in the Latin sto, sta, do and da.

Or should the young Hebraeist see teth, give thou, he would immedi-
ately discover T, as the only radical remaining from nalhan, he gave.

So in Latin, should either i, go thou, or transitures about to go occur,
these would be instantly referred to eo, I go.

But with the Galic few scholars can boast of such an accurate ac-
quaintance, and without this knowledge the roots must be frequently
concealed.

The difficulties which prevent their detection, are increased by the
accumulation of its prepositions. Li Greek it is not unusual to see two.
Such combinations suit the' genius of that language. In Latin we some-
times find the preposition wantonly doubled, as in concomitant; but in

207

Galic we often meet with three. Thus, for instance, ionchonspoidheac,
proper for disputation, when divested of its three prepositions and of its
idiomatic termination, retains only poid, precisely as disputation, thus
analysed, leaves put, both allied to puto, I think.

This sufficiently evinces the importance of an intimate acquaintance
Avith all the particles, whether prefixed or suffixed to radicals in Galic.
Without this knowledge, even two prepositions must perplex, whilst, to
him who possesses it, the greatest difficulty of detecting radicals is gone.
Should he, for instance, meet with iomchomhnart strong, or iomchomharc
a present, he has only to remove the two prepositions ioni and comh, and
he instantly beholds nart or neart, strength, and arc tribute, so called
from arc the chest, in which the tribute was collected and preserved.
By a similar process, athchomghear short, will be readily reduced to gear
of the same import.

Even when cleared of such appendages, what remains may be a com-
pound; for two or more substantives may be imited, or a substantive
may appear either in combination with its adjective, or attendant on a
verb. Many sucli instances were produced, when I was treating of the
harmony and luxuriancy of the Galic language.

To detect the genuine root of words in Jrish, we must be aware of a
practice which, although not peculiar to this language, is most prevalent
in it, I mean epenthesis. For as two or more vowels occurring together
in the same word cannot form more than one syllable, the bards, when-
(Bver they wished to increase the number of their syllables, threw i nbe-
tween two vowels an adventitious consonant, such as D or G, rendered
quiescent by an aspirate. Having done so, if the vowel preceding this

208

consonant happened to be a, o, or u, and the subsequent to be either e
or i; the former was changed into one of the latter^ or at least one of
these was associated with it.

This custom has been extremely injurious to tlie purity of the Irish
language, and has contributed to disguise its radical expressions. It is
thus, that gain, the plural of gall, became gaedhill, and that Galic was
converted into gaedhilic. Thus also, as it seems, belain and bliain, that
is, circle of the sun, became bliadhain, and even bliaghain, a year.

A knowledge of, and attention to this licentious introduction of con-
sonants and consequent changes in the vowels, are absolutely needful to
the philologist.

In these investigations we must remember not only, that, in Galic,
letters, which have organic affinity, are commutable, like as in all other
languages, but that B, P, F, V, M, D, and T, with C, and G, when
aspirated and consequently quiescent, are equally so, that S may be-
come T, and M may supply the place of N, or the reverse. We
must likewise call to mind, the indifference with which the vowels are
used for each other, more especially A, O, and U as long vowels, and
E and I as short ones.

To be expert in the investigation of Galic radicals, a competent
knowledge of the language in general, and of its abbreviations in par-
ticular, must be previously obtained. This will be evident to every
one who considers what I have stated on this subject. In this opera-
tion, difficulties frequently occur, such as no attention, no recollections,
no minute investigations are able to surmount.

In all languages we meet with compounds abbreviated and fresh

209

compounds formed by these abbreviated terms, which are liable to be
again contracted, till scarce a vestige of the original root can be
discovered.

In such cases nothing remains, but to examine, what assistance can
be derived from kindred languages.

AFFINITY BETWEEN THE GALIC AND THE WELCH.

THESE languages have been considered as unconnected, and, on a
transient view, they must appear so. But to the more attentive and dis-
cerning eye, it will be evident, that, however dissimilar at present, they
were originally one. In their syntax and the inflexion of their verbs, they
differ as much from each other, as the Anglo-Saxon, German and Gothic
do from modern English. Yet on examination it will appear, that they
are radically one language, variously modified, corrupted and disguised.

To demonstrate their identity, I must refer to my vocabulary of the
Galic and the Welch, which, being copious, 1 have placed in the Ap-
pendix. But it will be necessary in its examination to remember, that
letters of the same organ are commutable, and that in the most ancient
manuscripts the gutturals C G and also the dentals T D were used in-
differently for each other.

VOL. It. EC

210

II.

AFFINITY BET^yEEN THE ENGLISH, DANISH, SWEDIS'lf,
ICELANDIC, GOTHIC AND GALIC.

Engltsh.

Ail

Danish, Ifc.

Eel, D.

Galic.

Easlan

English.

iBelt

Dani.tA, ^e.

BeUe, D.

Galic,

Bait

Ail-

Aer, D.

Aidheir

'Birth

Bord, S.

Beirthe

All

01 Ahl, D. I.

Uile

Blast

Bloest, D.

Blagair

Am
An

Em, I. Im, G.
Ains, G.

[smi
Aon

Blow

Blaasa, I.

^Blagair
( Bolgam

Art

Idrott, S.

Ceard

Board

Baurds, G.

Bord

Och, S.

Boat

Baatur, I.

Bad

Ask

^Eska, S.

Aiscam

Bolt

Bold, D.

Boltadh

Ass

Asilns, G.

A sal

Booth

Both, L

Both

Awe

Ah, D.

Uamhas

Both

Batho, G.

Beit

Babe

Babe, S.

Baban

Bow

Boga, S.

Bogha

Bake

Baka, S.

Bacalta

Bowl

Bolle, D.

Bolla

Bar

Bar, D.

Barra

Box tree

Buxbonitrae,D.

Bugsa

Bark

Bark, D.

Bare

A box

Byssa, S.

Boigsin

Bath

Bad, D. S. I.

Baidhte

Boy

Pog, D.

Buachail

Bawl

Bola, S.

Bolsgairam

Brew

Bruggare, I.

Bruitham

Beans

Bonne, D.

Ponair

Bride

Brud, D.S.I.

Brideac

Bear

Bcera, S.

Beirim

15 row

Brun, I.

Bra

Beast

Becst, D.

Beathacl

Buck

Brock S.

Buic Boo

Bee

Bii, S.

Beathog

Bull

Bol, D.

^Bola, cow
2 Bologjheifer

211

English.

Danish, l(e.

Galic.

English,

toaillsh, tfc.

Galic.

Burn

Brinnan, G.

Bran

Coal

Kol, J.

Guail, fire

Burst

Briste, D.

Bris

Cole

Kaal, D.

Colis

Buss

Puss, S.

CBus, the
C mouth

Cost
Cot

Kosta, S.
Kot, I.

Cosdas
Colta

Cake

Kaka, S.

Caca

Cow

Ko, D. S.

Cale

Ka^l, I.

Cal

Crab, fish

Krabbe, D.

Cm ban

Call
Can, S.

Kalla, S.
Kande, D.

A gal la
Cuineog

Creep

^Kriupa, T.
f Krybe, D.

Crubam

Cap

Kappa, S.

Copchaille

Crook

Krok, S.

Cruca

Cart

Karra, S.

Coirt

Cup

Koppa, D. S.

Cuibh

Carve

Karfwa, S.

Cearb

Dale

Dalur, I.

Dal

Cat

Katt, S.

Cat

Day

Dagur, I.

Dia

Cave

Kofwa, S.

Cuas

Dear

Dyr, D. S. I.

Daor

Chalk

Kalk, D. S. I.

Cailc

Death

Dauthur, G.

Teidhm

Cheese

Kes, S.

Caise

Deem

Daeme, I.

Dimhnighm

Chest

Kiste, D.

Cisde

Desk

Disk, S.

Daisgin

Chick

Kuckling, S.

^Coicht
^Children

Dike
Dim

Dige, D.
Dimmur, I.

Dig
leimheal

Chin

Kinn, G.

Smigein

Dip

Daupjan, G.

Dnbani

Clay

Glina

Cladatch

Dirt

Diyt, I.

Doiit

Clear

Klaar, I.

Gleair

raukjan,. G.

Deunam

Cleave

Klyfwa, S. <

Cliobani '

Door

Oyr.T. Daur,G.

Dorus

Clod

Klod, D.

Clod

Dough

Deyg, D.

I'aos

Clothe

Kloeda, S.

Cleitham

Drag

Draga, I. S.

Oragam

Club

Kolt; S.

Colbh

Dray

Drog, S. •

Drabh, Scc.

212

It has been judiciously observed by Pinkerton, that the Welch and
Irisli arc languages so full of Gothic words in disguise, that it is impos-
sible to say, if any particular word be originally Gothic or Celtic. In
fact these nations had the same remote progenitors, whose language they
preserved, though much disfigured and disguised.

Wachterus, a learned German, assures us, that the more ancient and
obsolete are the expressions in Galic, Welch and German, the more
striking is their resemblance, and that he could demonstrate this by six
hundred examples. (Quo antiquior est sermo noster et ab usu hodierno
alienior, eo major est ejus cum Gallico et Britannico convenientia.
Possem hoc sex centis exemplis demonstrare. Praefat ad Gloss. Germ.)

III.

AFFINITY BETWEEN THE GALIC AND THE RUSSIAN.

IT cannot be imagined, that the Galic is either the parent, or the
offsjiring, of the Russian; yet they are related. They are certainly
descended from one common ancestor. Should we, however, attempt
historically to trace the degree of affinity between them; we should be
obliged to call for the records of remote antiquity. But unfortunately no
such records are to be found, nor can they have existed, because wan-
dering hordes, whatever transactions may have been for a time preserved
in the memory of their progenitors, and delivered by tradition from
paients to their children, have no written records. The only resource
therefore is in their languages. These indeed have been liable to change;

213

yet by a careful investigation we may be able to trace an affinity where,
at the first glance, it may not meet the eye.

In this investigation, we must call to mind, what has been delivered
respecting prepositions and terminations to be removed, before we can
detect the radical part of any word; and we must consider the aptitude,
which letters of the same organ have to assume each other's place, before
we can determine the resemblance of such roots, when found.

We have already noticed the substantive verb ismi in Galic, and have
seen the radical Is preserved in all the persons of the present tense. No\r
let us examine it in Russian. Here we have esm, esi, est; esmui, este,
sut; I am, thou art, he is; we are, ye are, they are.

The numerals, as far as four, discover affinity, but, excepting six and
ten, the remaining numbers of the decad have not visibly the least re-
semblance.

In Russian they stand thus: one, odin; two, dua; three, tre; four,
chetuire; five, pat; six, shest; seven, sem, which is in Slavonian sedm;
eight, vosem; nine, debat; ten, desat.

In Galic: one, aon; two, da; three, tri; four, ceathair; five, coig;
six, seisir; seven, morsheisar; eight, ochd ; nine, naoi ; ten, deich.
Each of these series exhibits the numeration of a rude people, who, be-
fore their separation, had little occasion for and no knowledge of arith-
metic.

The Russian verb iem, iesh, iest; iedim, iedite, idat, I, thou, he, we,
ye, they, eat, is allied to ithim in Galic, and their affinity is rendered siill
more evident by the resemblance of both to the same verb in Greek and
Latin. Apparently connected with this verb we observe the Slavonian
jito, which, like ith, already noticed in the Galic, means wheat.

214

Both these hiiiguages are intimately connected with the Greek, as the
Italian, French and Spanish are with the Latin. This proves their
affinity; wliilst their want of resemblance to each other clearly shews
that their progenitors must have separated at a very early date.

[ have, in my observations on the English language and its affinities,
noticed its intimate C(jnnexion with Galic, Russian and other Slavonian
dialects, from which it follows that Galic and the Slavonian dialects are
intimately connected.

As we advance, it will be clear, that these languages, though at pre-
sent exceedingly dissimilar, are radically one.

IV.

AFFINITY BETWEEN THE MUNGALIC OR KALMUC AND

THE GALIC.

STRAHLENBERG has enriched philology with a vocabulary of the
Culmuco-Mungalian language, in a work, of which one edition appeared
in I73O. I have read it with pleasure, and derived much information
from it.
■ From this vocabulary General Vallancey made a considerable selection,
in order to point out the affinity between the Kahnuc and the Irish.

This nomade natimi wanders over the elevated regions, which extend
to the north of 'J'ibet, from ISIount Imaus, that is from the sources of
the Indus and of the Ganges, to the Eastern Ocean.

I shall here subjoui a few expressions, in which the resemblance has
been best preserved, at the same time requesting the reader to recollect

215

the length of time, which has elapsed since the separation of these dis-
tant nations, their ignorance and want of records, their wandering
habits, and the rules I have suggested for the detection of the most
recondite roots, founded on the changes to which all languages are
subject.

Kalmiic.

Abdara, a bed — —

Ara, a bolster — —

Are and Ere, a man —
Aeme or Eme, a woman —

Ama, the mouth — —

Ara, jaw teeth — —

Allaga, the hand — —

Assun, hair — — —

Artzul, kerchief — —

Arul, a spindle — —

Alasko, a hammer — • —

Alun, a halter • — —
Acha, a brother^
Aice, a relative \
Aroeku, to sweep away

Abo, hunting — —

Aleraamodo, an apple tree

Ascun, evening — — .

Achtol, to cleanse - — . —

Trish.
Abdairt and Adairt, a bolster
Arel, a bed

Ar, air, ear, and fear
Im, Em, Fern
Amac, ravenous
^Carr, the jaw
f Carbal, the palate
Glac
Cassan
Ciarsul
Oirle

Lasca, to strike
All, a bridle

Aice, of the same tribe

Ruasaire, to drive away

Abus, a wild beast

Amhalmaide

Schun

Eacta

2l6

Kalmiic.
Asoc, to ask —

Ainae, I fear —

Alun, a pannel of a saddle
Anni, I know —

Ala, I kill —

Agutschi, good —
Argul, to bore —
^rigi, I seek —
Ailshi, I go there —
Aorkyl, I leave behind
iEmnae, I cry out —
Abirae, I vex —

iElgi, I earn — •

Ba, I commit a crime
Baienae, I have been
Baiehu, I live long
Billran, I work in timber
Bolun, horned cattle
Bugu, a buck —
Bula, burial —

Bulack, morass —
By, I — —

Choy, ewe —

Choraga, lamb —

Iriah.
Ascadh
Ahinne .

Ulan, a pack saddle
Aithne

Ala, a wound
Aghas and Adhas
Aragail, a needle
larraigh
Aillso

Ar cul, behind
Eirae
Buairea
Ailgeas, wages
Bai
Binn

Baoth, long life
Bile timber, Rinne made
Bolan, a bullock
Boc, a he goat
Beala, death
Balac

Bim, I am
Choi
Caorog, &c.

2i7

The vocabulary is copious, and the agreement striking; but, for want
of well constructed dictionaries in both these languages, in numerous
instances, their radical identity cannot be demonstrated.

In Bell's travels through the same country, we have certain expressions,
the origin of which is apparent in the Galic. Thus for instance, kontai/sha,
chief, agrees with ceann taoisi. Tush-da-chan and ayuka-clian, a prince,
are tuis-do-cheann and aice-cheann. Lama, a priest, and delay-lama,
priest of the chief tribe, agree with the Irish lamais a poet and dala a
tribe.

But that, which is most remarkable is, that isky, the Galic term for
water, terminates the name of every place in the vicinity of the Kalmuc
rivers.

Did the Kalmucs and other wandering hordes in Tibet and Tartary
possess ancient poems, transmitted by tradition from their remote proge-
.nitors, like the Irish and the Welch, we might be able, not merely to
conjecture, but to demonstrate the identity of all these venerable
languages.

AFFINITY BETWEEN THE GALIC AND THE SANSCRIT.

SANSCRIT, although not the parent language of the East, is yet
acknowledged to be the elder sister of a very extensive family. It stands
allied in close affinity to the Persian, to the Mahrattan, and to all the
langirages of Indostan. Henry Coiebrook, a distinguished scholar in this

VOL. II. F f

218

branch of literature, views it as a most polished tongue, gradually refined,
and fixt in classic writings of the best poets, who flourislied before the
Christian era. It is cultivated by the learned Hindus all over India, as
the lanoruase of science. In his opinion, it is evidently derived from a
primeval tongue, which was gradually refined in various climates, and
became Sanscrit in India, Pahhivi in Persia, and Greek on the shores of
the Mediterranean. It excels in euphony, and avoids incompatible and
discordant sounds in compound terms by a deviation from orthography.

In these observations, the opinion of Mr. Colebrook perfectly coincides
with that of Sir W. Jones, who informs us, that hundreds of the Parsi
nouns are pure Sanscrit, that many imperatives are the roots of Sanscrit
verbs, and that even the moods and tenses of the Persian verb substan-
tive, which is the model of all the rest, are deducible from the Sanscrit
by an easy and clear analogy. He delivers it as his opinion, that the
Sanscrit is more perfect than Greek, more copions than Latin, and more
exquisitely refined than either; yet bearing to each of them a stronger
affinity, boih in the roots of verbs and in the fox:: , of grammar, than
could possibly liave been produced by accident, so -trong indeed, that
no philologer can examine them without believing tivcm to have sprung
from some common source.

When I shall proceed to treat of the Sanscrit, it wiM, I trust, be evi-
dent, that Greek and Sanscrit are twin sisters; and wiien we shall have
examined the aflfinity between Galic and Greek, it will be equally clear,
that these stand nearly in the same relation, the consequence of which
discoveries will be, that we shall acquiesce in the opinion of General
'Vallancey, and, independently of any direct comparison, be perfectly

?19

satisfied, that Galic and Sanscrit are radically one. Yet, as some im-
mediate comparison may be satisfactory to the reader, and serve to elu-
cidate the affinity l)etween these far distant and most interestinjrlantruaffcs,
I shall subjoin a few expressions, such as have occurred to me in the
course of my investigations.

English.

Galie.

Sanscrit.

English.

Add

Agadh

Aghi

Day

Asmi, Ismi

Asmi

Deal

Bake

Bacalta

Paka

Death

Bath

Baidhte

Bad a

Dim

Bheith

Bhavitum

Door

Bhami, I was

Bhavami, I am

Doubt

Bear

Be i rim

Bhri

Each

Beast

Beathach

Pasu

Eat

Beat

Bata a stick

Pita Badh

Ewe

Bench

Binse

Pankaya

Fire

Bit

Bida

Bhid Bid Bhitta

Float

Boy

Brow

Bala
Brai

Ballachan
Bhru

Flood

Brother

Brathair

Bhratara

Fold

Coal

Gual

Gala black

Foot

Cot

Cotta

Cuti

Give

Cow

Ceo, milk

Gavou

Crook

Cruca

Vacragtee

Grieve

Cry

Sgread

Crad

Hall

f 2

Galic.

Sanscrit,

Dia

Diva

Dailim

Dal

Todhas

Fadi

Dei m he

Timira

Dorus

Dwar

Dubhatai

Dwon

Ceach

Ecauca

Ithim

Attum

Aoi

Ava

Aghna

Agni

cPlodanstand-i
f ing water :
Fal
Fuidh
Daighead
Grame, O a
Gearbam )
Talla

Plutu

Palayati
Pa dee
Datum

Grima

Sal a

220

English.

Ualic.

Sarucrit,

English.

Galic.

Sanscrit

Heart

Criodh

Hrid

Much el,

\Ieall

Mahaa

Hoi, warm

Garam

G harm a

Nail

Ail

Nal

Midst

Meadhon

Madhya

Name

Ainm

Naman

Might

Mocht

Mahata

Nay

Mind

Mien

Manas

Navv

Naoi

Nau

Mix

Measeaini

Miserani

Sew

Nuadh

Nava

Mode

Modh

Moto

Nigh

Nach

Nicata

Moon

Mios

Masa

Night

Nochd

Nakta

Moide

Mahattara

Nine

Naoi

Navan

Mother

Mathair

Matra

Naha

These few examples will sufficiently prepare u^ to receive the testimony
of Sir \V. Jones, that a well marked affinity exists between the Sanscrit
and the Irish. I shall therefore close my observations on this branch of
affinity, and* immediately proceed to the examination of the strict con-
nexion, which may be traced between the Galic and the Greek.

VI.

AFFINITY BETWEEN THE GALIC AND THE GREEK.

IN the preceding section we have seen the opinion of Mr. Colebrook,
that the same language, which became Sanscrit in the east, gave birth to
Greek on the shores of the Mediterranean, and we have traced an affinity
between the former of these languages and Galic. But independently of

221

this mode of deduction, a well conducted compaiison between them will
sufficiently evince their agreement.

It has appeared that, like the ancient Greek, the Galic alphabet uas
confined originally to sixteen letters.

In both these languages B frequently supplies the place of P, as in
Latin V and F are substituted for B Thus we find ^inpog for 'Jixf.og vita
for /3ioTH, and frcnio for (ipsiJ^co.

C answers to kap]>:i. But, as in the ancient Greek, gamma had the
power of both G and C, so in Galic these letters are indifferently used.

D and T, both in Galic and in Greek, seem to have been taken without
distinction. Thus we find both carad and carat, oudl and ovre. In like
manner the Latin has both hand and haut.

We have had occasion to notice, that in Galic mh and bh are equi-
valent, as in amhan and abhan, amnis, uamhan and uabhan, answering
to (pofiov. A similar licence as to M, B and P, appears to liavc been
assumed in Greece, for the iEolians, instead of i^eKKeiv wrote /SgAXeiv, for
zx^ovaa they used it-x^ovjx, and for i^mavXog they said 'Trr/.-AvKog.

A striking feature of the Galic is the conversion of P into C, as in
cos for •^ouj, casga for 'T^dtr^x, and ca for vrou. In this practice it coiir'orms
to the Ionic, Beeotian and /Eolian dialects of Greek, in which we find
Kitig for Tra'j, Horov for 'p^ofoi/, kot£ for Tore and lixyy,y.eg for lyvvxTxag.

Like the Greek, Galic abounds with aspirates. This breathing was
formerly expressed by a point over the letter tq be aspirated. At present
they adopt the H. Yet the aspirate of Greek wordsis either omitted in
the Galic, or converted into a sibilant, as for instance evoiJ.cc ainm, «*;/>)
ain, ov/. eac, «KXog eile, lif.zX'og samhai), aXg and aXog, salann and salar.

222

It is impossible for any one to cast' even the most transient glance over
the auxiliary verb ismi, I am, without seeing the strict affinity between
the Galic and the Greek; for certainly Ts must be the root in both, as
appears by s^g, eq\ s^^^ev, eVe, f*Tt, a^joix-ai, eiej^xi Ejoi^evog, wliich indubi-
tably connect themselves, not with e»f*t, but with ir[t,i, and p^j must be
the jironoun, as I shall render evident, when I shall proceed to the ex-
amination of the structure of the verbs in Greek. From what I have
already said, it is apparent, that the substantive verb in Galic is more
perfect, than it is in (ireek, in which i^-f^t is wanting.

The numerals likewise shew that Galic and Greek are kindred languages.
Even where the expressions seem to differ most, they are radically one,
as will be evident, when we call to mind, what has recently been stated
of the commutability of '^ and k. I may here be permitted to remark,
that the Galic enables us to trace the origin of Asy.a, and to point out
da cuig, as the parent of deich and Sanx. Counting appears to have
been originally conducted by the fingers; and this custom gave limits to
the first numerals, which were five. Hence ■Trff^Ta^w, derived from 'Kefi-ve
of the tEoIIc for ae'/Tf, signifies I count. In this sense it is used by
Homer, when he introduces Proteus numbering his sea calves. (Od.
iv. 412.)

The intimate connexion between Galic and Greek will clearly be seen
by a comparative vocabulary. The few words I here subjoin, are such
as occurred to me in the course of my reading. It must be confessed,
that the importance of the subject calls for a more minute investigation;
but what I here produce will be sufficient to satisfy the attentive mind,
that Galic and Greek have a radical affinity.

223

I must premise, that my selection is made without distinction, equally
from the Erse and from the Irish. The Calic in Scotland, in Ireland, and
in the Isle of Man, is one language, and the dialects have a minute
resemblance.

In the Galic verbs, I here consider the first person singular of the
indicative mood present tense as the theme. This I have done in con-
formity to the practice of lexicographers. But, in fact, we have thus a
compound, including the radical expression connected with the substan-
tive verb, which, as I have stated, subjoins its pronoun. It must be
remembered that C is pronounced as K.

Galic.

Abhra

Aedh

Aer

Agalla

Agliaim

Agh

Aibheis

Ain

Aingeal

Ainm

Airde

Aireamk

English.

Eyelid

Not

Eye

Skv

Tell

Aghast

Good

Battle

Sea

Praise

Messegner

Name

Beight

I number

Greefi.

Oalic.

Englith.

Greek.

o<ppOg

Airigh

Prince

xpx'^'^

OVU

Airgim

I drive away

tipyci)

eiSu

Airghean

Rein

Hpyco. apKiiti

Airgiod

Silver

xpyog

xyyiXKu

Ais

Bashful

Xi:TX^^'<

xyxa

Aisg

Reproof

xij-^vvu

x'ya.'^og

Aithcbim

[ ask, beg

xntu

x'yav

Aith

Kiln

Xi^Oi

x^viTdOg

All

Other

xXKog

All

oXog

xyysKog

All

Wild

xXjog

0VO\i.X

Alga

Noble

aipia

Ama

Hame

X[t.[KX

Kpi%\t.iu

Amhar

Vessel

x[t.<popevg

224

Gala.

Engli.ih.

Greek.

A nam

Soul, Life

ccvE[i.og

Anear

Man

5 \

auvip

Anios

ctva

Anoidche

By night

svvvxog

Aon, Ein, En

One

Aondeiig

Eleven

svSaKx

For

IT a. pa.

Upon

xipcii

Slaughter

xp^S

Ploughing

xpovpx

Aram

r plough

ocpoco

Aran

Bread

XpTOg

Arg

White

ipyoi

Arg

Champion

xpxav

Art

A bear

XpHTO?

Ascath

Warrior

XtTHViT^i;

Ath

Again

art

Athach

Request

Atliach

Blast

1 /

Atharaif'ham

I alter

STepocsi

Atliair

Father

TVOcli/ip. xt'tx

Athais

Reproach

ZITLX

Atlilath

Young warrior

x^kvj^Vig

Auacli

Xeck

xvx^v

Galie,

Baichim
Bach
Bachal
Baile

Basal

Fearg
Gearg

English,

I strike

Aviolentattack

Staff

City

Judgement

Pride

Summit of hill

Wrath

Ixaiirh '

reim

Step

Living

Life

Food

Milk

I manifest
Cow
Buffalo
Cow herd
V drop

A 1 m
Noise

Greek.

'Tts'xaiy.x

HEItxluX
jixHTpOV

jixcnXevf

opyv)

/3;0T0f
yxKxnTOt

\aV(T(T03

^ov^xXct

If r

tTTi^pxivca
(ipx%io)v

225

Galie.

English.

Greek.

Galic.

English.

Greek.

Breithir

Word

B'TTl SC p^'TOg

Ceir

Wax

Wpog

•

CA box

7ruB,1g

Ceist

Hoard

y/iqv\

Bugsa

f Box tree

7CvE,og

Cenel

Children

<y£Vi5>.ti

Cacaim

y-iX^y-u

Ceo

And

yxi

Cal

Colcwort

nxvXog

Cial

Jaw

XeiKo;

Cala

Hard

^aXcTOj

Cidham

I see

eiSoi

Calloid

Outcry

yixKeiv

Cine

Kin

yivog

Cam

Crooked

HX\i.'Ttloii

Cior

At hand

%£IP

Canaib

Hemp

•/.xvi/x^tg

Cisde

Treasure

■/m;vi

Caolain
Capall

Intestines
Horse

nx^xXKog

Citag and^
Cota 3

A coat

%iTWt^

Cara

Friend

Xtxpig

Cladach

Clay

yXix

Caraim

[ love

Xxpi^Q\j.ai

Claonard

Steep

nXivw

Caran

f Crown of
( head

KXpViVOV

Clas
Claoi

Lock
Lament

kXxiu

Carraig

Rock

pw$

Cliath

Hurdle

•/iXeico

Cartam

I cleanse

yu^Xlpb)

Clith

A close

nXeiot)

Cathair

Chair, city

nx^sSpx

Cluin

Park

xXbicj

The earth

Cliobam

I tear

aXxca

Ceach

Each

snaqog

Cluas

The ear -k

Ceachtar

Either

exxrspog

Clunim

I hear K

y.Xvcii

Cead

Hundred

enxTOv

Cluisim

I hear )

Ceard
Ceart

Trade
A rag

KipSog

neipo)

Cloisdean

The hcar-^
ing S

yXvu

VOL. II.

G g

226

Oatie.

English.

Clos

A repoit ■

Clotha

Meard

C'.othac

Famous

Clu and cloth

lame

Cluain

Adulation

Cluainire

A flatterer

Cluainireacht

Flattery

Cluig and Clog

A beJl

Clo2;aim

I sound

Clogarnach

Tinkling

Cloigin ^

A little j
bell ;

Noble

Cloth H

Generous

Brave

All these are connected with

Cluas, the Ear, and con-

sequently with - - -

Cluain

^A green /
c meadow S

Cnaoidham & ")
Cnaoighim 3

I gnaw

Cnaoi

Cnagh 2

Maggots .

A Con-
sumption

Cncadh

A wound

Greek.

•/iXv7og

nKvcc

nvacoi

Gatie.

English.

Greek.

Coirnheadaim

I heed

Coimheud

A ward
A keeper

•yiViS0[i.«f

Coimheudaighe

Coinne

Woman

yuvvi

Colaini

I hinder

Colac

Prohibited

H0),V6>

Col

Prohibition

Coll

Destruction

oXXv(j.i

Corcuir

Purple

TcopCpvpx

Cos

Foot 1

Cois

Near

Coisidhe

A footman !

■xovg

Coisin

A foot stalk j

Where

TOU

Casga

Passover

'7rflr(3-%*

Cuig

Five

yteyKe

Cruim

Thunder

lipu(j.ot,

Cri

Heart

KSXp

Croch

Saffron

HpOHOf

Croich

Skin

Xpwi

Croidh

Heart

HpxSlVi

Cron

Time

Xpovo(

Cruban

Crab

napcc^Oi

Cu
Cuib

Dog ;

Greyhound 3

avccv

23t

Galic.

EngUth.

Greek.

Galic.

English,

Greek.

Cuala

Hear

XH'Sd)

Cuib

Cup

nvTrsKKov

Cimn

Sea

lay.exvot

Cuacli

Cuckow

>iOKHV^

CAar

Curve

yvjjoco

Cuinneog

A can

y.xvv\^

Cubam

I stoop

nv-nTW

Cuirm

Ale

y.ovpy.1

This vocabulary I exhibit merely as a specimen of what might be pro-
duced, were the remaining letters of the alphabet to pass in review
before us.

By means of this venerable language we are able to explain some ex-
pressions in Greek and in its NjoYic dialect, the Latin, whose origin and
genuine import has been lost. A few of these I have already noticed,
and to them I shall venture to subjoin the following:

Aia^oXog is, in Galic, Di abheil, the terrible God.

Aatfjowv is De amh, evil Deity.

In the Roman history are many names which, when rightly understood,
appear to be descriptive of either offices or habitations.

Vercingetoriv exhibits Fear, Cean and Tor, that is, man, chief and
sovereign, to which the Romans added Rex.

It is said of Liscus, that he was Vergobretus of the ^'Edui, an officer
chosen annually, with power of life and death. In this appellation we
discover Breith and Fear, the designation of a judge.

The Allobrogi were mountaineers, inhabitants of Savoy. In this name
we have All, a rock, precipice or cliff, and Brog, a habitation.

In short, every name used by Cassar in his Galic war, whose initial
syllable is Vcr, whether it appertain to one person, or to many collec-

G g2

228

lively, points to its origin, and gives us distinctly Fear, that is man
or men.

Should the first syllable be Can, it implies a cape or headland, answer-
ing to Cean of the same import in Galic, precisely as it does in Cantire,
a headland in Scotland, which stretches into the Irish Sea. In modern
orthography Cean becomes Kin, as in Kinross, Kinsale, &c.

Magus, when it terminates a name, is Magh, a plain, and implies a
level country; but Dim conveys the notion of a fortress usually established
on the summit of a hill.

The very name of Celt^ given by historians to the Galic tribes, may be
referred to Coillte and Geilt, woods and woodlanders. General Vallancey
informs us, that the most ancient inhabitants of Ireland called themselves
Royal Shepherds. They had flocks and herds, and therefore sought for
shelter and protection, not in the elevated fortress, but in the extensive
forests of uncultivated countries.

VII.

AFFINITY BETWEEN THE GALIC AND THE HEBRREW.

THE affinity between the Galic and the Hebrew, with its dialects,
the Childee, Syriac and Arabic, is, in some respects, more striking than
between the Galic and the Greek. It appears to me, that the two latter
stand related to each other as descendants from one conmion ancestor;
but that the Galic is the elder branch. With the modern Irish I am
sufficiently acquainted; but of the ancient dialect, the Bearla na feine,

229

I am perfectly ignorant, and can only therefore refer my readers to

General Vallancey.

from him we learn, that the ancient language, as it exists in manu-
scripts, IS purely Chaldee, and that the verbs are conjugated in kal, pihil,
hiphil, hophal and hithpael, as reguhvrly as in Chaldee and Hebrew.
Like these lansruaires, it has two moods, the indicative and the impera-
tive, and in the oldest manuscripts the same word is used for the pre-
terite and the future.

These certainly, are striking resemblances, and carry back the Irish
language to the most remote antiquity. In one circumstance, the Galic,
whilst it agrees with the Hebrew, difiers from the Gothic languages, for
the verb subjoins its pronouns.

L is a preposition, as in Hebrew, signilying with, to and for, and M
is a very general servile letter, prefixed, as in Hebrew, Arabic and Chal-
dee. In these languages L and R are apt to be changed for each other.

The Rev. Mr. A. Stewart, in his Galic Grammar, delivers it, as his
opinion, that the Galic bears a much closer affinity to the Asiatic s-tock,
than any other living European language, and General Vallancey assures
us that nine words in ten of the ancient Irish are pure Chaldaic and
Arabic.

I here select a few as examples of the rest.

Aide, Aid and Acl, one. This agrees with Ahad of the Hebrew. Coimh
is in. Hebrew giin (Di') with; and ach an idiomatic termination, which
forms adjectives and participles. These combined compose coimheadach
coupling, and from the same root with imi, answering in like manner to
CJ/ and adhag, we have imiadhag, a coupling oc joining together. But

230

from ahad combined with ath, whicli answers to stj and to Tiy, we have
ath-ahad re-uniou.

lomad man}', may be "THi^ Di? because 0^ in given circumstances
implies negation.

Ailes, Olas and Solas, joy, are probably allied to '^^jV. f 7^ and 07-^
ioyful exultation.

AUod, ancient, old, may be allied to hcled of the Hebrew ("^.70) time,
a'l-e. Or it may be a compound of ^IV hidden, and "^V. which signifies
endless duration. Hence our Saxon ancestors may have derived allodial.
In Arabic ola, in Latin olim, in Irish ad and aoid, are all applied to time.

Aos, fire, sun, God, is {^^) esh of the Hebrew and Chaldee. This
seems to be the parent of Eeshoor and Eswara in the East Indies, of acher
of Persia, of osiris in Egypt, of the Etruscan aesar, and of the Gahc
aosar, of whom mention is made in ancient manuscripts.

Ceannam, T buy or sell, cean the price, ceannach a purchasing,
ceannaighe the place of exchange, and ceannaidhe a merchant, agree
with 1.^5? of the same import, and explain the name of Canaanites, as
given to the merchantile people of Phoenicia.

Ed and id, the hand, edim I handle, catch, feel, possess, eidir a
captive, eidirlen captivity, eidean ivy, a five-fingered leaf, iod a cast of
a dart and a measure of land, and cdel the lifting up of the hands in
prayer, all refer us to "^1 the hand, and Hl^ he cast a dart.

Raigh, riog and rig, a king, seem to have been derived from n;;-i he
tiourishcd, and nj^l a shepherd, and metaphorically a king. It is said
of David, in the seventy-eighth Psalm, " So he fed them (DI'"T') with a
faithful and true heart, and ruled them prudently with all his power."

231

The Almighty, speaking of Cyrus, says " He is my shepherd" ('Ji^'i'').
This image is familiar to the sacred writers, and to the most venerable of
the Grecian poets; and the word, by which their supreme ruler is
designated in France, Spain, Portugal and [ndostan, must be referred
to it.

I may be here permitted to observe^ that king, koning, ktming, and
konge, in the Gothic line, look toward cecum of the Galic, and not im-
probably towards cohe?i of the Hebrew and Arabic, which means, not
merely priest, but prince; and indeed prior to the Mosaic institution,
we find the two characters united. In the Manx dialect ccann, the head,
becomes kione, whose genetive singular is y-diing, and whose nominative
plural is ny-king. Agreeably to this notion and derivation we may
readily conceive the Irish m, a king, to be derived from (t^'^^l) rcsh, the
head, the most excellent, the chief, and rishon, the first, that is, the
first in dignity and power.

All the dialects of Galic, although they have been subjected to the
mutations, which time inevitably brings, still retain sufficient vestiges of
their oriental descent, and exhibit a striking affinity to Hebrew. This
will be evident to the student, if he consults the vocabulary, short as it
is, which will appear in the Appendix.

THE MANX JLAIN'GIJAGE,

XHE Manx appears to be ibe connecting link between the Irish and
the Welch.

It is not my intention to compose a grammar of this language, a
a work which has been already accomplished by Dr. Kelly, to whom
we are indebted for most interesting information. Yet a transient view
of its structure will throw much light on both the Irish and the Welch.

The original alphabet had nearly the same distinction of letters,
founded on organic affinity, as the Greek ; but in the Manx, as in the
Welch, their mutations are governed by peculiar laws. The modern al-
phabet has adopted ch, j, k, and q; but these are not properly Manx
letters. Ch takes the place of t. J is substituted for dh of the Irish,
k for c, and q for cw. A, o and u are used indifferently one for the
other. R, when radical, is aspirated as in Greek. L, n, r, are con-
sidered as immutable, b, p, ph , f, and m ; c, ch, cw, and g; d and
j ; t and s are mutable and demand particular attention.

In the beginning of a word b may become v or m.

253

Bea life; c vea his life ; nyn mea, our life.

M may become v; moir a mother, dan voir to the mother.

Pii and f may be dropt, or may become v. Phaal a fold for
sheep; e aal his fold. Foays advanrage; nyn voays our advantage;
e oays his advantage.

C may become ch or g. Carrey friend; e charrey his friend; nyn-
garrey our friend.

Ch may become h or j. Chiarn Lord; e hiarn his Lord; nyn jiarn
our Lord.

C\v or (| may become g and wh. Quing a yoke, nyn guing our
yoive, e whing his yoke.

G may become gh; goo report, e ghoo his report.

D Miay become gh; dooinney man, e ghooinney his man.

J may become y ; jee God, e yee his God.

T may become dh and h; taggloo discourse, nyn dhaggloo our dis-
course, e haggloo his discourse.

S may become h and t; sooill eye, e hooill his eye, y tooill the eye.

In these mutations Manx conforms nearly to those of the Welch, and
in some measure it resembles Sanscrit.

The numerals are un, daa, three, kiare, queig, chea, stragsht, haght,
nou, jeih.

The Pronouns — mee, oo, eh; shin, shiu, ad; I, thou, he, we, he
they.

The Verb Substantive — ta mee, I am; va mee, I was; ta mee erve I
have been; beem, I shall be; bee, be thou; dy ve, to be.

VOL. II. H h

334

The Verb Active — cliluin mee, I heard; cluinym, I shall hear; clasht,
hear; cluinit, heard; dy clilashtjn to hear. Dooyrt mee, I said; jir-yni, '
1 shall say, abl^yr, speak. Dinsh mee, I told; inshym, I shall tell; dy
insh, to tell. Diu mee, I drank; iu-ym, I shall drink; dy iu, to drink.
Faik, see thou; fakin, seeing; dy akin, to see. Hie mee, I went; gow,
go; dy gholl, to go. Jean, do thou; dy yannoo, to do; jannoj, doing;
jeant, done.

The present tense, as in Welch, is formed by a noun substantive with
the substantive verb. Ta fys aym, there is knowledge with me, I know;
ta graih aym, there is love with me, I love.

Manx has no passive voice.

Adverbs — nish, now; jiu, today; noght, tonight; daghlaa, daily;
cuin, when; quoi, who; my, if; lane, fully; mona, solely; foddee, per-
haps; dy feer, in truth; cha, not; nj', not; nar, nor.

Prepositions — co, with; myn, little; a and an, not; mee, not; neu, not.

The Manx language is not more distantly related to Galic, than the
Portuguese to Spanish. In orthography the difference is great ; but ia
sound they approximate; as must be evident to every one, who considers,
that in the Galic an aspirate usually renders the antecedent consonant
quiescent. The more readily to discern this affinity, we must advert to
the mutations, which I have above described, as, not merely admissible,
but absolutely required in the Manx. I here subjoin a short vocabulary,
such as I collected in reading a few chapters of St. John in Gcihc and
in Manx.

235

Galici

English,

Manx,

Galic,

English.

Manx,

Agam

I have

Ta ajmie

Math air

Mother

Moir

Againne

Our

Ain

Maith

Good

Mie

Athair

Father

Ayr

Mharbhadh

Kil]

Varroo

Bean

Woman

Ven

MhuiHonn

Mill

Wyllin

Beatha

Life

Vea

Naoi

Nine

Nou

Bha

Was

Neamh

Heaven

Niau

Biodh

Bee

Oidche

Ni<rht

Oie

Brathair

Brother

Braar

Posad h

Wedding

Poosey

Dean

Jean

Jaibh

Was

Row

Deich

Ten

Jeih

Righ

King

Ree

Dia

God

Jee

Rireadh

Truly

Jarroo

Dias

Two

Jeeg

Sgriobh

Wrote

Scrieu

Domhain

Deep

Dowin

Suidhe

Sit

Hoie

Dubhairt

Said

Dooyrt

Shabh

Hill

Clicau, Slieau

Eirich

Rise

Irree

leas

Heat

Ciiias

Firinn

Truth

Irriney

Toirt

Gives

Coj^rt

Fuair

Find

Hooar

Fearapull

Temple

Chiamble

Ghabh

Take

Ghow

Thig

Come

Hig, Jig

Gradh

Love

Graih

Tharruing

Draw

Hayrn

Gheibh

Take

Yiow

Thir

Land

Cheer, Heer

Ith

Eat

Thuig

Knew

i'heig, Hoig

Judhac

Jew

Hew

Thug

Gave

Hug, Dug

Labliair

Spake

Loayr

Tigh

Mouse

Thie, Hie

Lamh

Hand

Laue

lu
H h 2

Thou

236

In tliese examples, it is clear, that the Galic and the Manx differ in
orthography, although thev agree perfectly in sound.

In the Isle of Man they write as they pronounce ; but in Ireland and
in the Highlands of North Britain, attention is paid to orthography, by
which stai)ility is best preserved, and the affinity of kindred languages
more readily discerned. Were either French or English written as pro-
nounced, how soon would they be corrupted, how difficult would it be
to understand them, and how impossible to discover their connexion and
descent I This I demonstrated, when trealing'of orthography.

But although the Galic in various instances discovers its origin and
affinities much better than the Manx; 3'et the latter, in many words,
evinces more clearly than the former, their connexion with kindred
lansnases, both ancient and modern.

From this transient view of the Manx, it is clear, that, like the Irish,
it is related to the Greek, to its iEolic dialect the Latin, and to the
Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldee.

Among the few words which either occur in this vocabulary, or present
themselves to my recollection, are some whose affinity to Greek is most
evident. These are aal, auXvj ; agam, f%w ; an, «/f u ; baillym, jiovXo^x-i ;
clieau, y.Xi'itvg; cluinym, kXuw ; cha, ovx^ ; hie race, afxe ; hooill, the eye,
viXto,', the sun; mec, t^n ; mona, f^-ovog; myn, i^eicov ; noght, wkto^^ ; n^r, ue;
ta Jijs aijm, Iriifj-i ; irree, a.i^uj.

In its affinity to Hebrew, I shall notice two expressions, which require
particular attention. First then, jcc and yee, which in Manx mean the
Deity, are in the Irish written f/^a. because, like Greek and Hebrew, this
language is a stranger to I, consonant, a character which, although in-

237

troduced into Latin, did not originally belong to it; for Priscian informs
us, that the ancients used peiius for pejus, and eiius for ejus. The Irish
therefore, not having the letter J, have no means of supplying its place,
but by dh, yet they retain its power, and therefore o dhia is pronounced

o yia.

From this circumstance, and from the natural connexion between D
and J, I am inclined to think that the parent of jee, yee, yia and dia,
is to be sought for in the Flebrew Jah and Jehova, the self-existent, the
eternal. The affinity between D and J is strongly marked by the practice
of the Germans, who, to express the power of J, or of the palatine G,
combine D with S, C, and II, or with S and J, and thus write dschellid
for gelid, dsjelli for gelly, dsjost for just, and dsjuus for juice. The
conversion therefore of I into J, and of J into D, or the reverse, as when
diurnus becomes jxiurnee, must not excite our wonder.

The second expression,^ to, which I invite particular attention, is baillym
ox.saillym, of which in Irish we find the root in ail, the will. Of this the
original seems to exist in 7"'^in he willed. Here it is remarkable, that
in baillym the aspirate is converted into a labial, and that in saillym it is
supplanted by a sibilant. When we shall proceed to treat of tlie Greek
language, we shall have occasio) to notice some curious circumstances
respecting the aspirate and its various substitutes in other kiMguages.

In Irish we have toil the will, in which the T, may be derived from i^»^
leaving oil for the root, which makes a near approach to hod of the.
Hipbiew,

THE GOTHIC ILAWGUAGESo

J.T is not my intention to perplex either my reader, or myself, in mazes
more intricate than the labyrinth of Crete. This task I abandon to those
bold adventurers, who are in possession of Ariadne's thread.

In my researches, therefore, after the origin of the Danish nation, I
shall not think it incumbent upon me to trace the steps of Odin, nor to
ascertain the time of his departure from the East. Suffice it then to
say, that traditional reports confirm the suspicions of the linguist, and
tend to prove that the hordes, whose descendants now, as Norwegians,
Danes and Swedes, command the entrance of the Baltic, came originally
from the borders of the Euxine, directed in their course, and confined
in their migrations, between two great rivers, the Volga and the Nicper
or Borysthenes, till they met with the Riphsean mountains, which, ex-
tending north and south for nearly fifteen hundred miles, marked their
utmost limits to the cast.

239

Their most ancient records arc in the Edtia, first compiled and com-
mitted to writing in Iceland, by Sigfuson, who was born about the year
1057- These however, before the introduction of alphabetic characters,
had been imposed as a task upon the memory, and transmitted by tra-
dition, like the Poems of Valmeeki, of Homer, and of Ossian, from one
generation to another. In them we may observe history and mytholog}^
truth and fiction, intimately blended. Yet from these records wc may
venture to assume, that a distinguished leader, named Odin, Codcn,
Woden, or Otho, came from Turkey, where his capital was called Asgard
by the Goths, but Asburg by the Greeks.

When, however, it is said that he came from Turkei/, it is evident,
that by Turkey is pot intended either Turkestan, situated to the east of
Imaus, and of the Aral Sea, orTurkomania, which extends through the
mountainous district, whence flow the Nieper, theWolga, and the Don.
Indeed, it is particularly stated, that he came from the Magotic Lake,
and from the country watered by the Don, that is probably from
Taurica.

Here his Scythian Archers occupied vast forests, and gained their
livelihood bv huntinor. From hence, as it is stated, he extended his con-
tjuests to the north, drove back the first inhabitants, whether Finns,
Laplanders, or other hordes unknown, and, after having established his
sons in separate kingdoms, he himself took possession of Reidgotoland,
now called Jutland and Gotland, where he erected his throne, and gave
the name of Asgard, i. e. Fortress^ of the Gods, to the seat of his
dominions.

240

It is particularly noticed, that he governed his realm b}? the assistance
of a senate, composed of tAveive peers, whom he appointed as judges in
the land; and from this institution, we may possibly have derived our
juries.

This account of Odin is confirmed by Snorro Sturleson, a distinguished
poet and historian, born A. D. 1179, of an illustrious family, and himself
the supreme judge in Iceland. From him we learn, that Suecia was
considered as a new Sci/thia, an appellation, which did not escape the
attention of Jornandes and of Bede.

Odin could have found little resistance from the rude inhabitants, the
hunters, swineherds, and nomade tribes of Scandinavia, whether Finns
or Laplanders; for so thinly peopled was this country, that even in the
eleventh century the sea coast alone was occupied, whilst the interior was
one extensive forest, abandoned to wild beasts. Even the portion oc-
cupied by wandering hordes remained uncultivated. This agrees with
the description of Strabo and of Caesar.

It appears, that Odin was not the original appellation of this dis-
tinguished hero. His true name was Sigge. But either at his departure
from the east, or after his extensive conquests, and the establishment of
his throne in peace, he assumed the sacred name of that God, before
whose altars, as high priest, he had been accustomed to offer sacrifice,
and to whose protection, as Lord of hosts, he had attributed his vic-
tories; for in the country, from which he came, it is probable, that the
Deity was known, as m Palaslinc, under the appellation oi Adon, the
Lord of the whole earth.

241

, In the religious system of these our Gothic ancestors, wo may catch
aglympsc of pure theology, clouded by mythology, and the bhisphemous
pretensions of a successful warrior. Indeed I am much inclined to think,
that some knowledge of the true God remained, and that the total cor-
ruption of religion did not take place till after the death of Odin.
Human sacrifices had bled by his hand before the aUars of Jehovah, the
Lord of Hosts: but it was not till after his decease, that superstition dif-
fused its midniglit darkness over the northern hemisphere. It was then,
that he was considered as the God of war, and that all the prisoners,
taken in battle, were reserved for his altars.

Under the notion of his divinity, one day in the week was consecrated
to him, and called by his name. Such is the origin of our Wednesday,
Wonsday of Iceland, Odm's day of Sweden, Wodensday of the Anglo
Saxons.

In like manner the fifth day of the week, being devoted to his wife
Frigga, who became the Venus of the north, was called Freytao-. The'
day preceding this, called Dies Jovis by the Romans, became Thorsdag,
because Thor, the Taranis of Lucan, was the most valiant of the sons of
Odin, These became the three superior deities of our Gothic ancestors,
and to them were consecrated three annual festivals, of which the first,
at the winter solstice, was called Juul. It is by no means improbable,
that, as, like the Persians, these Asiatic tribes had their sacred fire, and
were addicted to the worship of the sun, Juul is allied to y,Xiog. Certain
it is, that the festival was sacred to Thor as the bright orb of day. This
festival gave occasion to much riot, and was celebrated with nocturnal
orgies.

VOL. II. I i

242

From this institution undoubtedl}' arose the custom in, our northera
counties of calling the great block of wocid, which burns on the hearth,
all the twelve days of Christmas, the Yule log.

Among the inferior gods, are to be nxkoned MarOy from whom we de^
rive night mare, and Neccus, called Nocca by the Danes, and known to-
us by the appellation of Old Nick. His office appears to have been to
drown men in the waters of the ocean. Another deity was called Flynt,
Him they represented by a human skeleton, with a lighted torch, and
sitting ona flint.

It appears that every ninlli year, the king, attended by the senate,
offered in the great temple nine captives to Odin. And it is recorded,
that in a time of famine the first king of Vermiand was himself offered
up as a burnt sacrifice to the same divinity. Having estahli-hed the
worship of this sanguinary god, they conceived, that no victim could
be too precious for his altars. Under this persuasion, Hacon, king of
Norway, to secure his protection, and to obtain the victory over Harold,
devoted his own son to Odin.

The structure of his most ancient altars deserves particular attention.
They consist of one large, flat, but unhewn stone, reposing on three
others, and placed on the summit of a high tumulus, which is seldom
solitary. In general the tumuli are three, disposed near together, and
the central one is largest. The monumental tumuli stand single. In the
rubbish under the large flat stone, flints are found, and the sacred area
is surrounded by a square, inclosed by lesser stones. In one of the
inclosures near the Royal Road in Zeeland, which leads to Bircke, th«
columns are of a stupendous magnitude.

243

These altars, being all of unhewn stones, constructed in the open air,
carry back the imagination to remote antiquity, and help to confirm tlie
traditional reports respecting Odin and his family.

It is probable, that the royal priesthood was continued in succession
from the days of Odin, till the introduction of Christianity, an event
which took place about the year 948. Attendant on the royalty, we find
a race of bards, precisely as among the Celtic nations; but, in Scandi-
navia, denominated skalds, that is probably men of skill in poetry,
whose office it was to celebrate the heroic actions of their ancestors.

The great temple of Odin was at Upsala, in the same inclosure with
the palace, on a considerable eminence, surrounded by the extensiv-e
plain of Waksala, which is on the margin of a lake, and well watered
by abundant springs. Here was established the habitation of the sacred
virgms, and the supreme tribunal of the realm. This temple is described
by an ecclesiastic, who lived at the time of the introduction of Christi-
anity into Sweden, and before the Pagan worship was abolished, as
resplendent in every part with gold.

Here the images of Odin, Thor and Frigga reclined on couches. But
of these deities, Thor, as being most mighty, was most elevated, with
seven stars in his left hand and a sceptre in his right. Frigga had her
sword and bow.

Succeeding writers confirm this account. Some time after Christianity
had diffused its light over the daik regions of the north, the adherents
of the ancient superstition made strong efforts to restore idolatry in
Sweden. In consequence of this, the first Christian kings transferred the
seat of empire from Upsala, and about the year 1024, Olof Skbt, th«

I i 2

244<

koniing, that is the king, gave orders to destroy the Pagan temple, with
its idols ; but as these injunctions were not implicitly obeyed, Ingenuuid,
in 1085, spoiled the temple of its ornaments, buriit the idols, and cut
down the groves. Succeeding monarchs tollowc i is extH,iple, and about
the year lloO, a cathedral dedicated to St. Lawrence was built on the
foundati n of the Pagan edifice.

All our records are agreed in bringing Odin from the East; and Wil-
liam of Malmsbury traces the descent of Hengist from this Asiatic hero.
N.iy, such, according to our best accounts, is the correspondence, such
the conformity of customs and manners, between the A^^ic'iic Scydiians
and the Goths, that we scarcely stand in need of historic evidence. In
both countries the women not only attended their husbands to the field,
but assisted them in battle. For this purpose they were provided with
horses and oftensive weapons by theii husbands on the wedding day.

In both countries the female infants were deprived of their right breast,
and in both, the warriors drank out of the skulls of their enemies. In
both, their covenants were confirmed by blood. This we learn, as far
as relates to the Scythians, from Lucian ; and SaxoGrammaticus informs
us, that the same practice prevailed in Denmark.

But the clearest evidence of the close affinity between the Gothic
nations and the Scythians of Eastern Europe and of Asia, may be de-
rived from the languages of Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Iceland, Eng-
land, Germany, Greece, Persia and Indostan, which all essentially agree,
as dialects of one common tongue.

To Odin has been commonly attributed the introduction of the Runic
characters, which he is said by the northern poets and historians to have

245

brought with him from Asia. That letters were imported at an early
period, is probable, because, hke those of the (J reek, Galic and Welch,
they were sixteen in number, as wore those of the Hebrew, at a period
particularly noticed by Bayer. 'J'liese were A, B, D, F, H, I, K, L, M,
N, O, R, S, T, U, Y.

Here we must particularly notice thai P, V and W, C, G and Q, are
wanting, as are the double consonants X and Z, but that in the Danish
we find P as a modification of K. In the more ancient inscri|)tions of
Iceland, Norwdv, and Denmark, as preserved by Ohms Wormius and by
Peringskiold, Y does not appear; consequently the characters may be
reckoned fifteen. In this enumeration T do not include E, because it is
a modification of A; and I must here remark, that O is expressed by a
reduplication of the A, so that originally t^e Goths appear to have been
contented with three vowel characters, A, I and U.

According to Pliny, the letters introduced by Cadmus into Europe
were A, B, C, D, E, G, I, L, M, N, O, P, R, S, T, V, which nearly
coincide with those of Denmark. Whether, or not, the aborigines of
Italy had P, in the alphabet, which they received from Evander the-
Arcadian, lam not competent to say; but 1 suspect that either B has
been a comparatively modern refinement upon P, or that P is a refinement
upon B; to which it is confessedly allied. Mr. Baxter remarks, that the
Brigantes, whom he regards as the most ancient inhabitants of Britain,
had not P, till it was introduced by the Bilgae. The Noiwcgians,
Danes, and Swedes, as I am inclined to think, were strangcis to ihe
letter B, or had but one character for B and P.

246

Indeed fewer characters thar\ those, which occur in the most ancient
inscriptions of Scandinavia, would have been sufficient for the purposes
of speech. The original Pelasgic letters, which, in form, approach to
the Runic, more particularly in I, F, and T, were twelve, A, E, I, U, L,
R, M, N, S, T, P, K, and of these, P and T potentially contain B, F
and D. As for U, it might perhaps, as in Hebrew, serve for 0. Even
so late as 150 years before the reign of Augustus, the Romans had but
one character for the power of K, C, and G, like the northern Goths,
and therefore wrote not legiones, magistratos, eifugiunt; but leciones,
macistratos, exficiont. This circumstance has been very properly noticed
by Walton, in the Prolegomina to his Polyglot.

There is a remarkable conformity between the Runic and the Welch
characters, compared with those of the Mancheou Tartars, as described
by Du Halde. Among these the Runic appear most simple, the Welch
most refined. Both have a striking resemblance to the Greek, and both
were evidently contrived for the use of people who possessed no imple-
ments for writing beyond a square stick and the fragment of a flint, or
some kind of cutting instrument. To make this visible, I here subjoin
the Runic and the Bardic characters, as they appear in the Pantographia
of Mr. Edmund Fry, with the radical Pelasgian alphabet of Father Gori,
which Astle conceives to be the most correct.

247

RUNIC CHARACTERS,
a b c d e f 2; h

i B Y 4i> i Y Y %

i k 1 m n o n q

I r i^ Y K € B F

r s t V X y z

B M- 't h.¥ ^hh

Such is the Runic alphabet, consisting of twenty-five characters, as
given by Mr. Fry, and published in the year 1799.

On this it is needful to make some observations. In the first place I
must remark, that we have here a mixture of ancient and modern cha-
racters. All the pristine characters, sixteen in number, are, as I
have stated, composed of straight lines, but in Fry's alphabet we have
curves, which are certainly modern. We have here likewise both B and
P. One of these is superfluous, and of modern date. The ancient
form, found in Norway, is a modification of K. G and K had originally
one character, which is that of K in the modern alphabet. But here,
fo« G, one stroke of K is curved, as are the two lateral strokes in M.
Here also V and Z have the same character, which surely they never
could have had. The same observation will apply to S and Y. Q is
modern, as are X, Y and Z. Here also E differs from the more ancient
form, as found in Norway and Denmark, which is a cross. The remain-
ing characters, A, I, O, V, L, N, S, T and U, consisting of straight
strokes, perfectly agree in both the ancient and the modern alphabets.

248

I have stated, that in Wales the Bardic alphabet was composed entirely
of straight stiokes. To demonstrate this, I here produce it.

BARDIC.

ngh

f:^

n 11 1 rh r s h hw

This Welch alphabet seems to have been a refinement on the ancient
Runic, and in a few of their characters they make a near approach.
These are A, I, F, V and T. Others have a more remote resemblance.

Most of the radical Pelasgian letters are composed of straight lines,
and a few of these resemble either the Runic or the Bardic, particularly
I, P, F, M, N, K, T.

PELASGIAN CHARACTERS OF CORT.
m I k k k i e a

AA vj >l )1 :) I a fl

f f f t s r p n

8:iV + 2<11M

849

In tills alphabet we observe some characters with straight strokes and
others with curves, the former evidently more ancient than the latter. It
contains three characters for V, which in (he more ancient Pclasgian in-
scriptions, found A.D. 1456, at Eugnbium, are used for F. At this we
need not wonder, because F and V being letters of the same organ, are
extremely apt to assume each other's place. We have three characters
for K, and as this alphabet, like Hebrew and Chaldee proceeds from
right to lelt, we may oi)serve a strd<ing resemblance in form between the
Pelasgian and the Bardic K. I is precisely the same in both. M and
F are in Oi e of these alpliabels. turned upside down. Both F and P
are reversed. N and T in both alphabets resemble, but in the Pelasgian
they appear distorted.

It is remarkable, that the Danes and Germans call a letter by the
name of bugstav and buch stab, or beech staff, and that this species of
wood is most abundant in Denmark. Even book is derived from beech,
and four verses in our Psalms are called a stave. A poet, who wrote
about five hundred years bt-fore the introduction of Christianity in our
northern regions, has left iiicse lines:

" Barbara fraxineis pinguntur Runa tabellis,
" Quodque papyrus agif, virgula plana valet."

The Welch inscriptions seem to have been confined wholly to such
rods; but in Scandia they were committed to the rock. Of these, the
most ancient, as far as my observation goes, appears to have been A.D.
270, and even later than this period, the characters consisted of straight
lines. But in process of time, when B and D were introduced, these,
with M an I R, began to exhibit curves. This change became natural,

VOL. II. K k

250

whsi) they were to inscribe their characters in stone; not with a knife,
but with a mallet and a chisel, or with a graving tool; and still more
natural, when succeeding generations wrote on skins, or in the place of
skins had substituted paper.

The operation having been performed originally by incision, and in
subsequent periods by engraving furrows on the rock, gave birth to a
metaphorical expression, when Tully said, " Haec cum essem in senatu
exaravi." Indeed the Gothic term rj'nner, from whence runes and Runic
have been derived, means grooves, trenches, furrows.

It is said, that Abraham and Abimelech made a covenant, but
in the Hebrew the verb is carath, and in Chaldee gazar, both which
convey the notion of engraving, whether in wood, in metal, or in stone.
See also Job xix. 24. Jer. xvii. Ezek. xxxvii. l6.

Of the Runic inscriptions, some are disposed from top to bottom,
after the manner of the Chinese writing, and the quipoz of Peru; some
from right to left, or the reverse and others, alternating like the Greek
/Sou^po(p>j5ov, gave birth to the expression verse.

In Sweden some monumental inscriptions surround a shield. Of such
Peringskiold has preserved examples. One of these, discovered in the
Royal Domain, called Konungsgiird, about one hundred yards from the
Temple of old Upsal deserves particular attention. The monument was
raised by Elof and Sigwed in remembrance of their father Wilfast, as
appears by the epitaph engraved on the body of a serpent, which sur-
rounds the scutcheon. For the crest we observe a wolf looking back-
wards, and tlic patronymick name is IVolf. On this monument Pering-
fikioid remarks as follows: " It is certain, that the ancestors of this

251

family liave been famous for military talents, during a period of more
ihan two thousand years, and continued to produce distinguished
generals till the fifteenth century, when the male branch became extinct."
As they frequently commanded on foreign expeditions, he thought it
probable, that Romulus and Remus were of this family. In America
^^e find one tribe distinguished by the name of JVolf. A monument,
similar to this in all respects, has been discovered in the parish of
Danmark, near Upsal, erected by the two sons of Lafia for their father.

The Skalds were, as I have stated, the constant attendants upon
royalty, and seemed to have exercised the same functions as the re-
corders both in China and Judea, and to have composed in verse their
chronicles, their creed, their sacred hymns, and their moral essays.

Such probably was their original institution. But, as all rude nations
are subject to superstitious fears, the Skalds soon learnt to abuse the
poetic art and Runic characters for the purposes of magic. Hence arose
their incantations, by which they were to call the moon and stars from
heaven, to stop the course of rapid rivers, to quench the devouring
flame, to burst asunder the gates of death, and to call departed spirits
from the deep. These magic arts were, by the Skalds, universally attri-
buted to Odin, who was surnamed Runhofdi, that is chief of the Runic
art. Such in fact was the intimate connexion between the Runic cha-
racters and magic, that in the Cimbric Language run means magic; and
run, Saxon, like runa, Gothic, means mystery. In Saxon runcrajftigen
is enchantment, and runstaf is both a magic character and incantation.

The Runic havnig been abused for the purposes of the most execrable
superstition, Ulphilas, Bishop of Mcesia, about A. D. 380, endeavoured,

K k2

252

as it is said, to introduce new characters. Such, however, was the force
of prejudice, such tiie power of inveterate habits, such the universal pro-
pensity to magic, that Christianity itself was unable to produce a re-
formation, and the iS mic continued to prevail in all the Gothic coun-
tries till they were prosciibed, first in Sweden by the Pope, A. D. 1050
then in Spain by Alphonzo, A. D. 1086, and finally by the Council
of Toledo, A. D. UK). Even the characters invented by Ulphilas, seem
to have been considered as approaching too nearly to the Runic, and
were forbidden in this council.

In the Cimbrip Chersonesus, we find at present three people, who
resemble each other in essential character and language, tlic >forwegians,
Danes and Swedes. These appear to have been formerly one people
dispersed and scattered over the North, but separated from each other
by seas, by mountains, or by the accidental circumstance of various
governments and distant scats of empire.

The origin of the name Dane has not been ascertained. Amonof their
sea port towns we observe Tonningen and Tunder. In Lower Saxony is
Danneberg. At the mouth of the Vistula is Dantzick, anciently called
Gedanum. We likewise see Tonsburs: and Sinus Codanus in the district
of Jutland, wiiose inhabitants were called fyeTwog, by the Greeks. All
these names resemble and seem to be connected. They direct our at-
tention to one nation and lead us to conclude with Sheringham, that
the apparently discordant names of Danes and Goths originate in one.

As to the inhabitants themselves they are evidently Goths.

THE ©AWISH JLAWGUAGE,

OlAUS Wormius, a learned Dane, considered the English and the
Danish as one language ; and, that they are so, will I apprehend, be
evident to every one, who takes the trouble to compare them. He
coincides in opinion with Lyscander, that Danish is a compound of
Teutonic and of Hebrew corrupted, since the dynasty was changed,
A. D. 1523, by the importation of Teutonic words. These, however,
appear as aliens and intruders usurping the place of ancient words,
which, though neglected, have been yet preserved. Certain it is that
the Laponic is a dialect of Hebrew, as I shall hereafter take occasion
to demonstrate.

The strict affinity between English and Danish will be evinced, as
we proceed in the examination of the latter. It may be here observed
that aa is pronounced as o.

254

The Pronouns.
leg, I; du, thou; ban, he; bun, she; det, it; vi, we; I, you; de,
they; os, us; dem, tbera; min, mine; din, thine; eders, yours; deres,
theirs.

The Auxiliary Verbs.
leg er, I am; vi ere, we are; iegvar, 1 was; vaere, to be; vaerende,
being; vaeret, been; ieg bar, I have; du har, thou hast; ban bar, he
has; vi have, we have, I have, ye have; de have, they have; ieg havde,
I bad; ieg havde bavt, I bad had. At have, to have; havende, having;
bavt, bad. leg skall, I shall; ieg skulde, I should; at skulle, to be
obliged. leg kan, lean; ieg kunde, I could; ieg skal kunne, I shall
be able; at kunne, to be able; ieg vil, I will; ieg vilde, I would; at
ville, to be willing. leg maa, I may; ieg maatte, I might, I must;
at maatte, to be allowed, to be forced.

The Irregular Verbs.
leg taenker, I think, i. e. I am thinking. leg taler, I am talking,
I am telling. leg aeder, I am eating; ieg aad, I ate, aedt, eaten. Baere,
bar, baaren ; bear, bore, born. Briste, brast, brustet; burst. Drage,
drog, dragen; draw, drew, drawn. Drive, drev, dreven; drive, drove,
driven. Falde, faldt, falden; fall, fell, fallen. Finde, fandt, funden;
find, found. Flye, flyede, flyedet; fly, flew, fled. Fryse, fros, frossen;
freeze, froze, frozen, Give, gav, given; give, gave given. Glide, gleed,
gleden; slide, slid, slidden. Gnave, gnov, gnaven ; gnaw, gnawed.
Hugge, huggede, buggen ; hew, hewed, hew>i. Kiende, kiendte, kiendt;
know, kne\\, known, or ken, ken'd. Klaede, klaedte, klaedt; clothe,

255

clad, clothed. Laane, laante, laant; lend, lent. Raekke, rakte, rakt;
reach, reached. Soelgc, solgte, solgt; sell, sold. SidJe, sat, siddet; sit,
sat, sitten. Skinne, skinncde, skinnet; shine, shone, shined. Synke,
sank, sinnket; sink, sank, sunk. Traede, traadte, traadt ; tread, trod,
trodden. Trive, trivedes, trivets ; thrive, throve, thriven. Det regner,
it is raining. Det hagler, it is hailing.

The Comparisons.

Aaben, aabnere, aabnest ; open, opener, openest. Faa, faerre, faerrest ;
kw, fewer, fewest. God, bedre, bedst; good, better, best. Hoe,
hoiere, hoiest; high, higher, highest. Lang, laengere, laengst; long,
longer, longest. Naer, naermere, naermest; near, nearer, nearest. Ung,
ungere, ungst ; young, younger, youngest.

The Numerals.
Een, to, tre, fire, fem, sex, syv, otte, ni, ti.

Phrases.

Lukke doren i, shut the door. Lukke doren op, open the door. To
shut may be also tillukke or tilslutte. To open may be aabne or oplukke.
Hvem er det der banker ? Who knocks? Giver ham eders bog, give him
your book.

By these examples, it is evident that Danish and EnHish are kindred
languages. Their near affinity will be rendered more distinctly visible,
when we shall have removed the veil, which, in numerous instances,
tends to conceal resemblance from the unpractised eye: that is, when

236

I shall have called lo tlie recollection of my readers those cor-
ruptions, to which all languages are subject, and which have happened
both to the Danish and our own by the practice, universally adopted,
of considering letters of the same organ as commutable. These maj
be divided into classes.

In the first class of commutable consonants, b, p, f, v, u, w, m, we
have the subsequent examples.

Danish.

English.

Danish.

English.

Danish,

Englis h.

Aabne

Open

Halv

Half

Stav

Staff

Dyb

Deep

Kalv

Calf

Stiv

Stiff

Gab

Gap

Due

Dove

Fern

Five

Gabe

Gape

Lov

Law

Navn

Name

Gribe

Gripe

Frisk

Brisk

Stevn

Stem

Haabe

Hope

Faeste

Beast

Emmer

Embers

Hob

Heap

KlafF

Clap

Kammer

Chamber

klcbe

Cleave

Klippe

Cliff

V^aad

Wet

Ober

Over

TafTel

Table

Vgekke

Wake

Plot

Blot

Fiaele

Veil

Varm

Warm

Saebe

Soap

Liv

Life

Vrang

Wrong

Straebe

Strive

Rive

Rub

Vriste

Wrest

Dov, Doev

Deaf

Rove

Rob

Vraenge

Wring

In like manner English words in w, have in Danish v. Viid, wide;
ville, will; viin, wine; uld, wool.

257

The second class of conimutablc

consonants.

c, ch, g, gh, h, k, i, y

and w, has the subsequent examples.

Danish,

English.

Danish.

Entflish.

Danish.

English.

Flage

Flake

Kaal

Cole

Skave

Shave

Hage

Hook

Krolle

Curl

Skede

Sheath

Hog

Hawk

Saek

Sack

Ski aire

Shear

Kage

Cake

\rag

Wreck

Skirerpe

Sharpen

Mage

Make

kig

Rich

Skield

Schold

Mog

Muck

Raskke

Reach

Skine

Shine

Rage

Rake

^"^.yg

Sick

Skib

Ship

Lige

Sigt

Sight

Skiold

Shield

Stage
Snog

Stake
Snake

Skrige

c Shriek
^Screech

■ikiorte
Skoe

Shirt
Shoe

Soge

Seek

Laege

Leech

ikoet

Shod

Svag

Weak

Magt

Might

Skorte

Short

Stryge

Stfuke

Trug

Trough

Skovl

Shovel

Tage

Take

Kule

Hole

Skud

Shot, Shoot

Tiixng

Rank

Kam in

Chimney

Skytte

Shooter

Kam

Comb

Kirke

Church

Vogte

Watch

Karde

Card

Klar

Clear

Sukkc

Sigh

Kaste

Cast

Klaske

Clash

Disk

Dish

Kat

Cat

Klokke

Clock

Fisk

Fish

Koe

Cow

Klukke

Cluck

Kort

Short

Kok

Cook

Skaeg

Shag

Mask

Mash

Kop

Cup

Skarp

Sharp

Rcidfisk

Roach

roL. II.

2o8

Danish.

English.

Danish.

English.

Danish.

English,

Rask

[{ash

Rug

Rye

Drage

Draw

Skal

Shall, Shell

Sige

Say

Drukne

Drown

Skam

Shame

Slaegte

Slay

Dusrsr

Dew

Skosse

Chaise

Stag

Stays

Egen

Own

Skaevc

ChafF

Frugt

Fruit

Foelge

Skaft

Haft

Lagt

Laid

Fugl

Fowl

Vaske

NVash

Nagle

Nail

Hugge

Hew, How

Gaarde

Yard

Regne

Rain

Svaelge

Swallow

Laegge

Lay

Snegl

Snail

Talg

Tallow.

Fcerge

Ferry

Tegl

Tile

Mange

Many

Vogn

Wain

The thirc

i class of cora

mutable consonants, d, t,

th, has these examples

Danish.

English.

Danish.

English.

Danish.

English,

The

Geed

Goat

Smuds

Smut

Disse

These

Had

Hate

Sod

Soot

Doed

Death

Hytte

Heed

Sod

Sweet

Ihou

lord

Farth

Sprude

Spurt

Dig

Thee

Ivlaede

Cloth

Stad

State

D under

Thunder

Langde

Length

Svede

Sweat

CThrostle or

.Vord

North

Tand

Tooth

Drossel

cThrush

Vrcd

Wrath

Taenke

Think

Feed

Fat

Vride

Wreath

I'anke

Thought

Flad

Flat

Mud

Sleet

Torn

Thorn

Iledc

Heat, Heath:

Sraed

Smith

Tong

Thong

'2dD

Danish,

Eiv.'Ush.

Diinuh.

F.ng^iah.

Danish.

EnglHh

Toe

Thaw

Pre

['hrce

Tyk

Thick

Torst

riiiist

Trives

Thrive

lyiicl

rhin

Traad

Threat

TroiDine

Drum

Vy V

i hief.

Trcenge

Tiirong

iVoHc

riirone

From this comparative view, I trust it wii! be evident, that Danish
and Lnglish were originally one. In fact they continued one, till William
the Conqneror introduced Norman words. -Since that time, althouo-li
rustic expressions remain unchanged; such as are found in cities and
about a court, are derived from Normandy, Sheep, goat, cow, calf
swine, ox, bull, remain; subject only to such changes as time universally
produces. But the meat, which these animals aftord, takes the Norman
appellation. Hence we no longer retain the expressions lammekiod,
oxekiod, kalvekiod and swlnekiijd, but in their stead universally adopt
the Norman names mutton, beef, veal, and pork. The affinity between
the Danish and the Greek, will be particularly noticed, and it will then
be evident, that whatever relation subsists between Enrrlisli and the
oriental languages, is to be found equally in Danish.

In the former part of this work we have traced the connexion between
English and Greek, and we have now demonstrated the close affinity be-
tween the Danish and the English. Hence the relation, which subsists
between Danish and Greek, is manifest. It follows as a consequence.

I shall, however, compare these languages together; I will brino' them
into contact, and then it will immediately appear that they originate in one.

When two languages pass in review before us, we readily imagine, that
the one, which can by authentic documents be traced backward to tlie
most remote antiquity, must be the most ancient of the two, and that

l12

260

this, when they happen to accord, must be the parent of the other. It
may, however, be frequently observed, that the venerated language is
indebted for words to languages, which afford no other evidence of their
antiquity except these words. Thus, for example, we are disposed to
think, that Greek and Latin may be the parents, but cannot be the
offspring, either of Danish, or of any other language, from which it is
imniediaiely derived.

The impropriety of this conclusion will, I trust, immediately be seen.
In English we observe male, in old French masle, both evidently derived
from masculus. But whence comes inas? This appears to have been
derived, by the usual process of abbreviation, either from the Danish
mnnds, a male, or from the Sanscrit manushya, human ; but certainly
neither mands, nor manushya, was derived from mas.

Between Danish and Greek words it may be sometimes difficult to say,
which is the parent, which the offsoring. I am disposed to think, as in
the conclusion it ma}' appear to others, that they are not related as parent
and offspring, but that they are separate dialects of one language, and
indebted for their existence to that, which was spoken either immediately,
r,Y remotely by the common ancestors of both nations.

fn Danish the substantive verb differs in its form from Greek. But
then it must be observed in the first place, thai em, I am, is still pre-
served in the Icelandic, a:id, in the next place, it must be remembered
th-at ftui is a comj>ound, W'^m which, if wc remove the pronoun (xi, only
i.i remains io be compar;\l with e in the modern Dcinish of cr, am, which
seems likewise to be a compound.

In order \n trace llie allinity between these languages, I shall examine
■ /irst some few bimplc words and then compounds.

oir

THE SWEDISH LANGUAGE.

X HE Swedish language is essentially the same with Danish and with
English. All these are confessedly dialects of Gothic. That they are
equally connected with the Greek, will be evident to every one, who
takes the trouble to compare them ; and it will appear, that the resem-
blance has been best preserved in the most obsolete expressions.

To make this evident, I have selected numerous examples from Pering-
skiold, who considers them as belonging to the most ancient Gothic or
Scando-Scythian tongue, which prevailed in Europe, and extended itself
into Asia. These will be found interspersed among the more modern
terms, and will be readily distinguished by the adept in Swedish
literature.

In the examination of this vocabulary, the reader must recollect, what
I have said on ihe investigation of radicals, and more parliculavly, what
I have had frequently occasion to explain respecting the three principal
classes of commutable consonants; because, by the application of this
key to languages, he will gain access to their most recondite treasures,
through the whole extent of Europe and of Asia.

THE ICELAWBIC ILAMGUAGE,

It is acknowledged, that the first inhabitants of Iceland were emigrants
from Scandinavia, who, A. D. 874, fled from the tyranny of Harold,
surnamed Harfagre. In this sequestered spot they cultivated science,
and their language is the purest Scandinavian, uncorrupted by admixture
with the German.

Having already said so much on the Danish, I shall here content
myself with the most transient view of the Icelandic.

The Pro7iouns.
Eg, thu, hann ; vier, thier, thaug; I, thou, he; Ave, ye, they.
In the oblique cases we find myn, thyn, hanns; oss, vorra, ydur, and
theirra, which give birth to the possessives.

The Verbs.
Eo- cr and Eg em, I am ; Eg var, I was ; ad vera, to be; verande, being.
Eo- hef, I have; Eg haffde, I had; ad afa, to have. Eg skal, I shall;

263

Eg aa, I owe; Eg aaatte, I did owe; Eg man, I may; Eg meige, I
might. Eg vil, I will; Eg inun, I must. Eg gef, 1 give; Eg gaf, 1
gave; ad gefa, to give; gefande, giving; giefenn, given. Eg tem, I
tame; Eg tamde, I have tamed; ad temia, to tame; temianda, tamino-.
Eg finn, I find; Eg iann, I have found; finnande, finding.

The Comparison of Adjectives.

Dyr, dyrare, dyraste; dear, dearer, dearest. Laus, lausare, lausaste;
loose, looser, loosest. Mikell, meire, meste; much, more, most. Litil,
minne, minst ; little, less, least. Goode, betre, beste; good, better,
best. Ill, verre, vest; bad, worse, worst. Laung, leingre, leingst; long,
longer, longest. Fagur, fregre, fegurstur; fair, fairer, fairest.

This confessedly is the purest of the northern dialects, and, agreeing
essentially with the Danish and the Swedish, its affinities are the same
with their's.

THE MiESO-GOTHIC.

JL HE fragment, whicli remains to us of the Gospels translated into
Gothic by Ulphilas, who was bishop of Maesia, A. D. S60, is a valuable
treasure; because it enables us to trace back our language towards its
parent stem, and helps us to ascertain a fact, that English, Anglo-Saxon,
German, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, Ma3SO-Gothic and Greek, to which
we must add the Persian and the Sanscrit, are nearly related, and ori-
ginate in one branch of the primeval language.

As a fragment, we cannot expect its vocabulary to be copious, yet the
comparatively few words contained in it are evidently connected with the
other languages of this branch, as will be clearly seen by the subsequent

examples.

The Pronotim.

Ic, tliu, is; weis, izwis, eis; 1, thou, he, we, ye, they.
In tlic oblique cases we observe, meina, theina, is; unsara, izwara,
ize; answering to mine, thine, his; our, your, their.

265

The Verbs.

Im, IS, ist; svum, syuth, sincl ; T am, thou art, Sec. Was, wast, was;
wesiun, wesuth, wesun; I was, &c. Du wisan, to be; wisands, being.
Wairtha, I become; warth T became. Ilaba, habais, habaith; haljam,
habaith, baband ; 1 have, thou hast, &c. Skal, I shall, will and must;
skulda, should. Magan, to be able; mahta, might. Sokja, sokjais,
sokeith; sokjam, sokeith, sokjand, I seek, thou seekest, &c. Sokida.
I sought; sokjei thu, seek thou; stikjands, seeking. Aigan, to have,
aihida, had. Andbindan, to unbind; andband, unbound. Biiidan, to
bid; band, bade or bad. Biskeinan, to shine; biskain, shone. Briggan,
to bring; brahta, brought. Bugjan, to buy; bauhta, bought. Driggkari,
to drink; dragk, drank. Duginnan, to begin; dugan, began. Gabri-
kan, to break; gabrak, broke. Galisan, to lease; galas, leased. Gawi-
than, to join; gawath, joined. Gaggon, to gang; iddja, went. Gasitan,
to sit; gasat, sat. Giban, to give; gaf, gave. Greipan, to seize; graip,
seized. Hafjan, to heave; hof, heaved. Hlahjan, to laugh; hloh,
laughed. ISiman, to take, to nim; nam, took. Quiman, to come;
quam, came. Quithan, to say; quath, quoth. Slahan, to slay; sloh,
slew. Standan, to stand; stoth, stood. Steigan, to go; staig, went.
Swaran, to swear; swor, swore. Thagkjnn, to {l>ink; thahla, thought.
Thwahan, to wash; thwoh, washed. Ussingan, to read; ussang, read.
Urreisan, to rise; urrais, arose. Waurkjan, to woik; waurhta,
wrought.

The Gothic, like the Greek, is apt to form its preterite by redupli-

VOL. II. M m

266

cation, as in aukan, to eke, to increase; aiauk, he increased; fahan, to
take, faifah, he took; tekan, to touch; taitok, he touched.

Like the Greek, it has the double g in the place of ng, as in gaggan,
to go, to gang. Tuggo, the tongue ; lagga, long ; briggan, to bring ;
huggrjan, to hunger; drigghan, to drink; thaggkian, to think ; aggilus,
angel ; Aggun, Augustus.

Like Greek, it has the dual number in its verbs, and like Greek, it
delights in compound expressions. It has some resemblance to the
Hebrew in its hiphil conjugation, as in kunnan, to know; gakunjan, to
make known.

Its numerals are similar to those of its kindred languages in Europe
and in Asia.

A in, twa, thrins, fidwor, fimf, saihs, sibun, ahtau, niun, taihun.

AFFINITY BETWEEN DANISH AND GREEK.

I must here premise that aa is pronounced as o, that b, answering to
iTTt, is apt to be prefixed to the root, that letters of the same organ ha\e
been substituted for each other without scruple by the Danes, and that
the part of the verb adduced is commonly the infinitive.

26r

Danish.

Eihjlish,

Greek.

Danish.

Enylifh.

Greek.

Aabe

Open

OTTV]

Blusse

lilazc

Ktujjio

A age

Yoke

Xvycv

Bog

Beech

'py,ycg

Mde

Eat

eSeiv

Boe

Live

^lOiC

Aal

Eal

tyxtXog

Bonne

Bean

'TtVCC^/OV

Ande

Breathe

Borg

Castle

7rup<yog

Aare

Oar

tpeatrco

Bore

xeipw

CEg

Egg

xryfyog

Bosse

A box

Tcv^ig

con hy, ;

C from S

X'KO

Braege
Braekke

Bark
Break

I'ipvxxof^cei.
pviyv'jui

All

okog

Broende

Burn

Ttvpoeiv

Alen

Ell

(cXiVi^

Braemme

Brim

7[epiuiJ.[t.oi

Albue

Elbow

dXevvifiiog

Brist

Burst

pvi<r(Tcc

Almisse

Alms

eXeyi[j,oiTwyj

Bring

(pspsiw

<|Thepre-p
c position S

ocvx

Brum me
Bryst

Roar

Breast

Arm

Destitute

e^v,[>,og

Bue

Bow

3iOs

Be, Bi,

^The pre-'i
C position )

evi

Bux

Daatter

Box

Dauofhter

^vyccTvp

Baere

Carry

(pspeiv

Daekke

Cover

rf7£iv

Bedre

Better

SeKrspog

Dele

Deal

5i£X£iV

Bedst

Best

SekTigog

Die

Suck

m^'/l

Blad

Blade i

iXxgxvcti,

Dige

Dike

reixog

Blege

Bleach

KevKog

Dobbelt

Double i

hirXcvg

Blomstre

Bloom J

3Xuw

Dogge

Dog

ijc'/LOg

268

Danish.

i3okke

Doinme

Dor
Drage
Drive
Du

"gg

Dyb
Dyppe
Dykke
Dyr

Ebbe

Eje

Een

Faa

Faae

Fad

Falde

aiige

Faic
Fatte

English.

Dock

( Deem

I Doom

Door

Drag

Drive

Thou

Dew

Deep

Dip

Dive

Beast

Ebb

Edge

fiave

One

Few

Obtain

Pan

Fell, Foul

Covet

Seize

Catch

I Greek.

8eSpz<y[j.xt

rpijicii
\

VTiTOI
SvTTTCC

TTxvpog

TTOCCO

TTXTOCUVI

rreXup. (pxvXog
ekSofj-xi

opevofj^xi
n-xco

Danish.

Feed

Fegte

Feile

Finte

Filt

Flaae

Flase

Flere

Fleest

Flette

Flod

Flyde

Fod

Fode

Fore

Foge
Fole
Fold
Folk
For
Forest
Fra
[Fragte

Engliih.

Greek.

Fat

(pocTVoj. TreTTxlxi

Fight

TTUHTf-veiv

Fail

cr^xWstv

Feint

(fiivai

Felt

(paXXog

Flay

(pKoi^ui

Flake

TiKsy.M. TrXxAog:

■n-X^peg

Most

TrXeiqog

Plait

vXeaco.rie'jXaTxi

Flood ;

Flow 5

(pXySuu

Foot

nohog

Food

(iOTO^

( Carry ;
(Guide S

(pepca

Fix

TTViyw

Foal

TTOiXog

Fold

(pvXo^

Folk

oxXo';

For, Fore

rrxpx. Trpo

First

TrpCOTiqOi

Prom

TtXpx

Freight

fiopTi^ca

209

Danhh,

Engtixh.

Greek.

Danish.

Frisk

Brisk

^(ppiyxu

Hele

Frygt

Fright

(ppi.77U

ficle

Fuld
Fyre

Full
Fire

ii:jXXo(

TrVp

Hen

Gaae

AUO. lot

Henncp

Galdc

Gall

%oXvi

Herre

Gall
Gabe

Crow
Gape

KocXeu

Hie

Gierde

Hurdle

ryvposiv

Hielpe

Giest

Guest

eqiscco

Hierte

Giog

Cuckoo

MKKvE,

Hiul

Glose

Word

yXci>(T(TX

Hob

God

Good

xyci^Oi;

Hone

Godhed

Goodness

aya&oTvif

Hore

Gnave

Gnaw

avxic

Hov

Graa

Gray

ypaix

Hud

Gravere

Grave

ypxCpeiv

Huede

Grotte

Grot

upvirTU

Hul

Hade

Hate

KOTOg

Hull

Ilaenge

Hang

xyxa

Humll

Hage

Hook

oymvos

Hyle

Hale

eXyoD

Hyrde

Halm

nxXx[j.^

Hyre

Hagel

Hail

XxXxi^x

Hytte

V ii.. II.

P.ngliiS.

All

Heal

(The pre-<^

Cposition 5

Hemp

Lord

^A den, /

c A hauntS

Help

Heart

Wheel

Heap

Hen

Whore

Hoof

Hide

Wheat

Hole

Cave

Hops

Howl

Herd

Hire

Heed

Gree^i

oXog,
xX^tu

xvx

■<xva(ii.(

'iVpiOf

o^kXXo)

H£Xp

nvXia

xiTtog
y\)w.

nSpvi

OTrXv\

THVTO(

TITO!

noiXo?
xoiXot

JJfxCTfXOf

vXxcii
xyappw

ASpSOf

270

Daniah.

Jkke

lid

ludcn

Kalde

Kalk

Katiiin

K a miner

Kande

Kappc

Kiende

Kiercst

Kierne

Kind

Kicibe

Kioii

Kirke

Kiste

Klaede

Klaff

Klage

Klantr

Klinge

English.

Not

Fire

Within

Call

Cup

Chimney

Chamber

Cann

Cut

Know

^Best be-(

C loved '

Kernel

Churn

Jaw

Buy

Kin

Church

Chest

Clothe

Cuff

Complaint

Clang

Clink

Greek.

OVK

tVTCf

axXetv

KUAi$

■ACCV^xpOf

Z^p'ieqxTOi

neap

yvpoiiv

ytvui

yei/og

y.iqv\

y.oxz(pOi;
ly.Xx<y£
y.xot'y'yyi
y-xxiyyv)

Danish.

A. line
Klebe

Klint

i'llippe

Klokke

Klynke

Knae

Knaele

Knage

Knekke

Knibe

Knytte

Komme

Kone

Koppe

Kort

Krabbe

Kradse

Kraft

Krane

Krebs

Englinh.

Glue

^Cleave )

(Clue ^

\ '3 row of^

} a hill S

Lop

Bell

Lament

Knee

Kneel

Crash

Snap

Nip

Knit
Come
Woman
Wife
Cup
Short
Crab
Scratch
Strength
Crane
Crab

Green.

yxix

noxxaw

xenXaxx

yovv

xxvoixyj
y.xvux^

hVXttTU

ipXO[i-cci

nvirewov
xeipoj

xxpx^Of

XXpXTTU

yepcevOf

271

Danish.

Kiigle

Kule

Kukiik

Kunne

Kysse

Labbe

La be

Laegge

Laead

Laekke

Lagt

Larape

Lantse

Lee

Levne

Lige

Ligge

Line

Loft

Lofte

Log

Engtish.

> Globe

^ Bowl
lole

Storm

Cuckoo

Know

Kiss

Paw

Lap
Lay

Loin

Leak

Laid

Lamp

Lance

Laugh

Leave

Alike

Lie down

Line

Roof

Lift

^ On ion

Leek

Greek.

y.vxXor

xotXcr
aaXXx

kovvsiv

Xa(ivj Kxjiiiv

XxTna

Xeyca

Xxycov

Xxyapof

Xsyo^i-xi

XafATTW

Xoyx,^

ysXecca

Xei'Tteiv

xXlAlO;

Xtyoj
Xiuov

eiXi^(px
Xa.%xvov

Daniih.

Logn

Logte

Lok

Lose

Lue

Lukke

Lye

Lyd

Lykke

Lyse

Maade

Msegte

Ma3no;e

age

Med

Meel

Meen

Meest

Meget

Alelk
Meie
Mene

A lie

Lantern

Lock

Loosen

iiame

Lock

Listen

T/Oud

Luck

Light

Mete

Might

Mingle

Make

^The pre-^

' position

Meal

Oefect

Most

^Great

cMnch

Milk

GreeA,

Xcjoi
Xvxvog

TrXOY.Cg
XiVUJbl

y^exXetKx

aXvw

HXVTO^

Xxxog

X£V(T(j-c<;

,\^'^Xx:/xo\j.ai

\i.ETX

\hvX<^

f*£AKa: Galen

Mow.
Chink

real

UU.XOO

lj.£vog

Danish.

English.

Greek.

Danish,

English.

Gredt.

xMikil

Much

[j-ifyxw^

uTtep

Mild

cc\i.ct>.og

Ophielpe

Help

K^ewu'

Min

Ore

F.ar

ovzg

Minde

Mind

i^evo;

Otte

I'vight

OxTO)

Moder

Mother

UV5TV1/)

Oxe

.2:^iv^

Moe

Maiden

5fj.a;iV

rUpon, -N

IVIOJC

Trouble

u-oX^og

Paa

<at, in, >

6Xt

Mole

Mill

fjuUAV)

'after ^

IMudder

Mud

uvSxca

Pandt

Pawn

ttKU

Muus

Mouse

Page

vxig

Mjre

Ant

l^vp^viE,

Pande

Pan

n-XTXVVj

Nat

Night

Vl/lCTOJ

Pael

Pale, Pole

TTXJS-iXXOg

Navn

Name

ovofj^a

Pillc

To pill

^^iXOw

Nei

Nay

VII

Pine

Pain

Ttev^o?

Net

Neat

Vi'JTO)

Plads

Place

TXXTSIX

Net

vvi^ca

Plage

Plague

eirxxyov

Nine

twtx

Planke

Plank

'Ttxxi,

Now

vvv

Pligtig

Bound

TTACxW

New-

veog

Priis

Price

'vpy^aig

Ober

Over

UTTf/J

Purre

Irritate

jwepx^tv

Oge

F.ke

CCuE,(i3

Puste

Puff

TTTUOV/

Oje

Olie

Eye
Oil

o^Kog

Raa
Raft

Yard ^
Rafter i

pxjiSog

Round

cnj.(pi

Rage

Shave

xpxjau. B,u)

♦)7.''

Danish.

EnglUh.

Greek.

Regne

Rain

paivui

Raise

Voyage

tpea-iTca

Rense

Rinse

fixiv<a, pxvig

Ringe

Circle

yupotiv

Rive

Snatch

ctpTaci)

Rod

Root

fi^a

Rove

Ravish

kp'Kon

Ryg

Ridge

gxxig

Saare

Sore

(p^opx

Seede

Seat

eSog

Saette

Set

e^to

Sseve

Sap

OTcog

Sak

Sack

tranaog

Sal

Hall

auAV)

Salt

xXg

Salve

xXei<pii}

Sex

Six

Sidde

Sit

i'^etv

Skierm

Shelter

(7Ki«

SkufFe

Shovel

aXflfTTTW

Skye

Cloud

avuu.

Skygge

Shade

e(7nixiix

Skyde

Shoot

jneSxca

Skyts

Votection

(7Ki«?ft)

VOL. II.

Danish.

English.

Greek.

Skole

jcliool

-%oXv)

Skam

Shame

^-^X^ii^ovsiv

Skib

Ship

THx(pVI

Soel

Sun

\^Xiog

Soe

Sow

vg a-vg

Sove

To sleep

UTvactf

Sovn

Sleep

v'xvog

Span

(rs7i&afji,vj

Spinde

Spin

(TTHl^eiV

Spise

Eat

eo-Siw

Stamme

Stem

«re(/.[*fl:

Stade

Station

qxiTig

Staae

Stand

qxu

Stand

State

eqSi/xi

Stem me

Stop

k^h^

Stemme

Voice

qo[>.x

Stem pie

Stamp

q-£fji./3fiV

Steen

Stone

qiov

Sted

Place

qa^[j.og

Stierne

Star

xq^p

Stige

Step up

qoixia

Stikke

Stick, sting

k^xf^

Stilk

Stalk

qtkexog

Stiv

Stiff

qijiapog

274

Danisli.

English.

Greet.

Danish,

English.

Gree*.

Stivelse

Starch

qil^oifiog

Tre

Three

TptTg

Stof

Stuff

qv(p(a

Troe

Trust

Sappty

Stonne

Groan

qava^M

Trone

Throne

^powog

Strid

^Strife }
C Battle 3

qpccTevikCt

I ug jn ^
Hertug 3

Duke

Txyog

Str<5e

Strevr

qp(i)W[s.i

Tunge

Tongue

(p^oyyog

Sye

Sew

^X(77Vb3

Tusk

Ink

Sa(Tniog

Synde

Sin

(TIVU

Vaev

Weave

v(pi£iv

Sjg

Sick

tnH^os

Vasde

Wet

vsTog ^iou

Taale

Suffer

TxKiia

Ved

With

fjoETa

Taare

Tear

i5axpu(*«

Vikke

Vetch

/3ixia

Tsekke

Cover

(^eiyo)

Vide

Know

eiSetv

Taemme

Tame

Bx\t.oi(a

Vidie

Withy

Itex

Tage

Take

iTayov

Veed

Wood

■jXciSvfg

Tand

Tooth

T£V&«

Viin

Wine

oivog

Tappe

Tap '

TUTTO;

Vild

Wild

vXuSvit

Ten

5fxa

Virke

Work

epyd^eiv

Tiur

Bull

Tccvpog

Vise

Shew

l(7-i/l\i.L

Two

Sva

Voxe

Grow

■>f z
xvt,eiv

Torre

Dry

ivipog

Vrag

Wreck

pviyi**

Traette

Strife

qpccTtvixx

)

Trffikke

Drag, draw

SaBpctx'^

275

V/e have here taken a survey of more tliaii tbioc hundred and fi-w
inonosylhvbic expressions, in which the affinity between the Danish an I
the Greek is "vident. Now let us examine such compounds, as tend still
further to illuscrate this affinity. Of these, most of the prMiiitivcs will
be found in tlie preceding vocabulary, and the compounds themselves
are reduced to classes, according to their prepuiritions.

I. Primitives combined with aTro, af and op.

Afocde eat off, qfbkle bite off, afbrmnde burn up, ofdcle divide, afdrage
detract, afdrive drive off, afhage unhook, afflae flay, offdre evacuate,
asgaae go off, afgnave gnaw off, qfkalde reclaim, afkappe chop oft', ajkiobe
purchase, afklcede undress, afknappe nip off, afko'te shorten, afkradse
scratch off, afloegge cast off, ajl'ose loosen, afmeie mow, afmcegtig weak,
af nappe pluck oflF, afpille pille, afrage shave, af reuse rinse, ofrive tear off,
afstaae desist, afstand stand off, afstige descend, afstikke en'fravc,
aftrcekke draw off, opfare ascend, opfore bring up, opgaae rise, oplosc
unbrace, oplijse enlighten, opstaae rise, opstige ascend, optage take up.

II. Primitives combined with livx, an and hen.

Anhrmide kindle, anfore guide, anhage hook, anklage arraign, antagc
and hentage take, accept, henbcere transport, hen/are depart, henrive
ravish.

III. Primitives combined with £7r< be.

Bedakkt cover, bek/age lament, belee laugh at, berove rob, beskierme
^sheJter, beskygge sha^ . beskgtte hide, bestaae consist, bestride combat,
hetr^t trust, bide gnaw, bistaae aid.

276

JV. Primitives coinbined with vTtep over.

Overdrive exaggerate, overfdre transport, overgaae surpass, overklade
clothe over, overmagt superiority.

V. Primitives combined with utto, seemingly for 't-^'t, paa, pro-
nounced po.

Paadrive drive on, paakalde call on, paakhige accuse, paaklade dress,
paakomme happen, paalcegge lay on, paaligge lie on, paam/ anew,
panstaae insist on, paatage handle, paatrcekke put on, paavirke work on.

VI. Primitives combined with «(>.(pi oiti.

Omhmre bear round, omdeele distribute, omfang circuit, omfare travel
round, omfatle embrace, omguae go round, omski/gge shade round, omringe
surround.

VII. Primitives combined with [^e^x med.

Meddele share, medbare carry with, meddrive drive with, medfare go
with, medfdre carry with, mcdmaade with moderation.

VIII. Primitives combined with eviog ind.

Tnddrive drive in, indfare go in, indfire introduce, indkalde call iri,
indkomme enter, indlcegge lay in, indlukke lock in.

TX. Primitives combined with 'Trapa fra and frem.

Fradragc deduct, frnfare depart, frafdre carry away, frakalde recall,
frastaae desist, frembcere produce, fremknlde call forth, fremfdre produce,
J'remdrage draw out.

277

X. Primitives combined with irpo for and fore.

Forehringt offer, forckele disperse, fordrive turn out, forekomme come
before, fortmette propose, foretage undertake.

XT. Primitives combined with tx k and s.

Klap aXxTTx, knytfe vvt'^aiv, krybe ep^eiv, kule atKhu, glas glass, Xevirffu
glippe fail, tyiKei^.-aiv, gabe gape, crnv^.

XII. Primitives combined with eE. s.

Skim'e neiptiv, skov a copse, mo^tw, skrige cry, y-pi'^tiv, skrive ypaipeiv,
smdre anoint, \j.\ipi^si.v, snee snow, viCpnv, spior spear, 'Ttsipxu, stinke Txyyi^eiv,
storm opi^vi, stro/n stream pevfj-x.

XIII. Primitives combined with ou and ovSh u and uden.
Vbrmidt unburnt; lifwio- discordant, wyi^i/^flr infallible, ukaldet uncalled,

ukyndig ignorant, idig unlike, ulykke unlucky, utaalmodig intolerable,
utcemmet untamed, ustadig unsteady, uslridig incontestible, udenmaade
immeasurable, udenmoje not difficult.

XIV. Primitives combined with either x'tco and ei, xvx and £t<, or eisi.
and t^ af, s, an, be.

Jfskcere cut off, afstorse dry, afskrive copy, afsiage take off, anbetrse
trust, anskrive write down, beskare cut round.

XV. Primitives combined with £«■*, or e^ and tTi, or ct* and i-^t, or si
and £T», or vpo and £7ri.

VOL. II. P p

278

Bespise feed, hesprmige sprinkle, bevidne witness, spmkke crack, for-
hiqnae pass, forbifare pass, forbireise pass, furblive remain.

XV r. Primitives combined with cv, ovxi. and tm, e^ aito, avx, Trpo

and ai'-tpi, Sec.

Ubkget unbleached, iibrakket unhvrok'en, ubestridet conceded, nfoveenlig
i) reconcilable, cu, ^po, sv, aUy.iog; ugiaihaldelig irrevocable, ovxi xvx,
y.xXeiv xXmiog; vgieiibringeHg irreducible, itgicnki^beUg irredeemable,
M07>7/nf;«6/'?/Jc//^' impenetrable, ovxi, xvx, x\j.(pi, wnptiv, a'kiy.io<;; unfvidende
secretly, tianseelig uncomely, uantagelig unacceptable, ubehoet unin-
habited, vbeskreven undescribed, ubevidst unknown, itbestandig incon-
stant, iihrcekket unbroke.

The propensity to multiply prepositions evinces the resemblance of
these languages, and the identity of boih primitives and prepositions
demonstrates their affinity.

The double G and double K, which occur in Danish, give this
language a striking resemblance to the Greek, which is the more remark-
able, because we cannot but observe, in given circumstances, the equi-
valence between k, y, %, K and G convertible into N. Thus Xcf^xavu
produces lykke luck, and (pSoyyoc tongue. Thus qpa'^^^ and (Tpayyfua
inay have given birth to streng and strikke, both which in Danish signify
a string; and the Danish stikke may be the immediate parent of both
stick and sting. Thus also ktinge, to clink, click, and klynke, to cry,
lament, bemoan, connect themselves with KXayyfw, xXay^w, KXayiyvj,
clangor, and so does hange with ay^".

279

This conversion of N into gamma, or of gamma into N, is extremely
interesting. It remains for some good philologist to aceountfor a [practice
by which Gronovir.s was exceedingly perplexed, and on which no li dit
has hitherto been thrown.

I am disposed to suspect that N before G and C, or n, y, % became a
nasal, as in the French word etang, and that for want of an appropriate
character, by which it could be distinguished, it was expressed by
gamma, and denominated agma, for this was the name, by the ancient
grammarians, given to gamma, when it preceded either m, 7, or %,
(v. Gronovii Dissertationes.)

In this display of the affinity between our parental language and the
Greek, the reader cannot fail to observe, that although the lineaments
are changed by time, the family likeness between Greek, Danish, and
English still remains.

AFFINITY BETWEEN SWEDISH AND GREEK.

Sicedish.

English.

Grtek.

Swedish,

English.

Greek.

A and Ai

Always

ie:

iEIja

But

iX}J

Ach
Ade

Ah!
Disposition

«i and a.7

iEljes ;
Aljes S

Otherwise

aXAffif

Adel

Nobility

i^Kov

iElta

To desire

iXSoiAXl

iEga

To have

eXtiv

iEmbar

A vessel

<xiJ.(popsCi

^gff

Edge

1 \

iXV

Aela

A storm

xiWx

iEnda

To end

eCl/VTTM

280

Swedish

English,

Greek.

Swedish,

Engtith.

Greek.

Aga

Astonish

Z7H

Aga

A btroke
To lead, -n

XIV.IX

Aga j

drive }

z<ya

Agi

A leader ^

Agoetr

Good

^zya^Of

^gg

Ach

«%Cf

Agn

Stra\v,chafr'='%!^«

Akta

To think

v,<)'io\t.at

Ala

To kindle

aKex

Ala \

To nourish
To fatten

yakBaw

Alfbarg

The Alps

ccKTreig

All

oKos

Aln

Ell

aiKev^

And

Against

avTi

Ande

Spirit

5/ V

Ane

King

xvx H

Ankar

Anchor

xyKvpa

Ankel

Ankle

aynuXv)

Beginning

ipx^i

Dawn

vip ver

Oar

(vipvif in

281

Swedish.

Arg

Art! & lard

Arf

Argi

Aria

Arm

Arpe

Art

Ask

Aska

Askio;

Asp

Ast and i

Venast S

Awi

Axel

Backe

Back

Badda

Baegga

Bagge

Baggo

VOL. II.

Enylish.

Lazy, Idle

Earth

Field

Ire

^To plough

rio drink

Poor

Filthy

Disposition

CA vessel,^

(Ship

Ashes

Worth

A spin

Vesta

Woe
Axis
Hill

A fountain
To beat
A sheep )
A ram J
A boy

Greek.

Swedinh.

Engtiih.

Greek.

xpyoe

Balja

A pail

xtXXa

if^Ot

Ban

A path

(ixivcc

e^a

Bane

Destruction

(povog

Opr/Vi

Barbar

Barbarian

^xpjlxpog

ap8V

Barn

Infant

^xp Hesych

(xpvcc

Bars

A barge

(ixpig Hesych

ep\^lf.og

Baera

To bear

(ptpEllt

pUTTOW

Bassolyds

King

^xcnKav;

apu. upeToti

Bffist

Best

jieX'Tiqo;

Ba^ttrc

Better

(itX^epog

xjaog

Ball

'7rx).Xx Hesych

xc,co

Beck

Pitch

xitIx

xawccipoj

Becken ?
Begare 5

A beaker

jliyiOg fiiyiiSio:/

Beraetta
Bessa

To relate
To fall

pvidtg

■KEdeiV

1 \

OVXI.

Betala

To pay

STiiraXeiv

a^ccv

Beta

To bait

/3iOT£U£;v

liiyog

By, u pon

6774

7rytyv\

Biart

Pure

^ixpog

t:xtx(TJCO

Bleck

^A plate- }

n-XxE,

/Sv'kvi Hesijch

Bleck

c lanien S
Slothful

iX^^

vctig

bleck

Pale

XevyJog

282

Saedith.

English.

Greek.

Saedish.

English.

Bleka & I
Breka 3

To rain

/3p£%a>

Dike
Disk

A ditch
A dish

Blia

To look at

fTTi Xoiio

Djup

Deep

Blia

To flow om

(3Xuw

Djur

Deer

Blomma

A flower

/SXuo;

Docka

A dock

Bloss

Flame

(pXoE

Dofta

To dip, dive

BHnd

Blind

^Xcivog Hes.

Dona

To sound

Bol

A city

TToXig

Doppa

To dip, dive

Brinna

To burn

TrVpOStV

Dor

Door

Braka

^ To make ^
(. a noise 3

(ipzxco

Doter
Drom

Daughter
Dream

Bromma

To roar

|3^£fji.W

Dron

Drone

Brod

Food

(ipcaTog HeSi

Dros

Tumult

Brussa

To boil

^pxa-jci}

Draga

To draw

Byssa

A box

nvbg

Drifwa

To drive

Bytta

Bottle

jicti'Tiov Hes.

Drog

A dray

Dacke

Purse

&V)KV)

Dry pa

To scourge

Dagga

To gnaw

Szavw

Dubbel

Double

Dagg

Dew

Dunt

A stroke

Dam

A dam

5£f*W

Dura

To dure

Danat

Death

^ccvxTog

Efter

x-lfter

Dickta

To form

TfU%W

Eg and lag

Dika
Dikcl

Vo excavate
A spade

UrnfAXa

Egg
Elandig

Egg
Merciful

Greek,

T£l%OJ

Si(rMg

O0%£K}V
(SuttTW

Spa[j.x
^pdvzE, Hes^,

SiTrX^g

Svigog

XUTX§

tyca

xyyog

i\eeivog

28$

Swedfab^

Elg

Eriur

Erfida

Fader

Falla

Fana

Fara

Fasta

Fat

Fauai

Fee

Far

Feckta

Fel

Fela
Fein

EnglitU.

Help

I am

One

Strife

Labour

Father

To cast

Cloth

To depart

To plough

To attempt

To fast

A horse load

Pack saddle

Few

A flock
To take
A sheep
To fight

A fault.

Error
To veil
Five

Greek.

xKnOi

eu .

Spig

spyz^eiv

'Tsai^p

(iaXKeiv

Tiyivog

ntepoiv

(pxpav Hes.

■n-eipa^siv

cnraqix

■f^aqxt(>:

TrXVpOl

irXiO

TTXiO

(ixpx Hesych

ItVUTiVeiV

Sacdiith.

Fetna

Finna

Fierta

Firn

Fisa

Flake

Fla

Flasa

Flaska

Flasta

Flat

Flatur

Flax

Fleck

Fleister

Flicka

Flik

Flock

Fnysa

Fole

Folk

Fon

English,

Greek.

Fat

(paT!/vi

To find

Xir0^xivi<i

wnphtiv

Before

■n-piv

To inflate

(pvaxu

A flake

vKxy.x

To flay

(pXoia

To be hot

^ (pXx^c,'
\.7rx(pXx^C0

A flask

(pXairy.eioy Sincl

Many

TrXsLqoi.

Flat

ttX^TUj

Flat

TrXoCTVq

Flame

(pXot.

A blot

IXxyii; lies.

TrXsiqOq

A girl

irxXXxi,

A prostitute -

ivxXXxV.'A

A fold

TTXey.i:

A flock

\0%<ic

To breathe

n-vai!)

A foal

Ttaxoi

Folk

3%AC?. CoA-y&r

Fire

284

Swedish.

English.

Greek.

Swedish.

English.

Greek

Fot

Foot

TT'S; TrO^Oe

Gina

To yawn

XXIV03

For

Fore

Trpo

jGjuta

To pour out

'X,iv(jai

Fraede

Wisdom

(PpixSvj

Glad

ccyXaia

Froekn

Fragil

^pviyv) jEoI.

Glantz

Splendor

xiyXxvTx

Frffisa

To fret, furne

(ppvujcro:

Glas

Shining

xrf Kao?

Fresta

To try

TZBr^xqvii

Glata

To destroy

■/.Xx^u

Fri

Free

jipiysg Hes.

Gliis

LauHiter

y'^xcc;

Fro
Fro

Early
Joyful

'Zpbll,

Cilo

^Attentive
cLook

Kacc. Afef

Frucht

Frio lit

(ppty.Tog

Gnaga

J'o gnaw

%fi3:J&;

Frysa

To be cold

(ppirs-uj

Gnida

To rub

wvj'ba

Ful

(Foul, ^
U^olluted S

(poXvvct) lies.

Gorr
Goa

Gore
To bark

^xcop. ]%ccf
yeyuu; Hes>

Full

^vX'AOi

Gok

Cuckow

y.6y.y.vE,

Fjra

Four

TTSTOpX MoJ.

Gbl

Mire

fACf

Geedas

Joy

yci.ho[i.cn

Gradiff

Voracious

ypau)

G a fuel

Gable

<f(p^X'/|

Grafwa

To grave

ypxCpoi

Gall

1 barren

yaXXOf

Grobos

A ditch

ypatx Hes,

Galla

•;aii

XoXv,

Gras

CI rass

ypaqii

Gamman

Joy

yccvwiJ^ai

Gra

Greyheaded

yyi^xca'. y^xta

Gaiitas
Gat hod

Sports
Delight

yxi'ii.-iJ.x

Grena

^To skrecr
'Separate

(

y.^iva

Gaelning

Libidinous

yx).Xtxc-) lies.

Grift

A cave

Gast

A spectre

iyccqo?

Gripa

I'o gri{)C

7fi'3-<^w

285

Saediih.

Bngliiih.

Greek.

Swedith,

Ungli. fit.

Greek.

Oris

A pig j

y^iixSv Hes.

Hat
Haller

Hate
Rather

Grop <

A pil, cave
A gruff otj
Mendip

1 ry^x(p(0
\ y^V7!T0}

Heil

Hei

HJelm

Whole

Hay

Helmet

£10:

Gum man

Marriage

yafj-eiv

Hlena

To lean

KXiueiv

G before E and I is Y.

Hliftus
Hof

A thief
Hoof

nKt-zlvig

Hafvva

To have

x^eiv Hes.

Hoga

To think

Vi<yio[t.a.i

Hatjel

Hail

y_u\ac^c6

Hoi

Hollow

KOtXog

Hala

To let down

%fl:Aav

Hoik

A hulk

oXnaf

Hall

auAVI

Hon

Reproach

wetSog

Hamali

An assembly

of*u<'a

Hult

A holt

iIAv) vKciSwig

Halm

^A quill ^
cA reed *

x:!:A«(x.vi

Hand
Hoppa

A hound
A mare

I'TtTTOg

Halt

Lame

KUAXCf %aA05

Hwal

Whale

(paKccivu

Hampa

Hemp

aavvcc^n

Hycklare

A flatterer

aiyix)<0(

Hand

XeivSavu

Idia

Prudence

eiSeiv

Hara

Rock,monnt

O^Oi

Idrott

Skill, art

iSpix

( Very ; ^
< Hard in [
' Wilts 3
Hare

A storm

hXkx

Hard

HX^TX

Hare

aufoy Suidas

Inni j

To inn, to
rest at noon

tvSiov
ivSidca

Harf

PI arrow

K^irui,

Infoda

Genero

ei^(pvTevu

VOL. II.

S86

Swedish.

English.

Ingifwa

^To en- ?
r gage for 3

lord

Earth

Ister

Fat

lul

Yule

lufwer

Udder

Kakla

Cackle

Kam

Comb

Kammar

Chamber

Kaaip

A plain

Kappa

To cut

Kappsaeck

A knapsack

Kara

To rejoice

Karing

Old woman

Kas

Far off

Kaster

Tin

Katt

A cat

Kajlke

A dray

Kaenna

To ken

Kffipp

A staff

Kafta

Coif

Kate

A cottage

Kinda

To kindle

I (Shfeek:

SflCC

ceosp

uiap ov(pxp
;g(*vi

x^fxTos ties.

XS-lpui

yapxia

v/.xg

y.X(7a-iTspog

K«TV)? Suidas

eXkw

Kovmv Hes.

KX'J'joilix Hes

nctvSxpcg Jles

Smdtsh.

Enrjlish.

Kinnen

Chin

Kista

Chest

Klang

A clang

Klappa

I'oclap

Klaga

Weeping

Kleede

Cloth

Klibba

I'o cleave

Klint

Oescent

Klippa

Cliff

Klister

(jlue

Kljfwa

Vo cleave

Knaka

Fo resound

Knee

KuEepp

A sound

Knaepp

riie nape

Knia

To pluck

Koia

A habitation

Kol

Fire

Kollops

Kon

Kin

Konaand^
Kuna 3

Quean

Kordel

Cord

Kosa

A cup

Greek.

i^Xxiyyvi

■KOkxTilj}

kKxiu

y.Kw'^a

yhix

AXiTOg

KXi.Tvg nXirrvg

yxix

nKxca

kxvxxi^u

yow

AOvx(ii^a

■■^XttH

y.vt^ca

Oixix

y.vixeog

oxojiog
jsv9g

yvvv\

XopS^
X00(

287

*Dn/^*«f.

En^fiiJft

GreeD.

StoedUli.

Engim.

Gruk.

Kost

Gust

ysuqc;

Lagg

Extremity

Krabba

Cral;

•/.ctpx^o?

I leave off

Kraft
Kram

A den
Money

Lacjga

^l cause to")
r lie down '

Xsyco

Kranck

Sick

xupxyyvi? Hex

Lakrits

[.ifjuorice

y/.vzuf,i^x

Kras

I'ragments

pv\(T(7ia

[.alia

To talk

XxXta

Krasir

Eatables

■y^pBlX;

Lanj

Lame

XAXlJ^ft'o^

Kratta

To scratch

Xapx'Tlai

Lamm

Lamb

x\i.v'bg

Kroka

To creek

xpsnco

Lauipa

A torch

Kx[j.7:xi

Kropp

Summit

ytopv(pi^

Lants

Lance

Xciyxvi

Kross

Border

y.poj(Tog

La pp

A lappet

Kxt.(pix Hes,

Krubba

A crib

ypx^jiuTOg

La^])pia

To lap

KXTTTU

Krug

A cruise

xpwcrcrof

: ast

A burthen

XsLcov Sllid.

Krut

An herb

%0pT0f

Lack

Lack, a leak

X-x^lg

Krupa

To creep

fp'XCO

Laka

I'o heal

xyito\i.xi

Kula

A den

yaiXeec

Lana

To lean

Kkivaiv

Kunna

To ken

KOi/i/fiv Hes.

To laugh

yex«w x^evx

Kwinna
Kuckling

A woman
Chicken

Lefwa }
Leifa 3

To leave

XeiTw

hvttxi. Hes.

J^ast

Turpitude

Xxia-^Vj

Kyffe

Hovels J

XI eE, vKvii nut

Lefwer

Liver

ViTrXp

(

XopTH oixv^fxaig

Lejon

Lion

\auv

Kjssa

''o kiss

xV(TXlr

Lemna

To leave

XlfxvXVU

Lag

Juavf

Xoyog

Lid

Side

*A170(

288

Swedish.

Englith.

Greek.

Swedish.

Bngluh,

[Grteh.

Lid

The people

(ion. 'kviiiog

Magle ")
Magt )

Might

flj.eye^og

Lin

Linen

"Kivov

Maizn

Greater

^ti^WU

Linna

To cease

eKivuOa

Maists

Greatest

fx£y»<705

Lipa

To afflict

Xwzect)

Mala

To grind

f*uAV)

Litcn

Little

ekixTlau

Male

Meal

xi^-vMu

Lillast

Least

£\ce>iiqo;

Mamma

Mother

(*aVl**1

Li us

Light

>^Vx^l

Mat & Med

With

{j^BTX

Leuclit ?
Liecht 3

Whiteness

xevKOTi^i

Mat
Markir

Meat
A sword

fj.xa-xoiJ.xi
\j.xxxipx

Litast

To see

Xsvixa-u

Mar

A meer

ft.£ipu

Locka

To entice

KxKiK'o lies.

Mala

To mete

fi£T/)£tV

Lofft

Loft

X6<pot

Man a

Moon

MVV)

Lbk
Lcipa

Grass

^To bark ^

' a tree j

Xettw

Meen

Men

^ Necklace^
' a chain 3
But truly

(j.ev. \i.ViV

Lbsa

To loose

Xutrai

Men

Diminution

(j.ivu5«

Loya

I'o wash

y^ovia

Mena

To tiiink

\j.ivog

Lunga

To sob

Kvyyccvia

Mena

To signity

[j.ViVViil

Lucka

Luck

^xxoi ^ctyx<xvc!)

Mjall

Soft

[J.X?J}Q

Tepid

Mxpo;

Meth

With

\j.k7X

Ljsna

To see

\evj(Tiiu

Minst

Little

\j.i'jvo;

Maan

Bracelet

^ctvvo';

Mig&Mey

To me

u.q\

Mage

A maw

qo[i.xxoi

Miga

To piss

l[i.lX^M

289

Saedish,

Mikel

Mild

Minne
Mizdo
Minga
Miska

Mjolk

Mjolka

Mod

Moda

Moder

Moka

Mblla

Moo

Mord
Mork & ^
Maurk S
Mosa
Mun and)
Mon S

Multen

\'0L. II.

English,

Great

Mild

Memory
Reward

mix

Milk

To soothe

Weary

Vo care for

.VlothtT

Muck

Vo grind
CA maid i
( servant .
Death

Dark

Mucus

A moment

Putrid

Greek.

[u£i.xixog
lj.vccoij.cii,

^ ij.tXy.x Galen

ij-ySog

lJ.)^TVip
[j.\J(T!jOi1

c(\j.ctvpoia

\J.V^X

\j.ovxg
(AeX5« Hes.

Sweiith.

Mus

Mykest
Mamn
N^arr
Naas
N^eessla
Nseste
Naett
Ned
Nesa
Nicka
Nio & Nie
Niosa &
Nosa
Nocka
Nun & Nu
Oiidel
Of
Ok
OIja
Op
Ore
Ort
Orn
s

English.

A mouse

Greatest

Name

A fool

Island

Nettle

Nest

Neat

Nether

Reproach

To nod

Nine

To know

A fleece

Now

Ever clear

Very much

A yoke

Oil

A whooping

A rock

Borders

A bird

Greek.

ij.vg

lj.eyiqOg

ovoij-a

v«pv)

Hes.

uyiijog

VcOa-jix
viTrJco

VFAO^l

viveunx

ivvEx

evo-^Tx

VXMi

vvv

xEiSaXog

l(pi Hesi/ck

^vyov

iXxiov

OTTii Hesyck

opvt

OpOf

opvii

290

Suiedish.

English.

Greek.

Swedish.

English.

Greek.

Odor

h^ai

Raiiila

To ramble

ptfj-jiuJ

Ostra

Oyster

oqp£iOu

Rapp

To rap

Ofwer

Over

Rapper

Rapier

pxij.(py] Hes.

Oga

Eye

cixxof Hes.

Kaska

To destroy

t /

pajdci}

Ora

Eagle

opvi?

iiaedas

Dread

o/puheco

Osa and ^

To draw ")

Raede

Speech

pnng

A fosa 3
Ouden & ^
Ode - S
Packa

water j
No one
To pack

a^uxtrw 3
ouBev

Raeka

Roof

(To be ;
niealtl.y S

^ff.t(pca.opo(pog
Land 'pvi7:at

'fjxl'of,

Pat & Pfad

Path

TTx^og

''rgna

'I'o rain

t /
puivco

Pate

Rumor

(ptXTli

Uenna

To run

^esiv

Pil

A dart

liiXog

Rep

A rope

' ^ 1

Pina

Punishment

TOiVVJ

Rppa

To reap

<5p£T«

Piatt

Wide

■TiXxrvf

Reta

1 o nrilate

l/t'^la

Plffitt

A stroke

-KX^nIcO

Rock

A rag

p a.y.og

Puse

A purse

livpjx

Has

A rose

poSov

Potta

A cup

-rrOT^piov

Rot

Root

pi^x

Pol

A lake

ttViAo?

Rod

Red

epv^pO(

Plata

To speak

(pp«'?a,

Roina

'I'o try

epevvxii)

Putten
Pvackla

The bottom
To enict

Iptvyeiv

Rost

Bold

\p avuvfui
CpQic:iy.o^[Ies.

Rtida

\n oration

i\oste

Roof, roost

opo(poi

Ragata

A racket

li^xryo^

Rufwa

To brood

£pC<pa>

291

SiBedish.

English,

Greek.

Suiedifh,

English ,

Chreek.

Rugg

The back

pxx^i

Sex

Six

Rjkta

yro take
'care of

iwpXHLXV

cEustath

Sikel
Siuk

Sickle
Sick

riyixog

Rjnkia

Wrinkles

p iXl/Of

Simla

Flour

Tefj.iSxKii

Rysa

To tremble

(Ppia-Tiii

Sind

[Jurt

nvo\/.xi

Sam

^As a ter-^
'mi nation ^

0[t.OlOQ

Sinna

(To un- -^
'derstand 3

TVVUVXt,

Sam

As a prefix

Sire
Skackt

Sir
A well

avpis

T'^X-TtTlji

San & Sin
Saker

Thy
Secure

ffOV

Skaffa

I^To shape^
c prepare S

Ty.evx^iO.

Saerk
Sate

{A silk ;

'garment 3
Seat

Skaft
Skaft

A haft
A spear

' <7Ka:7r7oi/ Doric

Saetta

To sit

i(^eii/

Skallig

Dry

cn<eX}.cti

Saar

The itch

■^'CC^X

Skare

A scar

hyj^x

Saga
Sail

^To saw
cTo cut
A sieve

jxyxqii
ixXsvn

Skarp
Skappa

Dry

A hollow }
vessel J

tryx^O; )

and a-yJ^i^ 3

Se
Se

To see
To sit

T£XO\j.XI,

Skara

o cut

hies.

Sed

A custom

e^og

Skal

A scale

ryoiUg Hes.

Sedan

After

nix

Skeel

['ortuose

nKo/uog

Sela

Bridle

■^^iXKlOV

292

Sk befo

re E and I

is Sch.

Swedish.

English.

Greek.

Swedish.

Englinh.

Greek.

Sno

Snow

vi.(pa

Skeppa

To cover

rUfzo)

Sniire

A rope

vevpou

Skid

Cleft wood

r^r^a;

Snoter

A wicC man

(j-vve Tog

Skinn

Skin

/ o.vK%oc Hes.

Skirta

To run

'yy.xipcio u-'/iLpjza

Socka

Socks

Skbfvve

A covering

(T'/^e-TTca

Skcir

Filth

(rH.wp

Some

A seam

(7CC'y{j.oc

Skora

To fracture

o-yiipog

So pa

To sweep

a-ojiica

Skria

To scream

'Api^aiv

Sompn

Sleep

UTTVO?

Skrifwa

To write

ypx^eiv

Sot

Sweet

VJ^Of

Skudda /
& Skeda S

To scatter

KsSact}

Spada
Span a

A spade
To drag

Slicka

To lick

Kel%a

Sparka

To vibrate

a-^xipw

Slem

Slime

'kv\i.x

Sparka

To urge

a-TStpx^

Slif

Sleave

\cu(poq

Spisa

To expand

a-TSi^ai

Sluta

Shut

nXeio)

Split

a-TSxXv(T(TO[^xi

Smaelta

To melt

fji-fcASo!

Spott

To spit

TTTUEtV

Smaerta

To smart

[j-ipho: Ilea.

Sta

A town

xi;v

Sma

Small

lj.£lOCi3

Stadig

Firm

qxSlOg

Smeka

To stroke

<j\J~kM

Staf

A stump

qVirOi

Smila

Vo smile

[ui'ikiy^oi;

Siafvva

To gird

qe<^M

Sinorja

I'o smear

lj.VpHV

Stall

A stable

qxKvi Hesi/ch

S my oka j

To cleanse
to adorn

Stalla
Stiilla

I'o state
To adorn

TiKcg
qnKKu

29S

Svoidiih.

Stampa
Stiimma

Stain

Slanka

To groan

Stania

To groan

Stanna

To stand

Stapel

A heap

Starr

Rigid

Sta

To stand

Sticka

To stick

Stjelk

A stalk

Stiga

To o;0

Stinga

To sting

Stinn

Robust

Stock

A beam

Stodel

A pillar

Stol

^An expe-
c dition

Stoppa

^To stop,
? stuff

Storm

VOL. II.

Greek.

q£i(lcii

■tfjLf*a:

Iqxixsvog

qtvca
iqoi-^xi

ceppog

qacco Inusif.

qeXtxoi

qi^ca

qvkog. qy^Xvi
qoKog

qsijicc

Sutedish.

Strong

Stroa

Strom

Stubbe

Stum

Stympa

Stufwa

Stum

Stupa

Styf

Styfr

Stugg

Styre

Swalg

Suaelja

Tak

Tack a
T'ticke
Taga
Tffinja
Tffira
Thius
t

EnglMt.

^Strin

Strong

Vo strew
A torrent
Stem, stump
A residue
To mutilate
To amputate
Dumb
To scourge
Stiff

Finn, iigid
Odious
Barren
The throat^
To swallow J
To sew
The roof
To roof
Hcpository
To touch
To extend
To tear
God

Greek.

qpa'Y'yevo!

qoptci}. qpuwvca
qi^o^^og

jqvTTyi lies.
qvzOf Apol.

xqo[j.cg
qvKxX^iVj Hcs.

S-EipX

cr(pxpx'YOg

&HXV1
TTfJVftV

^£og

294

Swedish.

English ,

Oreeh.

Swedish.

English.

Greek.

Tekna

Tiga

To shew
To be silent

Twinga j

To restraint
To pinch 3

<7(piyyu

Tijo

[ am silent

(TLyXCO

Tycka

To think

Soasiv

Tisse

A teat

TiT^V]

Wool

LOvXog

Tolciiin
To'ras

Such
To dare

Wada

Togo

(.'KXTU

lag far

I dare

S^ppo;

Wagel

A staff

^xhKq'^

Trampa
Tra

To trample
^A tree, ")
c the oak 3

Wagn
Ward a

^ A waggon^
'a chariot 5
To be made

x<yxwx Hes.
e'p^eiv

Tridie

The third

TpiTH

Wigra

To restrain

eipyca

Trifwas

Thrive

TpfCpW

Wilja

To will

^ovXoij.xi

Throsha

To thresh

^pxvu

Waxa

To increase

xv^eiv xa^tiv

Tr^cka

To vex

Tf,V%ilV

War

Spring

■>/
exq

Truma

A hole

TpvTia, Tpvy-oi

Wat

Wet

vSaq veTOi

Tull

Toll

TtKeiv

Woe

OVXl

Tuchta

To bring forth

TiKTO)

Wei

A wile

(pvjAfCt;

Tulla

To involve

evruXiTlci}

Weta

To wit

eiSaiv

iunn

Thin

Tvvuof Hes.

Wika

i'lueiv

1 urna

To turn

TOpVOCO

Win

Wine

oii/og

Tutir

Daughter

'^VJXTViP

Winkel

Crooked

ayy.vKoi

Twa & Toa

Two

Bvco. Suo

NVira

To whirl

yv^^v

Twina & ^
Tymi ^

To dwindle

(p^tvw

vVisa
VVrak

A song
A fissure

XOU. XSCO

295

Swedish,

Yfer
Yfrit
Yppe

EnglSth.

Over
Intensitive

particle
Open

Greek,

H(pi

O'TTyi

Swedish,

Entjlinh.

Greek.

Yrka

To work

t^yxi^ea-^cci

Yxa

An ax

xiivvi

Yttersta

Extreme

GfCfa

N.B. 670

words.

AFFINITY BETWEEN MiESO-GOTHIC AND GREEK.

Gothic.

English.

Greek,

Gothic,

English,

Greek.

Abu and A\

from

XTIO

Bairan

To bear

Cpff£iV

Aftnja
Aflifnan

Po devour
I'o remain

Bairgan
Baurg

To guard ")
A fortress 3

XUif/05

Ahma

Breath

iZVJJj.^

Bairht

Bright

(i^t^mrxv Hes

Ahtau

!^.ight

OXT«

Bidian

To ask

Tfj&fiv

Aigan

To liave

f%ftv

By, against

Sir I

Alja

But

aKXct

Bistagun

Ascended

rfi%c<.'

All & Alia i

Vll

okoi

Bloma

Bloom

/3Auw

Allis

Vltogether

oXwg

Brinnan

To burn

TTuqosi:/

Aleva

)il

IXXLX

Briggan

To bring

(pff£ii/

Allcina
Ams

Ulna
Slioulder

WfvoOf

Daddna
Daddjandei

A teat )
A nurse J

T1T&V1

Augo

Eye

ctv>y^ Hes,

Dags

.\ day

hxoi

Auso

Kar

ovg

Dailj >n

To deal

hliXt'Cv

' Aukan

To eke

xv^eiv

Daulitar

A daughter

^f^iXTVip

296

Gothic.

English.

Greek.

Gothic.

Engiish.

Greek.

Daurstan
Ei

To dare
[f

Gathrask

^Threshing/
L floor 5

i^avci)

Etan

To eat

aBsiv

Galisan

To collect

Keyeiv Ke^

Fad rein

Fathers

TlXT^ip

Gains

ansivog

Fagr

Fair

(piapo;

C;ods

Good

xyx^oi;

Fahan

To take

-TTaco

Graban

To di^

'ypx(pcij

Fairra

Far

TlOppU

Gras

Grass

ypxqiQ

Fairzna
Fa ran

I'lie heel
To go

crCpvpov
Tropevoij-zi

Gredags

Wlungry ?
c Greedy S

j^xa

Fauai
Faurhtan

Few

To fear

(ppLTlco

Gahailjan
Hails

To heal J
Hail S

ovXo;

Fidvor

Four

'KBTOpCC.

Ha us j an

To hear

OUf

Fimf

Five

'Tl£[>.ira

Hlahjan

To laugh

yeKsLu

Fodan

To feed

/3oT£iv Hes.

Hlaine

A hill

V.O\u!VVi

Fon

Fire

(pai/cj

Hliftus

A thief

xAgT^^f

Fotus

Foot

-Tio^og

HIiumans

The ears

jtAupti

Frodein
Fret an

Prudence
To eat

Tipoeideiv

Hnaivjan

^To bow }
( down S

■navw

Gadaursta

Durst

^xppia

Hramjan

To suspend

upsiiXiiv

Gadailjan
Gadiupida

l^o divide
Dig deep

Hrugga \

A shepherd's
crook

rKxpvKio-y

Ganatida

Watered

VOTLX VOTig

Hiiikida

Crowing

xpaL'7 v]

Gahrainjan

To rinse

puiv(a

Hrains

Pure

pxivu

Gathiutiijan

i'o bless

v£Or

Huaian

To meditate

V]<ycvij.xi

297

Golhic.

EnglUh.

Greek.

Gothic.

Englith.

Gretk.

Hundos

Flounds

avveg

Menoth

Month

Mvoi

eyoi

Mikil

Much, great

Ij.eytx).'/!

I am

Maists

Greater

u.£y^qo{

Maistaim

The great

h^ytqoi

Innatgaggan

To enter

evTOg msiv

Minnista

Least

f^ivvog

Inuh

Without

UViV

Milith

Money

iJLtXiTOg

Juka

Yoke

^vycv

Mis

To me

Kald

Cold

xtfXXv)

Mith & Mid

With

jueT^

Kaupoth

To buy & sell

nccvi^kevai

Mizdo

Meed

l^ij^og

Kausjan

To taste

ysvej^ai

Nahts

Night

^u^. uvuTOt

Kukjan

Vo kiss

nvo. asyivnx

Namo

Name

h)/0(j.x

Kunnao

To know

yivoijau)

Ne, ni

Kuenais

Of the wife

yvvccmog

Niujo

N^ew

veO(

Laggan

^To send, ^
c place 5

ktytiv

Niun
Nu

Nine
Now

evuaa

Leigvan

To lick

Ktixeiv

Quairn

A quern

yupoeiv

Lifnan

Vo leave

Xainiiv

Qiiein

A woman

yvvv\

Ligan

Fo lie down

\eyny

Rakjan

To stretch

opeyeiv

Lukarn

A lantern

\uy.>^

Rathizo

Easily

pxSiOi

Malan

To grind

fxuAvi

flazda

A speech

f)tCt). p\^7l>i

Matjaith

Eat ye

thi.Ti.

■^ai

See /

Mats

Meat

tSaiv

Saihva

I see S

^iao\i.at

Mfiins

Meus

Sakk

A sack

Txunog

Mena

Moon

M- 11 VII

Saihs

Six

VOL. II.

298

Gothic.

Safjan
Sitan

Skadau

Skaidan

Slahan

Sokja

Spureidans

Staig

Steigan

Stibna

Stika

Stiur
Stravan
Tagr
Taikn

Talziand

Bnglith. I

To set

To sit
A shade, /
Shadow 5

To separate

To smite

To seek

Basket

He went *

Togo ^

The voice
A moment
A point

A steer

To strew

A tear

A token
A tutor ^
Preceptor

Greek.

Gothic.

Englith.

Grttk.

iSog. iV

i'anjan

fo do

7i\J%tiV

c(OiJ.Xl

Pan h an

To towe

Joa^fjv

Tundu

Tooth

TfV&«

jyiiaStov

Tvai

Two

3uw

Thairs
Thairh

A foreman"^
Through *

3y/i«

(xwvpig

Thaursjan
Thaursus

To thirst )
Dry >

&fpe«

Thrins

Three

Tpitg

qeiXa

Tekan

To touch

Siytiv

qo\^x

Valjan

VVfll

(SsXof^art

Ubu & Uf

Under

u-xo

rT'Vl**

Ufar

Over

r V
VTttp

Tccvpog

Vigan

To fight

7rWKT£U£»V

qpuvvvu

Uil

The sun

fjXiOf

(5axpi;[*a

Vitan

To wit

iiSti

hainvv\j.i

Vrakja

pwXM?

Wahsjan

To increase

XV^iLV

ivTeXKeiv

Thci double G, which marks affinity between Danish and Greek, is
equally found in the Gospels of Ulphilas. Thus we have briggan, bring;
driggkan, drink; gaggan, gang; kuggrian, hunger; lagga, long; thaggkian^
think; tuggo, tongue.

299

Had Lord Monboddo paid attention to the Gothic of Ulphilas; he
would not have been misled by " his learned friend, who, in all the
four gospels could not find one word derived from either Greek or Latin."
{v. Monboddo, Vol. 4. p. l72 )

How much is it to be lamented, that a person of such superior talents,
extensive knowledge, and commanding influence, should, without ex-
amination, have reported this opinion of his friend ! His lordship had
to prove, that Creek is perfectly an original tongue, not derived from a
preceding language. In confirmation of this doctrine, he brought forward
a declaration of his friend, respecting the Gothic of Ulphilas as not de-
rived from Greek.

By the vocabulary, here produced, it is rendered clear, that they are
nearly related. But if neither is derived from the other; if they do not
stand in the relation of parent and offspring; they must be descended from
some common ancestor, and Greek cannot be, what his lordship affirms
it to be, an original language invented by Sages, inhabitants in Greece.

No good linguist will call in question, either the close affinity between
Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and Greek, or the radical identity of all
these northern languages and the Gothic of Ulphilas. Consequently
whatever affinity is proved to exist between the former and the Greek,
must be allowed equally to exist between the latter and the Greek.

In the progress of my work I shall demonstrate, that no Sages ever
prevailed upon the inhabitants of Greece, or of any other country to dis-
use the language, which from their youth they had been taught, and to
learn a new language invented for them by philosophers.

u u 2

THE

FEESIAW JLANGUAGE,

i ERSIA, including Media, and Chorasan, situated in the intermediatt
space between India, Arabia, and Tartary, has for its limits, the rivers
Jihon, and Euphrates, the Caspian and the Persian Gulf or Indian Ocean.

"What languages prevailed through this extent of country in the days
of Chedorlaomer, or in succeeding generations prior to the Sassanian
dynasty, which subsisted from the commencement of the third century
to the middle of the seventh, does not appear. But it is agreed, that
during this period the Persian had no fewer than seven dialects, of which
four have become obsolete. Of these, numerous expressions have been
preserved in the fragments of Sadi, a celebrated poet, who wrote in the
thirteenth century. Three dialects survive, and with them the learned are
acquainted.

Of these the most ancient is the Pelavi, or, as the natives pronounce
this word, P^hellavi. It has been preserved pure upon the mountains,
and in the most revered of their religious books; and it is commonly

301

spoken at Ry, Ispahan and Dinoor. Hyde, in the 35th chapter of his in-
estimable work, informs us, that in the fifth century, tiie Pelavi dialect
was proscribed by Behrdm Ghfir, who in its place established the pure
dialect of Media, as the language of his court; and this, by Sir W. Jones,
has been considered as related to the Chaldee. In the progress of my
work, it will be my endeavour to demonstrate, that his opinion is well
founded.

The Parsi, which was the idiom of Istakhar and of Farsistan, or Persia
proper, is divided into the Zebani Deri, or language of the court, as
refined by Behrdm Gh<lr, and the Zebani Farsi, or general language of
the country. These, since the battle of Cadessia, A. D. 656, have been
exceedingly corrupted by Arabic.

The Deri is chiefly spoken by the people of Meroo, Shahijan, Buckhara,
and Badakhsham, and according to Hyde, by the inhabitants of Elymais,
Media, Parthia, and Chorasan. My valuable acquaintance. Dr. James
Ross, has been so obliging as to indulge me with extracts from the intro-
duction to the best, as well as the most ancient dictionary now subsisting
of the pure Persian language, a work undertaken A. D. 1608, by
Jemal-ud-deen Husain Anjoo, at the command of the great Mogul Em-
peror Acbar, and the produce of more than thirty years close application.
It was collected from forty-four dictionaries, then well known, and nine
others, wliose authors were unknown, beside histories, commentaries, the
book of the Zjend, Pazjend, and many other ancient works. This la-
borious philologist, when he had finished his dictionary, dedicated it to
the son of Acbar, in the year 1C3.9. This inestimable work, iJoctor Ross
is now translating for the press.

302

The pure language has been well preserved by Ferdusi, the epic poet,
who is called the Homer of Persia ; but Sadi, who wrote in the thirteenth
century, admitted without scruple, numerous expressions from the Arabic.

THE ALPHABET.

THE present alphabet is adopted from the Arabic. It has been con-
sidered as composed of thirty-two letters, all consonants; but eight of
these are never found in words purely Persian. Of the twenty-four
genuine letters, eight are modifications of others; consequently the
original characters were sixteen.

Of these, alif, wa, ya, are called long vowels; but to produce a sound,
each requires a vowel point, and each, like our vowels, may have a de-
terminate variety of sounds. Thus for instance, alif has given to it the
sound of a in ale, of a in fall, of ee in eel, of i in begin, of i in idle, of
in open, of oo in poor, of ow in cow, and of u in under. JVa, commonly
sounded like o in stole, has eight distinct sounds.

Ya, most frequently pronounced as i in sin, as ie in liege, ea in ease,
ei in conceive, or ee in feed, has seven distinct sounds. All these however
are not abandoned to caprice, but determined by fixed rules. The short
vowels have an obscure sound of i, o, or u in bird, mother, sun; as foi^'
instance, bd is pronounced bud. Of the short vowels, two appear above
the consonant and one below it, the latter being a small stroke straight
and inclined. Of the two others, one is similar to this, the other re-
sembles wa. All the vowels may be considered as interchangeable.

' 303

Change of Cojisonants.

THE Persian, like other languages, readily assumes one letter for
another of the same organ. Thus it changes

In the first Series.
B into M: ghurb, ghurm, the west. — B into W: buzung, wozurg, great.
P into F: parsi, farsi, Persians.
FintoV: fam, voam, aspect.

VintoF: yavah, yafah, jests. — V into B: novishtah, nobishtah,
written.

In the second series.

K into KH: shamakchah, shamakhchah, pitch. — K into Gh: kuloolah,
ghuloolah, clew,

KH into H: khecher, hecher, voracious. — KH into GH: sateekh,
sateegh, spear.

GH intoG: legham, legatn, riddle.

H into J : maah, maj, moon. — H into KH ; hyiz, khyiz, hermaphrodite.

I into K : akhshii, akhsheek.

In the Third Series.

T into D: dustas, dusdas, a mill.

D into T : guftund, guftunt, they said. — D into Z : audur, auzur, uncle.

Z into J : poozesh, poojeesh, apology. — Z into GH: gereez, gereegh,
height.

J into Z : rejah, rezah, series. — J into Z H : kej, kezh, curved.—
J into T: taraj, tarat, plunder.

304

Iti the Fourth Series.
R into L: soor, sool, rampart. — L into R: zuloo, zuroo, leech.
N. B. One character ancientlj? served for both these letters.

Li the Fifth Series.

S into SH: mayoos, mayoosh, hopeless. — S into CH: kheroos,
kherooch, dunghill cock. — S into H: amas, amaah, tumour.

SH into S: sharek, sarek, niglitingale. — CH into SH : kach, kash,
would to God.

In the Sixth Series.
N into M : ban, bam, cieling.

The Numerals.
Yec, du, seh, chehar, penge, shesh, heft, hesht, nu, deh : yazdeh,
duaz deh, &c.

The Nouns.

Nouns substantive are said to have but one variation of case. Thus
puser, a child, in the dative and accusative has pusera. But they have
a genetive case of peculiar structure, as puscri an, his son, 'J'he plural
is formed by adding an or ha to the singular. Thus gurk, a wolf, makes
gurkan, wolves; bal, awing; balha, wings.

The noun adjective admits of no variation.

Degrees of comparison are marked by ter and terin ; as khnh fair,
khubter fairer, khubterin fairest. The English Man, after a comparative,
is expressed by az.

305

The Pronouns.

Mun, to, ; ma, shuma, ishan — I, thou, he ; wc, ye, they.

Mora me, tiira thou, ora him, mara us.

The pronoun adjuncts are six, sh, t, m ; nd, id, iin. These are sub-
joined to nouns and verbs to indicate the person either acting, or in-
terested. Sh added to the end of nouns means his, her, it's. Jameiash,
liis robe ; dilhesii, his heart; muish, his hair. T subjoined indicates the
second person singular, thou, thy, to thee. Jameiat, thy robe; dilet,
thy heart; muii, thy hair.

M indicates the first person, T, my, to me. Jameiam, my robe; dilem,
ray heart ; niuim, my hair.

When the pronoun precedes the verb, the agent is changed, and it
implies the dative case, as for instance, zeram dad, gold to me he gave.

In the plural number, nd indicates the third person, id the second
person, and im the first.

Here it is to be observed, that although M may have been abbreviated
from mun or ma, and T from to, all the other adjuncts are fragments of
more ancient pronouns, now obsolete.

The Verbs.

These are chiefly derived from nouns, which Jemal-ud-deen Husain
Anjou considered as their roots.

They have but one conjugation and three changes of tense.

I have stated that the persons are indicated by adjunct pronouns,
which form the terminations. In this all Persian philologists agree, and

VOL. ir. XX

306

affirm that to prefix a pronoun is a superfluity. The substantive verb
booden, to be, may serve as a model for the variations of the persons
in all tenses.

Booden, or boodun, to be.

The present tense is wanting in this verb, and is therefore supplied by
two other verbs, of which only the present tense remains. Tliese are
um and hasteem, which run thus, — um, ee, ust; eem, eed, und, ; and
hestum, hestee, hest ; hesteem, hesteed, hestund: lam, thou art, &c.

The preterites are. — boodum, boodee, bood ; boodeem, boodeed,
boodund ; I was, &c. — boodeh um, boodehee, boodeh ust, Sec. I have
been. — Boodeh shudum, boodeh shudee, boodeh shud. Sec. I had
been, &c.

The future is — khahurabood, khaheebood. Sec. I shall be, &c.

Then follow, booum, booee, booud; booeem, booeed, boound, I be,
thou beest, he be, &c. — Bushum, bushee, bushud; bushecm, busheed,
bushund, I be, &c. — Boodraee, ^c. I would be, &c. — Boodeh bushum,
&c. I shall have been. Sec. — Boo, &;c. be thou, &c. — Bash, being;
boodeh, been.

Shudun and shoodun, to be, is thus conjugated:

Mee shooum, mee shooee, niee shooud; mee shooeem, mee shooeed,
mee shoound, I am, &c. — Shudum, shudee, shud, &c. 1 was. — Shudeh
um, shudhee, shudeh ust, &c. I have been. — Shudeh boodum, &c. I
had been, &c.— Khahum, shud, Sec. I shall be.— Shooum, I be, &c.
— Shoo, be thou and being. — Khahum bude, to be willing. — Khahum,
khahee, khahed; khahcem, khahced, khahund, I will, &c.
The other tenses are formed like those of the regular verbs.

307

Daden ordadun, to give:

Present tense: Meedehum, meedchee, mecdehud ; mccdahceni, mee-
daliced, meedahund, I give, &c.

Preterite: Dadum, dadhee, dad; dadeem, dadeed, dadiind.

Imperfect: Meedaduni, meedadhee, meedad, Sec. I was giving, &c.

Pluperfect: Dadeh boodum, I had given, &c.

First future: Bedahum, Sec. I shall give.

Second future: Khaumdad, khaueedad, I will give, &c.

Subjunctive or Aorist: Dheum, &c. I may give. Sec.

Potential: Dadmee, I might give, Sec.

Compound future: Dedeh bashum, &c. I shall have given.

Imperative: Deh, give thou; dahud, let him give.

Infinitive: Dadun, to give; dadeh booden, to have given.

The passive voice has the present, preterite, &c. formed by the aux-
iliary verbs shuden, booden, and khustum.

Among the prepositions we find abe7\ upon; and among the con-
junctions u or V, and.

Prom this transient view of the grammar, we may see clearly, that the
same language, which in the peninsula of India produced Sanscrit, and
became Greek, with its iEolic dialect, the Latin, on the European
shores of the Mediterranean Sea, gave birth to Persian in the country
intermediate between the Caspian and the Indian Ocean.

All these languages agree in multiplying their compounds; by which
practice they form a striking contrast to the Hebrew, Arabic, and Chal-
dee. Yet, notwithstanding this discordance, they have a discernible
affinity.

X X 2

ON THE

ILAMGUAGES OF INBIAc

X HE natural boundaries of Indostan seem to be Caucasus, theTibetian
Mountains, the Indus, and the Ocean.

But, when we examine the languages of India, other limits present
themselves to view, and we are disposed to consider as one the whole
extent, in which the various languages allied to Sanscrit and the Nagari
character prevail. With these letters and languages we see combined
certain religious practices and opinions, which serve to connect Indostan,
Tibet, Cashmire, Napaul, Buian, Asam, Siam and Ava, presenting them
to our view as collateral branches of one stem.

The Sanscrit has been regarded as the parent of a numerous progeny;
but it is acknowledged that both parent and progeny maj' be the com-
mon offspring of some remote progenitor.

'All, who have paid attention to this subject, agree with the Brahmins,
that Sanscrit literature resend)les an extensive forest, abounding with a
rich variety of beautiful and luxuriant ibiiagc, splendid blossoms and

309

delicious fruits, but surrounded by a strong and thorny fence, which
prevents those, who are desirous of plucking its fruits and flowers, from
entering.

Yet such has been the ardour of our countrymen in pursuit of know-
ledge, that no difficulties have been sufficient to restrain their efforts.

Mr. Halhead was the first who ventured to break through this thorny
fence, that lie might catch a glimpse of the inestimable treasure, which
jealous superstition h:id concealed. In the year 17/6 he began to pene-
trate the forest, and having tasted its delicious fruits, he invited others
to partake with him. Tiiese were his words of invitation: " The grand
source of Indian literature, the parent of almost every dialect from the
Persian Gulf to the China Seas, is Sanscrit; a language of the most
venerable antiquity, at present shut up in the libraries of Brahmins.
This appears to have been current over most of the oriental world, and
its traces may yet be discovered in almost every district of Asia. It
agrees with Persian, iVrabic, Latin and Greek in the most common ex-
pressions, more especially such as are monosyllabic. The coins of Asam,
Napaul, Cashmeer, Butan, Tibet, and many other kingdoms, are stampt
with Sanscrit letters. The same arrangement of the letters appears in
the greatest part of the East from the Indus to Pegu, and the same
affinity in the names of persons, places, titles and dignities, to the fur-
thest limits of Asia, is Sanscrit."

Such was the representation of this distinguished orientalist.

Sir W. Jones, the most elegant scholar of his day, perfect master of
Greek, and deeply imbued in oriental literature, no sooner arrived in
the peninsula of India, than, availing himself of the influence derived

310

from his office, he obtained Bhratninical assistance, and turned his ener-
getic mind to the sacred language of that country.

In the year 1787, he allotted one hour a day to these pursuits, and was
soon able to trace the features of resemblance between Sanscrit and
the languages of Europe. He admired " its wonderful structure, more
perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exqui-
sitely refined than either, yet bearing to each of them a stronger affinity
both in the roots of verbs and in the form of grammar, than could pos-
sibly have been produced by accident."

Henry Colebrooke, not inferior in mental powers and exertions to Sir
Vi, . Jones, and every way qualified to estimate the comparative im-
portance of oriental literature, considers the Sanscrit as a most polished
tongue, fixed in classical writings of the best poets, most of whom
flourished in the century before Christ. In his opinion it is evidently
derived from a primeval tongue, which was gradually refined in various
climates, and became Sanscrit in India, Pahlavi in Persia, and Greek on
the shores of the Mediterranean.

Such are the testimonies of these learned men as to the structure and
excellence of Sanscrit.

Had Mr. Halhead, in his enumeration, omitted the Arabic as a
language " with which the Sanscrit agrees in the most common ex-
pressions," his description would have been more conformable to truth.

With Mr. Colebrook, T am persuaded, that Sanscrit is derived from a
primeval tongue, and I discover affinity between it and Hebrew. Yet
I am satisfied, that neither Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldee, Sanscrit, nor
Persian, has any claim superior to the rest, or can be considered as their

311

parental language. They are co-relatives, and have originated in one
common ancestor now no more.

The Arabic lias been preserved in the Koran, the Persian in Ferdosi,
the Sanscrit in Valmeeki, the Chaldee in Daniel, Ezra and Nehemia,
the C J reek in Homer, and the Hebrew in the Pentateuch. Beyond these
limits we have no documents, from which we can derive a knowledge of
the language, which prevailed in Arabia, Persia, Indostan, Chaldaea,
Greece, or Palestine.

It is not my intention to write an extensive treatise on the Sanscrit
language, and much less to teach its elements to those, who wish to
learn them. Indeed, were I equal to this undertaking, the task would
be loo laborious, because the Grammar alone, as published by Carey,
occapies more than a thousand quarto pages, and even this may be con-
sidered as an epitome, when compared with H. Colebrook's most labo-
rious work.

The alphabet is the most philosophical of any, with which I am
acquainted. The letters are classed according to the organ of speech
employed in their articulation, whether guttural, palatine, dental or
labial, with their respective aspirates and nasals. Beside these, they
have the sibilant with its aspirate, the semi-vowels, and a character for
the separate breathing occasionally used. It must be here particularly
noticed that the aspirate is distinctly articulated, and does not change
the consonant to which it belongs, as with us in th and ph, converting
the latter into f, and the former into a letter of a peculiar sound, per-
fectly distinct from T and H. Nor does it make its attendant consonant
quiescent, like the Galic, and like the English in high, nigh, &c.

312

Letters of the same organ are liable to change; but in Sanscrit these
changes are governed by estabhsheii laws.

The roots in Sanscrit are said to be 1 J 56, and these are neither nouns
nor verbs; but may become either, according to tlic suffix. Tlicy are
biliteral, as I suspect the Hebrew to have originally been, and are com-
posed of consonants; but then each consonant includes within itself
the short vowel, v,hich is required for its enunciatiiin, and which seems
to be an equivalent for scheva of the Hebrew. The sotmd of this short
vowel, as I apprehend, cannot be expressed by any one of our alpha-
betic characters, because different writers, equally attentive to ortho-
graphy, differ in their choice.

Like Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldee, and Creek, it has the dual number
both in its nouns and verbs.

The nouns have seven cases, the nominative, accusative, instrumental,
dative, ablative, possessive, and locative, all distmguished by appro-
priate suffixes.

The tenses of Sanscrit verbs are ten, and the several persons have each
its pronoun suffixed, as in most otiier languages.

Li perfect conformity to the Persian, Greek, Danish, and German, it
delio'hts in compounds; for, not satisfied with arbitrary sounds and un-
meaning names, they construct such as are descriptive, and mark the
peculiar quality of the animal or thing intended, which is tlierefore suf-
ficiently characterized, and strikingly represented to the mind. Thus,
for instance, a frog is the leaper, an elephant the handy one, a bee the
flower drinker, a bird is the frequenter of the sk), a serpent the mover
on his breast; rice is tuft-growing, a cloud water giver, and the sun is

313

maker of day and lord of light. So acarin is a crime, that wliicli should
not be done, from carttum to do.

No language is better adapted for composition, because tjjc words
coalesce with ease, and the compound readily submits to the laws of
abbreviation^

The pronouns are — asmad and aham, T; mahyam and me, to nie;
yushmad, bhavat, bhavan and twam, tliou; tubhyam and te, to thee;
vayani, we; asmabhyam and nas, to us; yuyam, ye; yushmabhyam and
vas, to you; me and mam, my; te and tava, thy; etasya, his; nasa and
asmacama, our; usmacama, your; eshama and etcshania, their.

The substantive verb runs thus, the initial A being pronounced as I in
Sir, — asmi, asi, asti ; smah, stha, sanli, I am, &c. Dr. Wilkins writes
this, usnii, usi, usli ; usma, usa, sunti, Asani, let me be; asama, let
us be. Syam, syah, syat; syama, syata, syuh, may I be, kc. Bhavami,
bhavasi, bhavati ; bhavamh, (olim, bhavamas,) bhavalha, bhavanti, I
am, thou art, he is; we are, (Sec.

In bhavamah, the final H is substituted by the Brahmins for S.
Bhavani, let me be; bhavam, let us be; bhu, be thou. Abiiuvam, I
have been; bhavdshyami, I shall be; bubhushati, may he be; varttitum,
to be ; avarttishi, I have been ; varttita, he shall be, he will be. Vivrat-
sati, may he be.

I shall here exhil)it select parts of various verbs, in order to shew the
genius of this language.

Admi, atsi, atti; admas, attha, adanti, I, thou, he, we, ye, they eat;
adani, let me eat; adama, let us eat; attasmi, I will eat; attasi, thou
wilt eat; atta, he will eat; attum, to eat.
VOL. II. Yy

Dadatc, lie gives ; dadanto, tlicy give ; adat and adadishla, he gave ;
data and diidila, Ik; will give ; dadatu, let him give ; dadiluni, to give;
dadamana, giving; dadadana, having given; dadish_yainana, about to
give.

Pivati, li(^ drinks ; pivanti, tliey drink; apat, lie drank; pata, he will
drink; paturn, l.o drink. y\snati, he eateth ; asot, he ate ; ashta, he will
eat. Vasnii, vakslii, vashli, 1 wish, iSccr. vasani, let lue wish ; iidhi, wish
thou; vasiitu, let him wish; avasisham, J have wished. Lasliali, he de-
sires ; alashot, lie hath (U;sir(;d ; lashitiim, to desire.

Vamati, Ik; vomits ; avamot, ho hath vomilt;d. Dayate, he nourishes ;
adasta, ho hath nonrishcd ; data, he; will nourish; datum, to nourish.
I'adyatc, Ik; nK)ves ; apadi, ho nu)V((i ; patla, he will move. Dasati,
he biles; adagnkshoti, he; bit; danshta, he will bite; danshtum, to bite;
(laiila a tooth. \'a(i, Ik; nH)ves ; ayasot, he hath moved. Amayati, he
goes; amimat, Ik; w(;nt ; ami, I eause to go. Mali, he metes ; amasot,
he hath mclcd ; mata, he will nKlc Lubhyati, he eovets ; alubhat, he
hath eovcled ; lobhita, he will covet; lolihilum, to eovet. ])oyata, he
decays; didoye and adasi, Ik; hath dreaycd ; data, he will deeay.
.layale, Ik; [trodiices ; njani, he lialli produced ; janita, he; will produce;
janitum, lo pr()thi(;e. Mriyatc, Ik; dies; amrala and mamara, he died;
maiKa aiKl marisliyali, h<; will die.

Kaionii, karosjii, karoli; I do, thou iloest, he does ; karavami, let me
do; karolu, let him do; aearsliam or akarsham, I hav(wloiK; ; chakar, I
did; karlla, he will <lo ; earltum, to do, to make, to create; karaymi,
I eause to d) : payayati, Ik- causes to driidv.

Chekroveluni, lotloolUn. Dedoyate, he gives often. Pepoyate, he

drinks often. Janjanyatc, he produces often. vSosliupyatc, lie sleeps
often. Vavasyate, he desires often. Papaclioti, he cooks often. Daii-
danshti and dandasyate, he bites often. Varivrati, he turns often.
Panopat, fall often, and panphul, produce often or niucli.

Ilere the reader will please to notice, that the reiterative is produced
by reduplication in its peculiar form. Similar reduplications may be
observed in volitives. Thus \n is drink, and pipasati he wants drink.
Chikorashti, he wants to make. Didarishti, he wants to tear. Bibha-
rishti, he wishes to bear. Susupsati, he wants to sleep. From Pad we
have Pitsate, he wants to step; and Labh produces Lipsali, he wishes
to obtain. Ab, have, gives Ipsati, ho wishes to have; and other forms,
expressing both cause and volition, being connected with a verb, indi-
cate a desire to cause some one to act; as, for instance, to eat, to drink,
to walk, to run, to take, to give.

This language, with peculiar aptitude, converts nouns into verbs.
Putroyati, he loves his son ; matroyati, he loves his mother, or she be-
haves like a mother. Putrakamyati, he desires a son. Prasadoyati, he
behaves as if he were in a palace. Kutoyali prasade raja, the king con-
ducts himself in his palace as in a cottage.

I might here call the attention of the Greek scholar to the close affinity
between the preceding verbs, and verbs of the same import in Greek ;
but this will be left to his own discernment for the present. I proceed
to the comparative degrees, in which it will be difficult to say, whether
the affinity is most striking in the Greek or in the Latin.

Vidwasa, wise; vidwattara, wiser; vidwattania, wisest. \'idusho,
wise; vidushitara, vidushitama. Vahoo, many; vahootara, vahootama.

Ty 2

316

Vahoola, much; vahoolatara, vahoolatama. Alpa, few; alpatara, al-
patania. Dadat, generous ; dadattara, dadattama. Yuvan, young ;
juvatara, yuvatama.

The numerals are — eka, one; dwau, two; tri, tliree ; chatur, four;
panchan, five; shash, six; septam, seven; ashtan, eight; navan, nine;
dashan, ten ; ekadasan, eleven ; visati, twenty.

The numerical figures resemble those of Europe.

We have already had occasion, by numerous examples, to observe the
affinity between Sanscrit and all the languages of Europe and of Asia.

But here it may be useful to take a more particular survey of its re-
lation to English, Latin, Greek and Hebrew, in order to confirm my
position, that all these languages are radically one. For this purpose,
we must always bear in mind, what has been delivered respecting abbre-
viation, the change between letters of the same organ, the presence or
absence of prepositions, the conversion of the aspirate into either the
guttural, sibilant, or labial, and the licentious change of D into L,
which however has not been universally adopted.

I begin Avith the English, confining myself principally to such terms
as are most ancient, that is the monosyllabic, and those expression*
which occur most frequently in common life.

When these in Sanscrit have turn for their termination, they are not
roots, but are here taken in the infinitive, as in daraitum, to tame; of
which the root is dam. In numerous instances, I confine myself to the
roots, in others I take either the noun substantive, or any part of the
verb.

317

English.

Sameril,

English.

Sanscrit,

English.

San'cril.

Add

Adi more

Boat

Pota

Cock

Cuckuta

Asmi

Bold

Bal

Coming

Agaman

And
Anoint

Anantarum
Anjana

Booty

^ Bhata, a
' soldier

Coo
Cot

Ku
Kuti

Ape

Kapi

Bray

Braha, speak

Count

Ginte

Arrayed

Parihita

Brother

Bhratara

Cow

Gau

Arrow
Axe

Sara
Cathaca

Brow
Buck

Bhru
Bukra

Create

^Carttum,
'Crata,done

Bake

Pachtum

Budge

Baj

Crib

Cripana

Band

Bandh

Bunter

Banita

Crime

Acarm

Bask

QBhascara

Burden

Bhara

Cud

Cud, Eat

'The sun

Came

Agama

Cur

Cuccara

Bath
Bawd

Bad

^Badhu, a
c wife

Carp, see)
Crib )
Carve

Cripana
Charve, eat

Cut
Dale

^Ch'hada
'Cat'haca
Dal, separate

Bhu

Caw

Cavati

Damp

Tima

Beg

Pakja

Cede

Shad

Dare

Dhrish

Bear

Bhritum

Central

Antaral

Dark

Andhacara

Beauty
Beat

Budracha
Vyadh

Champ )

Cham, Gham
and Jam

Daughter
Day

Duhitri
Divas

Beloved

Bullubh

Chant

Gana

Dawn

^Dodhatum

Better

Bhadratara

Chick

Chica, small

' to shine

Bid

Vidhi

Churn

Chur& Churn

Dead

rudi

Bide

Bad

Coal

Cala, black

Deal

Dal, separate

S18

Sanscrit.

Gaurava
ram a

319

EttgiisU.

Sanaerit.

English.

Sanscrit.

English.

Sanscrit.

Horse

IJras

Love

Lubh

Mahatteran

Hunt

Huntuin

Luck

Lacshmee

Mother

Matri

Hurt
Hut

Hartuni
Cut

Lust
Mad

Lashyati
Unmatta

Mouch, >
to stealS

Mush

Male, evil

Mala, dirty

Mouse

Mushica

Asmi

Man

Manushya

Murder

Mrityu

Etad & Tad

Mam

Nail

Nal

Join

Yung

Mead

Madhu, honey

Naked

Nagna

Joke

Jacsh

Meal, mix

Mil

Name

Namen

Keep
Kiss

Gup

Cus, embrace

Mean, *
Medium 3

Madhya

Neat
New

Nieta
Nava

Knack
Knee

Anuka
Janu

Mean, )
Mind )

Manas

Nigh
Night

Nicata
Nakta

Knit, Knot
Lazy

Nah
Alasya

Mean, }
diminutive J

Manaca

Nme
No

Nava
No

Less

Lis

Mete

Mat urn

Nor

Nir

Lick

Lih

Midst

Madhya

Nose

Nasica

Light, not^
heavy 5

Laghu

Might
Mightier

Mahata
Mahatara

0!
Oar

0!
Arittra

List, desire

Leshita

Mind

Manas

OfF

T/Oplr "i

Lagna, Alak

Mine

Muma

Haha

.i—i\j\y^ J

and Sloch

Mixt

Misrana

One

Jani

Look
Lop

Lochitum
Lup

Month, }
Moon ^

Masa

Ooze
Other

Ghas

I tar, A that

320

English.

Sanscrit. I

English.

Sanscrit,

English.

Sanscrit,

Otter

Udra

Reign

Ranjana

Six

Shash

Over

Upari

Right

Rit

Sixth

Shasta

Owl

Ulaca

Rite

Riti

Sister

Swasri

Ox-

Ucsha

Root

Rad

Sit

^Situm, to

Pad

Rude

Raud

' lie down

Pannier

Avapani

Ruminate

llumantbayate

Skill

Cusala

Pass

Pis

Sake

Sakhi, friend

Sod

Sata

Pat

Pit

Same

Sama

Son

Santana

Path

Bat & Palha

Scatter

Kirtum

Soon

Sondra

Paw

Pani

Scratch

Grit

Sound

Swan a

Piece
Piss

Psa, Eat
Payas, water

Seam, a ?
border 3

Siman

Stall
Stand, Stay

Sthal
Shtha

Pluns^e

Plu

Serve

Sri

Star

Tara

Prayer

Prarthana

Serpent

Sarpa

Stun

Stan, thunder

Prime

Para ma

Seventh

Saptama

Sum

Sama

Proud

Praudh

Sew

Shiv

Sweat

Shwid

Quean, ^
Queen 3

Cunya

She
Shear

Esha and Sa
Cshur

Sweet
Swoon

Swadu
Swap

Quern
Quoth

Ghurna
Cathayati

Shroud

^Sraddha,
'Obsequies

Tame
Tear

Damitum
Dri, Daran

Rage
Rave

Rajra
Rav

Sign
Sink

Sanjna
Sanna

Teat

^Dayati, he
^ sucks

Read

Rat

Site

Sthita

Ten

Dashan

Red

llitjati, Iludhira

Sit

Asitum

Tepid

Tapta

321

Engliili.

Sanscrit*

Euijliah.

SitllHl-ll.

E.ijU^h.

SaaiCTil.

That

Tad

Vast

Valuisa

What

Yad

Then

Fan a

Valet

Bala, Boy

Wheel

Gola

They

Valiant

Balavan

White

Sweta

Thin

Tana

Vanish

Vinash

Wliose

Yasya

Third

rrita3'a

Vest

Vastra

Widow

Vidhava

Thirst

Frish

Village

Palli

Wind

Vayajana

This

Ades

Voice

Vac

( Vihanga,

Thou

Twain

Vomit

Vamati

Wing

'Air-going

Thy

Tava

Vomited

Vamita

Wise

Vidwas

Thrice

Tisra

/-Udhasa

Wish

Ish

Tie

Tah

Udder

^ Udara,

Wit

Viditum

Time

Smina

^ the belly

Witch

V^idasha

Toss

Tas, Das

Upper

Upari

Woman

Vamini

Tother

Tatara

Wain

Vahan

Wrath

Crodh

Tree

Tara & Diu

Warm

Gharma

Yuyam

Tripod

Tripad

rWaran,

Yea

Trow, -s
a boat >

Tro

Warn

< Prevention
' Varana

Year and^
Yore 1

Jara

Trough ^
Truly

Dhruvam

Was

CWabhuvas
[wasa

Yoke

SYuja
( Yugam

Two

Dwau

Vayam

Young

Yuvan

rVayana

Weave

Vane

< Vayajana,

Wed

Vadhu, Wife

^ the wind

Well

Vilakshan

VOL. II.

' z

322

Such is the comparative vocabulary, I have been able to collect in the
course of my reading. A more extensive acquaintance with Sanscrit
literature will, I am persuaded, add greatly to my treasure. These few
words, however, will sufficiently evince the connexion between our lan-
guage and the Sanscrit.

I shall now call the attention of my readers to the affinity between
Sanscrit and Latin, and shall avail myself, in my observations on this
subject, of the very interesting remarks made by the Edinburgh
Reviewers, in their critique on Dr. Wilkins' Grammar, a work, which
can never be too highly valued by the student, who is solicitous to gain
a critical knowledge of this venerable language.

But here also I must premise, not merely that letters of the same organ
may supply each other's place, but that, in conformity to the practice of
other nations, the labials B and P are commutable with the sibilant, and
with the gutturals C, G, K, Q; as are M with N, and L with R. In-
stances of such changes will immediately appear, because Latin con-
forms to the iEolic dialect of Greek, in which we have y.ag for ^wg and
y.ofov for Tifov.

Latin. Sanscrit. Latin. Samcrit. Latin, Sanscrit.

Ab
Ac

Adeptus

lEs

Annona

Anser

Ava

Cha

Ayas

Anna

flansa

Antrum

Aqua

Arena

Bell urn

Bibit

Bove

Cado

Antara

A pa

Aranya

Vala

Pivati

Gava

Shada & Pit

Caeremonia

Caesaries

Canis

Cano

Carmen

Carus

Coclum

Carman

Kesa

Shvana

Gano

Carman

Shra

Capias

S93

Latin,

Clam

Coquo

Coctum

Concha

Cor

Creo

Datum

Das

Dat

Dedit

Dator

Donum

Dens

Decern

Deus

Dexter

Dies

Disco

Dixit

Doceo

Domitum

Duo

Durus

SaMtytt,

Chukimp

Pach

Pachtum

Sanclia

Hridaja

Cri

Datum

Dadasi

Dadati

Dadat

Datri

Danam

Danta

Dasama

Deve

Dekshan

Divas

Upadoshaca

Disat

Upadoshaca

Damitum

Dwau

Dura

Lnfini

Eat

Edo

Ed ere

Esse

Eget

Evanesco

Feinina

Ferre

Flu ere

Fluvius

Folium

Frater

Genetrix

Genitus

Gentes

Genu

Genus

Gigno

Gravis

Gustavi

Hodie

Humus

Hyems

Santtyrit,

LaUn.

SatucrHi

Jjata

Etid

Idem

Attum

Ignis

Agni

A stum

Immolo

Mulya

Ichchhati

Inquit

Cathayati

Ath

Intra

Antara

Vinash

Esha

Vamini

Ita

Ifi, Yalha

Bhritum

Itum

Etum, Yatum

Plotum

^Yugum &

Plav

Jugum

?Yaja

Phali

Jussit

Japayamas

Bhratara

Jungo

Yung

Janoni
Genita

Juno, }
Genetrix 3

Janoni

Janata

Jusculum

Yusha

Janu

Juvenis

Yuvana

Gana

Labi

Jajanmi

Labium

Lapamya

Gaurava

Laedo

Ladi

Aghasam

Lretari

Hladitum

Adya

Levitas

Laghava

Bhumi

Libido

SLubdha,

Hima

' a greedy man

z z 2

324

latin.

Sanscrit.

Latin.

Samcrit.

Latin,

Saii»cr«.

liOCUS

^Loca, the

Neco

Nighna

Pergo

V^aja

I world

Nepos

Naptara

Pingere

Pinjitura

Lubet

Lubhyati

Neque

Nacha

Piacere

Pritum

Major

Mahatara

Neve

Nava

Piuo

Plu

Malus

Mala

Nidus

Nidhi

Polleo

Bal

Mare

Nara

Noceoe

Nasayitum

Post

Poschat

Mas

Manusbya

Novem

Nava

Potis

Poti, Lord

Mater

Matri

Novus

Navya

Potum

Patum

Mayors

Mahavarsaya

Nomen

Namna

Prandet

Pranipsati

Medium

Madhya

Nos

Nah, Olira, Nas

Praelium

Pralaya

Meio

Mi ha

Noctem

Nactam

Precor

Prachh

Me urn

Mama

Nox

Nisa

Primus

Prathama

Meminit

Mamana

Nubes

Nabhas, air

Prodigiuni

Prabhavaja

Menda

Manda

Nubo

Niva

Prope

Prapta

Mens
Metiri

Manas
Ma turn

Nurus
Octo

Snusara
Ashta

Pullulat ^
Pull us S

PhuUati

Micturiet

Mekshyali

Oculus

Acs hi

Quatuor

Chatur

Misceo

Misra

Odit

Atvat

Que

Cha

Modus

Afata

Asthi

Qui, Quern

Ki, Kim

Mors

Mrityu

Ovis

Ava

Quid

Yad

Moritur

Mrayati

Pastum

Psatum

Quinque

Pancha

Mus

Mushica

Pater

Pitri

Quo

Cwo

Musca

Maksha

Patera

Pattra

Quot

Cwoti

Navis

Nau

Pes, pedis

Pad a

Rectus

Rit

325

Latin,

Santcril.

Latin.

Sanscrit.

Latin.

Santcrit.

Rego

Raj

Sopire

Swoptum

Uncus

Ancusli

Res

Rai

Specie

Pasya

Unus

Jana

Rem

Rayama

Statio

Sthan

Ustus

Ushatu

Reverti

Paravertatuin

Statum

Sthatum

Uterus

Udar

Rex

R;ija

Suavis

Suadu

Uter

Yatara

Rhcda

Ratha

Supremus

Su para ma

Valeo

Bal

Ritus

Riti

Super

Upari

V'ates

Vadi

Rota

Ratha

Suum

Swayarn

Ruber

Rudhira

Taceo

Tushna

Vegeto

Voja

Rugit

Rau, Ravati

Tactus

Twac

Veho

Vaha

Sanus

Susthana

Taeda

Daha

Venor

Vana, Vanyah

Saturn

Syata

Tepescere

Taptum

Ventus

Vayajan

Seipsum '^

Tenuis

Tanu

Verres

Vara ha

& Suus3

Swa

Terra

Dhara

Vertere

Vartitum

Septem

CSapta and
'Saptem

Tibi

^Tubhya
cTubyama

Vestire
Victitare

Vastum
Bhaetum

Serpens
Servire

Sarpa
Sretum

Tonitru "|
Tono i

Stanit

Victus
Videre

Bhacsha
Veditum

Sex

Shash

Trans

Tri

Vidua

Vidhava

Siccus

Sush

Tres

Tri

Villa

Palli

Silex

Sila

Tredecem

Triyadashan

Vieo

Socer

Swasur

Tuum

Twam

Vir

Vara

Somniuni

Svvapua

Ungo

Anja

Vires

Vir

Sonus

Swan a

Ungula

An gal ay a

Viridis

Harit

326

muiii

Sanseril.

Latin.

Sanscrit.

Vis

Basa

Nonest

ISTasti

Vita

Vida

Est niihi

Asti mama

Vivere

Jevitum

Quid mihitecum

Kim maya tava

Vos

Vas

Tibi id

Tavid

Vox

Vak

Node dieque

Nactum divapi

Vox ita

Vaka yatha

If the affinity between Sanscrit and Latin is apparent, the close con-
nexion between Sanscrit and Greek is more so. This must have been
observed particularly in the substantive verb, in the numerals, and in
the few instances of regular verbs I have already noticed. But the sub-
sequent examples will more abundantly demonstrate their affinity.

Greek.

avxreSsiv

ave[j.og

etve'j

XTTO

Sanscrit.

At'ha Esheta

Aja

(Limpami

C & Lip

Ama

Anapadan

Ana

Nar

Yache

Creek.

Sanscrit.

Greek.

Sanscrit.

apt

Ura

Sei^eiv

Dis

a?v\g

Ari

SepXCfji-xi

Drakshmi

xcr^eveta,

Asusthana

Seva

D'he

xv^eiv

Aksha

Six

D'hi

T'evvxcn)

Atma
Jajanmi

hxiTx

(Dayitum
( Dayate

yi/jpau

Jarami

SiSxanoj

Upadesaca

ypxca

Gras

5j5a!fj.j

Dadami

lyvpoct!

Ghurn

i5i£Xfi'y

Dal

^aia

Dahami

'Eye /pa;

Gorami

Sxfj^xa

Dam

eSw

Ad mi

527

Greek.

Sanscrit.

Greek.

Sanscrit.

Greek.

Sanscrit,

eiBu

Vadi

I^vif^i

Tishtami

kvxvog

Loka

tl,'i^i. sum

Asmi

Yomi

MiZ^VlTVIS

Mith

eTfj-i. eo

Enii

Ka;<y%«^£iv

Kakhc

^j-xuTig

Mantre

SJ£J^Xl

Astuni

y.xi

Cha

[/.XpXlPCii

Maranya

ia-^iei

Asnati

nxXeca

Kala

\».i<yx [j.syxv

Mahan

enccqog
enatepoi

Ekaike
Ekatara

hxXv7:tci: )

HxXv^^t-X J

Chulump

Ma
Manayasa

t'k«(T<T!>lV

Lisyate

naKave^v

Kil, Kal

f^HTVip

Matri

iXctX^qog

Lagishtha

y.£(pxK)/\

Kapala

jxicxyo)

Misra

{•Avpx

Antara

M[t.UV

Hima

li.ev£Xivw

Manyamana

iWiX

Navana

yiioj

Chay

\i.vxoy.ai.

Mnanii

iTraivw

Panami

nKxsiv

Kale

N«u\

Nava

£pt

Uru

nXetg j)

Kol

veog

NTavya

epig

Ari

noKKx )

veu

Nahye

ta-^co siT^ei

Asnati & Asot

nfiXTog & )

Karttara, )

v£(pakyi

Nabh

e^epoi

Itara

nxpTOg J

ruler )

''Oy.ou

£%£iV

Gini

Kpl^CC

Krad

O^J-QIOCO

Masyanii

£01

Emi

KVIDV

San

OVOfJ.X

Namna

"Upcog

Sura

A«jX/3iXl/W )

Laniij La

oqtov

Asthi

vidvxloi

Asoca

X«/3aJ )

Labh, gain

o(ppvg

Bhru

k^l-^O^i.XI,

Lipsati

YIxixv

Pan

&xppa

Suia,Susthira

kxca

Loch

TociSsvu

Upadesaka

Svi^oi

Tija

Xeixw

Lehmi

'KUO\t.Xt

Pami

^vpx

Dwara

Aa)/3vi

Lubi

'KxpxdoTog

Pradatna

328

Greek.

vxpx'joBx

vXTOtO'lTCO

'K XT tea

'Axeiv

TTiipxqVif
'xeTreipxnx

TTiTTTO)
TTcpl

TrspSeiv

ttOK'J

trohog
'jpxog

TrpOlVilJ-l

Samcrit.

Prapti
Pit, kill
Pad, Pat'iie
Pa
Paclami

Parakshita

Pane,Patum

Patanii

Pri

Paid

Vahoola

Pad a

Prasam

Prasana

Prevami

Greeli.

TtpOTOi

TTupyot

TTcoXog

Pi/)(yi/U(iJ

pyiTOi

^^Toop

YixXevai

TSl^X

qepeoi
Txxvi

TiHTCCl^

TeXeicc

Sanscrit.

Prat'iiama
Varga

Sanscrit.

Dhayati

Tada

Traimi

Tripada

Yushainana

A pa

Vami

Sphaja

Bibhaya

Ghini,
Ghuni

jCarttum &
Cn, make, do

Carya, a thing to be done; Carma and Criya, an action; Carta,
an agent.

From Cri we have many derivatives. Sucara, easy; dashcara, difHcuIt;
curbate, produce; crishacan, a labourer; nishcarmmaneh, idle, not
active; apacrishta and acarma, wicked, that which ought not to be done;
cro, get, purchase.

C or K as a termination signifies a maker.

339

Crash, as a root, implies to make, seize, draw, cultivate; yll allied to
%fi/j; as maybe crashtum, to make furrows, xxpxTrnv. %a:;a(TTa' seems
to be allied to crintati, he cuts; acarttot, lie liatli cut; cnrtlita, lie
will cut.

Whilst tracing the affinity between Sanscrit and (J reck, it will be
worthy our attention to compare their numerals and ordinals, &c.

1, eka, "ig. 2, dwau, Svu. 3, frb/a, Tplx. 4, chat in; '^tTTzpes and
teiTcc^si. 5, pencha, 'Trtv^e and TtVTrg. 6, shesh, tt 7, septa, tv-i.
8, ashta, oktw. Q, iiava and navan, Iwicc. 10, des, Sena.

Here I must observe, that, although we can trace no direct corres-
pondence between eka and ev, yet there is a strict affinity between jena,
one person, and ev, and no less between eka and eaxcot, each one.

It is evident that ch in chatur and pencha takes tiie place of T in
TfTTflifEf and TefTe, and equally evident, that in shesh the first sh supplies
the place of the aspirate in l^. The second sh contains the sibilant part
of ^.

The ordinals are Prat'hama or Protoma, Dwitya, Tritya, Chetoorta,
Penchema, Sheshta, Septlma, Ashtima, Novuma, Decima, Yekadesha, &c.

Here I would call to the recollection of my reader the affinity and
radical identity between Greek and Latin, and I would at the same time
observe, that no one ever thought of deriving either tt/jotoj from primus,
or primus from nrpQioc but both these may safely by abbreviation be
derived from protama, the m being rejected by the Greek and the t
by the Latin. So monami, I remind, I admonish, connects itself equally
with f^vacoy.ui and moneo.

In Greek we have t/jjtoj and tpk, in Sanscrit tritya and trisa.

VOL. ir. 3 a

330

What I have here exhibited will be sufficient to exemplify the nature
of that affinity which subsists between Sanscrit and Greek.

I might now proceed to examine and to trace the affinity between
Sanscrit and Hebrew, which are certainly related, although not as
sisters, nor as parent and offspring; but for the present I forbear. I
shall however shortly take occasion to demonstrate that Greek and
Hebrew are radically one, as I have here adduced sufficient evidence to
prove, that a similar identity subsists between Sanscrit and Greek. It
will then, I trust, be clear to every one, that Sanscrit and Hehrezo have
a radical affinity, and may claim descent from the same progenitor,
existing at a given time, when the whole earth was of one language.
This conclusion is perfectly agreeable to the axiom, that if two things
are equal to a third they are equal to each other. The argument will
then stand thus, Sanscrit and Greek are radically one, Greek and
Hebrew are radically one, therefore Sanscrit and Hebrew are radically
one, q. e, cL

Ii ' -ji ! j-jtjj.j»mu-,jj. ' i ;t- ' .)—^ VW.i. l u^i — L-

ON THE

HFSSIAM LANGUAGE.

"RIOR to the time when Peter, siirnamecl The Great, conceived the
benevolent intention of civiHzing his savages, they were Httle noticed
by more polished nations, and, for want of early records, they them-,
selves know nothing certain of their origin. The whole nation was
plunged in the grossest ignorance, like the wandering hordes of the
present day, who inhabit independent Tartary. It is said of Svatoslaf,
the son of Igor, who died in 973, that on his march he had no baggage,
that his food was the flesh of horses and of other animals, warmed over
the fire; that he carried with him no tent, and that his housings served
him for a bed, and his saddle for a pillow. What a description this, of
uncivilized wanderers !

Respecting the ancestors, therefore, of such unlettered hordes, we
must be contented with conjectures. These can have no other foun-
dation, than what is derived from the examination of their language,

3 A 2

332

which must of necessity be exceedingly defective, because they have
never paid that attention to orthography, which we observe in other
nations, in the Welch, the Irish, the English, and the French. Con-
sequently the etymology of their language cannot easily be traced.

It is indeed stated by Mr. Coxe, that they are descended from the
Slavonians of the Danube, and came from the country now called
Hungary and Bulgaria, in the middle of the ninth century, at which
time Rurik laid the foundation of his empire. We learn, however, from
Levesque, that the term Slavon was unknown in Europe till the fourteenth
century. He states, that, according to Aboulgasi Baiadour, a Tartar
prince and historian, and to the authors quoted by d'Herbelot, in his
Oriental Dictionary, the Slavi are the descendants of Seklab, as the
Russians are of Rouss, who were both the offspring of Japhet. In his
opinion, these Slavonian nations came from Tartary by way of the
Caspian and the Euxine Seas, into Thrace, from whence they divided.

Certain it is, that the Polish, Bohemian, Moravian, Croatian, Carin-
thian, Carniolan, Bosnian, Servian, Albanian, Dalmatian, Hungarian,
Bulgarian and Russian, are dialects of the Slavonian, and all these, in
the opinion of Mr. Coxe, have a greater resemblance to the Greek than
to each other. It is likewise from an attentive examination of the
Russian Grammar, and of the incomparable Dictionary written by
Cellarius, clear, that Latin, Greek, and Russian are allied.

333
RUSSIAN ALPHABET OF THE NINTH CENTURY.

3 Ti; I

•

z ts i

AMHonpcmyox

1 m noprstuph ch, kh

HmmLLlb^K)£ed;3

ch sch slich ui e in ya tli o e

A is pronounced as in far; E as in fate when preceded hy a con-
sonant; but in the beginning it is ie. I, as e in me; O, as in no; U, as
in bull; J as s in pleasure or as j in jour. Of the two forms which have
no vocal sound, the first hardens, the other softens the preceding con-
sonant.

G in the beginning of a word is often, and sometimes at the end, pro-
nounced as an aspirate, and thus gospod becomes hospod.

G forms the genitive in V.

The nouns have seven cases; nominative, genitive, dative, accusative,
vocative, instrumental, and prepositive; of which the five first conform
to other languages. In the instrumental they agree with the ablative of
Greek and Latin ; but the prepositive is peculiar to this language. It
is marked by the preposition O, meaning of, from, concerning.

They have four declensions for substantives and one for adjectives, in
all which the vocative conforms to the nominative.

334

Fh'sf Declension of Suhstantive&.
N. rukA, G. ruki, D. ruke, A. ruku, /. rukoiu, P. o ruke; the hand: —
P/. N. A. rdki, G. ruk, i). rukdm, J. rukami, P. o rukakh.

Second Declension.
N. bardn, G. A. barana, D. baranu, T. baranom, P. o barane; a sheep:
PL N.A. barani, G. baranov, D. baranam, I. baianami, P. o baranakh.

Third Declension.
N. A. siemya, G. D. siemeni, I. siemenem, P. o siemeni; seed:
Fl. N.A. siemena, G. siemen, D. siemenam, I. siemenami, P. o siem-
enakh.

Fourth Declension.
N. A. mat, G. D. materi, I. materiu, P. o materi; mother:
PL N. materi, G. A. materei, D. materyam, I. materyami, P. o mater-
yakh, mothers.

Adjectives.
Masc. N. chistoi; Fern, chistaya; Neut. chistoe; pure, clean, chaste.

Degrees of Comparison.
D6rog, doroje, predorog; dear, dearer, dearest.

Nw7ierals.
Odin, dwa, Iri, chetare, pyat, shest, sedm, sem, osm, devyat, desyat,
1, 2, 3, &c.

Ordinals.
Pervoi, vtoroi, tretoi, chetvertai, pyatai, shestoi, sedmoi, vosmoi,
devyatoi, desyatoi.

335

Pronouns.
Ya, ty, on, ona, ono; my, vu, ony, oroiii; I, thou, he, she, it, we,
ye, they.

N. ya, G. A. menya, D. mne, I. mnoiu, V. o mne.

Fl. N. my, G. A. nas, D. I. nam, P. o nas; I, of me, &c.

N. ty, G. A. teba, D. tebe, &c. Thou, of thee, &c.

PL N. vu, G. J, vas, D. vam, &c.

N. on, G. J. jego, D, yemu, /. yim, P. o nem; he, of him, &c.

PI. N. ony, G. y^. yikh, X). yim, 7. imi, P. o nikh.

Possessives.

N. moy, G. A. moyego, D. moyemu, I. uioyim, P. o moyem; my,
of my, &c.

N. nash, G. A. nashego, &c. our. Twoy, thy; svoy, his; vash, your;
yikh, their.

Substantive Verb,

Esm, esi, est; esmui, este, sut; am, art, is, are.

Buil, was; buili, were.

Budu, budesh, budet; budem, budete, budut, shall be.

Bud, be; buit, to be. To these the pronoun is to be prefixed.

The verbs are exceedingly irregular. By some of these, here sub-
milted to the inspection of the reader, he will clearly discern the genius
and the affinities of this lansuage.

Daiu, daesh, daet, daem, daete, daiut; I, thou, he, &c. give.

Ya daval, tui daval, on daval, mui davali, I gave, «Scc.

Dam, dash, dast; dadim, dadite, dadut; will give.

Dai, give; davat, to give.

336

lem, iesh, iest; iedim, iedite, iedjat; I, &c. eat.

Ya iel, tui iel, on iel; mui ieli, &c. I, &c. ate; iedal, I had eaten.

Budu iest, will eat; iesh, eat; iest, to eat.

Verchu, vertish, vertit; vertim, vertite, vertyat, I, &c. turn.

Ya vertiel, &c. I turned; ya budu vertiet, &c. I will turn, &;c.

Verti, turn; vertiet, to turn; menya vertiet, I am turned.

Poiu, poesh, poet; poem, poete, point, 1, ^c. sing.

Stoiu, stoish, stoit; stoim, stoite, stoyat; I, Sec. stand.

Present.

Preterite.

Future.

Imperative.

Tntiyiilioe.

Bleiu

Bleyal

Zableiu

Blei

Bleyat, bleat

Bielieiu

Bieliel

Pobielieiu

Bieliei

Bieliet, pale

Voruiu

Voroval

Svoruin

Vorui

Vorovat, rob

Viedaiu

Viedal

Sviedaiu

Viedai

Viedat, know

Glotaiu

dotal

Glonu

Glotai

Glotat, swallow

Dergaiu

Dernul

Dernu

Derni

Dergat, draw

Derzaiu

Derzal

Derznu

Derzai

Derzat, dare

Deru

Oral

Fzderu

Deri

Drat, tear

Dremliu

Dremal

Vzdremliii

Dremli

Dremat, dream

Dumaiu

Dumal

Vzdumaiu

Dumai

Dumat, deem

lgu

Jeg

Ojgu

Igi

Jech, burn

Jeltieiu

Jeltiel

Pojeltieiu

Jeltiei

Jeltiet, yellow

Jivu

Jil

Pojivu

Jivi

Jit, live

Idu

Shol

Poidu

Podi

Itti, go

Kolieiu

Koliel

Okolieiii

Koli

Kolof, cool

Lgu

Lgal

Solgu

Lgi

Lgat, lie

337

Present.

Prtterilt.

Vulure.

Imperalioe,

/nftniHoa,

Liju

Lizal

Liznu

Liji

Lizat, lick

Maraiu

Maral

Zamaraiu

Marai

Marat, defile

Materieiu

Materiel

Zamaterieiu

Materiel

Materet, mature

Mogu

Mog

Vozmogu

Mogl

Motschi, able

Mochu

Morhil

Moknu

Mochl

Mochit, wet

Oriu

Oral

Vzoriu

Orl

Orat, plough

Pluivu

Pluil

Budupluit

Pluivi

Pluit, float

Poiu

Piel

Poiu

Pol

Plet, sing

Susu

Sosal

Budu sosat

Sosl

Sosat, suck

Sieiu

Sieyal

Posieiu

Siei

Sieyat, sow

Temnieiu

Tern ni el

Poteninieiu

Tenmiei

Temniet, dim

Tonieiu

Toniel

Otoniu

Ton!

Tonit, thin

Khochu

Khotiel

Zakhochu

Khotl

Khotiet, choose

Veliii

Veliel

Poveliu

Veil

VeHet, command

Verchu

Vertiel

Vernu

Vernl

Vertiet, turn

Viju

Vidiel

Uviju

Vld

Vidlet, see

Goriu

G oriel

Sgoriu

Gori

Gorlet, burn

Dwoiu

Dwoil

Ydwoiu

Dwoi

Dvvolt, double

Krichu

Krichal

Zakrichu

Krlchi

Krlchat, screach

Leju

Lejal

Poleju

Lejl

Lcjat, lie down

Lochu

Lokal

Loknu

Lochl

Lokat, lap, lick

Liubliu

Liubil

Poliubliu

Liubl

Liubit, love

Moriu

Moril

Ymoriu

Mori

Morlt, kill

Siju

Sidiel

Syadu

Sjad

Sid let, sit

Troiu

Troll

Ytroiu

Troi

Troit, triple

Mru

Mer

Budu meret

Meri

Meret, die

VOL. II.

3 F

338

The above selection is sufficient to mark affinity between the Russian
and the English. But to render this more evident, I subjoin a vocabu-
lary, in which the corresponding terms, however dissimilar in form,
essentially agree. To be satisfied of this, we must remember, what has.
been demonstrated, respecting abbreviation and the change of conso«
nants, as practised by all nations.

A VOCABULARY, ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN.

English,

Anchor
Angle
Apple

Bake

Balk
Bawd
Bath
Be

Beard
Beech
Beggar

Billows

Bind
Blaze

Russian.

Esm

Yakor

Ugol

Yabloko

Peku, roast

Pech, Furnace

Palka

Svod, Fornix

Banya, Balneum

Buivaiu

Boroda, Brada

Buk

Ubogii

^Volna Flouctus

'irobiluiu affluo

^Vuinimaiu

cObvivaiu, Vyaju

Bletschu

English.

Boar

Book

Bore

Bow, V.

Box

Brook

Brother

Buck

Cabbage

Calash

Can

Cart

Cat

Chaste

Chastity

Cheek

Chew

Bussian.

Borov, Verres

Bukva, Litera

Burav, Terebra.

Perevoju

Buk, Buxus

Rieka, Flumen

Brat

Buik, Bos

Kapusta

Kolaska, Rheda

Stakan, Poculum

Kareta

Kot

Chistuii, clean, pure

Chistota

Tscheka

Juiu

339

Eicgtislt.

Russian.

English.

Russian.

Choose

Khochu

Dear

Dorogii, Carus

Clay

Glina

Deem

Dumaiu,Reor,Opinor

Clock

Kolokolchik

Desk

Doska, Tabula

Coal

L^gol

Dew

Dojd, Pluvia

Coat

Koja, Pel lis

Dim

Duim, Fumus

Cock

Kucha, Strues

Dome

Dom

Cold
Cool

Kholod
Kolieiu

Door

^Dwer, Foris
cDoroga, Via

Cork

Korka, Cortex

Dough

Toje, naduvaiujtumeo

Corn

Zerno

Dray

Drovni, Traha

Cow

Korova

Dream

Dremliu, Dormito

Creek

Krik, Clamor

Dross

Drojdi

Crib

Krovat, Torus

Dry

Tru, Terges

Crook

Krug, Circulus

Ear, V.

Oriu, Aro

Cry

Krichu, Clamo

Ewe

Ovtsa

Curve }
Curl S

Krivuii, Krivliu, Curvo

Fan
Field

Vieyanie
Pole, Ager

Dad

Died

File

Pila

Dale

Dolina, v. Hollow

Fill

NTapolniaiu

Dance

Tantsuiu, Salto

Flame

Plama

Dare

Derzaiu, Audeo

Folk

Polk, Caterva

Daughter
Day

Dotch and Dtscher
Den

Foot

CPod, Nadpodlie adpedes
^Podlie & Po, Juxta

Deal

^Dielaiu, Ago
cDielenie, Partior

Full
Furnace

Polnuii, NapolnyaiUj Impleo
Gorn

B 2

340

Bttgihh.

Russian,

English:

Russian.

Furrow

Borozda

Grim

Ygriumuii, Torvus

Gall

Jelch, V. Yellow

Grub, a.

Grubuii, Rudis

Garden

Ogorod

Grumble

Gremliu, 1 ono

Gargle

Gorlo, Guttur

Guild

Gildiya, Tnbus

Glass

Glaz, Lumen

Guest

CJost, Hospes

Glide

Gladkii, Laevis

Heart

Serdtse

Glisten

^Losk, Nitor
cBlistaiu, Niteo

Herald
Hill

Ceroid
Kholm, Collis

Globe

Golova

Hollow

Jolobovatuii

Glue

Klei, Kleiu

Host

Gost, Hospite

Glut

Glotaiu, Glutio

Hurry

Skoro, Promtu

Khoju, Eo, descend

Voskhoju, Scando

Judge

Suju, Judico

Ukhoju, Fugio

Ivy

Iva, Salix

Vskhoju, Inscendo

Knee

Kolieno, Genu

Otkhoju, Exeo

Knit

Nit, Filum

Perekhojujtranscendo

Know

Znaiu

Goat

Kozel

Knoot

Knut, Flagellum

Gold

Zolato,t;. Jelch,yellow

Lad

Molodoi

Goose

Gus

Lady

Molodaya

Grapple

Grabliu, Praedon

Laud

Slavliu

Grave
Graze

(Pogrebaiu, Humo
(Pogrebenie, Sepultura
Gruizu, mordeo, rodo

Lay
Leaa

Polagaiu, Pono
^Kloniucya, Verge
(v. Thin

341

English.

Russian.

English.

Russian.

Leek

Luk, Cepa

Loaf

Khlieb, Panis

Left

Lievuii, Sinister

Lodge

Leju, Jaceo, Cubo

Letter

Bukva

Polojenie, Situs

Lewd

Biudnitsa, Scortutn

Love

Liubovc, Liubliu

Lick

Liju, Lingo, Lambo

Lucid

Blistaiucya, Mico

Lie

(Leju, Cubo

Lungs

Legkoe

CLoj & Lgu, Mentior

Lump

Lomaiu, Rumpo

Linen

Len

Mallet

Molot, Malleus

Lion

Lev

Mama

Mam, Mater

Light

Letaiu, Volo

Mamka, Nutrix

Priletaiu, Advolo

Many

Mnogii, Plerique

Yletaiu }

VAvolo
Otietaiu 3

Margin

Bereg, in Wilts called
Barge, Margo

Sletaiu, Convolo

Mash

Miesaiu, Misceo

Obletaiu, Circumvolo

May

Mogu, Possum, Quco

Pereletaiu, Transvolo

Mead

Med, Mel

Naletaiu, Involo

Mean

Mniu, Reor

Light

Legkii, Levis

Meat

Myaso, Caro

Oblegchaiu, Allevo

Meek

Myakhkii, Mollis

Lights

Legkoe, Pulmo

Midst

Mejdu, Inter

Voloku, Traho

/-Motsch, Potentia

Privlekaiu, Attraho

Might

< Pomogaiu, Adjuvo

List

^List, FoUum
cSluishu, Audio

Milk

vMochnuii, Potens
Moloko, Lac

342

Ennlish.

Rua.tian.

English.

Russian.

Mill, V.

Mel ill

Nest

Gnezdo, Nidus

Mill, s.

Melintsa, Melnitsa

Net

Nebod, Rete

Mire

Muravei, Formica

/ Novuii, Novus
< Novina, Novitas

Mix

Meshaiu

New

Moist

Moiu, Lavo

^Obnovlyaiu, Renovo

Muite, Lavatio

Nigh

Nad

Molt

Molchu, Sileo

Night

Notch, Nox

Month

Mesyats, Mensis

Moor
Morose

More, Mare
Moroz, Rigor

None 'i
Nought 3

Nikto, Nemo

rMertvuii

Nose

Nosada, Nos, Nasus

Mortal

<Smert, Mors

Nostrils

Nosdrya, Nares

v-Umiraiu, Morior

Oats

Oves, Avena

Mouse

Muish, Mus

One

On, Ille

jVIuck

Mokr, Moknu, Madeo

Edin and Odin, Unus

Moknu, Humesco

Ooze, Ozier

Ozero, Stagnum

Mokrui, Udus

Out

Ot, Extra

.^lurder

Ymertschvlyaiu

Pale

Bieliel, Pallidus

Mute

Niemui, Mutus

Palace

Palatka, Tabernacum

Moi, Meus

Pay

Biu, Ico

Naked

Nagii, Nudus

Peace

Pokoi, Pax

Name

Imya, Nomcn

Pit

Petschera, Caverna

Nasty

Nechistuii, Sordidus

Pierce

Proverchivaiu

Need

Nujda, Necessitas

Pleat

Pletu, Piccto

Nadobno, Nccessuni

Plough

Plukh, Aratrum

343

English.

Russian.

English.

Russian.

Poet

Poet, Cantat

Rob

Grabliu, Prffidor

Pole

Palka, Fustis

Grabej, Spolium

Pork

Porosenok

Borovstvo, Furtuni

Pot

Pile, Potus

Roof

Krovlva

Port

Vorota

Rose

Roza

■

Roe

Rojdaiu, Gigno

Pray

Prosliu

Rumble

Gremhu, Tone

Probity

Pravda, Veritas

Salt

Sol

Spravedliwost, Id.

Scrape

Skrebu, Rado, Scabo

Rage

Vrjda, Ira

Scrub

Skoblio, ditto

Rave

Revu, Boo

Screech

Krichu, Clamo

Raven

^Voron, Corvus
c Vorona, Cornix

Ruichu, Rugio
Skrejetschu Strideo

Raze

(Gruizu, Rodo
vRazzoryaiu, Destruo

Secret
See

Skruitno
Siyaiu, Luceo

Reach

Ruka, Manus

Seven

Sedm, Septem

Red
Rein

Ruijii, Rufus
Remen, Lorum

Sew

^Shiu

cSvyazuivaiu, Jungo

Rib

Rebro, Costa

Shoe

Skoba

Rive

Rvu, Ruivaiu, Rupi

Shop

Pokupaiu, Caupona

Otruivaiu, Runipo

Siege

Osada

Pereruvaiu, Perseco

Sister

Sestra

Podruvaiu, Subseco

Sit

Siju, Sedeo

Rope

Berovka

Seat

Sidienie

344

English.

Russian.

English.

Russian,

Six

Shest

Step

Stupaiu,Scando,Cedo

Sleep

Spliu, Dormio

Otstupaiu, Abscedo

Sliepota, Caecitas

Pristupaiu, Accedo

Usuiplyain, Consopio

Ystupaiu, Concedo

Snow

Sneg

Zastupaiu, Intercedo

Sock

Sokha, Aratrum

Nastupat, Succedere

Sodder

Soshnika, Vomer
Soedinyaiu, Jungo

Stool

(Stul, Sedes
(Stol, Mensa

Son

Suin

Stone

Postoyannuii, Stabilis

Sore

Sor, Sordes

Story

Stroiu, Struo

Sound

Voniu, Sono

Stubble

'^tebel, Stipula

Vieniu, Tinnio

Style

Stul, Sedes

Sow

Seiu, Sero

Suck

Sosu, Sugo

Seed

Seinya, Semen

Succour

Skoruii, Skoro,

Speed

Speshu

Festinanter

Spine

Spina, Dorsum

Su e

Proshu, Peto

Spur

Shpor

Sun

Solntse, Sol

Spy

fspuituivaiu

Swine

Swinya

Stand

Stoiu

Swoon

Son, Somnus

Station

Stan

Tall

Dolgii, Longus

Stall

Stoilo, Stabula

Teach

Uchu

Postavleinaya, Tentorium

Tear

Terzaiu, Lacero

Stavil

Stavlyaiu

Deru, rumpo

Steel

Stal

Razdiraiu, Scindo

English.

Teat

Thin

Thorn

Thrush

Tree

Trumpet

Twins

Verge

Vow

Vo^'age

War

"Ware

Water

Well

Wheat

Busixtin,

ritka

I'onkii, Tenuis

Fernie

Drosd

Derevo

Truba

Dwoini

Bereg

Bojusya, Juro

Otvoju

Voina

Tovar> Merx

Voda

V^olna, Fluctus

Pshenitsa, Jits, Far

Engliitk

Wheel

When

Whole

VVidow

Will

Wind

Wolf

Wool

Wrath

Vellow

Yet

Koleso;

Kogda

Tsieluii

Vdova

Jelaiu, Volo, Avea

Volya, Voluntas

Vulno, Licet

Volnuii, Liber

Povelievaiu, Mando

Vieyanie, Flatus

Vieiu, Flo

Volk

Volna

Vrjda

Jelcb, V. Bile, Gali

Etsche

A VOCABULARY, GREEK AND RUSSIAN.

Greek,

Russian.

Greek.

Russian,

^Amvi

Ukho, Auris

TxXet, «KTOS

Moloko, Lac

^Apoia

ApXJJCO

Oriu, Arc
Razzoryaiu

Zenaiu

Bojyio}

Pasu, Pasco

rxuCw ■)

Glotaiu

^ov\o[j.ai

Jelaiu, Velle

rXWTT* 3

Poglotschaio

VOL. II.

i c

346

Grak.

AiMfiiin.

Greek.

AutMaii.

T\ix

f Klein, Glutino
' Glina, Argilla

KXa<yw

Plachu "^
Oplakivaiu ^ ^"^°

KXaw

Kliu, Cuneus

^leXeiv

Razdielenie

KXeiia

Kleiu

Aoxifji,a;^w

Dokazuivaiu

KXfK

Kliuch, Clavis

Daiu
Odievaiu

Khvaliu, Laudo

' Ehu)

Jedal, Comedi

KXifw

Sklonnuii

'EiVea

Viedaiii

K.'kvoo-aiii

Sluisliu

'K.oiXog

Jolobovatuii

'Eoj

Svoi, Suns

'K.OvTbJ

Kopaiu

El'^lBlV

Jest

KpccjixTOg

Krovat

Epf^w

Krovlya, Tectum

Kp/xcj

Kriig

Et,

Etsciie

KpUTTTW

Kroiu, Tego, Lateo

©ixppw

Derzaiu

Skruivaiu, Occulto

Qvpx

Over

Pokruivaiu ^Tego

KaTpcf

Vepre

Nakruivaiu SOperio

Kfa^

Serdtse

Otkruituii, i\pertus

Kv;tv|

Kit

KuAfO)

Koleso, Rota

K/o)

Clioju, Eo, Ambulo, Hum

Ax€e. KxIj-^xvcc

Ylovljaiu, Lovlenie

ifkhoju, Fugio

Asujjai

Blistaiu and Blesk

r'rokhoju, Penetro

Meye^og

Pomogaiu

^rikhojii, Accedo, adeo

Mio-iyw

Vlieshaiu

(

)tklioju,abcedo,abeo

Mu>.n

VIelnitsa

347

Greek.

Ruiiiati.

Greek.

ituSM'MI,

NfOf

Novuii, Novus

OoXt;?

Bolshe, Plus

Tlaita. Bt«

Biu, Caedo, Verbero

ITsf. TTOiSof

Pod, Infra

Ubivaiu, Occido

Podlie, Juxta

Otbivaiu, Reverbero

T/IO

Pred, Prae

Jliipw

^Burav and Napare,

TTLI^O?

Buk

f Terebra
Otvoryaiu, Aperio

Pio.'. eppevnx ^
'Pu'«$ S

Rieka, Rivus

Otversto, Aperte

"E/Txcii. qu

Stoiu

Zapiraiu, Operio

Perestaiu, Cesso, absisio

neTO(*«i

Ptitsa, Avis

^Stoyanie and Stan,

Pticlika, Avicula

} Statio

iii'vw. n/o!

Piu, Bibo, Poto

PredstoiiJ, Adsto

Pite, Pot us, Potio

Postoyanstvo, Con-

Pet, Potor

stantia

Ili'VW

Pitiii, Potulentus

Otstoiu, Disto

TiW

Vuipivaiu, Epoto

Ostaiusya, Resto

Vuipit, Ebibere

St£X£%OJ

Stol, Mcnsa

ITurTa)

Padaiu

STfV«C^

Stenu

rioTj'^«

Napoitsya, Imbibere

ST^WWUfi!.*

Stroiu, Construo

IlAla;

Plavaiu, Navigo, Fluito

ToT£

Togda, Tunc

Plavanie, Navigatio

cDXo$

Losk

Vuipluivaiu, Enavigo

Oom

Zvoniu, Sono

nxfM

Polnuii, Plenus

^tfaTvip

Brat

Napolnyaiu, Impleo

XoAvi

Jelch

c 2

348

EXTRACT FROM A VOCABULARY, LATIN AND Rl SJ!IAN.

Latin.

Russian.

Latin.

Russian.

Latin.

Russian.

Agnus

Agnets

Jugum

[go

Prope ■)

Podlie

A per

Vepr

Jus

Sud

Ad pedes )

Angulus

Ugol

Latro, V.

Laiu

Pulvis

Puil

Asellus

Oslik

Lingo

Liju

Rugio

Ruikaiu

Baculus
Barba

Palka
Boroda

Linum
Malleus

Len

Molot

Rapio )
Abripio 5

Otruivaiu

Brachium

Ruka

Mare

Ros

Rosa

Cast us

Chistui

Margo

Bereg

Rupi

Rvu

Cudo

Kuiu

Medium

Mejdu

Abrumpo

Otruivaiu

Culmen

Kholnij Jiigum

Mens

Mnienie

Ructo

Ruigaiu

Domus

Dom

Molo

Meliu,

Sal

Sol

Duo

■

Dvajdui

Morior

Mru

Scutum

Pschit

Flamma

Planien

Mors

Smert

Seco

Seku

Furor

V^oruiu

Mugio

Muichu

Sedeo

Siju

Fur

Vor

Nescio

Meznaiu

Sosedaiu

SimuljSedeo

Gluten

Glina

Ovis

Ovtsa

Sedile

Sidiel

Glutio

filotaiu

Plango

Plachu

Semen

Semya

Ignis

Ogon

Plecto

Pletu

Septem

Sedm

Inclioo

Nachinaiu

Porta

Vorola

Siccus

Sukhii

Induo

NTadievaiu

Post

Poslie

Siliqua

Shelukha

Itum

rtti

Precor

Proshu

Sol

Solntse

Judico

"^iiju

Pridie

Pcred

Somus

Son

Judex

Sudya

Probus

Pravednui

Sono

Zvoniu

349

tatin.

Uussian.

Lafin.

nussiun.

Latin.

/i usiiatt.

Sordes

Sor

Valde

Velikii

V'ico

Vyaju

Stipula

Stebel

Veho

V^czu

Obvivaiu

Succus

Sok

Ventus

Vietr

Vivo

Jivu

Suo;o

Sos

Ventilo

Vieiu

Vita

Jivot

Tenuis

Tonkii

Video

Viju

Voluntas

Volya

Tepor
Tero

Teplota

^Tru

cRastiraiu

Verto ;
Torqueo 3

Verchu

Volo

Jelaiu

We have here taken a very transient view of the Russian language;
yet from this we may venture to affirm, not merely, that a considerable
part of it has an affinity to English, German, Spanish, Galic, Sanscrit,
Latin, Greek and Hebrew; but that these languages are radically one.

It is clear, that the Russians have been fond of forming new com-
pounds and of abbreviating old ones. It is equally clear, that thej
have not only substituted for each other consonants, which have organic
affinity, but have adopted many arbitrary changes peculiar to themselves,
and, like other nations, have, by dint of their mutations and contrac-
tions, made one word represent various notions, with which originally it
had no connexion.

In the analysis of Russian expressions we have more than common
difficulties. Had we a succession of writers, from remote antiquity, as
in Greek, to which we might refer, we should then be able to trace the
successive changes, which have happened to this language. But whilst
the Slavonian hordes wandered with their flocks over extensive plains, or

350

hid themselves in the dark recesses of their forests, they had not the use
of letters. We must not therefore wonder, that in the Russian language
there should be numerous expressions, which cannot be analysed. These
are evidently compounds; but so contracted, that the root can no longer
be discovered.

In those words, which have been selected for my vocabularies, the
novice in languages may be at a loss to trace affinity between Russian,
Greek and Latin; but, to remove his difficulties, he must ever bear in
mind, that abbreviations are the wheels of language, the wings of
Mercury. These, therefore, to the adept, will not create embarrassment,
and much less will the mutation of consonants, such as all nations
have adopted.

By other mutations the novice may be exceedingly perplexed, when
change of vowels, change of consonants, and change of meaning, in
any given word, unite to conceal the radical expression and the original
notion from which he is to trace its deviation. Of these, numerous
instances have occurred to us in the progress of our investigations.

SJLAYONIAW,

VV HAT has been said of the Russian, will apply to the Slavonian;
but it must be observed, that the former is a dialect of the latter, which
embraces Lusatian, Polish, Bohemian, Moravian, Croatian, Carinthian,
Carniolan, Bosnian, Servian, Albanian, Dalmatian, Hungarian, Bul-
garian, &c.

Their letters resemble, but are not all precisely the same in figure.
Both conform nearly to the Greek.

This language, so extensively diffused, is exceedingly corrupt. It is
evidently derived from some dialect of the Greek, chiefly from the
iEolic, and has some connection with the Sanscrit. This will appear,
when we examine the vocabulary, to which I immediately proceed. I
might have given this in the Appendix, but I am of opinion, it will be
more profitable to the student to place it here. It is not to be expected,
that the affinity should be self-evident in every word ; but the practised
eye will readily discern features of resemblance.

352

It must be observed, thai A is pronounced as in far; E, in the begin«

iiing of a word, like yea, and in the middle like A in fate; J like S in

pleasure; I, like E in me; Y, as U in bull; shtch, as in parish-church i

lU, as U in cure; UI, as Y, or rather as UI in liquid.

But A, if followed by two consonants, becomes O, and the consonants

are separated by O; thus glaka becomes goloka.

SLAVONIAN VOCABULARY.

Siattmian,

Slavonian.

Aggl

Agnets

Agnus, af^vOi,

Bitcli, V. Bitie
B,letchanie

Flail
Lightning

Boroda,

^Barba, a
' beard

Aer

Bleyu

/3Xv]%ft;(ji.i3ri

Borov

Boar

j\lector

aXey-TCiip

Blcyaniya

Balatus

Boroniu

A furrow

Aris

kp^,i

Blistanie

Splendour

Botiu

■niaivai

Banya
Bdiu

Balneum
Video, Vigilo

Bloud
Bled

A blot
Pallidus

Botelyi

^ Fat, butter

Bditel

Vigil

Bledneyu

Pallesco

Bruda

Beard

Bdyenie

Vio-ilia

Blyadibyi

Blatero

Brat

Frater

Bercza

A birch

Bodou

A bodkin

P.rov

Brow, fiCppuj

Beru

(pe.fic

Bojva

A vow

Brod

Ford

Bilo

Fl age 11 urn

Boi

War

Bouk

A beech

Biba

A batUe

Bolma

Full, %Xio./

Bouivol

Bubalus

Bitie

A beating

Boloto

Bl()t,Lutni).

Bouravok

A borer

Bitch

A flail

Bolschii

Mil) or, Plu.-

Bourav

Bore

Biyou

Bix^w Ttxlca

Borenic

Worry

Bouraviu

I bore

353

Slavonian. \

.Buk

Bjvayu •
Byvanie
Byvait

Beg

Bejdenie

Bclia

Bejdou

Vaga

Vajdenie

Valenie
Yalyaia
Vas
Vat
Vdova
Velii
Vedro
Velenie
Veliu
Vepr
A'crtlo
Vert ;

Vertograd 5
VOL. ir.

A. beech

Being

Fit

Fuga

Bia

Pale

WeJcrh

c Accusatio

Fall

V'oivo

Vestruni

Vat

Vidua

vhpLX

A. com man d

I will command

A per
Terebra

[Tortus

SliKOnian.

Vcrch

Vesna

Vetchost

Vetchii

Vetschaiu

Vctschou

Vetscbanit

Vetscher

Vjigaiu

Vzemaiii

Vidiniyi

Vid

V^igdou

Virscha

Vitie

Vino pi tie

Viiu

Vienie j

Vkaus

Vklonyaiu

Viagaiu

Vlas

Vlekou

Vmiecheiiie

Vertex

Vernus

Vetustas

Vetus

V^eterasco

Invetero

fnveteratio

Vespera

y.xio)

Assume
Visibiles

Video
Verse
Tie

Slavonian,

Vmeryaiu
Voda

Vodoupiiu ^
Vodopitie S
Vojdu
Vozdvoyaiu
Vozdaiu
Vozlagaiu
Vozlojenie ^
Vozlejou 3
Vozmezdie ")

leo

gustus, yev^u

Impoiio, lay on
Villus, pilus

tXnciJ

V^ozmezdyaiu

Vozmnjno

Vostanie

Vostorgaiu

Voina

Vol

Volokou

Volenie

Volopas

Volna

{

Water

V'eho, duoo
Reduplico
Reddo
Lay

Lodge, lay

Retribuo 3
Might, may

qxcri;

Tear

War

Bull

i'Xxo;

Volitio

Bubulcus

Lana, "svool

Veil us

Wool, V.

354

'Slavonian,

Volk, XvHog

Voliu
Vop
Vopiiu
Vor

Vordiu

Vosk

Voskormlyaiu

Vostanie

Vostaiu

Vostorgaiu

Vpadaiu

Yrana, vorona

Vrata

Vratar

Vryvaiu

Vreiu

Vscliuveziiji

Vtjkaiu
Vehod
Vtschera
Vschivaiu

Lupus, wolf

Vulpes
Volo, will
Vociferatio
/3oft;. vocifero
Fur
Furo

Cera, wax
Nutrio

xvxquJic
Tear

'TTiTT/iJ

Porta

Porter

Infodio, furrow

Brew

^Omnibus

c Amicus

Stick, Infigo

Ilcri

Insuo

Slavonian.

Vypivaiu
Vedaiu
Veiu

Vetr, Vietr
Vyajou

Gai

Gat

Gladkii

Glaber

Glava

Glagol

Glagoliu

Glas

Glina

Glotka

Gnezdo

Golouve ^

Golub S

Golot

Gora

Gorve

Gorka

Gorschc

Ebibo

oihcc. eiSoi
Ventiio
Ventus
Vincio, vico
(Comix, a
^ jay

Strata via in
paludibus

K£(p«Xvi. globe
Kcyog

Vox, y\cc(r(rx

yMx. Argilla

Gutlur, y^OTTa;

Columbus

Glacies

opog

Curvus

opog

Worse

Slavonian.

Gorenie

Goriu

Gospod

Gost

Gradeg

Grad

G orod

Grad

Gramota

Grau

Gratsch

Grakaiu

Grov

Grount

Gryzou

Greiu

Goriu

Gryaz

Go us

Davaiu

Davatel

Datcl

zupoa, "li^S

KUCJOc llOSt

H OS pes
(Host, guest
A hedfje

A city, -1^;;

Grando

<ypu\i-[j.x
opioy. limes
nopci'^, corvus
y.pay.i^a. croak
Grave
(The base
( ground
Graze

[ warm

Mud, dirt
Goose
Si$ct}ii.i. do

Dator

355

Slavonian:

Davanie

Davno

Daleko

Daliu

Dan

Darovatel

Daroni

Darouiu

Dva

Dvadesyat

Dvajdy

Dver

Dvernick

Dvoiu

Dennji

Den

Dennitsa

Derzaiu

Derou

Desyat

Dnes

Dodaiu

Diu
Far off

Dally
Tributum

Gratis, donuiu

Sctipsacv
Svoj. two

\^is;inii

Duo, bis

Door

Janitor

Divido, duo

Diurnus

Dies

Lucifer

Dare

Tear

Decern

Hodie

To, at, in

Addo

Slavonian.

Dolina

A dale

Jena

ywv)

Doma
Dom

Domi
Domus

Jivou, Jvu

((ipdu}. vivo,

C chew

Doska

Desk

Jivot

Vita

Dostoit

Decet

Jija

Jusculum, juice

Dotsch

Daughter

Six

Drasrii

Dear

Zaviduiu

[nvideo

Dragost

Caritas

Zagryzaiu

Graze

Drevo

Tree

Zakalaiu

Jugulo

Drova
Dremliu

Ligna
Dormito

Zaklej'aiu

f Agglutino
^Glue

Drojdie

Dross

Zakrivljaiu

Incurvo

Drosd

Thrush

Zakryvaiu

yipUTTTu

Dymno

Fumosus,dim

Zalagaiu

Lay down

Delenie

Deal

Zgaraiu

Comburo

Delia

Deal

Zerno

Graiium,corn

Ed in

Unus

Zima

Hyems

Ediniu

Unio

Zigaiu

Hio

Epkop
Esm

ETTiO-KOTrOf

Sum, Ei[ji.{

Zlato

rCold, sec
cyellow

Jovaiii

Chew

Znaemyi

Notus

Jgou

HXiU

Znak

Sign urn

Jelt

Yellow

Znanienaii5 2

rv)[j^lKJVW

Jeltsch

Fel, bile, gall 1

Znanie •:

/VUO'lj

D 2

556

Slavonian.

Znaiu

Know

Kareta

Carpentum

Legkost

Levitas

Igla

Acus

Karman

Crumena

Legtschou

Levo

Igo

Jugum, yoke

Kaya

■rrOlx

Lokaiu )

XSI%C-J

Idu

Kii

Quis, qui

Ligu )

Lick

Idi

rto

Kliniu

•aXuu

Luk

Leek

^Exjincom-

Kliutsch

Clavis

Litra

AiTpiZ

c position

Klei

y.oxxcc, tyXiz

Liubliu

I love

( Excorio,

1
Koja

Coat

Liubliu

Lascivio

Izdiraiu

Kw^ohipoi

Kozel

Caper, goat

Loje

Lectus, lodging;

Izytie

Evito

Koleso

Calash

Malakiya

[j.aXz'Aix

Iskonpdio

Redimo, caupo

Kopiu

fleap

Marnier

Marmor

Izlagaiu

Educo

Korkaiu

Crocito

Mater

lito

(UTog

K,ost

Ossis

Mejdou

Mediuni-

Izpivaiu

Ebibo

Kot

Cat us, cat

Mladyi

Lad

Iztiraiu

Extero

Krakaiu

Crocito

Mleko

Milk

Uligo

Kratiu

Curto

Mne

Mihi

Him

Krebat

Crib

Mnee

Minus

Iskanie
Ispolnenie

Scan
Full, fill

Krest
Krokos

Crux
Crocus

Mogoutuyi

(Mighty

Clxsye^og

Istina

x'kv.^eiz. iq/,ij.i

Koub

Cup

Mogou

May, can

Istiayaiu

Take out

Koubscliin

Lagena

Mojno

Possible

Ischod

i^ohog

Koupouiu

Caupo

Moknou

Muck, madco

Kabak

Caupona

Legu

Lie

Mo k rot a

Humiditas, muck

Kapousta

Cabbage

Legkic

Light

Mokryi

Hutnidus, muck

35r

S7flroJii"a«.

Slavonian,

Slavonian. f

Monach

i^fOj

Napadaiu

f I fall into

Oralo i

A.ratrum

Monaschkii

1*0 VOf

(ttittIo;

Oranie

A ratio

Mare

Nasch

Noster

Oratch

\rator

Mor.

j.xpxiVCil. plagae

Ne, non

Organ

Jrganura

Moch

Muscus

Nebidnyi

Obscure

^)riu

Aro

Motschiusya

Madeo

Nemog

Nequeo

Osel

Asellus

Motscheu
]\Irou

^Esm valco,
' I am mighty
Morior

Neznaiu
Neposstoya-

istbouiu

Fgnoro
^Instabilis

Otels

Otsko

Paba

Pater, aTTa

Ocellus

Pavo

Moucha

Musca

Neprochodno

Padaiu

TTiTTW

Nige

Nee

Pakidaiu

Red do

Mya

Non

Pakipoiu

Recanto

Myaso

Mess, meat

Nibo

Nove

Pastbinnyi

Pascuus

Nadaiu

Appono

Nozdri

Nares

Pastyr

Pastor

Nagii

I Nudus,
( Naked

Nos-
Notsch

Nasus-
Nox

Pachotnik
Pekou

Agricola
Coquo

Najou

Nudo

Oba

Ambo

Periu

Prius

Nadlagaiu

Lay, appono

Obitaiu

Habito

Pika

Pike

Nadstoiu

[nslo

Obtscha

Ovis

Platsclilibyi

Plango

Nakrybaiu

■/.pvT^Tca

Obes

Oats

Platschou

Ploro

Nalaganie

Lay, impositio

Ogn

[o-nis

Pletou

Plico, pleat

Nalagaiu

Lay,impono

Ognitschc

Rogus

Plabaiu

Fluito

Nalojnitsa

r Lodging,
(Concubine

Oko
On

Oculus
One, he

Planta
Plamen

Plank
Flamrna.

358

Slavonian,

Slavonian.

Pobar

Coquus, ^eTrl 111

Predbedatel

A prophet

Repa

Rapum

Poberyaiu

Probo

Predanie

Proditio

Sakos

Saccus

Pogrebaiu

^ Grave,
cl bury

Predlog
Predpomogaiu

Prepositio
Auxilio

Sam
Saraoliubie

Same

love, self love

Pod

Pede, under

Presbyter

Sberdel

Bore, terebra

Podabaiu

Trado

Pribiraiu

I collect

Sbiniya

Swine

Podarok

Donum

Pridanie

Additio

Ecct;

Podatel

Dator

Prisedaiu

Assideo

Sedm

Septem

Poddanyi

Subject

Probijvou

Praevideo

Serdtsc

Cor

Podpadaiu

TTiTTTW

Prodaiu

V'endo

Slouga

Servus, sluggard

Pokou

Pax

Protibo, lejou

Coiitrajaceo, lay

Slepyi

Caecum, sleep

Polagaiu

Lay, pono

Profibobozdaiu

Reddo

Slepiu

Cascum facio

Polk

Folk, agmen

Prcjtibo- 2

Contranavigo

Smert

Mors

Pole

Field

plabaiu S

ttAuVW

Sneg

Nix

Polnos

■n-oXvg

Prochojdenie

Peregrinatio, go

Sol

Sal

Pomogaiu

Might, aJjiivo

Ptitsa

ttSTSIVOV

Soliu

Salio

Posled

Postea

Pout

oSog

Solitsche

Sol

Posva2;aiu

Spouse, uubo

Pyat

TrBUTS

Son

Sopor, somnus

Potir

^OTi^piOV

Razstoiu

Disto, «7V5|j^i

Sosets

mamma, suck

Poia

Cano, TOivjfiiz

flasterzanie

Ruptio, tear

Sosedaiu

Sedeo, simul

X^rabda

Probus

Remeu

Rein

Sopletaiu

Connecto, TrXf%a

Prabo

Probus

Rosa

Ros

Sopostat

Rebellis, sto

Prabji

Probus

Rouka

Reach, hand

Spliu

I sleep

I'iMbosoudcls

Justus, piobus

Rytchou

Rugio

Spanie

Sopor

359

Slavonian,

Slavonian.

SpogrebctJu

^Gravc,
Csimul sepelio

Styajou
Styajanie

Possldeo
Possessio

Tcmno

Tern ni 11

Dim
[ dim

Spech

rFestinatio

Stynjatel
Soudiya

Possessor
ludex

Tcper
Teplota

Fcpid
Tepor

Speschou

^Festino

(g-^evSa

Soujdou
Souchoya

Judico
A rid a

Tcpleiu
Terzaiu

Caleo, tepeo
Tear

Sosou

Sugo, libera

Soucho

S'lcch

Ternie

Thorn

Statiya

Status

Soutschou

Sicco

Tertie

Tritura

Stabliii

Stabilis

Sedalitsche

Sedilc

Tertyi

Trims

Steniu

qBvct^a. qsuco

Sejou

Sedeo

Titki

Teat

Stol

Mensa, stool

Seden

Sessio

Tigr

Tigress

Stenananie

qevxyij.oi

Sekou

Seco

I'kanie

Textura

Stomacli

Stomachus

Semya

Semen

Togda

Tunc, TOTS

Stamna

qaij.vo;

Seiu

Semi no

Togdaje

Eodem tempore

Stopa

Pedale, spatium

Seyanie

Seminatio

Tt)rgaiii

Lacero, tear

Stopanogi

The sole of a foot

Seyatel

Sator

Trapeza

Tpzva^iz

Stopanojnaya

Vestidium

Siudy

Semino

Trepetshou

Trepid

Stoiu

Sto, maneo

Taler

Talerus

Tretii

Tertius

Stoiuokrest

^Quiesco,
'Circumsto

Talant
Teboe

Talentum
Tuuni

Tret
Tretschou

Tertia
Strido

Stoilo

Stabulum

Tboi, Tvoi

Tuus

Tri

Tpix. Tpeit

Stoianie

Static

Tebe

Tui, Tibi

Troe

Tpif

Stoyatschii

Stabilis

Tekou

Curro

Ty, Tui

'7:v. <n>

Stoud

Pudor

Teiiinost

Dimness

Tya

360

Slavonian,

Slavoniatii

Ouddoyaiu
Ougl

Duplico, Svu
Angrulus

Ouskoryaiu
Oupadaiu

Festino

Chotenie

CVolutio
(.Choice

Oug

Ano-uis

Oucho

A uris

Chod

Iter

Ouj
Oulagaiu

Anguis
Struo, lay

Ouje
Chleb

Loaf

Chotschou

(Aveo

<- Choose

Oupadaiu
Oupibaiu

Cado, TTiTrTw
Ebibo,, TT/i/w

Cham'ina

(Domus
cChiQiney

Chojdou
Schiiu

Suo

Oumiraiu

Morior

Choi Ml

CoUis, culraus

Younost

Juventas

In its grammar the Slavonian is exceedingly confused.

It was not to be expected, that uncivilized hordes, wandering with
their flocks among mountains, or over boundless plains, without
historians, without poets, and without letters, should be good gram-
marians. They had the use of speech; but, at a distance, they had no
means to communicate their thoughts ; nor could they transmit these to
^ucceedino; generations.

Their pronouns are — ya, ti, on; mi, wi, oni; I, thou, Sec.

The substantive verb runs thus — esm, ese, est; esra, est, soit; I am,
iScc. -Boodu, I shall be; bood, be thou. Boodon, let him be; bit, to be.

Tlie form of the verbs in some measure agrees with the Russian.

Daju or daiu, I give; dal!, I gave; dam, 1 will give; day, give; dat.

to give.

Its radicals are comparatively few; but, like the Greek, it is fond of
compounds. It has more than three hundred with the preposition pro,
^.nd more than twelve hundred witli pre and pri, answering to prcc

361

Professor Michaells regards the Bohemian, PoHsh and Vanda?ia«
diahxts of the Slavonian, as poor in the extreme, when compared with
the Russian, which on philosophic subjects has borrowed freely from
the Greek.

As spoken in Lusatia, formerly a province of Bohemia, it is the
poorest of all languages; being here confined to rustics. In Poland it is
corrupted to the last degree; but it is still Slavonian. Yet in the midst
of all its corruptions, we may discern a remarkable affinity bet\yeen it
and Galic.

To this I have already called the attention of the reader, but I must
again remind him, that in the numerals, in the substantive verb, and in
numerous verbs, both of universal and of daily use, there is a clear,
distinct and well decided affinity.

This affinity it is extremely difficult to trace in Polish, because it has
duplicates of C, of W, of L, of N, and of Z, which are most abundant,
and seem to be needlessly introduced.

The first C has the sound of either ts or tsh, as in cukier, sugar, pro-,
nounced tsookier, and pec, to drink, pronounced pitsh.

The second C is articulated as tsie, as in yesc, to eat, sounded like
yestsie.

W in the beginning of a syllable is V, in the end it is F.

Z has three distinct sounds. Thus noz is pronounced noosh, czar is
char, koszula is koshoola, wieczor is vietchore, and wacpan is vatspan,

I here subjoin a few examples of Polish, to exhibit tlje genius of
this language.

VOL. II. 3 £

362

Able, mozney i acid, octet; add, przidawam ; all, csall : am, Jestem ;
apple, Jab loji ; arm, ramie; ash,jesion; ass, osiel.

Baker, piekar ; beat, hiti; both, ohadwa ; bread, cldkh ; breast, /jzem;
brother, hrat; burn, goram; buy, kupiiie; by, podlie.

Cabbage, kapusta; cat, kotka ; c\\o'\CQ, chezizsosct; choose, c/zce; clay,
glhia; clean, czisti; coach and cart, kotczi; cook, kucharz ; cross, krziz ;:
crow, kruk cind wrona ; cry, wolain ; cup, kiijlik and kubek ; craft, kunst.

Day, dzicn; deal, dzielie ; death, smiercz ; dig, grzebe ; door, drzzn^j ;.
double, dwoie ; drink, j^ye.

Ear, 2<c^o ; eat, ?ew ; eating, iedzenie ; egg, jV/«e ; eye, oko.

One, jeden; two, rfa'c; three, ^ra; four, czterzi; five, p?cc,~; sis»
32:esc2:; seven, siedm; eight, 05??« ; nine, dziewiec; ten, dzesziec.

Give, f/aie; given, dany ; giver, dawca; gift, f/ar.

Ojr THB

JLATIM LANGUAGE.

E learn from the best historians, that Latlum and Gra3cia-magna
were peopled from Elis and Arcadia, whose first inhabitants derived
their origin from the Avestern coast of Asia Minor, being principally
Cohans and lonians, who were Pelasgic colonists. Of this origin we
shall have no doubt, when we shall have examined the languages of
Greece and Rome; for Latin is little more than the ^olic dialect of
Greek.

Such was distinctly the opinion of Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, and
of Quintilian.

With the utmost propriety therefore, Lennep, after minute investi-
gation, concluded " Lingua Latina, si excipiamus panca verba Sabina
et externa vocabula, nihil aliud est quam iEolico-Graeca. (Vol. iii, p. 45.)

From ancient inscriptions, collected by Fabretti, we learn, that the
Roman alphabet had eighteen letters, A, B, C, D, F, F, H, I, K, L,
M, N, 0, P, Q, R, S, T. The characters were Grecian, and therefore

3 E 3

564

probably the first inhabitants brought with them the Pelasgic alphabet,
to which in subsequent periods they made additions. The radical
Pelasgic alphabet of Father Gori, which Astle conceives to be the most
correct, contains only twelve characters. These are A, E, V, I, K, L,
M, N, P, E, S, T; but, in addition to these, ancient inscriptions, which
were found at Eugubiura, a city of Umbria, have H. The letter G
was not in use till after the first Punic War, when it was introduced by
Spurius Carvillus. Before that time, C supplied the place of k and 7.
Thus, in the Columna rostrata of Duillius, we read, " Macestratos,
Leciones, Cartacinenses, Pucnando," &c.

In tracing the affinity between Latin and Greek, it will be seen, that,
whilst some words, and these even radical, remain perfectly the same in
both languages, others not only change their voyels, but admit of trans-
position, addition, and subtraction, with considerable substitution of
one consonant for another, not merely of the same, but of different
Organs. Thus we observe, not only that the several classes of homo-
geneous consonants, B, P, F, M and V — C, G, K and Q — D and T,
glide respectively into each other's place, but that M and N, with L and
II — H and S, readily submit to the same law, and are used one for
the olher.

These permutations are common to all languages; but the Roman
people seem to have assumed the privilege of converting G into D and
N, L into D and G, D into B, G, L, R and S, K into P and F, P into
C, K, G and L, R into S, and T into F. Tiicy seem likewise to have
inserted L, as in filius, from eviog or Fuiot ; fulica, from (paii^; halo, from
Aft>; palatum, from Uocw; salus and salvus, from Xaoj; and trochlea.

from Tpoxoi. In conformity to this practice, we liave converted fuga

into flight, and IleSiov into field.

One of the most striking features of resemblance between Latin and

the iEolic dialect of Greek, is to be observed in the use of the digamma,

as a substitute for the aspirate.
The arbitrary, ^^anton and violent changes, ivhich have taken place in

the original language of Latium, since the time of the first arrival of

colonies from Greece, have rendered it extremely difficult to trace the

affinity between the Latin and other languages distantly allied to it.
Thus lingua and tongue discover no connexion ; but when we observe,
that the ancient word was dingua, we immediately trace the features of
resemblance between this word and tongue.

The strict analogy between the Greek and Latin Grammars, as far as
relates to the inflexions of nouns and verbs, cannot escape the attention
of the learned. Of the nouns, Lennep forms two principal divisions;
the first parisyllabic, the second imparisyllabic ; and these he subdivides
into five declensions.

I. Parisyllabic.

1. Nouns of the first declension terminate in a, e, as, es, answering to

2. Those of the second end in us, um, answering to og, ov.

II. Imparisyllabic,
1. These may terminate in a, e, o, c, 1, n, r, st, or x, in Latin; «, i,
•j **» fi <r» «r ^> ia Greek, and are impurely declined, as Aexc^i^, hkpvof.

S6i

2. They may terminate in us, purely declined, as i^oTpvg, fioTfivo^^ manus,
manuis, which the Romans contracted into manus.

3. They may terminate in m? or £^. Av)[A(33-&£i/ii?-foj-£r. Dies, diei, in
the dative.

x\Ithough Lenncp has considered the declensions as being five, it may
be observed, that originally they were no more than three; because the
fourth and fifth were anciently included in the third, and were not con-
tracted as in succeeding ages.

The Greek Adjectives terminate in ce;, a, uv, o?, ii, ou, or eg, c(, ov,
t'.g. '5?^?, '^rx^x, 'zxv, nxXoi;, y.xXvi, nxXov, xyio?, ccyix, xyLOv.

The Latin terminations are us, a, um; bonus, bona, bonum.

The Fronouns in the singular number have preserved similitude. Eyw,
e-u, and anciently of, answering to ego, tu, is. In the accusative these
become Ef/.£, o-£, I; me, te, eura. The possessives have a similar resem-
blance, £/jto?, vwiTfpof, £0?, meus, noster, ejusi.

In the Numerals we distinctly trace analogy. Ev, Zvx, Tfeig, T£<7a-«p£r

and T£7T«p£r, 'ZaVTt, l^, e-!rrrre^ OKTOJ, evV£X, SsKa, VjliY.X, 5«5«J<,X, K. T. X.

Unus, duo, tres, quatuor, quinque, sex, septem, octo, novem, decem,
undecem, duodecem, &c.

Betvyeen either Tfa-jix^ss or T^TTizgfj and quatuor, ther? obviously ajp-
pears no connexion. But instead of Tecra-xpa and TBTTxpe;, we meet with
-!ritrvp£i and TtiiTu-xpeg, and we know thjit in thq.4ioil;iiC dialeqt '^ is converted
into ", as in xwj- for ni^g, and y-oiov for 'joiov.

It might be difficult to conceive in what manner quinque could have
been derived from ■rrevie, did we not know, thi^t th?; iEolic dj^lejCt, is liHe-
tvise in the habit of converting t intoT, and, tha,t, by iliQs? fluitatioos,.

iri)/r£ may have been cdnvevted into quinque. In i^ and tTrTa (he aspirater
■gives place to the sibilant.

The Prepositions and other particles display the same affinityj parti-
cularly <5;'ro, ab ; ^'^ti, ante; £k and £s, ex; fv, in; vf., ne; t^o, prte; cw,
Gum; uB-tp, super; uTo^sub; ti, si; eti, ct; x^i, ac; ouk, ncc; o'l, hei ;
o&£v, unde ; -^ov, ubi.

The Feris in their structure and inflexions mark a radical identity, and
prove that Greek and Latin have a near relation to each other. Mr.
Jones, in his valuable Grammar of the Greek tongue, judiciously re-
marks, that verbs consist of a pronoun expressing the agent, together
with a noun, which is expressive of the object; and in his opinion, the
terminations w, ek ei, o^j^ev, ers, cvti, were originally personal pronounsj
subject, however, to changes, like all other parts of speech. He derives
the terminations w from fyw, and (^.i from ey-e; and in like manner ei,
from £.

Now as the pronouns in Latin are evidently allied to those of Greek,
so are many terminations of its verbs. Of this we can have no doubt
in the first and second persons singular, both of the indicative and thef
subjunctive moods. In the first and third persons plural it is not so-
evident, till we recollect in what manner the venerable Doric formed its
first person plural. For as eyu becomes e^-e, so, by analogy of the third
declension, £f*£ becomes ffx-fs, and in this dialect we find TvwTO[j.es and
ETuv^afx-e.;, we beat, which in subsequent ages became TinrTOiJ.ei^, and
£'7u^4/«f*£^'. Hence the Latin forms its first person plural, not in n, but
in s,.

368

The third persons plural seem to be equally discordant in these Ian-,
guages ; for we can trace no analogy between dant and AiSun, but t
between dant, AiSovtxi, eSovro, and Soivto the analogy is clear. In like
manner, amanto, ysvoivro and tioiv^o mark the affinity, as dialects of one
language, between Greek and Latin. In Welch, hwynt means theg,
and from it both these languages derive the nt.

Both the Greek and Latin, in the formation of their moods and tenses,
have recourse to the auxiliary verb £<(>-«, sum. In the last syllable of
amen we have distinctly e/f^t, which, although less distinctly, appears in
amabam. In amafi, f^t is converted into vi. In amavissem, we have
amavi and essem. As we proceed, it will be rendered evident, that both
in Greek and Latin the substantive verb is composed of fragments de-
rived from verbs, which in Sanscrit exist perfect and intire.

From what has been here stated, it is sufficiently clear, that Greek
imd Latin are radically one. But should the student retain doubts upon
this subject; these will be speedily removed by a reference to the voca-
bulary, which he will find in the Appendix.

369
ON THE MOUC DIGAMMA.

rr luis been imagined, that Homer as a poet availed himself of his
privilege, and occasionally adopted tlio several dialects of Greece, but
chiefly the .-Eolic and Ionic.

This however cannot be |)roved. It is even probable, that the most
ancient poet of Greece wrote in the language of his day, which in pro-
cess of time gave birth to dialects, namely, the TEolic and Ionic.

We know that Latin branched oif at a very early period, and is tEoHc.
Hence the yEolic digamma is found in such words as are aspirated in
Greek, and have not either the sibilant or a gutteral. Ancient manu-
scripts explain this mystery.

The Greek, like the Irish and the Welch is extremely fond of aspirates.
These being at various periods differently formed, we sometimes find C,
sometimes F or V. Pindar used V, as in ccvxto-m for aFatan, a.\ji\j%Qi for
«Fia%o^. 'EXta; is by Herodotus called TsX^i.

The lonians therefore had the digamma. The ^Eolians wrote FotxtaK
for "oiVAxv and F^uto for auTo,

In the Sigaean marbles, 500 j'ears, A. J. C, V is used in place of F.
In the Heraclean Table, C is frecpient, as in Ct^, and Qilw, and
Mazzocchi thinks it corresponds to V of the Latin. Salmasius informs
us, tliat the /Eolians insert S between the vowels, and says Mohs, qui
nuruiuam aspirabaut, partim l>^v\j.(px luvv dicchant partim Nu(>.(pa;7«v.

Like them the Romans converted the aspirate into the sibilant, and
therefore wrote sex for Vi and musa for muha. In Leuconia they said

VOL. II. 3 r

370

TIxx Mwa for Trao-a: fAous-a, and for F they used B and P, as in Bp^^up for
TviTwp, 'B:tSu for aSv, that is for y,5v.

It is understood that the aspirates, the double letters, and the long
vowels were invented in times subsequent to Cadmus. For the aspirated
letters $ and % the ancients used -s- and k, as for instance, ccij-tco for «fj^(pw,
SiOTTOfji.'Trof for 0fO7ro(j(,wO5, Siw for &£co, e'TtTiiccvTO for fK(pi5;vT0, £T£i;KHO(ii.£voj for

The Museum of Nani, in Venice, has an inscription, which is attri-
buted to the age before the Trojan war, and in which are seen ey.rr^^xvToi
for fK(pavTW, fl:fji,£{ji,7rvif5 for x[i.e[t,(p£(, f7rfUKV]0(ji-fvof for freu^offc^i/or, and Tpoirviov
for qpo<pov.

The Sigean inscription, in a town built on the ruins of Troy, has
Hfp(>.oxp«Toy for Tou Epij.0 npxTOV;, y.Soiixfj.veij,ot for eSurnz [i.vvi[kx, uauovot for
'Ato-WTTOJ, and uaSeKCpot for aSeX(poi.

From Athens we have HaSa evioi ■!tj'ks\t.oi for oiha av tco TroXsjxw. In
these H is the aspirate, and it must be remembered that uTiZ answers
precisely to heth of the Hebrew, and was originally the aspirate in Greek.

In the Lamina Borgiana we find Fomixv for hnixv. Felia and Helia in
Pliny are the same word.

The ancient Greeks prefixed F to most words which begin with a vowel.
For this the Romans substituted H, as for instance, hordeum for for-
deum. For ItxXo( they wrote vitulus. The Eolians said fipi^Top for Pvnwp.

S and N took place of the aspirate. In Festus we have Necritu for
iEtrritudo.

Priscianus called the digamma gravior aspiratio. It must always be
remembered that their orthagraphy was unstable. Erunt was written

371

erihont, crafont, and eriront. In the most ancient Latin inscriptions we
find lases for lares, triumpe for triuniphe.

The letter in question is called digamma from its figure, not from its
power. It is in fact a double gamma, but its power is that of F, and I
have no doubt that it was originally an aspirate.

It is remarkable, that the Greek aspirate should become a labial in
Latin, and equally remarkable that in Spanish, derived from Latin, this
labial should again become an aspirate, as in hoja folium, hijo filius,
haba faba, hacer facere, haz facies, hablar fabulari, hado fatum, halcon
falco, hcbilla fibula, herir ferire, bender findere, heno foenuin, hermoso
formosus, hilo filum, hiel fel, hondo funda, hongo fungus, horca furca,
horma fornm, &c.

In ancient Latin we observe fuvo, fuvi, fuvimus and fluvo for fluo,
whence we derive fluvius.

These observations will assist us in accounting for the labial which is
introduced into the middle of words derived from Greek.

3 f2

ON THE

GREEK JLAMGFAGE.

J-N our schools we learn first Latin, then Greek: and here, as far as
relates to languages, our education ends. To the latter, attracted by
its superior beauty, we turn our principal attention; we admire its com-
position and consider it as a model of perfection.

In this language are displayed such tokens of deliberate contrivance,
that some learned men have been led to form a rash conclusion, and
have imagined, that the whole, from its first elements, originated in
Greece, and was the work of art, the production of consummate skill.
That it has been highly polished and refined by art, is evident: but the
substance remains the same as when imported by the pristine hordes,
which, migrating from the East, and spreading themselves ti^wards the
West, arrived in Asia-minor, and from thence crossed over into Greece.

As long as hunters and nomade fiimilies either built hovels in the
woods, or wandered in tents over extensive plains, seeking pasture for
their flocks; this language must have continued rude. But when cities

373

arose; when civil polity became established; when agriculture, manu-
factures and commerce iiourished ; whcij lice governments were intro-
duced; when, for deliberation, the citii^ens met frequently in each
republic; when the orator, in these assemblies acquired celebrity and
power; when historians wrote; and when bards exerted all their skill to
gain renown; when taste improved; and when the ear was progressively
attuned to harmony of diction; then the rude elements assumed a grace-
ful form, and the language of a polished people attained that degree
of perfection, which we now admire. It is indeed worthy of the praise
it has universally received. Yet we must be careful lest, dazzled by its
lustre, we should too readily acquiesce in the claims, which have been
urged in ils behalf.

To correct our misapprehensions, we must not confine our attention
to one languao-e; we must look around us, and examine others to the
East and to the West, to the North and to the South, that we may dis-
cern the common elements, of which they all consist. For this purpose
I shall begin my investigation Avith the substantive verb.

Substantive Verbs, being constantly and indispensibly needful to dis-
course, must have been retained by the successive generations of man-
kind in every climate, must have attended them to the most distant
countries, and must have been transmitted to their children less changed
in the progress of society, than other terms descriptive of those objects,
which either occasionally occurred to them in their migrations, or which
new wants obliged them to invent. Yet, upon a transient view, to the
unpractised eye, these verbs appear to be peculiar to each nation, and
to have no correspondence with terms of the same import in any Ian-

374

guage, which may have been received as tiic first language of the
human race.

If we consider our own substantive verb, in its several moods, tenses,
numbers, and persons, we must be struci< with its irregularity. It has
no bond of union, nothing in common between its discordant parts.
Each portion is detached ; it stands alone, independent of every other,
and cannot possibly be traced to one original expression.

I am; he is; we are; they were; be thou; I was; I have been; I shall
be; 1 should be; I will be; I would be.

Of these expressions, which can be considered as the one from which
all the rest proceed? Or by wliat rule can we trace the various branches
to one common stem? By none ; for it is impossible, that such inco-
herent members, collected at different times, and which have met by
accident, can be considered as one body. The fact is, and this I shall
immediately demonstrate, they are scattered fragments of different verbs,
which have survived the general wreck, and have been transmitted to
us from our remote progenitors. And I may add, we shall be soon con-
vinced, that the substantive verb in Greek and I^atin also is composed
of fragments.

Am readil}' connects itself with eom, Saxon; im, Gothic; em, of
Iceland; am, em, icn, om, um, of Persia, of Armenia, and of Turkey,
with iiiJ-l of Greece, and even with sum of Latin, all of the same import.
That sum and sim are allied to 'ti\j.1 is evident, because here the sibilant
corresponds to the aspirate, as it does in 'a'kg sal, kX\o\j.ai salio, aXo-oj
sallus, ti, sex, I; si, tTrTu septem, thog scdes, ofiog sors, v.y.iog sol, virsp super,
\jg sus.

375

Supposing then that f>-t in tt(i.t sliouki 1)0 tlic pronoun, as will imme-
diately appear, h will remain for the radical part of this expression.

That (aj is the pronoun of the first person singular, can be demon-
strated by kindred languages.

The Galic of Scotland, the Irish, the AVelcli, the Armoric, liie Ilin-
dostanee, and the venerable Sanscrit, use mi for this pronoun, and the
Russian has me, in this acceptation, as we shall soon have occasion to
observe, in the termination of its verbs.

For this pronoun, the Romans and the Greeks, in the nominative case
use ego ; but then in Latin we have mi, mei, mihi, nie and mens, cor-
responding to fj^B, fj^of, f/,£, £pi.£ and eij.o;, which certainly are not derived
from Eyw. We are not prepared to say, when mi in the nominative first
gave place to ego. But, as in Greek and Latin, the vocative conforms
to the nominative, and is derived from it; the probability is, that mi
once existed in the nominative; for, what correspondence can we discern
between the vocative mi and eeo.''

Among the Greeks the pronoun in question differed much. For, not
to mention the TEolians, who had lyuv, as the Dorians had eydv^i and
iiyuyryx; the Boeotians had, idvyx and Iwyx. The Coptic has anok, the
Chinese say ngo, and the Hindostanee has hoong. In the subsequent
expressions of the Sanscrit, isani and hevani, let me be; vashani, let me
wish; dedani, let me give, we have distinctly anl for the pronoun. Be-
tween all these and the Hebrew anoki, anki, ani and anu, which may
have given birth to vu, there is such conformity as leads me to con-
clude, that they are of the same family, and are radically one.

576

In the priiiitive Greek, the long vowels were unknown, and O was
equivalent to A. The progress therefore from anki and tw;/7« to liiiyx and
ijui is obvious, even hy the mere process of abbreviation. But it is
worthy of remark, tliat in Welch, a kindred languague to the Greek,
G is commutable with Ng, as in ()Was, a servant, U ngwas, my servant:
and C is liable to become ngh, as in car, a relation, fy nghar, my
relation.

It is indeed possible, that ii^jx may be a compound, and mean I
myself, because I is the abbreviated form of this pronoun in Hebrew,
Arabic, and Chaldee.

Mi seems to have originated in ani or eni. Tlic commutability of N
and M is firmly established by the practice of all nations. It subsisted
between the Hebrew and Chaldee, as may be observed in the masculine
plurals of their nouns; between the Greek and Latin, as appears in the
terminations nm and ov ; and it is not unfrequent in the Sanscrit. Tn
this language M is considered, not as a labial, but as a nasal. The
same word, which is written Sanscrit by some of our countrymen from
India, is Samskrit with others, and with Carey it is Sungskrit: yet in
pronunciation they all agree.

This practice is not altogether foreign to the French, as appears in
the articulation of these words, temps, tant, ctang, which agrees in all
of them.

In the Portuguese it is well established: for 1\I at the end of a word,
when preceded by E, has a nasal sound, like that of N in the French
words vin and p^in: but if preceded by A, 0, or 1, this nasal sound is
so difficult of pronunciation, that no one can obtain it but by the

377

fiKsistaiu-c of ;i inasier. Jii liiis laiiguagp, N after any vo^vd is di-iinrtly
a nasal: as a final letter it is converted into AJ, and is usually placed
over the word, as in be for bene, thai is for bene of the Latin. In
plurals the N is restored to nouns, as in homein, a man ; honicns, men.

That N and AI in the Creek verl) are equivalent, seems evident, be-
cause both these terminations are used for the pronoun of the first per-
son singular, which appears in af^i-i I am, vi\ I was, £ivii/ may I be, (I^^ja
I go, tji^v I went; like as in Sanscrit, ismi or asmi, 1 am; isani, let
nie be.

Ilcnce it is probable that both i^i and eyco originate in the Hebrew
pronoun of the same import. Having seen that i^i in f^i is the pro-
noun, surely no one can doubt of £t being the root, when he considers
its inflections elva:i, eiv\v, uvj, fivi[*fi/, ^, vjv, m^e^, vi'if, n, i, X.

In Swedish the same root has been preserved in one of its forms, ia fe,
du e, han h; wi e, ni ^, di e; I am, thou art, he is, we are, ye are,
they are.

The Persian has im, ee, est; eem, eed, end; I am, thou art, he is;
we are, ye are, they are. From these remove the pronouns, and the
verbal part remaining will resolve itself into E, I. These look to haia
[i^''!^) the substantive verb of the Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldee. In
the Hindostanee we find hai in the singular, and haing in the plural; or,
according to Gilchrist, hy and hyin.

From what has been here advanced, does it not appear, that in eo-em
of Iceland, and in our own I am, there is a redupHcation of the pro-
noun? Such superfluities are common in all languages, more especially

VOL. II. 3 G

378

when the original structure and import of words has been forgotten, or
when new modes of phraseology have been introduced.

Is, it) English, supplies the third person singular of the indicative
mood present tense of the verb to be, and in no other person, mood or
tense, does it appear. It stands alone, and cannot be derived from
either am or be.

The Galic and the Irish have ismi, I am; is tu, thou art; is e, he is:
is sinn, we are; is sibh, ye are; is iad, they are.

In the fVelch, oes and ys remain in the third person singular.

The Russian and Slavonian have esm, esi, est; esmui, este, sute;
I am, thou art, he is, &c. Esm is pronounced iesm.

In Persian the modern verb looks like a corruption of the Latin; for
it runs thus, hestem, hestee, hest; hesteem, hesteed, hestend.

Sanscrit approaches nearer to the Galic, the Irish and the Russian ; for
here we have asmi, ismi, or usmi, as variously written, I am; asi, thou
art; asti, he is; sma, we are; stha, ye are; santi, they are.

That i<r[*t once existed in the Greek, appears from hence, that it is
found in all the kindred languages, and is not confined to India; but
extends, as we have seen, to all the Slavonian nations, Ireland, ;)nd the
Hiirhlands of North Britain. From this circumstance alone, we might
be warranted in our conclusion; but in addition to this, we must observe,
that most of the inflections of this veib contain U and eg. Indeed we
may venture to assume for granted, that af^t never produced the subse-
quent inflections, eql, e<ri*.'tv, tc(, la^'i, iqu, i<TO\^xi, heTai, e<rej^e, eo-fo-^at.

379

Now if from the supposed obsolete verb Io-im we remove the pronoun
f*t, Ig will then remain for the radical part in Greek, ns it does in the
other languages here particularly noticed, which are nearly related to
the Greek. This perfectly coincides with is ov jcnh (^*!'.) in Hebrew.

We have thus detected in ij^i and af/^i the two fragments which com-
pose the suljstantive verb in Greek.

Are in English forms the plural of the indicative mood present tense.
In Danish the verb runs thus, jcg er, 1 am; du er, thou art; ban er, he
is: vi ere, we are; i ere, ye are; de ere, they are; ieg var, I was; du
var, thou wast; ban var, he was; vi vare, we were; I vare, ye were;
de vare, they were; ieg shall vaere, I shall be; vaer, be thou; at vaere,
to be; vaerende, being; vaeret, been. The Germans say ich war, I
was, &c.

In Latifi we find fragments of this verb; for, as such, we must regard
eram, ero, fore, and the termination of its infinitives: but in Greek and
Hebrew it is not distinctly to be found.

The Turkish language is no stranger to this verb, for not only does var
indicate existence, as in varede, there was; but ar and er form the in-
flexions of verbs when the imperative terminates in a consonant. Thus
at, cast thou, has atarem, I cast; at ar, he casts; and thus e^, make
thou, has in the indicative ederim, I make.

In Irish we seem to have a small fragment of this verb in romi, I have
been; ro thu, thou hast been, &c.

The Welch use er and ir in the imperative and future of their passive
voice, as for instance, dysger di, be thou taught; dysgir ti, doctus eris tu.

3 G 2

380

Were forms the plural in the praeter-imperfect of the indicative mood,
and is used in the subjunctive, but in no other mood or tense. It con-
nects itself not merely, as already stated, with waere of the Danish, but
with werden of German and wertetum of Sanscrit, to be. These in
Sanscrit are regularly conjugated, and appear in their several moods,
tenses, numbers, and persons, like other verbs.

I suspect, that we have here a compound, and not a primitive, and,
when we shall have examined the subsequent portions of our verb, more
particularly was, my suspicion may be confirmed.

fVas supplies the first and third persons, and zipast the second person
of the praeter-imperfect of our verb to be.

The Irish has bhios and bhadhas, pronounced vas. In JFelch the plu-
perfect of bod, to be, is buaswn, buasit, buasai; buascm, buasecli,
buascnt, I had been, &c.

The Germans say gewesen. In the Anglo-Saxon we have ic waes, and
in the Gothic ik was.

The Persian verb exhibits nearly the same form as the Welch in its im-
perative and subjunctive moods; bash, be thou; bashad, let liim be;
bashim, let us be; bashend, let them be.

In Sanscrit the preterperfect is ahavishi; and vastiim means to dwell.

Hence it is not improbable that was may be a compound, and that,
as B, V and W are commutable, it may be composed of be and is.
Should this be granted; we must next inquire in what manner was and
were, is and are can be allied.

We know that Latin is a very ancient dialect of Greek, and it has
been proved, that f<(*j, tn and eqi correspond to sum, cs, est, as ea-eo-^ai

381

does to essel It is therefore not ini probable, that tjiic and £(70f*ai may
have given birth to ero. Such was the conjecture of Professor Scheidius,
and, in support of Ids opinion, we may remark, that S gives place to P
in app^v fi-xpTvp, ^xlpeoj iWop, x>iMp, for apuBv, {j-apTVi, ^xpceoi, ^r.-noi, ao-xoc.
This practice leads to a conjecture, that P in (p^eipw, yepaioa, Lf^eipca and
tXexipu may have been a substitute for S, and that these new themes,
derived from 'p^ao, <yepxioo, i\,.xu), eXeeu, may have originated in their
futures, agreeably to a common practice in the Greek.

.Should K'ffs be considered as compounded of be and is, and should
etrw be acknowledged as the parent of ero, we shall then see how ero,
erim and esse became component parts of the same verb, and shall be
disposed to grant that zms and were have been properly connected with
be and is.

Be in English, used for the infinitive, imperative and subjunctive
moods, may be traced through a vast extent of country and to remote
antiquity.

The Galic has bumi and bhami, I was; bithidhmi, pronounced vimi
or bimi, I shall be; bith thu, be thou; bhith, to be.

The Irish has bim and fuilim, I au); bi tu, thou art; bi se, he is, &c.
bha me, I was; beidh me, pronounced bimi, I shall be; bi, be thou.
The Manx has bee boethou and beem, I shall be.

In ff'elcft there is some little variation; for bum, buost, bu; buom,
buoch, buont, answering to fui, fuisti, fuit; fuimus, fuistis, fuerunt, are
the perfect, and wyf the present, I am; ym, we are. Buddwn is the
imperfect; buddaf, the future; buad, the imperative, and bod the in-
finitive. Here it may be proper to remark that in Welch del is pro-

382

nounced th, and consequently that bidd pcrlectly agrees with the Galic
and the Irish, and that the final F is regularly the substitute for M.

The German avails itself of no part of this verb excepting ich bin,
du bist, 1 am, thou art.

The Russian has ya buill, I was; budi, be thou, and buiti, to be; but
in this language the final i is mute, like the final e in French.

The Persian has enriched itself beyoiul most other languages by what
it has preserved from the fragments of this verb. We find it in the indi-
cative, subjunctive, imperative, infinitive and participles. In the pre-
terite it has budem, budee, bud; budeem, budeed, budtnd, I was, &c.
bu, be thou; bad, let him be; budmi, I would be.

But it is to the ancient storehouse of the Sanscrit we must resort for
the regular conjugation of this verb. Here we discover it, not as a
fragment, not as a defective verb, but in perfection, with a rich variety
of inflections to express the time, the person, the mode, the purpose of
the action, whether performed for the benefit of the agent, or of another,
both in the active and in the passive voice. In this language we find
bhu as the genuine root, from which are formed bhavami, bhavasi,
bhavati; bhavamah, bhavatha, bhavanti; lam, thou art, he is; we are,
ye are, they are. Bhavani, let me be; abhavam, I have been; bha-
vashyami, I shall be; bhavitum, to be. Is it possible to view these
examples, even transiently, and not discern the affinity between Sanscrit,
Greek and Latin.

In Latin, fui is not derived from either sum or esse; but fu is the root
and I the pronoun. As to /weram, fuer'im and fucro, they are evidently
con) pounds. Fuisse is fu and esse.

383

This verb may possibly, perhaps probably, have been derived from
Hu and Ilavah ('"'"''"') of Chaldee and Hebrew, because in the oriental
dialects, U, V and W are commutable, and the letter, which in one
province of India has the power of U or V, in others may become dis-
tinctly B. Examples of siicli chani^es, particularly of U into V, are not
wanting in the Hebrew, in which we have oth and evatii, zoth and ziveth
(nix and J^-V^, J">^* and ri]?). Anciently, both in Latin and in English,
U was both a vowel and a consonant. So among the modern Creeks
ttvTxp is pronounced aftar, and ^uTOf^aTov aftomaton.

The conversion of V into B is not peculiar to the oriental dialects; it
has extended to the West, and particularly prevails in Spain.

V is equally commutable with F. Thus, for instance, vadden of Hol-
land becomes fade, vallen full, varen fare, vasten fast, vat fat, veldt
field, vuer fire. In German, volk is folk, voll is full and vader is father.
The Welch and the Spanish convert F into V and V into F. In short,
all languages consider B, F and V as equivalent.

In support of my conjecture, that our verb and the correspondent
verbs of other languages originate in Hin, I shall venture to observe,
that in the mountains of Britany, where the ancient Celtic, in its
Armoric dialect, subsists, otia, in the expression me a oiia, I was, still
continues the regular imperfect of beza, to be.

Shall has narrow limits in our language; but in German and in Danish
it is more extensively used, and is regularly conjugated. The former of
these, in the subjunctive, converts ich soil into ich soUte, the latter, ieg
skal into ieg skulde, I should. In Danish we have at skulk, to be
obliged, and skyldig, guilty, that is bound by the law and subject to its

384

penalties. Saillym, in Manx, means I am willing; shal or sal, in
Sanscrit, indicates intention, and is the root of a verb, which is regu-
larly conjugated.

Will and would connect themselves with baillym, Manx, vil and vilde
of Denmark, wollen and wollte of Germany, volo and velje of Italy,
^ovXo\i.cci of Greece, ail of Irish, and may terminate in (Vn^^^) hoil of
the Hebrew.

It is therefore evident, tiiat in most languages the substantive verb is
composed of fragments, some few in number, others more abundant.

In the Galic appear six of these, ismi, ammi, thami, bheil mi, I am;
bumi and romi, I was; all distinct and independent of each other, as if
they had met by chance.

The Turkish has three fragments, variously compounded ; em, I am;
esam, if I be; ol, I shall be; and olayem, may I be.

The Latin has preserved the remnants of four verbs, in sum, fui, ero,
esse, of which, as I have proved, the Greek has retained two in tif*;'
and i.(je(j^ci.i, answering to the Hebrew and Chaldee HTH and ^'H.

Having ascertained the structure of the substantive verb in Greek,
and proved that, like the Galic, Irish, Welch, Russian, Turkish, Persian,
Sanscrit, Hebrew, Arabic and Chaldee, it suffixes the pronouns; we
may now proceed in our examination of the Greek verb in general.

It was the opinion of Lennep, that the form of the Greek verbs in
ui is more ancient than that of verbs in w, and the arguments adduced
by him must carry conviction to the mind of a grammarian. In favor
of its antiquity he states, that the first persons of the passive and middle
voices in Greek and the subjunctives in Latin are formed, not from

385

verbs in w, out from verbs in m-j. We must not forget, that tlie optatives
confirm his observation, for these are, from tutto), t^tttciui, TfTiy$)oifxi,
ru-^xifj-t, Tuv^oifAi and TUTToifjbj, in the singular, TvirToiiA-ev, 'iF.Tv(poiiJ.ev,
ruNl^flfifAfv, Tv^oi[t.ev, '7U'7[o7iJ.£v in the plurals.

Agreeably therefore to this analogy, T-wTrTOfAtv in the plural should have
had TVTtToofj.i in the singular. Certain it is that many verbs have both
terminations, and that f^t existed in verbs where it is no longer seen; for
surely ^rr^t is derived, not from tivm, but from .iff/.j, and yvai^i from yi/^fit.
Whether the termination be ^t or u. if. must be the prononn of the
first person singular. It is therefore a matter of indifference to my ar-
gument, respecting the structure of the Greek verb, which form is most
ancient, that of f^-t or «. Yet, in confirmation of Lennep's opinion, we
may appeal to the Sanscrit, which, if not the parent, is at least closely
nllied to both Greek and Latin. In this language the roots are neither
riouns nor verbs, but may be either according to the affix, and none of
its verbs terminate in O; but the first person singular of the indicative
mood present tense has usually 77ri, the perfect ain. Thus we have
vushami, I wish; avusham, I wished.

'J'hat the Sanscrit exhibits the genuine radicals of both Greek and
Latin, may be in some degree rendered probable by one example taken
from the third conjugation of the Sanscrit verbs. Of this the root is
da, the verb datum, to give, and the indicative mood present tense runs
thus; dadami, I give; dadasi, thou givest; dadati, he giveth; dadmas,
we give; dattha, ye give; dadati, they give. In the potential mood
we have dadyat, he may give; in the imperative, dadani, let me give;
dehi, give thou; dadato, let him give; dadama, let us give; datta, give
ye; dadato, let them give.

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386

In the subsequent part of my work I shall enlarge upon this subject.
Suffice it at present to observe, that men of letters consider Greek and
Latin as dialects of one language. Some indeed conceive Latin to have
been derived from Greek; but all agree, that they are intimately con-
nected. Now, when in the latter we find TrpoTos and primus in the former;
how can we connect these together ? It were easy to say that T is
converted into M. But of such a change we have not one example.
When however we observe pfatama in Sanscrit, and consider, that ab-
breviations are the wheels of language, the wings of Mercury; we are
prepared to trace both the words in question to pratcmm, of which the
Greek retains the T, and the Latin has preserved the ]\L

In addition to what I have said, I may be permitted to remark, that
the Sanscrit ra is the root of both xpirao and rapio, iiina of \j.vxo[uxi. and
moneo, and lip of limus and a:A£i(pw. From Up we obtain Ibnpami, I
smear, and from mna we have monami, I mind, I remind, I admonish.
Now as between Greek and Sanscrit the affinity is evinced b}' the termi-
nation of its verbs, so, in like manner, between these languages and
Latin, the relationship appears, not merely in the subjunctives, but in
one indicative at least; for we have inquam, that is inquami, answering
to the Doric tv<px[t.1 as hcpoLTi does to inquit.

It is true, the majority of dialects in Greek have fw for the termi-
nation of their verbs; but then both w and £w, in the opinion of
Scheidius and Valckenar, may be considered as the abbreviated forms of
its usual pronoun '£70). {v. Valckenaerii Observ. & Scheidii Animad-
versiones, p. '159-)

Nothing is more common in languages, than* for the guttural to vanish
altogether, or to have its place supplied by the slightest aspiration. Or

387

we may invert this order, and then the aspirate will be supplanted by a
guttural. In the southern dialects of India, they pronounce the H hard,
like as in North Britain, and thus for maha they say maga, and for vahaii
they say Dagan. (Asiatic Researches, VI. p. 493.)

Maha in Sanscrit implies reverence. This radical, with the pronoun
suffixed, forms the several persons of the verb, and thus niahati mean?
he is majestic, and mahami I am mighty. In Slavonian, mogoutuyi is
mighty; mogou, I may; mojno, possible. For this term our Saxon
ancestors used meahf: the Greek has i^eje^og: we retain the guttural, but
pronounce it as an aspirate, I miglit.

Vah, the Sanscrit root of valian, contains the notion of passing, and
seems to have given birth to veho, perhaps to vado. Certain it is, how-
ever, that our wain and waggon are allied to vahan and vagan of In-
dostan, with which are connected, fen of the Galic, benn and menu of
Wales, benna of France, banasta of Spain, wagen, vagn and vogn of
Gothic, and xyxwx of the Greek.

It is worthy of our notice, that the rough breathing of Greece has,
in different periods, been represented by, or at least has given birth to,
H, B, V, F, P, U, W, G, C, and S, when used as prefixes, or intro-
duced before a vowel in the middle of a word. These appear in ancient
inscriptions, and have been particular!}' noticed by Heyne, in his edition
of Homer, torn. 7, p. 708, and by Lanzi, in his Treatice di lingua
Etrusca. In Homer we frequently observe an hiatus, where either the
spiritus asper or the digamma was originally found. Such hiatus may
have existed in eco for sym, or, should this suggestion be considered as ill
founded, we may certainly refer the absence of the consonant to the
usual process of abbreviation.

3 h2

388

J. Should it be conceded, that Sanscrit is tbe parent of Greek; the form
of verbs in (*< will be readily acknowledjred as more ancient, tlian tliat of
verbs in co. But independently of this argument, the example of Homer,
supported by the practice of the iEolians, should suffice, for he has
more verbs in fiut than any author who succeeded him. lie is the most
ancient bard, and iEoiic one of the most ancient dialects.

It is allowed, that the iEolians made fewer changes in their language^
than the Athenians, and that the former retained the same verbs in fj-i,
which the latter terminate in a.

It cannot be doubted, that both in the East and in the West, the
most usual termination conforms to Sanscrit. Thus the Pe/'s/a/i has por-
sidem, I asked; porsem, I may ask; por.sidum, I Lave asked: buporsem,
I shall ask.

The Turks say, ver, give thou; -ccririm, i give; yy, eat thou; yerim,
I eat.

The Galic has feud mi, I am able; dean mi, I do. So, in the Welch,
we have dysgu, to teach, and dysgu uyf, T teach or am teaching, which
Is perfectly equivalent to ^iWxty ?t[/,j, because the [>. is regularly con-
verted into F.

Here the verbal roots appear, each with its proper suffix, which is
either simply the pronoun, or the substantive verb with its proper
pronoun.

We have thus examined the first persons; but wiien we shall proceed
to the second and third persons, both singular and plural, we shall find
the pronoun subjoined to each. Let us then begin our investigation
with the language, which, from remote antiquity, has been preserved in
the most northern mountains of our island.

3S9

lu Galic \vc find the subsccjucnt expressions: fctui mi, I am aijlc; teiul
■tliu, tliou art able; feud e, he is able; feud siun, \vc arc able; ieud stbh,
ye arc able; feud iad, they are aide. The pers(jual prouaims arc mi,
tu, e, sinn, sibh, iad. The imperfect prefixes D, which the English
takes for its termination, and runs thus, dfheud mi, J. was able; dfhcud
thu, thou wast able, Sec.

The Irish conforms nearly to the Galic; but omits the aspirate, and
has dfeud mc, I was able; dfeud thu, thou wast able; dfeud se, he was
able; dfeud sinn, we were able; dfeud sibh, yiD were able; dfeud sead,
they were able, answering to potcns of the Latin, and to poti, a lord, in
Sanscrit. The pronouns are me, tu, se, sinn, sibh, siad.

The pronouns in ff'clch arc mi, ti, e and ef; ni, chwi, hwynt, and
they are thus a[)plied in the imperative, dj^sger fi, dysger di, dysger ef,
dysger ni, dysger chwi, dysger hwynt; le me be taught, &c. To the
latter I would call particular attention, as being the parent of sunt, and
t)f the terminations ant, ent, int, unt.

We find in Russian, iemi, ieshi, iesti, iedim, iedite, iedat; I, thou, he,
we, ye, they eat.

Dedan, to give, of the Tersian, is thus conjugated, dadani, dadi, dad;
dadim, dadid, dadunt, I gave, &c.

In the Hi?idostanee, this verb is more complex; for to the participle
data it subjoins its own substantive verb, which has already passed in
review before us.

In Sanscrit we have seen both da and dad, of the same import, with
the pronouns suffixed to form the persons.

This verb in Latin exhibits do, das, dat, &c. dedi, dedermn, dederim,

390

dedero, dedm^, in which we readily discover the root combined, either
simply with the pronoun, or with the substantive verb, which, as we
have seen, subjoins the pronoun.

The Greek displays this with clearness in Si§ojy.i, SiSwg, SiBmi, SiSofj.ev,
anciently StSoi^eg, S^SoTa, SiSovji ; SiSoiy,v, SiSoiyg, SiSon^j 8iSoi\^iJ.iv, StSoivi'Ta,
SiSoiya-av. In the imperfect, the most ancient form was not ov, but oa-xv
and ejuv. In Persian the pronoun is acsaji, they.

The learned Professor Schultens has judiciously remarked, that syl-
lables cut off from ancient pronouns formed the persons of Greek verbs.
This observation may be equally applied to all other languages.

It will not be difficult to demonstrate, that many of the personal pro-
nouns resorted to for terminations, are preserved in Hebrew, Arabic and
Chaldee, and may have been derived from thence.

The pronoun of the first person singular has been already noticed, and
it has appeared, that the English, to which the Russian approaches very
near, is identically the same with Hebrew; that Eyo; of the Greek, with
ich German, iag Swedish, icg Danish, and eg Icelandic, may be the
abbreviated form of artki, and finally, that mi may be derived from aid
of the Hebrew.

We have seen that the second person singular in Galic and Irish, is
tu, in AVelch ti, in Russian tui, in Icelandic thu, in Swedish, Danish
and German du, in Persian, Sanscrit and Latin tu, in Greek SJ, but in
Doric Tu, and in Hebrew atha or ate (iTlN).

The third person singular in Galic, Irish and Welch is e, in Icelandic,
Danish and Swedish, han; in Russian one, in Turkish and Persian, o
and au; in Hindostanec ooee; in Greek ovTog,_ kvn-^, tovto; in Hebrew ////
or Jioe, ze and otho.

39 1

The first person plural is in Welch iii, in Russian mui, in Danish vi,
in Swedish wi, in Sanscrit vaym, in Latin nos, answering to vwt, the
dual in Greek. In Hebrew wc have aim and nu. In Greek the first
person plural is V^*?.

The remaining persons in the plural have not the least agreement with
each other, even in those languages, which arc most evidently derived
from one parental stock.

Is it possible for us to take the view, we have already taken, of the
substantive verb in Greek, and not to be convinced, that it did not ori-
ginate in Greece? As we proceed, every doubt, if doubts are still en-
tertained, will vanish, and this truth will appear, as in meridian lustre,
that all languages originate in one.

Had Lord Monboddo been a general linguist, he never could have
assumed the first person singular of the indicative mood present tense in
Greek verbs for his radical expression in preference to any other mood,
tense, or person, nor would he have persuaded himself and others, that
*' the Greek has all its words of its own growth;" and much less would
he have imagined, that all Greek verbs originate in ««, eu, tw, ou, vcc,
which now appear to be the pronoun of the first person singular suffixed
to verbs, and not the radix. In fact that part of the verb must be con-
sidered as the root, which is found equally in every number and person
of each voice, mood and tense.

This great man, like Lennep and Valckenaer, has formed a beautiful
hypothesis; and could we suppose, that, when Cadmus scattered the
dragon's teeth upon the new ploughed earth ; the Greeks arose in perfect
manhood, profound in wisdom, and a nation of philosophers; we might

392

then conceive, that " from five vocal sounds they composed a perfect
language, flowing with an easy descent and a most copious stream."

Such a description would not, however, perfectly accord with ther
savage state, in which this nation is stated to have wandered, like brute
beasts in their native forests, till the Pelasgi taught them the use of
speech, and till Cecrops arrived to polish the rude language, in which
their first preceptor had instructed them.

Were Lord JSIonboddo living, and disposed to reject this tale of
Cadmus as a fiction, the creature of poetic fancy, he must conceive
a given epoch, when some great philologist arose to invent and teach a
perfectly philosophic language, and when the whole nation was per-
suaded to reject that mode of speech, in which from infancy they had
been instructed by their parents, and to adopt new elements from this
wise reformer. It appears, however, that Lord Monboddo is incon-
sistent with himself, because he distinctly delivers it as his opinion, that
" the Greek is an original language, and not derivative," and yet he is
persuaded, that *' it is derived from the Hebrew, or from some other
Egyptian, or oriental language," and he acknowledges, that " the
Pelasgic, the immediate parent of the Greek, was very near of kin to
Hebrew." He even charges the Greeks with vanity, for having " made
their language, as well as themselves, the growth of their own country."
He seems to have been exceedingly perplexed in difiiculties, from
which he was unable to extricate himself. But had he been acquainted
with Sanscrit, he would have found a clue, by means of which he might
have directed his steps with well-grounded confidence of a successful
issue, and would have at last discovered, that the languages of Eiirojic
and of Asia arc radicallv one.

395

From the knowledge we possess of Sanscrit and of Greek, the first
apprehension of the mind is, that they stand in tlic relation of progenitor
and offspring, and that Sanscrit is the language, from which Greek
proceeds. Numerous expressions lead to this conclusion. But the
more we advance in the knowledge of these languages, the more dis-
posed are we to acquiesce in the opinion of Henry Colcbrook, that
both are derived from a primeval tongue. Yet, even though Sanscrit
should not ultimately be acknowledged as the parent of Greek; it
must be considered as a kindred dialect of great antiquity, whose
roots exhibit clearly the first elements of Greek.

It is curious to observe, with what facility and to what an extent,
the Greek has created new themes from verbs in common use. These
were frequently derived from the preterperfect and the future tenses, but
commonly from the infinitive mood. This must be obvious to the
Greek scholar, and appears in the clearest light to every one, who is
conversant with Scapula's Lexicon.

All these themes were subject to abbreviation^ and most of them
have been abbreviated in various languages. Of this, numerous ex-
amples have been adduced; and I may here repeat a remark already
made, that, when the same word conveys various and discordant
meanings, it is an abbreviated term derived from various and discordant
primitives. Thus the verb aw, according to its various accents, may
convey the notion of eo, induo, sum, sim, sino, miserim, aurora, and
suo, which last is evidently derived from fos suus ; cH^io is arefacio, but
i'Co; is veneror; uyo^ is dux, but uyos- is scelus; c^mg is laus, hut zivos is

VOL. II. 3 I

394

horribilis; av« is per, but aW Rex; ^^xoj- is opinio, but Soko? is trabs ;
xaXoi/ is lignum, but xaXov is bonum; >i^^ is cor, but xv'o is mors.

It is by the assistance of accents, and by these alone, that the
Chinese are able to ascertain the various and discordant meaning of
their monosyllabic expressions, and this use of accent is not altogether
foreign to the English language.

In demonstrating the affinity between Latin, Greek and Hebrew, I
shall bring forward part of a numerous vocabulary from Avenarius; but
I shall say nothing of the grammatical structure of these languages,
because in no country has this been permanent.

English is evidently the offspring of Saxon, Danish, German, and
other Gothic and Slavonic languages, which are all radically one: yet
in no two of these can we find the grammatical stmcture perfectly "
alike. The same observation will apply to Latin, Erench, Italian,
Spanish, and Portuguese.

It is however worthy of our notice, that in one particular, Hebrew,
Greek, and Latin are agreed, for anciently in all these languages, the
present, the preterite, and the future, either adopted the same form,
or were used indifferently for each other.

In the more ancient Greek the future Avas the same in form as the
present tense, but when a newer form was introduced, which termi-
nates in <rw; the ancient became the second future, its penultima was
short, and the last letter was circumflexed as in (paivw, (pxv2 ; Tf(*v&>,
TEfxw; vc>w, vei^oS; and the preterites converted the terminating Omega
into Alpha, as in 7«w, yeyax of Homer.

It has been well observed by Valckaenar that Sigma, in what is

395

now called the first future, supplies the place of an aspirate as in
xMVTOj instead of axouFw, for which Digamma of the iEolians, the Romans
used its kindred letter B, saying amabo for amaso or amaFo. In his
opinion, audiani and legam, are properly the present tense used for
the future in Hebrew.

AFFINITY BETWEEN LATIN, GREEK, AND HEBREW.

MANY learned men have been satisfied, that there is affinity between
Greek, with its kindred dialect the Latin, and Hebrew; but few, per-
haps, have seen this in its full extent.

To trace the features of resemblance requires a knowledge of those
general laws, to which all languages are subject, and of the special laws
by which every language in particular is governed in its mutations. It
has been my endeavour to bring these laws to light.

With regard to those to which Greek has confornied in its derivatives
from Hebrew, I cannot do better than give them in the words of
Avenarius, the greatest philologist of the age in which he lived, who
published his work in the year 1589, and who has firmly established
sixteen canons.

With these, he that runs may read, and the most transient glance will
be sufficient to convince him, that a family likeness is still to be dis-
cerned between these languages. But should the student wish for further
information, let him consult Ernesti de vestigiis linguae Hebraicae in
lingua Graeca.

The rules laid down by Avenarius are the subsequent:

396

I. Radicalium literarum imprimis habenda est ratio; quae si sint con-
nexiles, connectuntur in aliis Unguis, ut: pt^ (ry.i^vow. ^p^ ano'Tteu, &c.

II. Gutturalibus et quiescentibus literis aliae lingute non habent cor-
respondentes; earn ob rem pro eis aut ponunt vocales, aut dipthongos,
aut prorsus eas omittunt, ut: Din apxauia. D70i? Sufiuatvw.

III. Si duae ex literis "'THi^ quiescentibus gutturalibus fuerint, ambae
omittuntur aut mutantur in vocales. i'T' fiSfo; li^*^ aoca HID nxia mi pta
njX vxw, n^l odoratus est in Germ, riechen.

IV. Non raro literae ejusdem instrumenti symbolico transitu inter se
commutantur, quemadmodum Grffici, in formandis temporibus, mutant,
quando tenuem in mediam et aspiratam 21 ^ y.sp[^x grumus ossis 7QJ
y.Oi[i.\^'kog 11^3 Tupow H/^ 'jxXxiObi 7i'3 (pAfw 1^12 ^xaiXivu.

V. Saepe Graeci assumunt afformationes in praesenti, quas tamen in
reliquis temporibus abjiciunt, cum non pertineant ad substantiam radicis.
TID aiJ-xpTxvu. p112 fj^o^yvuw ^ti'J* ao(pi,'C,o:. sapiens.

VI. Abjicitur prima radicalis 3, ut apud Ebrasos.
Wll eyyt^co. CH] oif^^ew. 3p3 cavo.

VII. Quae apud Ebraeos sunt duplicatahabentque secundam et tertiam
radicalem easdem literas, in derivandis aliarum linguarum vocabulis
abjiciunt alteram. 11i^ xpxoi*.xi. 77^ nvXtco, T*J ^fw, li^ (jvXxai, IIH epog.

VIII. Ssepe radicibus desinentibus in '?r, 2, Grtcci Euphoniae causa
addunt literam t. HS/D clava, xoAaTTTw. ^^T) tvvtu. HDX ovtku. ^2D

IX. In Graecis tbematibus profertur ^ per rrl vel (7(7 mn ^xpxTla. Mn2

vXJaU vel nXTlcO, nm TXTTCa.

X. Metathesis aliquando admittitur. /^U:} xjiXyxivu. iJlj; tpuTxa). vliJ

3i< Pater etTt'Tcix Dor. Sc Mo\. Abba Syr.

^^II^i puber, maturus, vi/3«c<j. £(pii/3o?. indc yil^xrm. pubesco.

13 S< periit, $?(5ow. perdo.

n3»S voluit, aveo, inde, 3n»^, ni^\ DS*n

">i3i^ O vse, ai/3(3i. /3(5arw. f^ow,

^'VIJ? egenus, vri-yvif.

n3t5 & nii< calefecit, splenduit, ^(pauw «Sc «ua'.

D3X saginavit, (iojyM. pasco, obesus.
p2^ pugnavit, "^2^, ?^^, P^^, ttO^. ctl"-/;*h. 'jrv^Tf^a-,
"13^^ remigravit, cropeu^.
Ti^i^ iibertus, ojipiiJLOi. vvtp.
niJi* fasciculus, cex^oi. fascis, onus.
DJ^^ stagnum, ly.y.cig. eni/^cciva. ay.[t.cc,Xoo. 't^^^ scirpus, iiiundavit, y-uit-xTi^a
TJS< &, \^'^ pelvis, crater,' ayyog,
JlJX agmen, ^V-if***
'^J^^ congregavit, ayelpc-j. agger, uyeX--^. grex.

"I^? vapor, fliTfy-if. id.
nns< & 3»S-r contabuit.

17^ basis, fulcrum, iifi? sustentator, Swxqvii. Suvxqeix. aedes.
1i^ illustris, aSpog.
3nX amavit, ayccTrxco. D. i13i5

vnii fixit tentorium, xvkvi. xvKiov. kvXxi.k. aula, aulaeum.

VOL. II. 3 K

398

'7''TK stultus, viX(iivofd.cti. ^Xi^icc^a.

yiK properavit, atjua.

TTi^ lucebat, ^ip. apx. upxi^oy^xi. wpxi'o;, ovpxvo?. f/-fl;jp«. aurora, oriens,
hora, sera, Sax. early Eng.

^71^^ celeiiter recessit sic 7P, 7?3, 7l?3, 7?t, crxXxu. cxXivu. aeXXa.,

Jii^ auscultavit, sicj^^ our. wto?. wiz?. wizV/.o;.
TtX cinxit, sic"IDKj iriD, aepi'^a. 7£pU. aeipx. ^eipcc. x^eipoi,
Tnx unitus est, Ut.cv. iSix^co.
'|TCDi^ Txivia. o^ovvi. o^oviov.
1^^ ohturavii, see "1^33. thp^w. tuerL

"•i^ insula, xix. ovxi. vae.
7^!i^ cervus tXu(pog.

nS^i< Ubi, ■TTOL/.

PX non, xuev. ai.voiJ.xi. vs. vvi. ne.
ns^i^ ubi, oTtov. 9rou. TTOi'. quo.
5:/\S nti^K vir, emina, (V%uw. ((r%u?. vir, vis, vires, eig. ititx ut in
Xxpieg. xxpLsaax.
"^^ etiam, imo, ac, axi.
b'D^ edit, xmXov. xiXog. xXox. r\72SD, \i.x%xipx. culter.
IDi^ agricola, arator, x<ypog. ager, xypiog.

nSi^ ilex, JAvi. 4X«ifl:. oliva, li*?^ ilex, quercus alnus, fixXxvog. /"'^^idem;
CTl7i< Deus, £X£ii[ji.wv. eXeXev.
7 wi^ nihiliim, oAXuf*;.
^vH docuit, duxit, (xX(pdw, dX(p«^w. ht(p«i.

399

V^ si, an, non, m. ti. Di* mamma, mater, amo.
^12)^ infirmavit, iit.x'ko;. uvxXoi. afx/SXuj. mollis.

DD5<D^^ nCk?, (Aa:w. i/.xi.c£. afj-jxa:. ij^xij^Ij^t^ . fj.xij.ij.aix

\^i^ sustentavit, fidelis, verax, o\j.vvw. x]j.v\io\j.xi. \j.iv. munio,

^DK valde consolidatus, f^fi^wi/.

HiX natavit, vxoi. j/xvai. vevca. ""^^ navis,

T\l'A cremuit, xvlx. aviacc. avixipog.

1D3i< ego, eya. tyw'jyx. Dor, tf^vyx. 13n2 vw. wf. nos, noi, Ital. ich, Ger.

D3i5 opprimere, onus,

^3i< spiravit naribus, HSiJ, ''S, 1i< nasus, facies, wx^/. 7rp53-a;7rov, «v£[*of.

p3i< ingemuit, exclamavit, P^3, pn2, n:X id. oyKa'ot^at. eV^oj. Asinus.

Ji'DK aegrotavit, Ji'ii voa-of. voj\\\j.x. vir, mortalis, ai^vip. av^paiiiog.
r\n2ii Chald. nn^ Heb. Tu. Tu. au. ScVoeLTuve.
"•DDi^ horreum, T^(x;£ji5:. Dtl''* op.-o(rf. si/m^Z posuit, sammen, Ger>

f\Di^ collegit, traxit, ID"', HDD, o-Triw. aar-Tri?.

")D« ligavit, "1^"^, "ID^ ^apa.
IJIDX a^vjp. astrum.

^^^ apte ligavit, ^ttw. o-uv^TrTw. apto, I adapt.

(ID J? coxit panem in furna, OTtixoo. T.iitTa, Trf^a-a;. i'^4'W.

Vsi? caliginosiis, fs^fAn. nebula, (pwXEo;. (pwXaj. velo, velamen, a veil.

J2i^ rota, uTTv^^^fi. rheda, ^^^^ circumrotavit, af*(pi.

i/Di< sibilus viperae, n;/a sibilavit, n;/2ii vipera, o(pf?. o(pi«5vif. $««.

TS^ cinis, TSJ^ pulvis, Ti(ppx, Te(ppo(a. TeC^pi^a. (pvpeca, -

T^i* thesauravit, Sv^o-aupoj. crcopavu. crop'og. acervo,

3"!^ insidiatus est, fcpudi^oj. 21iJ ipi(po}.

400

31^* texuit, apa^i-H. aranea, upxx^iov. fpya^sjv. TCirkcn, Ger.
m^i abstulit sicut Leo, kiptcj. '^"li* Leo.
"^■)^ elongavit, opt>yo[i.cii. porrigo, arceo.
yi^^ 'terra, ipx. a^oco. apovpa. epysi'^.
11^ execratus est, «pa. apao\j.ai. y.ara^w^ai.
"I»^ rivLis, i\mos, viii. 8. li^"" &11^*' id.
'^1^ desponsavit, puTiov. pvcii^o\j.ai. do pignora sponsalia.

^'^ ignis, tela, 'IK^p.iqog. "ccir^c^. k^oi. iaxa^a. e%a^i^. asSO, Vesta.
Htt'J^ oblatio ignita comp. ex, ^1^ h'^'^. ^'^'^ sol comp. :i'i^ & 5i'.
X^^ ao(pog. X^DtiNS* Chald. Dan. i. 20, ii. 27, iv. 4, HS^'S* pharetra.
'7^^ quercus, quercetum, sjlva, uIto;. x7v)m'. asylum, v. Dionys.

Hal. /. 3, cap. 15, Aa-vkov. i^ecoohv. Svoiv. B§viJ.av.
N'i^X Chald. rrnj* Heb. ^scc. Wo^. ^ox^cj. H^6cj. itum.
inx fortiter stetit, ]Tr\K oyo?. asinus.
:K:in.S Chald. v.^'i^ iEtna, v. Bocharti Chan. I i. c. 28, et Yegilii
iEn. iii. 571— -582.

I have liere confined myself to the first letter of the alphabet: were it
needful, we might have taken a more extensive survey, and by multi-
plied examples have more clearly demonstrated the close affinity, which
subsists between Greek and Hebrew. This however is sufficiently evinced
by Avenarius, to whose inestimable labors I have been indebted for this
vocabulary. Prom him I have adopted it, and might have easily col-
lected more than one thousand roots in addition to those which have
already appeared in the progress of my work.

401

AFFINITY BETWEEN LAPONIC AND HEBREW.

THE country north of the Gulf of Bothnia and of the White Sea,
including Finmark, is known by tlie naine of Laphmd. The Finns and
Laplanders seem to have been driven in remote periods from countries
situated between the Danube and the Volga, to this high, latitude, by
more powerful hordes, who, seeking only pasture for their flocks, had no
inducement to penetrate the frozen regions, in which snow remains nine
months in the year, regions suited only to the rein deer, who on these
mountains find a sufficiency of lichen, their usual food, beneath the
snow. Some of these granitic peaks rise many thousand feet above the
level of the sea. Sneehatten in particular is 8115 feet high.

In these elevated regions the Laplanders wander with their herds,
some of which contain 1500 or 2000 head of deer, and here, finding
rest, they remained from generation to generation, without a wish to quit
their dreary haunts. They had no intercourse with other nations, who
could have no inducement to invade their mountains; no commercial
transaction, excepting only by barter to some small extent, and no
occasion to pass through a country, which was surrounded by the
Frozen Ocean.

Here they remained distinct and separate, like the natives of Arabia.

Their language therefore is uncorrupted by foreign words, either im-
ported by commerce or introduced by conquest.

In consequence of this it has retained its original purity to a greater
degree than the Arabic in Arabia, which probably is not so pure as the
language spoken by Ishmael.

VOL. II. 3 jL

402

The Hungarian dialect of this language has not had these advantages,
and may therefore be considered as a most corrupted Finnish.

In the Lapland language are numerous expressions which connect
themselves with Greek and Latin. These languages, however, as we
have seen, have near affinity to Hebrew. When I say Hebrew, I do not
mean strictly one particular dialect of that Oriental tongue, which in-
cludes Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, and ^thiopic; but any one, or
all these kindred lano;uaoes.

Olaus Rudbeckius, a Swede, and the most eminent linguist of his age,
assures us that out of 2000 or 3000 words, not more than 200 or 300 in
the space of 3000 years, have been either changed or lost. The rest are
either Hebrew, Chaldee, Sj/7-iac, or Arabic.

He has not given us his Canons; but we may safely conclude that his
must essentially agree with those of Avenarius.

I shall here subjoin a few examples, which may be sufficient to shew the
close affinity, which has subsisted between two kindred languages after a
separation of some thousand years.

Laponic,

Achaedi

Aedhame

Aelo

Aema

Afo

Alah

Latin,

Honoravit

Terra, humus

Non

Mulier

Adlnic

Super

Altus

Hebrew.

nin

hi;

nhi:

Laponie.

Latin.

Ali

Ascendit

Aim

Juvenis

Almevoth

inventus

A lop

Multitudo

Asi

Fecit

Asie

Opus

Asso

Fundanientum

Hebrew.

rbii
Dbi;

403

Laponic.

1.0(11!.

Heirtw.

Laponic.

Latin.

He' Tit.

Atzah

Fulgur

«i;s

Hathi & Adhi

Dormivit

n?n

Atzi

Arsit

Jim

Hialo

Fortis, potens

'7^n

Allui

Egit

hbM!

Hished

Benignus

Ton

Autzi

Robustus

u;i:;M^nr}

liniz

Culter, liasta

n^iT}

Auzi

Roboravit

njyx B'^i't^

Eloki

Percussit

T]2ry

Avohi
Eke

Desideravit
Etsi

Huolgi'&)
NYuolgi )

Abiit

i^r^

Epe

Nihil, non

Esai. ili. 24.

Jarodi

DeciJit

Tl^

Eseli

Elevavit, laudavit

-T^D

Jaur

Lacus

-IS^

Fauro

Decora vit

-)SD

Jed

Manus

Galmai

Abscond it

ubi;

Jen (ien)

Non

l^K

Gaska

Corrosus

T]^\2;y

[se

Vir

m^^

Gaski

Rosit

Joh vel hio

Fuit

n\"!

GiecU

Scivit, novit

J/T

Jukand ke

Qui

•«D

Had

Had as

Dignus, ccstimatus
Nov US

Tin
mm

Juoks

(Laqueus, )
Carcus, fraus)

t^'P^

Hadsie vel
Hadshe

/Luna

cnn

fze
Kah

Ipse
Sicut

Haeg

Sinus, abdomen

p^n

Kali

Comedit

'7DK

(

Noxa, cahi-

)

Kaliti

Saturavit

b^DKii

Haeivi <

mitas, ahyjx

\ Isa. xlvii. 2.

Kalli
Kapi

Per fee it
Texit

il2
dial. 5^2n

Ha rami

Destruxit

D-in

Kalze

Iratus est

r^p

Harezi

Celer fuit

3 ]

Katzi

Fastidivit

404

Lapenic.

Latin.

1 Hebrew.

Laponie.

Laliit.

Hebreu.

Kay

Mugivit, claraavit ^I/J

Nisum

Mulier, uxor

■D^^2

Kazi

Evigilavit

Nuogi

Quievit

Kez

Finis

Hi')?

Nuor

Juvenis

-i;/3

Kioetzi

Vidit

Nuoravoth

Pueritia

mi;;:

Kied vel iec

Man us

Outho

Signum

ms*

Kiesi

Operuit

nD3

Outhoi

Miratus est

ann

Kietzi

Sprevit

Jrab. ^rn

Pali

Separavit

iib^

Kieeze

iEstas

Paiiii

Vertit

n:i5

Kole

Vox

h^p

Pakadi

Punivit

"TpD

Kuoim

Cum

d;/

Pako

Verbum

Si/r. T^

Lahi

Lassus, segnisfiii*

.ni^b

Palih

Fodit

nVs

Lait

Maledixit

Ch. Syr. ^-h

Palteooth

Terror

mi'VD

Lauki

[vit

f^^

Palthi

Tremuit

r^=

Lulue

Nisi

ab^b

Paluk

Tjaculus

1^2

Made

Alultus

IHD

Pasclii

Dividit, percussil

■^DD nt^D

Marad

Rebel !is fuit

llf2

Pateri

Fugit

-ira 112

Maravot

Rebellis

nn-iD

Peisdi

Perdidit

102

Marsfe

Sponsa

Cha. XDn.SZ2

Pelki

Lis, divisio

}b-^

Mi and ma

Quis

Pethi

Persuasit

n;iD

Min

Cum, ex, in

Pikde

testis

122

Miide

V^cstis

Posgi

rransgressus est

V'^-i

Muossi

Fxploravit

IL'^'D

Pothi '

i^enit

Na :
Nasi 1

!*func

?ugit

ii2

Pudi

(

JExemit, )
Kedemit 3

iTTD

405

iMpanic.

Puodkc
Puodki
Puore

Puozeli

Purki

Ragi

Rahki
Raki

Rakie

Rassi

Raudi

Raudni

Razi

Renni
Rugui

Ruoki

Latin.

Fissura
^In rimas )
C fissus est J
Purus, clarus
fPcdibus, "\
\ contractus^
^2 Sam. ix. 13 J

(In visit, )
CMaledixit )
^Cumulavit ^
Ccongregatiis '
Abiit, abfuit
Dilexit

Extensio

Pluit, stillavit

Fluxit

Fluvius
Fregit,
Perforavit

Clamavit

Festinavit

cPavit,

yComedit

Hebrew,

Heb. dial. At. Syr

Chal.Si/r. JJ-|

DD")

nil

Ch. Syr. ^i^lTl

V)il

T\V1

Lapunic
PillOSO

Saedke

Saek

Safothi

Sagi

Sagih

Salahi

Sara

Saru
Sialki

Siegi

Sielki

Sieki

Sjokki

Siuki and,

fuki '

Siurho

Sobet

Soiki

Latin.

em or.

^^onitru

Jus

Saccus

Quievit

Crevit

Auxit

Spoliavit

'Dux,

(Princeps

Bos, taurus

Emisit

/Depressus

\ Immersus

^Fuit

Albuit

Delevit

Divisit

Bibit

Horde um
Ille
Virga
Sedit

Hebrew.

Wi
pT-f

n2iu

1^
l^m

Arab, "^j^ti'

ni)}^
22^

406

Laponie,

Stago
Sudi
Sudi
Sudon

Suopudi

Tevi

Tevoaikne

Thivoi

Latin.

Jugum
Ferbuit, coxit
Peccavit
Peccatum
^Percussit f
cPIanxit 5
Impletus fuit
VFl'jvius, ')
CAbundans )
-^dificavit

Hebrew.
Ara. Syr. Ch. Jl^

"nr
-nr
inr

TDD

Arab. ^2^^

Laptnic,

Thoumiz

Thulue

Thuoki

Vala

Uali

Vazi

Zaigi

Zayethi

Zoulii

Ztorri

Latin.

Didymus

Aquaeductus

Pressit, fixit

Sed, nisi

Juravit

Exivit

Inclinavit

Erravit

Luxit

Anxit

HArew.

HEBIREW.

vJF Hebrew I shall say litlle. It is a language well understood,
and much admired by all who understand it. It carries marks of
the most venerable antiquity. The alphabet has been supposed to
contain vowels independently of the points, like the modern languages
of Europe. But I am disposed to agree with those who consider
Aleph to be the most gentle breathing, as it is in Persian, Sanscrit,
and Arabic, and with my ancient tutor Professor Robertson, of Edin-
burgh, who always taught his pupils to regard aleph as very soft, he
as not so soft, heth as hard, and ajin as a most rough breathing.
Certain it is, that, according to the Septuagint, the attendant vowel-
sound may be that of either a, aa, e, o, ou, or it may be g.

The pronouns are, ':)3^^ I, nn.S thou, ^<in he, 12»^ we, DnK ye, HZ^rr
they. From these the verbs have taken their terminations to indi-
cate their persons — Thus, "Tpi3 he visited, has mpD thou visitedst,
"ripD I visited, TTpii they visited, ompD ye visited, T3Tp2 we visited.

But here I must observe, that although we cannot in Hebrew as-
sume any part of ""S^X, excepting "• for the first person singular of

408

of the preterite, yet the Ethiopic, which is closely allied to Hebrew,
has ''2"Ip2 I visited, which was probably, at a remote period, the
genuine preterite in both languages.

The tenses are three, past, present, and future ; its moods, the
indicative, imperative, and infinitive. Here we have such simplicity,
that the conjugation of its verbs is attained with facility; whilst m
other languages they are perplexing to the last degree. Properly
speaking, Hebrew has but one conjugation, to which all its verbs es-
sentially conform. They have indeed eighteen modifications formed
chiefly by the points, which create no embarrassment to the learner,
whilst in the comprehensiveness of their expression they surpass all
the languages of Europe. Eor instance in 1 Kings, ch. xx. v. 27,
we find nj^ariC they were obliged to be reviewed. Here we have
the consummate art and contrivance of a most polished nation.

In Latin we observe some resemblance to this contrivance, as in
facit factus est; factavit factatus est; facere fecit; facere factus est;
factitavit. So in surgo, erigo; sto, sisto; fugio, fugo; doceo, disco;
cado, coedo; jaceo, jacio; jacto, jactor.

The Greek has ttotoj and ttoti^w although it wants ttotc:,', which is re-
tained in Latin. It has (pujy.u and (pwr/^w, (pws- ^CpwToc (pxu and (pcclvu.
The English has raise, rise; sit, set; fall, fell; quick, quicken, &c.

In Hebrew we find some modes of expression, with which other
languages arc not conversant.

I. It expresses the genitive case of nouns by juxta-position, as
for instance, "'Tl '^im ''D'', that is literally, days, years, my life, meaning
the days of the years of my life. The Arabic and the Galic in this con-
form to Hebrew.

409

11. It is fond of ellipsis, and fiequently omits the auxilinry verb.
Thus in Joel, ^'7 «^3'7 nM!hnD\ HnN' '•yd; vy^, literally, His teeth
lion and cheek teeth lion to him. 'I'hat is, his teelh are the teeth
of a lion and the cheek teeth of a li(;n are his. J'loni the [)reva-
lence of this figure, other words, which arc introduced in the begin-
ning of a sentence, are freciuently to he understood, though not
expressed in the latter part, as in Psalm 1. v. 7, Hear O my people
and I will speak — Israel, and I will testify against thee: so Psalm
ix. V. 18, would literally run thus, For the needy shall Jiot always
be forgotten; the expectation of the poor shall perish for ever, which is
properly translated shall 7iot perish for ever. And again in Psal. Ixxv. 5,
Lift not up your horn on high — speak with a stiff neck, that is, speak
7iot with a stiff neck. In Psal. xci. v. 5, 6, the negation is three times
understood, though not expressed.

III. In Hebrew we frequently find the future tense used for the
present and for the preterite, but most often the preterite for the future.
In the most ancient writers both of Greece and Rome, the present tense
and the future had the same form. Thus in Homer we observe (*£vw,
manebo, Sfw recurram, oT^vveco hortabor, f<fxi ibo. So, in Plautus, ibo
domum atque ad parentes reduco Silenium.

IV. When vau is prefixed to the future tense, this becomes a pre-
terite. 'lDi<'>% '^h''^ p|J/p"'l and Naaman ffi'as wrath and a'e/jf away and
said.

So in Genesis, ch. xxii. v. 3, we have six futures, each preceded by
vau, and consequently all are translated properly as preterites.

VOL. II. S M

410

V. Vau prefixed converts perfect tenses into futures. In Isaiah,
ch. viii. V. 15, no fewer than five verbs appear, each with vau prefixed,
which are thus converted from preterites into futures.

VI. The regular mode of expression for preterites is to place them
before the nominative: otherwise placed, it is commonly the present
tense.

VII. The roots are commonly regarded as triliteral, but some
learned men consider them as originally biliteral. In numerous instances
the third letter seems to modify the sense. Thus for instance i^vD,
^•72), n'jD, n'^D, '7'7D, p"?-!, all mean to f/it;iJe, and ^"^ D, DID, DnCJ, DID
j;"lD, pD, p"lD, n"lD with ti'lSi convey the same radical notion. Of
Of these expressions therefore /D and T^ appear to be the essential
portion, and of these, 7 and "1 are commutable.

In "1"IJ dissecuit, 21 J scabies, 11 J abrasit, scalpsit, ill J ruminavit, HJ
abscidit, n"lJ sauciavit, DIJ fregit, I'U diminuit, the original root
seems to have been U from which perhaps the Greeks derived their
x£;/)w. Certain it is, that J and h are letters of the same organ, and
it is worthy of our notice that 112, 1X2, and HTD, mean scidit,
fodit, 212 secavit, yip scidit, divisit, i'12 rupit, laceravit.

CHALDEE.

XHE Chaldee, such as we find it, is comparatively modern, for we
are not able to trace it back beyond the captivity of Israel in Babylon.
In the writings of Daniel and of Ezra we possess it in its purity, as
spoken at court in the capital of a mighty empire. Since that period,
it has degenerated, and in the lapse of time, lost much of its elegance.
This appears in the Targums of Jonathan and of Onkelos.

i\fter the birth of Christ, we find the language of the Jews still
more remote from that of their progenitors. Yet during a period of
about J, 500 years, from the mission of Moses to the birth of the
Messiah, the changes have not been such as to conceal the orifinal
identity of Hebrew and Chaldee. It is impossible for any one with
even a moderate knowledge of these languages not to see clearly, that
they are very nearly related. Yet they differ in many particulars.

The reader must not expect, that in a work like this I should enter
minutely into each language, which passes in review before us.

What I shall therefore say respecting the Chaldee will be merely
to point out some of the changes which have taken place, between it
and Hebrew, since the time of their separation.

3 M 2

412

I. Beth in Hebrew may answer to mem and phe in Chaidee, as in
J^3Dandi^»£3; 'jnn and "^nQ.

II. The Hebrew nouns and verbs, which terminate in Ae, change this
for aleph in Chaidee, as in HDa and ^^QI1; nJ2 and i<33; nb'^b and

III. He in Hiphil is aleph in Chaidee, as in I^TTn and IHTS; p3'7n
and pVi*;

IV. The emphatic he prefixed to nouns in Hebrew, answers to aleph
suffixed in Chaidee, asinHD^n and ^^^DD.

V. The terminating mem of Hebrew becomes either aleph or 7nin in
Chaidee; thusQ^Qti' becomes ^^Q^^' ; D^D, X^Q; D^:3, ]^J3; D^pT, ^pr.
ThusC and 1^ most perfectly agree, ^* answering to"' and ] to D.

The dual number, which in Hebrew terminates in mem, has men in
Chaidee, as in ^'^^ and V^^.

VI. Aleph of Hebrew may correspond to ajin of Chaklee, as in ^H?
and i^i!^; i^f^^ andi'QJ. We find ^^ IT, m? and ;?")? to ventilate, to
scatter seed.

VII. Between Hebrew and Chaidee daleth and zojiii are commutable,
as in ni'^D and nm^, 23T and ^^1 ; 12* and "l^T

VIII. Likewise between teth and f^a^^e, as in "^V;/ and V^;'; V^?^ and
CO;;^; '?'?•»' and '7'7£2. n'?^'^^'? of the Hebrew answers to i^bt^/^nb of
the Chaidee.

IX. Zajin and /z«f/e take each the other's place, as in HIH and NVH;

-ti;V and i<1^;^».

X. So do shin and teth, as Iti'p and IJ^p.

XI. Shin in Hebrew very frequently becomes than in Chaidee, as in

"liSi' and "liri, whence T«y^of; IVl^ and J'lJ^, Supa,

413

XII. Tzade and ajin correspond, as appears in f1*? and V'^'^ or

n;;n « ; ] xy and ] «i^ ; n i; -i and n;;n.

XIII. Ill the same word we find ajin answering to aleph and tzade to
ajin. p and J^«.

XIV^ Schin and samceh take one the otlier's place, as in "^l^^ Ileb.
and 10D Chald.

These' few examples may suffice to show the mutations which have
taken place in one or both these languages. Dissimilar as they now
appear, yet to the attentive and discerning eye it will be evident, that
they are radically one. Considering the length of time which intervened
between their separation, when Abraham (juitted Chaldaea, and the
Babylonish captivity, we may well expect, that the signification of
numerous words must have been greatly changed. This precisely is
what the most superficial glance will be sufficient to discern.

In Hebrew, he made, is Hi^J/, but to express this action in Chaldee,
the word is "T^^, which in Hebrew means he served. A feast, in
Hebrew, is mishte, in Chaldee lehem^ the latter referring to bread, the
former to drink. The expression for wine is, in Hebrew V^ jaji?}, but in
Chaldee hamar, "IDH so called, perhaps, from its red colour,^ perhaps
from its being a fermented liquor. Our term Jirst is in Hebrew iitt'X"!
the notion being taken from the head; but in Chaldee it is commonly
^QTp, from Dip prior fait tempore, loco veldignitate, whence CTpis
the East, both in Hebrew and Chaldee, and V^^^ in Hebrew is trans-
lated ^ an p in Chaldee.

That there should be a near affinity between Hebrew and Chaldee, is
not to be wondered at, because Abraham was a native of Chaldaea.

414

Even between hi3 leaving his country, his kindred and his father's house,
to the departure of Israel from Egypt, being more than four hundred
years, considerable changes must have taken place in both these
lano-uages. But between the time when Hebrew first appeared as a
written language in the Pentateuch, and that in which Daniel, Ezra and
Nehemiah wrote in Chaldee, was more than double that long period.

In more recent times the Talmudic writers formed some of their
infinitives in aleph, some in he and others in either jod or van.

Now it is remarkable, that in Swedish the termination is a, in Danish
«, and both in Slavonic and in Welch u, but this ii is pronounced as i.
It is likewise worthy of our notice, that both the Hebrew and Chaldee
make use of vowel points.

The pronouns are i«JX, nx, «in; l]t«, ]^rMi, \Mn ego, tu, ille vel
ipse, &c. "^ mens, 1 tuus, H ejus, •, noster, V^ vesler, PH eorum.

A M A B I C»

>SUCH is the affinity between Hebrew and Arabic, that without the
assistance of the latter, we should not, in numerous instances, be able
to ascertain the radical meaning of the former. Indeed no oriental
scholar ever doubted respecting their original identity.

We are informed that Ishmael, the son of Abraham by Hagar, being
banished to the Wilderness of Paran, took to wife an Egyptian, and
became the father of twelve princes. It does not appear, that he was
the founder of all the Arab nations ; but it is acknowledged, that the
principal hordes of the wandering Arabs descended in part from him,
and in part from Joktan, the son of Eber. No wonder then, that
Hebrew and Arabic should agree like dialects of one language.

The Arabs from the beginning have been insulated; and, although
their sword has been against every man, and every man's sword against
them, they have never been subdued. As their country is divided into
petty sovereignties, we must not wonder, that they should abound with
dialects, and that in process of time these should differ to such a degree
as Niebuhr assures us they now do. Troni him we learn, that even at

416

Mecca tlie Arabic of the Koran is taught in colleges, precisely as Latiu
is at Rome. Yet though the difference between the ancient lancuase
and the modern is so great, they agree as dialects, like Latin and
Italian, which are radically one. Tliese dialects now indeed differ widely
from each other; but in the days of Mahomet they must have approx-
imated, and the Koran remains as the standard, by which we are to
determine what was the language of his day.

This language and Hebrew essentially agree, not merely in words, but
in grammar, which is more than we can say of English and its legitimate
parents, the Anglo-Saxon, German and Danish. In Arabic, the nouns
are declined and the verbs are conjugated, precisely as in Hebrew.
The grammatical construction is the same, and they make the same use
of vowel points.

The pronouns agree with those of the Hebrew, and are ''Ji^, fi3S, STU;
Tin 3, Dr\K, on I, thou, he, Sec. but the Arabic characters are com-
paratively modern.

In their verbs they perfectly agree. These usually consist of three
radical letters. They have but one conjugation. The various persons
are distinguished by suffixing to each the last syllable of its pronoun.
They have the same number of moods, the indicative, the imperative,
and the infinitive. Their tenses are the pra5terite, the future, and the
participles.

They require only to be compared, in order to manifest their radical
identity.

S Y R I A C.

X HE Syriac differs little from the Chaldee. They have both the same
alphabet with Hebrew, and in all these languages, like as in Arabic,
aleph is the most gentle breathing. This letter in the beginning of words
either forms the first person singular of the future tense, as in 3r(DX
scribam, or nouns substantive, as in i^3i\^ digitus. The Syriac,
Chaldee and Arabic, all agree in substituting aleph for the servile he in
the beginning of hi phil and of hithpael, as for instance, 7T3K for 7"'T2n
and '^Tnnbi for "jf^nn of the Hebrew. Aleph is likewise substituted
for the emphatic lie, and is placed, both by the Chaldee and Syriac,
not at the beginning, but at the end of words. Thus "l^DH of Hebrew
becomes iO/D of Chaldee, Syriac and Arabic. So likewise for the
feminine gender n2 7Q regina in these kindred languages becomes i<37D.

This conformity alone would be sufficient to demonstrate the close
affinity, which subsists between Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic and Syriac.

The pronouns in Syriac are ^3i^, ^3J<, IH; pn, pr\:»^, p:«, ego, tu,
ipse, &c. Vh^i^ iin.

VOL. II. 3 N

418

Syriac forms its adjectives in aleph for the feminine, as 3D bonus,
J^2£3 bona, ^i!^'2'\ quartus, H^H^^l quarta.

I shall here subjoin a few words, which will still more clearly evince
the affinity subsisting between Syriac, Chaldee, Hebrew and Arabic.

3K pater, S. C. H. A.

12ii periit, ditto

hia doluit, S. C. H.

P»* H. C. iJ1« Syr.

1JJ«pactusest,S.C.H.A.

r^^ habitatio, S. C.

n::'K femina, H.

i^rii^ C.

^n:^ A.

i^n:^ S. C.

i^ni^ signum, S. n.S C.

m.s H.

I« tunc, H. n« C. A.

p-r^TSyr.

■JTX abiit, S. C. H. A.

D^3t« aures, H.

P3"r«S. C. A.

"inK unus, H.

x"Tn s. C. A.

n« fratcr, H. C.

x^^i A.

pni^ cognatus, S. C.

»S'nx consuit, C.

fni< cepit, H.
fnx C. potitus est

1'ns* S. potens
"tHK tardavit, H. A.

Iinx poster!, C.

nnnt* posteritas, H.

nTli^ ultimus, A.

i^TTin posteritas, S.

i:0S* carduus, H. C.

to:D« s.

n3\S odium, H.

N*3S* S.

^''X quomodo, S.C.H.

'7Dii comedit, S.C.H.A.

1Di5 agricola, S. H.

D'^")3S agricolae, IT.

p:3i« S. C.
mxD.s A.

n"?*^ ululavit

J«'7«, S. C.

D^'^'7^« Deus, H.

l^•^'?^^, C. S.
nnha a.

mnX7J< divinitas, A.

n"in'7x s.

;^'7N* costa, S.

i^"?;^, C.

<y'7V H.
{V^ studuit, docuit,i

r s. c. H. ^

^l'?^ du.x, H.

SC»^ cubitus, C.S.

(i^^ stabilis, verax,

I H. C. S. I

ID.^ dixit, H.C.A.

-)7J5<ns* dictus fuit, S.

^JKego, J«2N* C. S. A.

n3t5 gemuit, H.

mnii C. mnns* s.

Ctl'iX doluit, [I.liomo,j

C C. s. i

dx:n* a.

"IDK pulvinar, S. C.
HDK sanavit, S. C. H.

419

"lDi< ligavit, S. C. H. A.
(121K, rota, H. ]2«'7^
C circa, S. )

;;3VNdigitus,S.C. H.A.
rHpK caprea, C. H.)
( NT\^ S. )

1"!^^ longus fuit, S. C. H.
ni^&^ni'obviavi^C.S.

'^'i^ ignis, II. i^^'« C.

am'i^ febris, S.
"^^ii cffudit, S. C. If.

r^nii ivit, H. i<nK s. C.
■ins* locus, C. S.

Tt must be here remarked that I have confined my vocabulary to the
letter aleph, which alone is amply sufficient for the illustration of my
subject. But I must likewise add, that numerous expressions are found
in some of these languages, which have not been preserved in others.
Did we possess a greater number of authors, we might be able more
fully to demonstrate the perfect agreement, which subsists between
them. Sufficient, however, has been here produced to prove, that
Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic and Syriae, are merely dialects of one
language.

5 N §

ETHIOFIC.

J- HE treasure, which the philologist possesses in the Hebrew and
Chaldee Scriptures, is inestimable; yet great as it may be, he laments
that it is not equal to his wants and to his wishes. In his lexicon
he seeks in vain for the roots of numerous words, of whose specific
meaning he is obliged to guess. Some few of these he finds in Syriac,
and more in Arabic, but the greatest number are said to be con-
tained in the Ethiopic.

With this language I have no acquaintance, but I give full credit
to Ludolf and to Bruce, wheu they assure us, that it has a close
affinity to Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic, and that the roots of many
Hebrew words are only to be found it. Sir William Jones delivered
his opinion to the same effect, and considered all these languages as
dialects of one primeval language. Hence he deduced, that each of
these must throw light upon the rest.

Ludolf m his Ethiopic history has illustrated this affinity by two
examples.

4;i

In Hebrew we have tlD"TI^ (Adamah) the earth, Admah the name
of a city in that beautiful valley, resembling Paradise, " the
warden of the Lord," which Lot chose for his residence, when
with his flocks and with his herds he separated himself from Abraham
his venerable uncle; and Adam was the name given by the Almighty
to our first parents, when created in his image.

These names have commonly been referred to a root in Hebrew,
which means red, but this epithet docs not seem so appropriate to
a Being of superior excellence as beautiful, Avhich corresponds to
the same root in Ethiopic. It is worthy of remark, that y.o(T[uog, the
Greek expression answering to Adamah is derived from y.ou\t.i(a^ I adorn,
and in Latin mundus, like munditia, means, not merely cleanliness, but
ornament and elegance.

The second example is T)^i)^ (Alja) which is translated rump,
but in Ethiopia means the tail of a particular breed of sheep, pe-
culiar to Africa and the East, which is loaded to such a degree
with fat as to require a little cart for its support, whilst 3 3?
(zenab) is the term applied to the tail of other sheep.

COPTIC,

A O Mr. W. Drummond of Edinburgh we are indebted for an account
of Coptic and the ancient language of Egypt.

The alphabet appears to be nearly similar to the Greek both in form
and power. Mr. Drummond delivers it as his opinion, that Coptic is
radically allied to Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic and Ethiopic, and that it
has been corrupted by the Persians, Greeks and Romans. This inge-
nious writer refers us to Woide's Lexicon, a work which I have never yet
had the happiness of seeing.

Mr. Drummond has produced seventy examples of Ethiopic which
have strict affinity with Hebrew, and express either articles of the first
necessity or the most common actions of savage life; and he assures us,
that the names of the Egyptian deities can be better explained in
Hebrew than by the modern Coptic.

T U M K I B H»

I HAVE not paid the same attention to Turkish as I have done to
other languages; but I have examined it sufficiently to see, that it is
exceedingly corrupt ; and they who are best informed, assure us, that it
contains ten Arabic or Persian words for one originally Scythian. Indeed
it was not to be expected that wandering hordes, without an alphabet,
or written records, should have preserved the language of their ancestors.
The same want of written records has been noticed by Sir William Jones
in all the Tartar nations.

Of the Chinese I shall not speak at present; but should my life be
spared, I shall hope to pubhsh such an History of China, as will point
out the origin and peculiar nature of their language. In the mean time,
the Rev. Mr. Carey, and the laborious missionaries who are connected
with him, will, I doubt not, give us a satisfactory account of the written
language of this wonderful people.

By the view I have taken of the languages of Europe, Asia and
Africa, I trust it is rendered probable, that in the period subsequent to
the deluge, and prior to the dispersion of mankind, the whole earth was
of one language. This precisely is the declaration of Moses, and in this
assertion, his veracity as an historian sta'nds unimpeached.

TOWER OF BABEL

AND CONFUSION OF TONGUES.

(Subsequent to the deluge, and prior to the dispersion of mankind,
the first event recorded by Moses, which calls for particular attention, is
the building of a Tower in the Plain of Shinar.

As to the use for which this magnificent structure was designed,
divines are not agreed, and in the record there is scarcely a word, which
has not been a subject of discussion and discordance of opinion, both
among the Christians and the Jews.

The existence of this towei* is sufficiently established by ancient
authors, by Eusebius, by Josephus, and by Herodotus. The latter
gives the dimensions of the temple, and a particular description of it's
towers. These were eight in number, diminishing in size, and rising one
above the other. In the eighth, that is on the summit, was the temple
sacred to ]3elus or Baal, as the sovereign of the universe.

Diodorus says, that this temple having fallen to decay, he could give
no (terrain information respecting it, but that it was of great all^tude.

The account which we have in the book of Genesis has occasioned
much perplexity to tiie most learned.

425

It is stated in the record, that the ark rested upon Mount Ararat, that
the whole earth was of one language and of one speech, and that as they
journied iTom the east, or, as it is in the margin, to the east, they found
a plai?i, perhaps more properly a vallei/, (for i^p3 means dissecuitj, in
which they built their Tower.

On this expression Dip fl^, it may be observed, that if they went first
from Ararat into Assyria, they might have arrived at Babylon from the
east; but if they came from Canaan, they journied towards the east.
The Arabic very frequently uses the preposition ^ and l^S for in, into.
Here then is the first ambiguity.

But DTpJ2 may with equal propriety be translated, from the beginning.
This appears by Hab. ch. i. v. 12. Should it be so translated, we must
understand it thus. This migration was the most ancient. Again, it
has been suggested that 0"Tp may be a proper name. Certain it is that
Kedemah is mentioned by Mcses as one of the sons of Ishmael; but it
does not follow from hence that, in the passage before us, dp was the
name either of a district or of a city.

It has been conceived, but without sufficient evidence, that the
languages now spoken, that is French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese,
Latin, Welch, Galic, English, Dutch, German, Danish, Norwegian,
Swedish, Slavonian, Persian, Sanscrit, Greek, &c. &c. originated at one
time, and were produced by God himself, for the purpose of dis-
comfiting the impious projects of a degenerate race, and preventing the
construction of a tower whose top might reach to Heaven.

That the common opinion is erroneous, may be inferred from hence,
that they began their edifice in a valley, and not upon the mountain top.

VOL. II. 3 o

426

Had they chosen Ararat, and not the plain of Shinar, as the site of their
nefarious building, such an opinion might have had some little semblance
of truth; but we cannot readily believe, that any of the human race
were so destitute of understanding as to imagine, that ihey could ascend
to the throne of the Most High. When the giants of fable were said to
have heaped Petion upon Ossa in their rebellion against the gods, such
fictions were well suited to the inflamed imagination of the poet, but
would be unworthy the pen of an historian. It is therefore difficult to
conceive what notion we should affix to the term (D^'C::') shamaim, the
heavens. For were nothing more intended than to construct an elevated
beacon, which might be discovered at a distance from their habitations;
they surely would not have built their tower in a valley.

In our translation we read " let us build a tower whose top may reach
to heaven." But in the original it is simply said, " whose top to the
heavens," leaving us equally at liberty to say, " whose top may be
sacred to the heavens." We know that idolatry commenced with the
worship of the heavenly host, the" sun, the moon, the stars, and it is
probable that the first altars of the idolaters were pyramids, like this
tower, as described by Herodotus.

As to the declared purpose of this structure " let us make to ourselves
a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth,"
the learned are at a loss to understand it.

Had it been written " let us make to ourselves a beacon, lest we be
dispersed," we could have understood their purpose: but how making to
themselves a name, could prevent their dispersion, we cannot%fipnceive.
All that is clear is, that the Almighty " confounded their language, that

427

they might not understand one another's speech." But in whitt manner,
to what extent, and for what duration this confusion lasted, we are not
informed.

Some divines, equally distinguished for learning and for piety, have
conjectured, that the confusion produced at the tower of Babel, was' a
confusion with respect to worship, creating such disputes as terminated
in the dispersion of the builders.

That the common opinion respecting the confusion of tongues, and
the innumerable languages, now spoken upon the surface of the earth,
as all originating in Babel, is erroneous, must be evident to every one,
who is able to trace French, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian, however
now discordant, back to Latin; the Celtic, German and Gothic
languages to Greek, and all these back to Arabic, Chaldee and Hebrew.

I have stated the difficulties, which occur to the learned, in their
interpretations of the record, and their various opinions as to its meaning
and extent; but in these I do not feel myself immediately interested.
All I have undertaken to demonstrate is, that subsequent to the deluge
the whole earth was of one language, and that a radical affinity may be
traced in all the languages, with which we are acquainted. This, I
trust, has been performed to the satisfaction of the learned; and, if so,
they will readily agree, that the veracity of Moses in this instance is
established, and rests upon a firm foundation.

So2

428

DISPERSION OF MANKIND.

MOSES having related the destruction of the antediluvian world, and
the preservation of the human race in the person and family of Noah,
next proceeds to trace their progeny in their dispersion and their distant
settlements. From all that we have seen we may safely venture to con-
clude, that their dispersion was the cause, and not the consequence of
that diversity of languages, which have prevailed in the world. The
misunderstanding, discord and confusion, with which the builders were
visited at Babel, was the cause of their abandoning their impious enter-
prize; but the most effectual cause of the dispersion of mankind over
the surface of the earth has invariably been, and ever will be, want of
food. Such was the cause of separation between Abraham and Lot,
when " the land was not able to bear them, that they might dwell
together. For Abraham said unto Lot, let there be no strife I pray thee,
between me and thee, and between my herdsmen and thy herdsmen.
Is not the whole land before thee? separate thyself, I pray thee from
me."

From the most remote antiquity, historians have recorded the migra-
tion of nations in search of food for themselves and of pasture for their
flocks; and it has been constantly observed, that in proportion to the
difficulty of communication with the parent stock, their languages have
varied.

Moses informs us, that all the nations of the wOrld, however scattered
and dispersed, are the progeny of the patriarch, and of his sons, who

4:9

survived the flood and peopled the renovated earth. He has given us
the names of their descendants, names which have been preserved in
profane histor}', and by the colonies, which they estabhshed both in
Europe and in Asia. These have been traced distinctly by Bochart, who
in fixing their primitive abode, confirms the veracity of Moses.

From SiiEM our sacred Iiistorian derives Elam, the father of the
Elamites, that is of the Persians, the same nation, which in its infancy
had Chedorlaomer for its kins;.

From the same patriarch, according to the Mosaic account, descended
Ashur, the acknowledged father of the Assyrians, Eber, the Father of
the Hebrews, and Aram of the Syrians, who, by Hesiod and Homer, are
called apiit^i.

From Ham he derived the Cushites, who settled in Arabia, and
Nimrod, who, it is agreed, remained in Shinar, where he made Babel
the seat of his dominion. Miu;raim, the second son of Ham, was the
father of the Ethiopians, now called Abyssinians, and of the Egyptians,
whose country is peculiarly styled the land of Ham. From Canaan, the
fourth son of Ham, Moses distinctly traced elevea families, of which
one was Sidon, the father of the Sidonians.

Japhet is stated to have been the father of Gomer, Magog, Madai
and Javan. Gomer settled north west of Media; Magog and his
descendants occupied Russia, Moscow, and the extensive deserts, over
which the Scythians wandered with their tents, with their flocks and
with their herds. From Madai the Medes derive their origin. Javan,
wko may^g^th equal propriety be called Jon, was the progenitor of the
lonians, of Elisha, from whom we derive Elis, Hellas or ^olia, of

430

Tarshish or Tarsus, and of Kittim, the founder of th(! Macedonian
empire.

From a careful investisjation of tiie dispersed families, it is evident,
that they originally confined themseiv-es within contracted limits; but
that succeeding generations, in proportion to their increasing families
and flocks, passed beyond those limits, invaded the territory of sur-
rounding nations, and by new conquests extended the bounds of their
dominion. This view of the progressive increase of empires, is sufficient
to satisfy every candid mind, that Moses, as an historian, is throughout
the whole of his narrative perfectly consistent^ with himself, and with the
descriptions of the best profane historians. In the infancy of states, we
see five kings occupying one little territory, each inhabiting his own
metropolis; these are Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Bela, and Zeboiim.
We see these petty sovereigns, for twelve years, subject to Chedorlaomer,
the king of Elam; then rebelling against him. We see this king, with
the assistance of his allies, making war upon the five kings, and putting
them to flight. What was the number of the confederate and victorious
army, we are not informed ; but we behold it smitten and pursued by
three hundred and eighteen armed servants of the patriarch Abraham.

About four hundred and thirty years after this event, we see one branch
of Abraham's family leaving Egypt, to the number of more than six
hundred thousand fighting men, and making conquests throughout the
whole extent of Canaan. How perfectly consistent is the narrative of
these events to the slate and condition of mankind !

431

THE CALL OF ABRAHAM.

WHEN the nations of tlie earth apostatizing from tlie Avorship of
Jehovaii, became idolaters, worshipped the host of heaven, and offered
sacrifice to devils; it pleased the Almighty, as we are informed by
Moses, to separate for himself one famii}', which, by restoring and pre-
serving pure religion, might stem the torrent of corruption, and become
a blessing to all succeeding generations. With this merciful intention,
God entered into special covenant with Abraham, commanded him to
break off all intercourse with idolaters, and, for tliis purpose, to depart
from his country, his kindred, ari*d his father's house.

On his part, the Almighty most graciously promised, " I will make of
thee a great nation, I will bless thee; I will make thy name great, and
thou shalt be a blessing. I will bless them that bless thee, and curse
him that curseth thee: and in thee shall all the families of the earth be
blessed."

Having made this covenant, it was ratified by a seal, and it became
a law, that every male proceeding from the loins of Abraham should be
circumcised. That this rite was typical, and representative is clear,
because "^ the law had the shadow of good things to come, and not the-
substance." It betokened an engagement on the part of Abraham, that
he and his offspring should be distinguished from all other nations as
servants of the living God; and a promise on the part of the Lord his
God, " I will circumcise thine heart, and the heart of thy seed, to love
the Lord thy God with all thine heart and with all thy soul; that thou

432

mayest live." Circumcision to the Jews was a sacramental seal, an out-
ward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace, ordained by
God himself, given to his people, as a means whereby they might receive
the same, and a pledge to assure them thereof. If stiff-necked and
rebellious, they would demonstrate, that they were uncircumcised in
heart, because " he is not a Jew which is one outwardly, neither is that
circumcision which is outward in the flesh; but he is a Jew, which is
one inwardly, and circumcision is that of the heart."

We Jinow that some other nations, not descended from Abrttham,
practised circumcision; but this must have been by imitation, for it was
never dictated by nature, and could have no other origin, but that
which Moses has assigned to it, because we may safely venture to
affirm, that there never was a time, when either the nation of the Jews,
or the scattered tribes of Israel, could have been prevailed upon to adopt
a perfectly novel practice, as derived by uninterrupted tradition from
their ancestors, and whose institution is, described in the sacred Code and
earliest records of their ancestors.

Every thing we meet with in prophane historians tends to confirm the
representation given by Moses of the darkness which covered the earth
before the call of Abraham, and which subsequently prevailed in all
the nations, which surrounded Judsea, whilst the Israelites had light in
their tents.

Compared with the offspring of Abraham, how low in the estimate of
reason, do all the most admired nations of the earth appear! Look at
the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, abandoned to cruel superstition,
enslaved by the most execrable vices, and devoted to the most contempt-

433

ible idolatry; whilst pure religion, with the rational service of the true
God, is maintained by one little nation, descended from the patriarch;
for " truly in Jewrey is God known, his name is great in Israel."

Here then we have a further confirmation of the veracity of our his-
torian.

PASTORAL STATE.

THE pastoral state, patriarchal government, and primitive simplicity
of manners, described by Moses, as existing subsequent to the deluge
and the call of Abraham, perfectly agree with the beautiful pictures of
the poets and descriptions of the best historians.

The wealth of Abraham and of Lot consisted in their flocks and in
their herds, which wandered freely, wherever pasture was to be found.
The venerable patriarch performed at once the double office of priest
and king; he offered sacrifice, and he led his servants forth to battle.
We behold this monarch exercising hospitality towards strangers, who
pass near to his habitation. He runs from his tent door to meet them,
bows himself towards the earth, invites them to enter, runs to the herd,
fetches a calf, and delivers it to a young man, who hastens to dress it,
whilst Sarah makes cakes upon the hearth.

What beautiful simplicity! How well does this accord with a narrative
to be met with in Herodotus. He informs us, that a fisherman, having
caught a fish of an extraordinary size, presented it to Polycrates, who

VOL. II. 3 p

434

said to the fisherman, " Come thou and sup with me." This invitation
was accepted, and the fisherman partook of the fish with his ro}'al host.

By this narrative it appears, that in the primitive ages described by
Moses, the subjects approached their sovereign as a father, and that he^
on his part, received them as his chihlren.

Not so, when the Roman fisherman presented a turbot of eiif)rnious
size to the Roman emperor; for he, far from receiving it as a free-will
offering, regarded it as a tribute due to his supreme authority, and at
midnight assembled the trembling senate, to consult what could be done
to procure a vessel large enougii to contain this extraordinary fish.
What a contrast of manners liave we here! How little does this resemble
primitive simplicity!

Such is the information to be derived from the descriptions of our best
historians; and not inferior to their's, is that to be obtained in the works
of our most venerable poets.

Homer has recorded an example of primitive simplicity, in a princess
going with her maidens to the river, to superintend the washing of her
clothes; an operation performed in a manner precisely as now practised
in the rivers of North Britain.

In all respects, the Jewish historian conforms to truth, and gives a
faithful description of men, of manners, and of events.

It is related by him, that the Ishmaelite merchants, who carried on
trade with Egypt, occasionally dealt in slaves. This account agrees with
the practice of modern times, as we learn from Bruce, and from other
travellers.

43o

rOPULATlON.

ANOTHER event recorded by Moses, is flic vast increase of the
Israelites in E^^ypt. In modern Europe no snch increase c.'in take place.
To double their numbers, some nations have required centuries, I>ut,
accordinfT to JVloses, the Israelites in the land of Egypt doubled their
numbers every fifteen years. Without the assistance of political arith-
metic, this increase would appear to be miraculous; but it is not stated
to have been so. With this assistance, considering the extreme fertility
of Egypt, and more especially of Goshen, it should not be deemed im-
probable. For it is now well understood, that in a healthy climate, with
a sufficiency of food, the tendency of the human race is to double its
numbers in the same periods in which the children of Israel doubled
theirs. Such has been the increase in the back settlements of North
America.

THE DELIVERANCE OF ISRAEL FROM EGYPT.

THE most important event recorded by Moses remains yet to be
particularly noticed, which is the deliverance of the Israelites from
the galling yoke of Pharaoh, king of Egypt.

Of this, irrefragable evidence appears in the institution of the
Passover.

During a time of famine, Jacob Avent down into Egypt with his
family. Here, under the protection of Joseph, his posterity increased
and multiplied: but after the death of Joseph there arose a king,

436

who was unmindful of the benefits, he had conferred upon the na-
tion by his wisdom and fidelity.

This monarch became jealous of the Israelites, and his fears pro-
duced a destructive persecution. But when the appointed time was
come for the deliverance of Israel, Moses was sent to shew signs in
Egypt and wonders in the land of Ham. The greatest of these was
the destruction in one night of all the first-born of the Egyptians,
both of man and beast.

To keep up a perpetual remembrance of this marvellous event,
which immediately preceded the departure of Israel from Egypt and
their passage through the Red Sea, the Passover was instituted, Of
this event we want no other proof, than the institution itself, which
took place at the time of that deliverance, together with the constant
celebration of this solemn festival from its first institution to the
present time, attended by the record which has been constantly preserved
in all the countries through which the several tribes have either wandered,
or been scattered by their enemies. For had not the festivalbeen insti-
tuted at the recorded time, there never was a time when an impostor
could on its introduction have persuaded the Jews in every part of the
world, that they and their fathers had constantly observed this festival in
commemoration of the deliverance of their ancestors from Egyptian
bondage.

The character of Moses, therefore, as an historian, stands firm and
unimpeached.

FINIS.

PRINTED HY GYE ANO SON, BATH.

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