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EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE
RURAL ECONOMY.
PROM PERSONAL OBSERVATION.
BY HENRY COLMAN.
(OP THE UNITED STATES OP AMERICA.)
"Vor, iaiUdUngtwhiteTer, tbemlnilb theuMtnliubkuultiiBuottiiiipoiiaiit ; uil intUi
KileOeirfKrieof asrieBltimlt inmiutDnlaiid JDit order ; thebeut iiM Informing principle
to tbe ploosfa and cart, ths Uborec It ai reaion to the bewt, and Um brmer ii u a thinking
md pmacUns prindpU to tb« laborer."— B nan.
VOL. 1.
JOINTED BY JOSEPH ROGEBSON, 2*, NORFOLK STREET, STRAND.
BOSTON, MASS. : A. D. PHELPS, WASHINGTON STREET.
)yGoo»^Ic
d accordtng to Aat of Congrew, in tlia jev 1S44, ij Htnrj ColiMiii in tbc Clerk's
Office in the District Comt of MuwchuMtti.
)yGoo»^Ic
PREFACE.
I hare tiie honor of laying before the pnblic my First Report on Earapeta
Agricaltare and Rural Economy. It hu been Bomewhot delayed beyoDd the
time when it vag expected to appear by varioui nnavoidable ciroumstanoe*,
and, among others, by a serious accident by which my health was fi>r aome
time impaired. I have ueTSr approached the bar of public opinion with more
diffidence and anxiety ; bat the kindnew heretofore experienced inipiiea the
hope of its oontisoance, and atrengthena my confidence thM in an intelligent
I shall find a candid, public. My first report will be, lot oonaidentble de*
gree, miscellaneODB, and not lo full of that praotioal informatiDn and detiul
which I design to giro hereafter. More than Ihis was not to have been ex-
pected J bat I troat it will not be finmd deficient in practical value. Many
penons may think that I should particularly pomt out what ts to be learot
frwn European agriculture ; but I understand it to be my proTinoe to ffre an
honest account of what I see, preminng that there ia nothing to be seen from
which aomalhing may not be learnt, and that it ia for others, and not fi>r me,
to Bay what they will l«uo from Uiat which ia [daoed before them. Where
we find oursslTea infiNrior to othen^ it may be deeiruble to ascertain how we
may reach the excellence to which they hare attained ; and where the advan-
tage is obvionsly upon onr side, it may be a subject of honest congratulation.
In circumstances, even the most diSerent, a sagacious mind will gather in-
struction from contrast as well as from analogy : and the snccew of any man>
in any trade, pnrsuit, manu&ctnre, or art, is in itself a powerful stimulus to
others to exertion ; and, therefote^ an inatrnmoit of excdlence in any and
>, Goo»^Ic
IT PBUFACE.
in every otbcr art or pursuit. I know no better wb/ than to record my im-
prewioni of what cornea under my notice in the field, which I have undertaken
to explore, as faithfully aB I can and with as much detail as seeniB expedient;
and to do my best, that every one who condescend! to read my pagea with a
just candor, will not close the book without finding something agreeable and
inatnictive, something for improvement in the important art to which my
latxtrs will be particularly devoted, and something to make bim wiser, better,
or happier. These latter are the proper ends of knowledge and of life ; and
this honest aim will in itself suiotify and elerate the humblest efiorts.
The necessity of publishing my reports as I go on, without wuting until
thecompletionof my tour, wilt, of coarw, prevent that methodical arrange-
ment of tbe whole matter which I otherwise should adopt; bat this, under
present arrai^ements, is not to be avoided, and my readera wiU, I tnut, make
die proper allowance.
The objeola of my inquiry are, o/ oonne, varioos and extensive, and em-
braoe everything oonnectcd with the cultivation of the earth, the improre-
menls which are now going on In agricoltore, and every branch of hosbandiy
and rural and domestic economy.
Among these topics wUl, of ooorse, be compnliaided—
The Soils, and especially in their relation to difierent crops.
Manures, and their application.
The Implements of Husbandry, and various Madunes fiv facilitating
and abridging the labors of the Farm.
The different great operations of Agrioultore, saoh as Ploughing Sow-
ing, Cultivating and Cleaning, Harvesting and Preparing the Crops
ibr use or market, wltb the general application of the Produce of a
Farm.
Draining and Irrigation.
Enclosing and Fencing.
Redeemii^ Moor and Heatb Land.
Warping and Dyking.
The Plantation of Forest and Fruit Trees.
)yGoo»^Ic
The Crops gtom ; the Qnaaes, the Cereal Graiiu, and Eaculent Booto
for the food of man or beast, and planta cultivated for dolhing, build-
ing, and Aiel.
Lire Stock of every daKription — Cattle, Horses, Sheep, Swine,
Ponltij; and their different breeds and claMes.
The breeding, rearing, and ikttenbg of Lire Stock.
The Dairy.
The cnltiTation of Silk, Flax, Hemp, Hops, Teasds, ICadder, Woad,
Mwtard, Chicory, Olivea, Gmpcs, Rgo; the production of Wool
and Honey; the manu&ctnre of Wine, Oil, and Sugar ; and Tariooa
other crops and products which may come under my notice, ami the
production and growth of which may be possible and useful in any
paiti^the United Btatei.
Horticulture, likewise, will come under observation, with the beat Infinma-
tim of the management of forcing beds, and the forwarding of plaols,
Talnable for use or luinry.
Rural Architecture, and the Constntction of Farm Buildings, Conserva-
tories, and Oreen-honses.
Mark^ aiid Fain — Farming Apconnts.
Agrionltnral Labor; wages, condition, and service.
Hie Man^ement of particular Farms; arable, daiiy, stock, and wool
&nna.
Agricultural Schools and Experimental Farms.
Yeterinaiy Establishments.
Agricultural Societies, Uuseums, and Shows.
Agricultural Schools, Education, and Literature.
The Condition of the Rural Population.
Benefit Clubs, Mutual Asauranca Associations, Cow Clubs, Friendly
Associations for mutual aid or improvement.
Rural Life ; Morals, Manners, and Custmns.
These are among the topics which will claim my attention, and upon which,
n the coarse of my tour, I hope to collect and to communicate much usefiil
ogle
iofbrmation. The fieM, I ua ftware, is a wid« one, and no unaided iodi-
Tidnal conid, under any circomilanoeB, gire a full and endre riev of
these Tarions subjectB so as to satisfy ereiy inqniry ; but I Till do what Z
can to glean that which is most Tsluable, end to direct to more Joll sources of
information the inqairiea of those to whom fitrther information may he de-
sirable.
I have already been through a considerable porti<m of England, and into
some of the southern oonnties of Scotland ; I purpose to oomplete the tour of
parts of England and Scotland not already visited; to go through Ireland,
and to visit each portions of the Contbent as are likely to affiird any valuable
information. My R^wrts cannot be promised, confidently, at any particular
time; bat, according to my Prospectus, they will be limited to ten, of about one
hundred pages each; and, anxious to tax as little as possible the potieiice of
my finends, I shall use all possible diligence in their preparation, as much for
my own interest as for tbdr gratification. It is intended that each Report
shall be furnished with, at least, one eteel-plate engraving, and with such
wood-cuts as may be necessary for the elucidation of the subjects treated.
I do not know in what place, rather than here, I can better acknowledge
the kindness end bospitalify which I have received from gentlemm with
whom it bag been my happiness to become acquainted ; add to this the utmost
readiness and courtesy in rendering every assistance in their power to my
inquiries. The kindness is sensibly appreciated; and these acknowledgments
are due to many noblemen of the highest rank in the empire ; and to many
gentlemen of more humble condition, who, if they have not the nobilify of rank,
have even a higher patent — one without which the moat brilliant insignia
of external distinction become dim — the nobility of inteOigenoe, wisdom, and
most active and extensive usefulness. I should be glad here, if it were proper,
to illuminate my page with the names of many distinguished individuals, of
whose courtesy and kindness the recollec^on will not foil, while any record
remains legible on the tablet of my heart ; bnt this would be contraiy to a
rule which, with me, has always been absolute in cases of this nature, lest I
should be thought even to approach a violation of the confidence of sodal lifo.
One may wound almost as much by public pnuse as hy censure that delicacy
PREFACE.
of EflAtiineiit which, iatiafied viUi doing good, shrinks from notoriety and
oitaitatioa. Kor would I in any wayimpair or hinder thatfrankneaa of com-
manicadoa and numnen which constitutes the charm of social interconnie.
This would be sure to be oheoked if wa knew that a reporter for the public
woe ooDBtantly present } and, if the humble ezpresHion be allowed, it would
hide itself in its btUTow, as sure as it perceived that one of the feline or the
ctnine race was always at the mouth of Hs hole wuting its coming out.
My agricnlttttal tour, therefore, must not be expected to hare much of per-
•onal and prirete narrative ; though I am aware that, &om this very circam-
stance, it may lack much of that interest which, with a large class of readers,
it might otherwise possess. However strong, on these accounts, the temptation,
I shall certainly not report many interesting conversations to which I bare
beeo a par^; nor describe the eminent or the more humble individuals to whom
I have had the honour of an introduction; nor, after the example of some
tourists who have preceded me in this and in my own country, tell of the pri-
vate visits which I have made, and the charming families whose honoured
guest I have been ; nor speak of the " accomplished men, and the delightful
women, and the beautifhl daughters, end the promising sons," in the
housea where, to use the only term by which true English hospitali^ may be
expressed, I have been domicUtated, and to do only justice to many of whom,
and to a condition of society in the highest d^ree polished and improved, would
not be for me an easy task. I say nothing of the impropriety of stealing for
the public the likeness of a friend, without his consent, and without allowing
him to choose his position, his dress, or bb painter j for, as an agriculturict,
this is not the species of live stock which I came to examine, and in which
those for whose benefit I travel would be most interested. Yet, while I shall
icmpulonsly avoid all personalities whatever of this description, I shall feet at
perfect liberty to give, as for as I am able, a true picture of rural life in Eng-
land, and of the condition and habits of the rural population; and if, in doing
this, I shall, in any case, be thought to go beyond the strict line of what may
be called the practical and the nsefhl in an ^icultural tour, with the candid, I
(halt find an apology in my desire to alleviate the dulness of di7 details, by
occasional topios more light and imaginative. It is not ttnieaBonable for me to
wiftli lo altract to my paged, I hope for their benefit, a claes of readers who
would be cei-tain to be repelled from a mere skeletOD, however accuratdy and
beautifully and wonderfully all the bonea were put together, and all the jointe
and arUculations diiplayed; but who would be delighted to contemplate the
same subject covered with flash, instinct with life, radiant with health, and
clothed in the habiliments of elegance and fashion. Ever^ one knows the
varie^ of tastes every where existing. He who caters for the public will be,
of coarse, anxious that each guest at the table should find something whidi he
likes. Though, perhaps, a lai^e portion of mankind might be best satisfied
with plain boiled and roast, and content to eat their dinner Out of pewter plates,
and from a plain and coarse oaken table, without a cloth, such as I have seen
at Haddon Hall, neariy two centuries old; there are not a few who would
prefer the refinements of modern life, a porcelain dish to a wooden trencher,
a silver fork to the natural and onreetrained use of the ten digits, the Vreacb
entries to the more substantial covers ; and who, little as it may do to the ac<
tnal support of life, find as high a pleasure in the fit^ngs-outof the banquet, its
arrangements, its neatness, its order, its beau^, and in tite splendid pyramid of
flowers which often crowns its centre, as in any mere indulgence or gratifica-
tion of the appetite. Under any circumstances it would be idle in me to
presume to spread an elegant or splendid table for my guests ; but while I shall
be anxious to fumbh that which is substantial and nutritious, I shall be
equally desirous that at least the dessert shall be made up of the best finita
which I can gather. Thoogb I am not able to present them in vases of gold
and silver, or of diamond glass, or Sevres or porcelain china; yet if the
peaches and the strawberries should be seen blushing nnder a few of the leaves
of their own foliage, or if a simple bouquet of the flowers of the sweetbriar and
violet, or a handful of the faalf-uufolded buds of the moss-rose, the queen of
flowers, should be sought to relieve the monotony of the table, I indulge the
' hope that my taste will not be condemned, but will be r^arded only as in
conformity to the rule sanctioned by a high antiqui^, that of mingling "the
agreeable with the nseflil."
There are other grounds upon which I claim the indulgence of my readers,
and to which I have already alluded. We have often beard of the T«ation of
>,Goo»^lc
an mtiat, who k compelied lo paint a picture to order; sod, willing or nniril-
ling, well or ill, under the most brilliant spell of poetical excitement, or in
an boar ef the moat sleepy or proey dulness, ha must work at it, and bare it
completed, and Tamisbed, and framed, and sent borne to be criticised, by a
certain time. To a degree, similar objections lie to all forced IntelleotQal
labor; and in many such cases, a powerfully excited desire to do well, and
not to disappoint the wishes and expectations of kind friends, presents, in itself^
no small hindrance to success, end, strange as it may seem, is sometimes the
eaose of failure. It most be obvions to any one what serioos disadvantages
I labor under in beiog obliged lo give my reports before I haye completed
my tonr. In this case, I yield of necessity to an iinputience of cnriosi^ on the
part of mj friends, which I would neither condemn nor Uame, but which
certainly presents a strong claim upon th^r candor. At present, when these
first Reports are published, I have been throngh only a small portion of Eng-
land and Scotland. Much hag come under my observation, which will be
interesting and useful; but much more remains to be seen than I have yet
seen ; and things in other places may be very different from those which I
have obaerred. I can only, therefore, relate such Acts and note such improve
ments as have presented themselves ; but it would be entirely premature for
me to attempt any very general inferences from such partial views.
I sm painfully aware of the greatness of the undertaking, and the sacrifices
which, at my time of life, it demands of me, and the difficulties in the case of
meeting even my own wishes. But the object being exclusively a pnblic ob-
ject, and one in respect to the utility of which, however Imperfectly accom-
plished, there can be no dissent — I look confidently for the aid and encourage-
ment, BO essential to my success, of the intelligent, disinterested, aud public-
spirited, among the friends of agricultural improvement. Sach aid rendered
to me in any form will be most gratefully appreciated.
In whatever light I regard the subject of the improvement of agriculture, .
my sense of its importance is continually strengthened. In its social, polittcal,
and moral bearings— in its connexion with the subsistence of mankind, with
thrir general comfort, and with the pn^reaa of civilization — no subject, purely
B more the attention of the political economist, the statesman,
ogle
«tid the pliilanthri>{>iBt. If the familiar experience of half a centniy in all the
labors and det&ib of practical huebandr;^, a coneiderable acquaintance with
the agrionltnra of the United States, and an enthaaiaatio attachment to rural
life and roral pnrsuitB, give me any power to he taefal in the advancement of
this g^eat canse, that power shall be exerted. Z do not know to what object
die ilu>rt ranaiuder of m; U& can be more rationally devoted.
Henbt Colhak.
% Spring Gardau, Charitig Croti,
Londm, l%4i.
)yGoo»^Ic
CREDENTIALS.
As I bare been often asked, la your misBion a pnblic one ? I have been ad-
Tiaed to pnbliab tome of the oredentiala vitb vhich I bare been bonored. If
it maj, as is Buggested, asaist in tbe accomplishnsnt of my objec^ tbere ia
an obriotu propriety in doing so ; in respect to whicb, otherwise, I should h&re
had a good deal of hesitation.
NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
Whereas Henry Colman, a citizen of the State of New Yorfc, United
States of America, a distinguished friend of agricultural improyement, mem-
ber of tbe Masiacbiuetts Socie^fbr promoting agriculture, of the New York
State Agricultural Society, of the National Agricultural Society at Wash*
ington (district of Columbia, of the American Institute at New York), of the
Society of Natural Histoiy at Boston (Massachnsetts), of the American Scien-
tific Association,and honorary member of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng-
land, hang about to Tisit England and tbe Continent of Europe, on a tour of
agricultural observation and inquiry, and especially for examining into tbe
condition of tbe rural classes and the schools of agriculture and the practical
arts, with a Tiew of obtaining snch information on these subjects as may be
mefiil to his conntry—
ResoWed, that the National Agricultural Society signify their strong appro-
bation of bis enterprise, and oommend him to the friends of agricultural and
raral and atnentific imiat>Tement whererer they may be found, as erainoitly
ogle
qualified for this important and useful undertaking ; and, for hia personal and
moral character, entitled to all respect and confidence.
Id witness whereof, the seal of the National Agricultural Society is hereto
affixed.
(Signed) HsKRr L. Ellsworth,
Chairman of Execntiye Committee.
Washington City, JauuaTy SOth, 1843.
0. Whittlkskt, Corr. Secretary.
(Seal)
NEW YORK STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
At a meeting of the New York State Agricultural Society, holden in the
City of Albany, on the 18th of January, anno Domini 1843,
The prendent of the society, Jamea S. Wadsworth, Esq., after atating that
Mr. Henry Colman, late agricultural commissioner of IfaasachoBetts, had, at
the sng^iestion of many distinguished friends of Agriculture, proposed a lour
througliont Europe, for the purpose of obtaining exact and full information of
the agriculture of Europe, and of the condition of agricnltoral schools and ex-
perimental ftrms, offered the following resolution, which was unanimously
adopted : —
ResoWed : That the New York Slate Agricultural Society regard with great
interest the proposition of Henry Colman, Esq,, to make an agricultural tour
through some of tha most highly cultivated portions of Europe ; and anticipate
from this distingnished writer and friend of agriculture, a body of valuable
information, which will impart afresh impnlse to agricultural improrement
throughout our country.
Mr. Colman is hereby commended to the friends of agriculture and agricul-
tural improvement, as a gentleman worthy of confidence and respect, and
eminently qualified for an enterprise, deemed in its execution highly condu-
cive to the improvement of practical and scientific agriculture in the United
States of America.
(Signed) Jab. S. Wadbwohth, President.
Luther Tucker, Secretary.
Albany, New York, U. 8. A., January 19th, 1843.
)yGoo»^Ic
AMERICAN INSTITUTE, CITY OF NEW YORK, U. 8. A.
At a meeting of the American Institute of tlie City of New York, held at
ite reporitoiy in (he sud city, on Thnndaf , 9th da; of Febroejy, 1343 ; the
following rule was unaniraouBl; adopted, —
Whereas, Heniy Colman, Esq., late comniin5i<HieT of agriculture Id the
Slate of MassachnsettB, and now a resident of the Stale of New York, and a
member of the Americas lostitute, proposes to makeatoar in Europe for the
purposes of agricultural obserration and inquiry, that he may obtain such in-
formatton as may serve the cause of agricultural improTement and industrial
edncalion, and the general usefulneas of the rural population ; the Americas
iDstitute deem it proper to express their high respect for Mr. Colman's cha-
racter as an en%htened dtizcn and scientific agriculturist, and lh«r stroi^
^probation of this publio-spirited enterprise ; and they b^ to commend
Ur. C<^an to the kindness and attention of all the friends of agriculture and
nual improTemeat in Great Britain, France, and Germany.
(S^ned) John Otsbton Chocles,
Becretsjy of the Board of Agriculture, and the Amerioan Xnatitule.
(Seal)
T. B. WAUMAif, Cor. Secrel»7.
UUNROE COUNTY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, STATE OF
NEW YORK, U. 8. A.
At a meeting of the Mnaroe Conn^ Agricnltoral Society, holden in
Rodwstei-, New York, on the 16th Febmary, 1848,
Whereas Mr. Henry ColiDao, late agricnltunl oomnusntmer of the State
of Massachtuetts, and recently president of this society, at the instance of
WTeral dietingaiBhed finends of agriculture, is about to make a tour through
KTeral of the conntriee of Europe, to exiupine their {^cultural improrements
and caltiration, and to obtain such practical and authentic information as may
be uaefhl to the s^cultaral interest of the couBtry,
Besolred: That the Munroe Agricultural Society signifythdrwarmappro^
ogle
bationofthisenterpriseto promote the interestsor^^culfare; and that we lake
pleasure in commending Mr. Colman to the fiiends of agricnUoral improve-
ment in all countries, as a gentleman known by nB to be well qualified for
the execution of such an undertaking, in a manner to be of eminent service to
the practical and scientific agriculture of the United States.
Resolved : That the great intereats of agricnltnre in this country can have no
more worthy ambasBador in foreign lands ; and that we fully confide in him to
acquire and communicate such information on this subject as will be fonnd ad-
vantf^^us to this important interest, wherever it is cherished and respected.
Attest («gned) Bawson Habhok, Jun., President.
Hesby M. Ward, Secretary.
Bochester, New York, U. S. A.,
Febnutry 16th 1843.
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
At a meeting at the Board of Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for
promoting Agriculture, held in Boston, October 6th, 1842,
The plan of Mr. Colman for an ^icultural tonr and survey in Europe
having been submitted, it was thereupon voted, that the proposed plan of
Henry Colman, Esq., a member of this society, and late agricoltaral com-
missioner of this State, to visit Enrope fbr the purpose of acquiring practical
information in agriculture and roral economy, and, by imparting the some to
the public, to extend the knowledge of agriculture, and to promote agriool-
tuial Bcienoe in this country, is cordially a^roved by this Board.
Voted: That the treasurer be authoriased to subscribe for one hundred copifls
(^ the proposed reports of Mr. Colman.
At a subsequent meeting of the Board, held on the 11th day of March, 1843,
the trustees, by a vote, expressed their continued interest in Mr. Colman's pro-
posed tour, confiding in his zeal and industry, that his thorough and ample
reports of the state and progress of agriculture in Europe would contribute
much lo its adrsncemcDt in liig own country ; and directed a copy of tbe above
Totes lo be giren to Mr. Colman, with the commendations of bia enterprise to
tlie fiienda of agriculture, wbereTer be may meet them.
(SigDod) Joav Wbllbb, President. (Seal)
Bbhjaimn Gdilp, Rvsg. Secietary,
Borion, MaaNchnsetti, U. S. A.,
March llth, lS4a
BOSTON, MAflSACHUSElTS, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
March 8th, 1843.
Serenth Lqpslative Agricnltnral Meeting at the State Hons^ Hon. Daniel
P. Kii^, speaker of the Hoose of RepresentstiTes, in th« chair. On motion
oftheHon. B. V. French, of theConncO, the following resolre was adopted: —
Besolred : That the fimaeia of this Commonwealth here assembled, and who
hara assembled weekly during the present session of the I^islatnre, ibr the par-
pose of discnssing and considering subjects pertaining to agriculture, hare heard
with pleasure that their distinguished fellow-labourer, Henry Colman, Esq.,
late agricnltoral commissioner of the Commonwealth, intends Tisiting Europe
the coming season. Few in our country bare adrocated with more seal and
eloquence the Arming interests; few bare collected snob funds of agricul-
tural statistics, or been so industrious in dispensing the same for the pnblio
good. Thereibre, we most cbeerfiilly recommend him to the civilities and
kind attention of European agriculturists.
And it was voted: That the above resolve, signed by the officers of the
meeting, be communicated to Mr. Colman, and that such editors of agricul-
tural papers in this country, as may concur with ns in sentiment, be re-
quested to publish the same.
(Signed) Oanibl P. Kino, President
JOHKSOH QasdvBB,
_ _, _ J Vice Presidents.
Behjahin v. FaBBCB, 5
Allah Putkam,
W. Buckhinbtbb, . „
S.W.COL,, 1 »•»'*»■"■
H. c. :
D,„;eab,G00glc
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
COKHOHWBALTU OP MASSACHUSETTS,
BoOon, March Slat, 1643.
Henry Colman, Esq., late commiBsionerfor the agricuUuntI survey of Massa-
chusetta, being about to visit Europe, for the purpose of c^camiuing the agricultu re
and rural economy of Great Britain and the Continent, in order that he may ob-
tain such information as may promote the improvement of agriculture in bis
own country, his useful project is hereby recommended to the aid of the IHcnds
of agriculture, whercYcr they may be found ; and himself as qualified for the
duty which he has undertaken, and worthy of confidence.
fSigned) Marcus Morton,
Oovemor of MassachuBetts.
John A. Bollbs,
Secretary of the Commonwealth.
Mr. Colman's address is London; care of Messrs. Baring, Brotiien, & Co.
)yGoo»^Ic
TABLE OF CONTKUTS.
TOL. I.
yaSF REPORT.
PrnzrACZ. iii
Cbkdkbtuu. id
L Geneml Pacts and Coandendona. I
n. Putknlir Objecti of Kaqoiir. 4
m. Scienea ud AKricDlbn^.... 6
IV. Englkh AgTicDltnTe. 10
V. Engliih CapilaL 14
TL Gcnenl Appeannce of tto Connby 16
Vn. nedgv «na £iKla«UM. 18
TIIL lion ud Sunken Fencoa. 90
OL The Eogitnh P»ks 31
X Oraameiital Bhiuba and flnwoci. 38
XL CHmate of JBncUnd. 33
JOL AgricnlOml Popnlatioa. 34
L The Ijuidlardi; Rentt; and TaxM. 35
3. The Fumen, 38
a The Agiicalbinl Laboma. 40
Xm. AOottnent Syatem. _ 74
raCOND REPORT.
Xm. AUnfanent System, (continned.) . .
XtV, QjiutilT of Seed.
XV. Steepiofr Seed*.
XVL Spade Hrabandir.
6*
)yGoo»^Ic
xrm TABLE or contkntb.
XVII. Condition of the laborers. 133
XVnL Pn^TMB of Agricnltuie, ctxnpared with other Fmanits. 144
XIX. Acbi&l ImpravemeiitB in English Agiicultoie. 14S
1. Draining, ImgUion, and Wuping. 146
2. Live Stock and VegetableB. ISO
& Agricnltnnl liii{deiiieiiti^ ISO
4 Aj^ilicUion of Steun to Agricnltute. 151
& Iitcreaaed Production. 1S9
& RoTsl Agiicnltnna Society. 160
7. Agricultural Socie^ of Scotland. 106
XX. ReOation <f Landlord and Tenant 167
XXL .Game and the Game Iawb. 173
XXn. The RcTsl Agricultural Socie^ of Inland. 175
XXnL Model Farm, and Agricultural School 179
XXIY. Dublin Botanical Garden. 180
THIRD REPORT.
XXV. Agricultural Education. 169
1. Glaanevin Agricultural School. 196
2. Templemoyle Agrienltnral School 303
a Brookfield Agricultural School SIO
4 Lame Scbod. S16
6. School at Ealing. 318
6. Agricultural College at Cirenceeter. 219
XXVL General Views of Agricnltunl Edocation. 290
Xavil Influence of Knowledge upon Agriculture. 293
XXVm. Sciences to be taught. 235
XXDL Chemical Science. 336
XXX. AnalTHie of Soils. 298
Swls of Heatha. 239
XXXL Natural Science 337
XXXn. Model Farm. 239
XXXIIL Expetimentnl Farm. 340
XXXIV. Economical Arrangements at the Agricultural College 240
XXXV. Plan of an AgricultDr«l Institution Ibr the United Statee. . . .244
XXXVL Elevation of Agriculture ae a Pursuit aikd a ProfeesioiL 348
XXXVn. Rural Manners in England. 251
XXXVUL A Pencil Sketch. 293
XXXDL Life in the Country. 356
)yGoo»^Ic
TABLE or ooxTurrs.
XL Vetariivuy Co\tBge,
XLL Huaenni cf XicoDoaik GMlogj.
XLQ. Chonucal AxiicaltDnl AMKOM&m in Scollut^. .
XLin. Cfaeoiical Agnculbml Lectona.
XUV. GmploTmeiit of Affrieidtaiuta.
XLV. Gaanoi
FOimTH EEPORT.
XLVL Genenl (
XLVIL Aericnltiire u ■ Commercul Pnmit. SM
XLVIU. UufceM. Cattle HodcetK 3»7
XUX. FalkiA TiyA 399
L. The Baninuloe F&ir. 300
U. TheOilwtj FWr. 301
1. Tempennce in Iralind. 301
3. Tba Oalnj Women. 303
UL amithfield, London. 301
1. Vonai of BufiDsn in SmithfieM. 306
i. WeigblU ud Mmaaitm. 307
a Wei^t of AnisalB, Mode of MWrttinipg. 306
4 Amount of BunneM. 319
5. Cawnctei ud aiulit? of moek. 314
a Smiddield hj NigtiL 317
7. Attemplad Keraaral of tbe lUdut ftnn tfae City. 319
LJIL Gnin Mtiketn
Kinds of Bread. Hux«, or Indiu Cen.
lAV. Gnin Uuketa out of London.
1. FoniH of Busiiieaa.
3^ Advutftgea and Convenience of Hidi M"f*^ i
United Statea.
3.Uodu of SeUing.
4. Unltiplieation of Harkets in En^aiid.
LrT. The Com Exchange in UmA Imuo, hooioa.
LVt Cwn Datiea.
1. Aqumenta for ProtectiaiL
!L Aigninenta againat Ptotaelion.
3. Moral Tiewa of tba Qjieation.
4. Patriotiam and FUlaiithrapj.
)yGoo»^Ic
XX TIBLC or CONTBNTS.
5. Proper Ends of NtticiDal Policy. 33S
6. Bread regarded in a peculiar Light 336
7. Peculiar Ccfidilum of the English ItboBBf Popalation. . . .337
a Excen of Popolation. 339
LTIL Mode of adjoetisg Labor and Wagea. 341
L Eipenmeiit in Gennany. 343
3. Claima of Labor, and Duties of Wealth. 343
3. Reeulla of the Oemun Expemnent 345
4. Scotch CuBtomo. A DigreMion. 346
LTUL The Dead-Heat MaAeti. 347
8 of the Jew& 351
3. Hode of slan^iteriiig Animals 3S3
LDC Vegetable utd Fruit HaAeta. 355
LX. Market Gaideoa. 373
UO. Covent-Garden Market 378
1. Fruits and Vegetablei. 378
a. Flowen. 380
LXIL General Markets. 3S!e
FUTH REPORT.
LXn. General Markets, (continued.)
LXIDL General Remada and Divisiona of the Subject of English
LXrV. The Soil 389
LXV. Theories of (he OpwaticHi of the Soil 39S
LXVI. A Modem Discovery. 398
LXVD. SoilB of Great Britain. 401
LXV 111. Claerificatioa of Soili. 403
LXIX. Phyrical Properties of the BoiL 404
1. WetneM of a Soil 4H
3l Pover to absorb Mcusture in a SoiL 405
a Consistency and Friabili^ of Smls. 407
4 Teuqtenttne of S^ta. 40t)
LXX. Peatr SoiL 410
LXXL Loamy Swis. 413
LXXn. Humng, or Vegetable Mould. 413
LXXm. Peculiarities of SoiL 416
LXXIV. Apidicatioa of Chemistry to AgrionUnr*. 417
)yGoo»^Ic
TiBLE or CORTCNTB. XZl
LXXV, Theo«7 of Apiculture. 418
LXXVL Actiwl ImpTOTemeDUi 490
LXXVn. Flongbing. 431
LXXVm. The Englioh Cbuacter. A Digremoii. 4Sa
LXXIX. The Perfection of Plon^in^ 433
LXXX. Plougbing Httcfa St Bafihn Waiaen. 434
LXXXI. Oeoenl RtOea fcs Plon^ung. &r
1. lapping in Floogtung. 433
S: Ribbing, or Raftering. 433
a L>;iii; in Bedi, at Stitcbea. 434
4. Lazj-Bed CuidTktioiL 436
5, CamcA Plonghiog. 440
& TraiMh-Ploogtung. 443
7. Subwnl-Plongliiiig. 448
a Experiment in Sabeoiling Heath I^nd. 451
ft Snbturf-PkHigh. 454
10. Perfection of Engliah Ploughing. 454
IL Pknighing Matches. 456
I3L HoiMB naed for Ploughing. 450
hKXXn. A Digteadon. 461
i.Tyxlll. Inqvored Machinery. 463
1. Hacbinery ligfatena I^bor. 463
2. Machinery increases Production. 464
a Genen] EActa on Labor. 406
LXXXIV. Moral Cottiidetationa. 468
LXXXV. HuTOwing. 469
LXXXVL Bcariiying, or Ornbbing. 476
UCXXVIL General Remeriu on the Use of Agriculbual Machinery.. ..483
LXXXniL PaiticQlu Gzamplea of Improvement 485
1. Tehidy. 485
a ScobeU'B Patm. 486
UCKXDL Cornwall and the lud** End. 4B1
TAU.E of CalcnlatioM on Plooghiog. 493
)yGoo»^Ic
TABLE or CONTESrrS.
STEEL ENGIIAVING&
The EugliBh Cart Hone. FrontiBpieca to Fnt R^wt
A fint Prize Shut-Homed BnlL da Becond Report.
A Wert Highland Ox. do. Thiid Report.
A North Devon Steer. do. Fourth Report.
An Aberdeenshire Polled Bull da Fifth Report.
WOOD CDTR
Side-Support! for Poeta. 31
Forl[-Sp»de. 122
Smitli'e SubatnlrPlougb. 455
BackhaUh Subwil-Ploogh. 455
Subtarf-Plongh. 455
Double FurroW'Plongh. 461
Guig of Light Beed-Harrowi. 473
— HeaT7 Iroa H«na«a. 473
Biddell'a Eztiipating Hanow. 47S
Scuifier. 479
Chisel Pdnt and Wida Hoe, to Biddell's Scarifier. 480
Fintayaon's Self-cletoing Harrow. 481
Kirkwood"! Grabber. 481
The Dley Cultirator. 483
)yGoo»^Ic ■
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„Gooi^lc
NOTES.
Such of the aathor*8 frieDda in England as deaire to obtain the
American edition of these Repons, in two volumes octavo, of about
500 pages each, will be supplied with them on applicstion to Wile/
and Putnam, 6 Waterloo Place, and John Chapman, 121 Newgate
St. London, at 3j. per single number, or 80s. for the whole work, if
delivered in numben ; or 3SU. for the two volumes bound in cloth, —
16i. payable on the delivery of each volume.
For the convenience of those who wish to calculate the tablea in
the following pages, the English curreocy may be reduced into d<A-
lars and cents, by estimating the pound sterling at 94.80, the shilling
at 24 cents, and the penny at 3 cents. This will cover the usual
rate of exchange between the two countries.
Agents of this work are requested to send to the Pablisber a list
of any errors they may perceive in the names or residences of the
subscribers, which were appended to the first number ; as it would
be desirable to issue a new and complete list in one of the subse-
quent numbers, both of the early subscribers and those since re-
ceived, with all the mistakes corrected, and arranged in a uniform
r, so as to be bound in at the end of the work, if desired.
The arrangement made between Mr. F. W. Wilcox, as " Travel-
ling Agent," and the Publisher, has been dissidved by the mutual
desire of both psrties. Gentlemen wishing for the work, can obtun
the numbers of any of the Agents, advertised on the third page of
the Cover.
TO THE BINDER.
In binding the Tolume, let the Table of Contents follow
the Credentials, and come immediately before the First Re-
port. Reject all the other matter prefixed to the Reports,
except the General Title, which is printed with the Contents,
in this Number.
)yGoo»^Ic
AGEICULTUEAL TOUE.
L— General Facts and Considehatioks.
Moet of my friends are aware of the circumsUtices which have induced me
to ondertake an agricultural tour in Europe, and more especially those who
hare honored me bj a subscription to my reports. The enterprise was sug-
gested among some friends at the show of the New York Sla!e Agricultural
Society, faolden in Albany, in September, 1842 ; and, upou proposals being
issued for its accomplishmcDt, the project met with so much iavor as to war-
rant my sailing for England in April, 1843.
Ploughing the sea is somewhat different from ptougbieg ihe land; but
under an experienced pilot, and with farorable winds, we made a broad, a
deep, and a comparatively straight furrow, throwing off coutinually floods of
jewels from the mould-board ; and in the short space of seTeoteen days, com-
pleted the brilliant liuo, and unyoked the team in the harbour of Ltveniooi,
Here, for the first Ume, I set foot in England, the green isle in the ocean, the
sight of which had been so long the object of mj desire ; the brilliant centre of
so many youthful imaginationB, the home of my fathers, and the advanoe-guard
• — if Bo it may be proper to speak — among the nations of the civilized world
in the march of human improvement, in learning and civilizadon, in eciowe
and the useful arts, and in all the elements of social greatness and prosperity.
It would be impossible to describe my emotions on that occasion. If small
things may be compared to great, then, if it were nol — as with the bold and
adventurous GenocBe — the discovery ofa new and unknotrn conntiy, yet it sraa
to mc an unexplored country ; and it was, in truth, almost the first time I had
realized iLe gtealoess of the enterprise upon which I had embarked.
2 AGRICULTURAL TOUH.
Some persons may Bmilo at the application of such language to a mere agri-
cultural tour. Things ore great or small relatively, or by comparison ; and
that work may be considered great to any one which, in its proper performance,
demands the exertion of all the talents which he may possess. I cannot but
look upon an agricultural tour in Europe, in the present condition of the art
and science — for in both lights it lias now come to be riewed— as most im-
portant : combining avariety of inqniries and obsemUonB which would severely
lax the highest powers that might be ^plied to this object. It is for me to
assume only the humble office of a pioneer in this great work ; and if I can be
so happy as to render some essential service to my country, in facilitating the
labors of those who shall come after me, in effecting a small clearing that others
may more easily bring the field into astate of complete and productive coltivft-
tion, I shall be consoled under all the imperfec^ons of my attempt with the
conviction that I have done what I conld, and have not labored in Tain.
I cannot help feeling that there is a high responnbiEty attached to my
undertaking — a responsibility not merely to the kindness of friends on both
sides of the water, who, vrith an extraordinary liberality and good wiQ have
favored the enterprise, but to the great cause itself of agricultural improve-
ment; tliat the information collected and ^ven might be drawn from autbmtic
sources, selected and combked with judgment, tnd presented in a omdensed,
compact, and practical form.
A person, who has had no experience hi such a matter, who is not accus-
tomed to such investigations, can form no just idea of the difficnlties of accom-
plishing in this case what one would desire to do j and of the impediments,
and, I regret to add, in many cases the vexations and disappointments whieb,
in its prosecution, he will be compelled to meet with. Befiwe I lefl home, a
friend — in many respects higUy intelligent and emkrat for his sound
judgment, and, withal, a liberal and devoted friend of an improved agriculture-
said to me, " that theile was nothing to be learned in fingland { that he him-
self had travelled mnch in England, by |»st( and had oCtJasionally al^t«d
and talked with laborers «hom he saw in the fields by the road side, but he
had learned nothing ftom them." Afid another friend. Whose eminent pontion
in the community should haVe sated him &om an Immatore jodgnieDlj ex-
AORICULTDBAL TOUR. S
p«Med an oinnMHi that " the climate of Eoglaod was n difiereat from the
United Statss, and the coet of labor in England was eo niacli lew than in
America, that the agricultural practice and experience of Great Britain could
lian no application to the United Btatea." Now, entertaining as I do the high
respect for tbeae two gentlemen to which their intel%enGe and pontton in
sodelj' entitle them, I have come, not withoat wme reloctaace, to an entirely
opporite concInnoD— « OMidanoii which my own obaerratiiRi, in iba cowh of
laj [ffogren, haa dailj more and more coa&Ttaei.
Then tB a great deal to be learned in England, vhkih ran narody he laid
to be known in the United Statea. There is agreatdealofagricaltiualpraotico
in England which may with adrontage be traosplaDted to America ; and
■lAongh, as is most obrioas, ereiy agricultural opendmi moBt be modified by
the climale of a country and Tarions local (drcumsfanoaa, yet, in respect to
many bets of a practical nature, the knowledge that a thing is practicable
snderany circnmBtancefl is oflen of great importance, as it excites to inquiries
and experiments which may evolTO many other valuable Acts ; and inquiries
■nd expmments will often suggest modes of operation by which even the diffi-
culties of climate and situation may be eonnteraoted or oTenxnne. Plants and
aaiaiala are often naturalised to localities very di&rent and distant from thdr
native homes. If the ocmmton history of the plant be true, one of the moat
valuable and nntritious of esouloit vegetables, the potato, is an examine of
a removal from a warm to a temperate, and even a cold fsUnute ; and of a
oMvau<m fivm a root, very inferior insise and qualify, to • vq^etable most
productiTe in its yield, miivenally relished, in the highest degree ftrinaoeoos
and nutritious, and, under the best onltivalion, perhaps yidding per acre as
midi food for man or beast as any other plant which oonldoocvpy the ground.
Then, again, to suppose that a knowledge oftbe ^rtculture of a oonntry is to
beacquredhyatraoaitthroqgh itonthe boz-teatofacoBch, or in a railroad
or, or by a casual conversation with laborers by the road-nde, who, espe-
cially in England, where labor is so much subdivided that the knowledge of
■ nun in that condition of life seldom extends beyond the particular service to
vkK^hehas been tnuned, is ajudgnlent of which, upon further consideratioa,
n adargted mind would not be tenactons. In respect to any other matfar
)■, Goo»^lc
4 AORICULTURAL TOUR.
of importance, it would not be ihc must likely way ofobtaiaiDg full and authentic
informatiou; and vhy sliould it be deemed bo in respect to agriculture?
This art, in its improved condition, combines to many arts and Boch varioas
subjects of inquiry and obeerration, that a close scratmy and kmg continned
inquiry are as indispensable to a thorough knowledge of it as they ore in respect
to any of the brunches of commerce or manufactures.
AAer travelling many hundreds — and I might add thousands — of miles over
this rich and h^hly cultivated country, and seeii^ many of the landlords,
and tenants and laborers, in their own domiciles and homesteads, in their
stables and fields, and enjoying the most free commanications, I feel that I hare,
as it were, only begun to seo what is to be seen, and to learn what is to be
known, and Aat every step of my progress is derelopbg new and valuable
objects of inquiry and remark.
II. — Pabticvlab Objects of Inquiry.
W hat should an i^ricnltnr&I tour embrace T To this the proper answer is —
everything connected with the cnltivation of the earth, the production of food
for man and beast, and the condition of those to whom agriculture is a business
and a profession. In my preface I have enumerated generally the objeote of
inquiry. The various operations of husbandry, the implements by which these
operations are carried on and fiicilitated, the plants cultivated, end the live stock
produced and maint^ned, constitute the principal subjects to be observed and
treated ; but the sub^divisions into which these great topics spread themselves
are v^ry numerous, and it is as important to consider them in detiul as in the
gross. It may be expected by some persons that I should merely pcnnt out in
what respects foreign agriculture diSsrs from American hnabandry ; or, other-
wise, that I should only Bu^estfor adoption in the United Slates such methods
of culture as, in my opinion, would constitute an improvement upon American
agriculture. This would be assuming too great a responsibility, and would
display a confidence in my own judgment with which I would not willingly
be chargeable. I design to give, as well as I am able, a full account of sub-
jects which come under my iiDrocdiate obflervation. I shall not hesitate to
AaSICULTDRAL TOUB. S
> my opinion whenever I deem it proper so to do, because in(elli|Teiit
niuda for wbom I write will ba no further influenced b; it tban as it appears
nasonable; but I shall, in allcases, endeavour so fully tostate any matterindis-
cusnon, that thejr will hare the materials before them for makJog uptheirownjudg-
meot, and with that I shall not any farther willingly interfere. Even agriculture,
like ereiy other subject not snsceptible of mathematical demonstra^ou, is not
without its disputed and disputable points, into which, of coarse, something of the
beat of paswon may at times infuse itself. Foli^oal agriculture is fall of such
topics, and will be cautiously avoided by me so far as in any way it presents
itsdf as matter of parly feeling and contention. The different breeds of live
ttock, neat cattle, and sheep, have each their partizans ; otiea influenced solely
by ihnr own honest prefereDces and convictions, founded — as they at least per-
nade thnnsdves — upon experience and observation; and in some cases, it
will not be deoied, by private interests, a stimnlns which is too seldom absent
from most of the disputes and contentions in life. Now, if a man should pro-
uonnce a preference over all others fi>r the short-horns, he must expect to be
tossed by tha long-horns ; if he sides with the Herefords, the Durhams will
ihiks th^ beads at bun ; and if he advocates, above all others, the cUimg of
the polled Scotch, tlieAi^us,or the Fife caltie, the West Highlanders will ba
^wn ap(Mi him with a vengeance. So it is with the South Downs and the
I^ccsters — meek, quiet, placable animals themselves — who may be seen feed-
ii^ peaceably together out of the same manger, and lying down without passion
in the same pen ; but not so their owners and breeders. A spirit of rivalry
pervades eveiy department of life. Under due restraints and disciplme, it is
piodnctive of the moat useful results; but it too often blinds the judgment, and
becomes fierce and viciUotive. We are not satisfied witli the undoubted good
qaslitis of what belongs to ourselves ; bat we resolve upon exposing the defects
and baits, whether real or imaginary, of what belongs to onr neighbours. It
if not enoogh that onr own children are handsaiiie, good-tempered, clever, and
aecgmplished ; but we insist upon it that those of our neighbours are ngly,
monne, and ill-endowed. Perhaps agriculture presents a more limited field
for any ill-natured emulation than almost any other department of life. Here
men cunot oonoeBl their discoverieB and improvements. Here there cannot
6 AQMOtlLTinUI T07B.
be bug U7 mouoif(Aj of adnntages. Hen mea petorire bmr rapidly uid
midj improT«iiieiili and diaooreriai extend theauelvM. In the preient
eondition of ^ world, for s man to prelrad lo keep any dudngniahed agri-
coUoral imptovament to hlnuelf would b« very muoh like liU holding up his
smbralU befiMia dte nn, m that it might not Bbineaponodier people. Allbe
oan be mn of, in thie oaie, ii to keep hima^ in the daric. A liberal and ia-
tdligent mind percmves at oaoe, that the lig^ which hia knowledge or im-
proTOnenla died npcm odierSi it alwqr* refieeted back upon binuelf.
Ill— SCIBHCB AND AaSIODLTURB.
Itmtut bo adnutted, howerar, that althongfa a good deal of selfiidmeH and
bigotry may remun — fbr, alas I how can it be otherwise us longae human
nature is human ? — there is a w^t of liberal inquiry abroad in reipect to ^ri-
oulture, blaxbg in the ralleys, and beaming from the hill tope, and everywhere
diffuMDg an invigorating, a itirring, and a healthM radianoe. One of the
wisest of our raoe, who applied hia heart, as he aaya, to understand wisdom,
has uAd us that there is notUng new under the sun ; what is, has been ; and
&e human mind is not likely io spring suddoily a mine of troth, which has
never befbre been touched ; nor may it expect at onoe to aooomplish the atdutioii
of recondite problems, which have baffled the most penetrating and pnziled the
most sagacious minds. It would be ibe grosiiest injustice to many men of the
brigbteet powera, of proibund investigation, and of most liberal and disinta«sted
views— who, though they have gone out, have left a brilliant trade bdiind them
—to say that agricnltonl soienoe has never b^re been ptoseonted with seal,
intelligence, and in the spirit of true philosophy.
I am not a bdievn in the immediate approach of an intdlectual millennium ;
nor can I.penmade myself that philosophy has just beoi bom into the world, and
diatall preoe^ng ngea were ages of comparative barbarism. It it true that the
natural scienoet are now proseouted with singular advantages and success; that,
in a particular manner, chemistry has, in a measure, been created withm the last
half century ; and that it promises to render the most essential aid to agricoltare.
Bxoepting, however, die atininlus which it has everywhere ^ven to inquiry and
AaBICDLTimAL TOUR. 7
obMtnlioD, and the exact eEperimenta which it is prompUi^ fiuMnera — even ia
the hnmUeet deportmenti of agrtcnltare — to tnake, it cannot as 7et point to man^r
positive pivetical triumphs. Sangnine as I am, in common with others, in its
ai^ilieation to agricultuie, oltimBtelf and perhaps apeedily fielding the most
beneficial fmits, it has not yet even approached a solution of many of the
profimid Becrete of natare. Whether this triumph b ever to be achieved by
btmanflBgaoity; whether, with our present iaonlties, we are capable of entering
into these sacred mysteries, and of lifting up even a comer of the veil which
Heaven has drawn over them, it wonld be idle to conjecture ; but they are,
M yet, a sealed book to us. In the spirit of the book of books, " let us wait at
wisdom's gates, let us watch at the posts of her doors;" let ua knock, humUy
bo^i^tbaf they may be opened to as. Those who have gone before ushave done
the same, and were ftvoured with many largesses, which they have beqaeathed
to ibor children. Let us do them justice hy gratefully acknowledging our
dditto them; and not wrap ourselves up, as we are very liable todo, in thevun
ooooeit that they knew nothing, and that we know everything.
We talk about uniting science with agriculture, as if this were the iirst
tisie of asking the banns, when we may be sure tlie marriage was consam*
mated years and years ago. A. science, technically speaking, is a particuhir
btanch of biunan knowledge, which has been systematized and drawn up in
tegahr form; its particular [ffinciples and rules defined, its department
cireomscribed, and its peculiar vocabulary arbitrarily established. In this
lespeet ehonistry, botany, and mechanics are sciences ; but science, in an
akrged sense, is the obserration of nature — the accumulation and comparison
of &ota, and the deduction of inferences from them, either for the acquisition
etmat knowledge, or for practical application and nse. I venture to assert
that, without any knowledge of the particular and technical terms of art, whose
■lility I am not disposed in the smallest degree to deny, wherever the mind
is at worit there is sdence ; and many mw, who hardly know the letters of a
hook, are y«t pn^nmd observers of nature, and may be denominated scientific
Bgrionltnriats ; because they are full of knowledge, which they are constantly
ap^yii^ to pracUce. Now, without any dispar^ement of former times, I
Aink it mast be admitted that the nnWersal mind of the agricuUnral worhl
ogle
B AOBtCDLTUBAI. TODR.
w&B never so poirerfully stirred aa it is at this present time. Wo must do
what \te can to keep it sivake and to direct the application of its powera.
" Practice Tvitli sdence" is the terse and comprehensive motto of the Royal
Agricnitural Society of England. Philosophy now coowa dovn from ber
high places and takes labor by the hand, that they may walk togellier among
the worksofOod, and wiLh an enlightened and commendable curiosity, "search
into tlie causes of tkioge," This is the highest office of the human under-
standing.
Nature proceeds by fixed laws. She is not a confused jumble of things;
and to-day one thing, and to-morrow another. All the relations of the
different parts of nature are mutnal and exact, and everything moves
on in a beautiful agreement with every other thing. The ancients were accus-
tomed to speak of the music of the spheres; this refers to the harmony which
prevails throughout the universe, so that nu discordant note is ever sounded.
There is a reason for everything ; there is a rule by which everytlutig is
directed and controlled. It is not enough fur us to say, " This is a mystery, it
is in vain for us to inquire ;" or, " Here is an arbitrary and miraculous power
in nature which we can never understand." There may be many things beyond
our comprehension; there is nothing which should be beyond our inquiry.
There is & wonderful power at work always in vegetation. The development
and progress of v^fable life, the relations of the soil to the plant produced,
the eiTects of light and air and dew and rain and frost and electricity, the
nature of manures, their usee and their results, may alt be considered as
mysteries as yet, to a great degree, unresolved ; but from what we see in
other parts of nature which have come under our observation, and where some
poriion of her laws have been fully revealed, on iutelligent mind can have no
doubt that all these things rest upon certain determinate principles, and are
governed by laws as fixed as any which prevail in other parts of the system of
nature. Whoever examinee the minutest crystal, will find that in the sBine
classes the laws of aggregation are the same; whoever examines any gpetnea
of plants, perceives on exact simiiarily of formation and habit pervading whole
classes and tribes. The established principles of gravitation and aUraction,
and above all that most wonderful discovery of chemical equivalents, all
AORtCULTURAL TOVH. 9
demonstrate Ibe exHtenoe, throngbont nature, of fised laws knd deteriDinafe
fbrocB, wfaoM c^ration ia nniversDl and invariable. Tliere is evei; reason to
believe that the lavs of vegetable and animal life, and grawlh and nourish-
ment and decay, are equally well established and equally univM^il and
eqially invariable. The ascertaining and discoTeiy of any one of these laws
it positive knowledge — U, properly ipealLtng, science ; and any mind, acnte,
Rcliv^ and obserring, may, in the daily routine of humble life, become &iniKar
with many of these great laws ; and read, at iirat-hand, on the illumtnated pages
of external oalnre, ihe most useful and the most sobliroe truths, though it has
never been taoght to read by the alphabet of science, nor been allowed admis-
noo into the schools of philBOpby,
It is said of one of the greatest of hnronn intellects, a mind whose sublime
diKoveries constitnte a divine revelation, second only to the written word, that
he was led to the discovery of the great principle which binds worlds and
^vteiDs in one harmonious bond, by the falling of an apple. The cultivator
of the earth has before him not merely the fall but the growth of the apple,
vhich, from the germination of the seed to ilie maturity of the tree, from the
opraing of the blossom to the ripening of the fruit, is full of lessons of wisdom;
■nd, in every stage of its prepress, reveals the power and the skill and the
beneficence of that divine agent, who fills all in all.
England presents at this time a more brilliant example than any age or
coontiy has before witnessed of the application, I will not say of science, for
Aat would not comprehend the idea which I wish to express, but the applictt-
tion of mind to agriculture. The practice of agricnllurc, and the philosophy
of agricnltnre, are matters of universal interest. Men of all grades and
condidoni are laboring in this great cause, and arc asking for the how, and
the why, and the wherefore. The brightest intellects are directing their talents
to sgricnltnral inquiries ; and the humblest in their humble, but not inefficient
«iy, are seconding their efiforts. So many minds concentrating their rays
"pon the same pointy they must be sure to illuminate it with an extraordinary
brilGancy.
Agricnltnre is now getting to be recognised as the commanding interest of
•he slate : so it mast ever be as lying at the foundation of all others. Few
.,,lc
10 AOBIOULTUBAL T01TR.
pn«>iuam^>priiedoftbeir obligBtions to agrioultare; and it is difficult to
flstiiiute the extent of thew cAligadoiu. Every man's daily bread, his meat,
hia clothing, hia shelter, his Inxoriea, all come from the earth. The ibtmda-
tion, or, aa the French would say, the materui of all commerce and mano&o-
tnrea, is agrioultare ; and its moral inSuenoes arc inniunerahle and most
powerful. It will be found likewise, upon an obeerrstion of the different
oonditiona of ^fierent nations or oommunides, that a htborioos agriculture is,
in a high degree, a oonservator of good morals ; and that those oountries are^
npon the whole, and on this account, most blessed, not where the Jruits of the
earth are yielded spontaneonaly without care and without toil, but where its pro-
ducts oome only as the reward of industry, and the powers of the mind, as well
as the l^ior of the hand, are severely taxed in a straggle for the meau of
mbuatenoe and comfort. Every one recognises labor as the source of wealth.
How few things hare any value, which have not been either produced or
modified by bibor ? and in what department is labor so productive, so ess«i<
tial, and so important as in that of agriculture ?
IV. — Enolish Aobiodlturu.
I will not dwell longer npon these considerations, with which every intelli-
gent mind must be impressed ; and which must, more or less, constantly
present themselves to our notice in that field of observation which we have
entered. I shall proceed to present some general views of the agriculture of
Eng^d, and shall descend, in the courae of my reports, to such details as
may be deemed most useful and practical.
The condition of practical agriculture in Great Britain, as far as I have
had opportunity of observing it, must be pronounced liighly improved. Many
parts of the coontry present an order, exactness, and neatness of cultivation
greatly to be admired j but a sky is seldom without clouds, and there ace
parts of England where the appearance Is anything but laudable, and where
there are few and very equivocal evidences of skill, industry, or thrift. We
are often told in America, that England is only a large garden, in which art
aitd altill and labw have stnootbod all the rot^h plaoes, filled up th« hollow
>,Goo»^lc
AflBIOCLTniUL TOUB. 11
plaoM, uAbnoglit ersryddng into ft beftndiiil and flratematus hannooj, and
into Uia higheat degree of productiTeness. This ia not wholly trne; indeed,
dKW^ there mre maiaj twaa to be altogether admired for the degree ei
perftctioa to which their culdTation has been carried, jet there are not a few
^Bcea where the indioadons of neglect and indolmoe and nnskilfiilnen are
but too ^tparmt ; and where, in an obvioos oontwt for victory between the
eoMTftted plant and the weeds, the latter triamph from their anperiority both
in iorae and numbers. I ehall, however, moet cheerfully admit that Engliifa
ftraung, taken ae a whole, is oboracteriMd hj a neatnew, exaotness, ^ron^-
nen nldom leen in my own ooniUry. An American landing in Liverpool, is
tt moe itnick with the amount of labor everywhere expended; the dooka^
and the public bnildtnga, and the lofty and magnificent warehouses astonish
him ^yJ the anbatantial and permanent character of their struGtnre. The i«il>
wi^i, likewiae, with their deep exoarationa, their bridges of solid maaoniy,
tbor Bplendid viaducts, their immense tunnels, extending in acme casea more
than two miles in length, and their depftla and station houaea covering acres of
ground with their iron piUara and their roo&, also of iron, exhibiting a sort of
tracay or net work of the strongest as well as moat beantifiil description,
indicate a moBt profuse expenditure of labor, and are eridently made to
endnre. He is atill more overpowered with amazement when, coming to
hoaioa, he passes up or down the river Thames, and contemplates the aereral
great laidges, among the most splendid objects which are to be Been in
England, two of which are of iroa and three of atone, spanning this great
Utanaf^iSue of eommerce with then: beautiful arohea, end made as if, as far aa
bunan {vesnmption can go, they would bid defiance to the decay and ravagea
of time. If to this he adds (aa, indeed, how can he help doing it ?) a visit to the
Tkanus Tunnel — a secure, a dry, a brilliant, and even a gay passage under
the bed of the stream, where the tides of the ooean duly roll their waves, and
As mighty barks of commerce and war float in all their majesty and pride
over his bead, exhibitug the perieotion of engineermg, and a strength of eon-
straction and finish, which leaves not a doubt of its securi^ and endurance-
he peneives an expense of labour, which disdwns all the limited calculationa
<rf a yoog and comparatively poor oountry. He remarks a thoroi^hness of
_.oo»;
..^Ic
12 AORICCITUHAI. TOPH.
vorkmansbip which u most admirable, and which indtcatea a boldness amt
bravery of euterprize, takiog into its calculations not merely yean but
centuries to come. We have in America a coinniOD saying in reepect to rofUiy
tbinga which we undertake, that "this will do for the present," whicli does
not seem to me to be known in England ; and we have a variety of cheap,
inaalMtantia], Blight-o'-hand ways of doing many thiuga, sometimes vulgarly
denominated " make bIuAb to do," which we ascribe to what we call Yankee
olevemess, of which oertainly no signs are to be seen here. In front of my
lodgings, in London, near Charing Cross, is now in the process of erection the
Nelson monument, a Corinthian column of stone, more than one hundred and
fifty feet in height, surmounted by a statse of that diatingnisbed man, one of
the idols of the British nation, whose name is regarded as the bi^htest
gem in her naval diadem. Now I have been eredibly informed that the
staging alone, which is a wooden frame, constructed indeed with admirable
art, and put together with remarkable skill and strength, cost not less tfaan four
thousand pounds sterling, or about twenty thousand dollars. I mention these
as examples of the manner in which things are done here ; and add, that
^riculturat operations and improvements are in general conducted and
finished in the same thorough and substantial manner.
The walls enclosing many of the noblemen's parks in England, which com-
prehend hundreds and, in some cases, thonsands of acres, ore brick walls, of
ten and twelve feet in height, running for miles and miles. The walla round
many of the forms in Scotland, called there "dykes," made of the atone of
the country, and laid in lime and capped with flat stones resting vertically
upon their edges, are finished pieces of masonry. The improvements at ibe
Duke of Portland's, at Wdbeck, Nottinghamshire, in Ms arrangements for
draining and irrigating, at his pleasure, from three to five hundred acres of
land, without doubt one of the most skilful and magnificent agricultural im-
provements ever made, are executed in the most finished and permanent man-
ner; the embankments, the channels, the sluices, the dams, the gates, bdng
constructed, in all cases where it would be most useful and proper, of stone
or iron. These are only samples of the style in which things ore done here.
The important operations of embanking and of dnuniag, espedally under the
>,Goo»^lc
AGRICULTURAL TOUR. 13
new sj-stem of draining and subsoiling, nrc execulcd most thoroiiglily. Tho
(ami bouses and farin buildings are of brick or stone, and all calculated to
endure.
I cannot recommend, \ritbout considerable qualifications, tbese expenuve
nja of doing things to m^ own coantrvmen. We bave not tbe means — the
capital for accomplisbii^ tbem ; but ve nigbt gatber from them a useful
ksaon; for, in general, we err b^ an opposite extreme. We build too slightly
—we do not execute our improTcmcDts thoroughly— Te have little coital to
expoid when, of course, no substantial improrements can be effected ; and la>
bor, with as, is with more difficult obtained, with far more difficulty managed,
and reqotrefl to be mach more highly paid than here. I hope I shall be
pardoned for addmg, as my deliberate coHviction, that we are too shy of
investing money in improremoita of this nature, however secure, because
tbej do not yield so largo a per centre as many other investments somewhat
mwe questionable in a moral view, and vastly more so in respect to the
secBiity which they offer.
There are oiroumstances in the condition of things here, which certainly
mnant a much more liberal expenditure in improvements than would be
eligible with us. Hefe exist the right of priraogenituro and the law of entail,
so that an estate remains in the same femily for centuries ; and a man is com-
pantively sore that the improvements which he makes will be enjoyed by his
ciiildren's children. Things are entirely different with us— houses in our cities
ue continually changing hands, and are scarcely occupied by one life ; and in
tbe countoy, even in staid New England, few estates are in the bands of the
lUrd or fourth generaUon in the direct line of descent. I shall not at all
difciiss the comparative advantages, expediency, or propriety of one or the
(Aa system. I leave those inferences to others — my bosioesa is with tbe (hct
M it JB ; and, like short leases, it has an obvious tendency to hinder, or dia*
covage improvements of a substantial and permanent character, involving a
l^rge expeiise.
)yGoo»^Ic
AQKICULTUBAL TOUB.
v.— Enqhsh Capitai.
Another mwked dlBtinction, already alluded to, between the condition of
the prapiieton of the nil here itnd with ui, is in the amoant of cajHlal eiisdng
bare. It ia abgolntely enormous; and almost distances the system of ennme-
ratiwt which ire are taught at our common sohools. Let me mentioa some
fikcts which hare boen stated to me on credUile aothority ; and let me promiie
that a ponnd sterling is ahoat eqnal to fire doHara United States onrrency.
Under a law of the present government, here, levying a tax upon every nun's
income when it exceeds one hundred and fifty pounds sterling a ym, perscxu
Uable to taxation are required to make a jnst return of their income under a
heavy penalty. A confectioner, in London, returned, as his annual income,
the sum of Ihir^ thousand pounds sterling, or one hondred and fif^ thousand
dollars, or, nz times as mnoh as the salary of the Fresidest of the United
States; which showed, at least, how skilful he was in componndii^ some
of the sweets of life. A nobleman, it is said, has oontmotad with a
master builder to erect for him, in London, fimr thousand — not fbr^ — not
{oar hundred—but four thousand Louses of a good bIu fbr occupation. In
some of the best parts of London, acree of land, vast sqnares, are oooupied
with laige and elegant dwellbg booses, paying heavy renta, in long rows,
blocks, and orefoents, and all belonging to some single individual. One
nobleman, whose magnifioent estate was left to him by his &ther, ei^
cumbered with a debt of some hundred thousand pounds, by UmUhg, as it is
termed here, hii own annual expenditure to thirty thousand pounds, has welU
nigh extinguished this debt, and, ia all human probabili^, will soon have his
patrimonial estate free of encumbrance. The incomes (d* some of the tieb
m«i ia the oonntry, amount to twenty, twenty-fivo, fifty, one hundred tbon*
sand, two hundred thousand pounds sterling — even three hundred thousand
pounds annually. It is very difficult fbr New England men even to conoeive
of such wealth. A ftrmer in Lincolnshire told me that the crop of wheat
grown upon his farm one year was eighteen thousand bushels. The rent an-
nually paid by one farmer in Nortbumberiand, or the LothiaUs, exceeded
AOBICULTURAL TOUB. IS
teren thoosuid poaods, or, thirty-fire tlioosand dollars. These fads, which
have been stated to meby g«ntleineD in whoMTaracityl have entire confidenoe,
and who certainly are incapable of attempting any "tricks npon trayellers,"
■how the lenormoaa tnasses of wealth which are here accumulated. A gentle-
man (^ distingniBhed talents and fine classical attainments, and who adds to
than a pnblic s^nrit in ^^ricnltural improrement, worthy _of his ednoation and
his higfa-atanding in the conunnnity, has recently added to his proper^, by the
parchase of laods, to the amoont of two hundred thonsoiid pounds sterling,
that is, a million of dollars; and his estate, now in cnltivation, and nnder his
on prasonal inspection, and, with the exception of about four bandred acres
lyii^ in one body, amounts to six thousand acres. Another gentleman of
high mk, is respect to whom and to whose amiable fiunily I have « constant
struggle to restnia the open expreesitm of my gratefhl sense of their kindses^
and who, an example here not uncommon, to an extraordinary brilliancy of
talent and an accomplished ednoation mutes the most active spirit of ^ricul-
tond imivorement, has, though not all in bis immediate occupation, yet all
anda his immediate Rnperrision, a tract of more than twelve thousand acres
m a coarse of systonatic cultivation or gradual improvement.*
The income of a ait^;le nobleman, fimn his coal mines, exceeds one hun-
dred dunsand pounds sterling a year ; and I believe this is not the latest of
the eoal poaaeesions. With snoh wealth as this men may make what improre-
noito they please, and attempt what experiments they may deem wwtli
tiytng ; but dioald rocfa imaginations ever vint a New England or a United
Stales fanner in his dreams, if Saop'» fitble of the frog, who attempted to
swdllumsdftotbeBtceof the ox, did not cnie him, he might be deemed a fit
aabjact tor % lunatic asylum. There are other dnnuiutances in the eases which
an to be added, and those are the cheapness of iron, the abandaace of coal, and
the admir^tla fitcility and skill with which the former material is wrought.
* t menUan IlieM examplM— to which, bom my own knowledge, I might idd mui j oUwi«—
l» tktfirm I dn, fcr the pnpoK, bjr the wy, at thoiring mj Ameriean Mandt that ^ilenN
tare here teke« Iti proper rank unons the liberal profe«aioni,witi that not merelj u a i«cN»-
tiOD bat w K bnalDeu ; and Id all iU mtnate and practical detijb, It li not deemed lueon-
pMBdt with the Uglmtdktlnetiona of talent, ttdacathin, aUd nnk, hat nthw at apnnoH
ia MIA OHcr mar all umt tUefolly and liooorkUj lend tliUr Mtblasil Inascaca.
>,Goo»^Ic
16 AantCULTURAL TOUR.
WooJ, and especially tbe soft woods, wliick are so much wrouglit among us,
are Itere ecarce and dear, and, therefore, achiom used fur building purposes ;
bricks, and, in many parts of the country, good buildii^ stone, of the best
quality, are abundant. Moat of the cottages vbicb I have seen havo brick or
stone floors, though many have only hardly-trodden clay and earth ; and the
entries of the liest houses are generally paved and the staircases made of
stone. A fence of iron, aSordmg a sufficient protection against cattle, is made
here at a less expense than many wooden fences are made with us.
VI. — Gemiral Appearance of the Coumtrt.
I may be allowed to put down marks of diSerence in the general appear-
ance of the country, as compared with my own, as they strike my attentkm.
I need not say that England is entirely devoid of a feature which strongly
marks the newly cleared parts of my own country, and that is the stumps of
trees which hare been cut down, or the large, naked, and dead standing
skeletonsof trees, which hare been girdled, that the pioneer in subduing the
wilderness, might have a chance of getting breed for himself and his family,
while be was endeavouring to tame the wildnetg of nature and to convert the
forest into a fruitful field. £ngland exhibits, of course, nothmg of this, for
the days of its youth have long since passed, and its agriculture reckons its
patriarchal centuries. But there is another thing remarkable — the cultivated
fields are entirely free from rocks and stones, excepting the lime-stone and
flint pebbles in the chalk formations. In the clay soils and on the peaty
moors tbey, of course, are not to be looked for; but, where even they once
existed, they have been entirely removed or baried, and there is nothing to in>
terrnpt or impede the pn»p^B of the ploagh. This is not so gen^rdly the
case in mj own country as is to be deured. It is, indeed, an afiair of vei7
difficult accomplishment in many cases where, in a granitic region for ex-
ample, the stones nre oiien within stepping distance of each other all over a
Jkrm, and where every fresh ploughing seems to turn up a fresh crop of
stones. On the other hand, there are too many cases where, with equal
advantage to the purse as pleasure to the eye, buch unsightly rubbish might
AQSICUITCIUL TOtJR. 17
be removed or bari«d ; yet there are fields, within mj own knowledge, where
I may saj, wiih confidence, the same piles of stones which were collected for
removal, fall half a centaiy i^, retain their original posiUon until this daj ;
the plough, whenever they are broken up, being always compelled, at no small
expense of time and trouble (as a sailor would say) to give these heaps a good
berth ; and <Kily going noar enongfa to them to refresh and invigorate the roots
of the briars and bramble boshes, by which they are usually ornamented, and
vhidi, to my taste, are quite as ofiensive in a farmer's fiald as the " mns*
tachios and imperials/' so often seen upon the monkey masque, which passes, by
(he mere indulgence and good humor of society, for a human face. Throughout
those parts of England which I have seen, there is, as I have already remarked,
an exactness, a finish, and a cleannen in the onltivatioti, which impress a
stranger moat agreeably, and dewrve the highest commendation. There are,
ocoiionBlly, immense tracts of unenclosed commons and heaths and moors,
where there is no cnltivation, where nothing grows, and, in some cases, little
can ever be made to grow; or which, otherwise, are abandoned to the growdi
of fane or gone for the protection of the gam^ and for the pleasures of the
chwe. These are called proserves, and ore leased to sportsmen occaaionalljr
or, rather, the right to kill game upon them is leased, at a rate which we
shonld deem • high rent, eren for purposes of cnltivati&n. An eminent sgri<-
cnltuist has shown that, in England and Scotland, there are fall 10,000,000
Bcret in heath or moor, all SusceptiUe of being brought into prodnctive cultiva-
titHL These lands, of course,remain as they are by voluntary n^Iect or design.
But I refer to the cultivated and improved lands, and here there is every*-
when a surprising neatness and finish — everything is done, as it were, by line
and ifieatare ; the comers and the headlands are thoroughly deaned, the open
ditches are kept unobitruoted, the crops are drilled in str^ht lines, and a
newly ploughed field resembles a plaited ruffle &om the ironing board of a
good housewife. Booh exactness is exceedingly beantifiil, and, though it may
appear, at first, to consume a good deal of time, will bo found, in the long run,
to be man economical than die slovenly waj' in which things are often done
in many places, which I am reluctant to name. There ia a pleasure afforded
by such neatness which is very great, and whigh can be properly appreciated
18 ^anicui.TURi.L tour*
only by those who have been largely endowed by natore with the o
order.
VII. — HSDQES AND EnCLOSUBES.
The green foices ia England, by which the farmi are surroimded and
divided, are often a beantifol feature in the landscape. I shxU hereafter
describe their calttvadon and maiu^ement. Where tbey are complete, and
neatly trimmed and formed, with here and there a single plant left to riw
above the rest, which many deem more beautiful to the eye than a demo-
cratic level, and when seen whitened with theor bloBBoms in the spring, or
blushing deeply with their fruit in autumn, they are exceedingly pleas*
ing to the eye. In goieral they are formed of the white tbom, and sometimes
of the holly, and not nnfreqnently of these two plants intermingled. But 1
mnst confess myself somewhat disappointed in the condition of the hedgea
throughout England. Of course there are many exoeptions, aad perhaps the
cases to which I refer should be considered as exceptions to the general Act;
but in frequent instances they are greatly n^Iscted. There are many vacan-
cies in them ; tbey are not well trimmed ; they are intarmiBglod with various weeds
and mbbisb ; and, inftead of beii^ confined to a width of taut or aix feet,
they are oflen seen with their penucioos accompaniments occupying more than
• rod in width. I inquired why this was permitted ; and why, when the rest
of the face was so clear and bright, such dirt spots were allowed to remain }
the answer was, " that they were left thus for the protactioa of the game, and
that they made excellent oovers forpartridgea and foxes." MHien so mock oare
and expense are incurred in the protection of this kind of guae, it is to be
hoped that it may suggest always the higher du^ of taking care of the hitman
game, the hungry and T^:ged children, which in some parts of Scf^and
are as numerous, and growing np as wild, and many of them as Uttle tan^^
as the rabbits in a warren.
The enclosures in England are of various extent, from ten to twenty and
fifty acres. There are some farms with scarcely a subdivision, and in these cases
the stock are soiled. In parts of England, however, they :
AaaiCULTUAAL TOUR. 19
^vinoiffi of New England farms, and are of nrious iizes, but generally
gmall and of all Bli^>e8^ and oftea not exceeding four or fire acres. It is re-
ported of a farmer in Devonshire, that he lately cultirsted one hundred acres
of wheat in fifty different fidds. There most hare been here a great waale of
lasd and labor. Ona of the most competent judges of agricnltoral improTS*
ment in England says, however, that " his tenants never wish to have more
than one ploughed field on a farm."
The loBB in land by too many fences, the loss of time in cnltivating in small
Selds instead of lai^, on account of the necessity of more frequent turningSj
and ploughing the head lands by themselves, and the actual cost of making
and of maintaining the fences, not to add that these fences are a shelter for
weeds, and a harbor f<» vermin, are serious considerations. The statement
of an inteUigent practical fiuroerin Staffordshire, on the highly improved estate
of Lord Hatherton, whom I had the pleasure of visiting with Mr. P. Pusey,
M.P., as given to Mr. Pnsey, is well worth recording. Speaking of the
farm called the Tew Tree Farm, be says, " The tnmip field is sixty-five acres }
it was, two years back, at the time I entered upon the farm, in eight enclosures.
I have taken np 1,014 yards of fence, and hitend dividing it into three fields j
it win take 800 yards of new fence. The field in which I was subeoil-
iog is fbr^-two acres ; itwas insixenclosures. I took up 1,264 yards offence;
if I divide this field, it will take 300 yards of new fence. The land. Lord
Hatherton menUoned on my Deanery Farm was originally in twcn^r^^even
encloenres ;' ninety-one acres. I took up 4,427 yards offences ; it will now
lie in five fields, and will take 1,016 yards of new fence."
" I cannot," he adds, " really say what Und Is gained by the difierent
opeiatkins ; but some of the fences were from three to four yards or mwd
wide, that the plough never touched } my new fences are upon the level witlH
oat ditches. In the whole of the old fences there was a great number of ash
trees, which are all stocked up, as well as a good part of the oak, only leaving
a few for ornament and shelter. I think th« greatest gain in land will be front
getting rid of the trees."*
• }0Bniil.<rr Bojral Agn Eto^ty, ToL iV., put lii pagt 806, notei
c 2
Coo»^Ic
30 AQKIODLTDRAL TOUB.
This is tlie experience and opinion of a soand practical farmer, end is en-
titled to great weight. In some of the conntiea lai^ encloBures prevaiL In
parts of Lincolnshire the enclosures embrace about fiffy acres each ; and on the
best managed {arms which I ttaw, these fields were mostly lud ^ther in paral-
lelograms or squares. In the iens or redeemed lands of lancohiehire, the
ditches around and through the land form sufficient and the only fences. In
the conntj of Northumberland, and in the Lothians, the encloanrea are verj
extensive, and, excepting on the outltneB, no fences appear. The ploogh, in
such case, when it starts, takes its coarse, and mos to the end of these long
fidds without intermpticm.
Mr. Piuey, in Berkshire, on one of the best managed estates, which I have
visited, has induced many of his tenants to take awajr the inner fences sad
Icare the fields open. Sheep are, of coarse, never eufiered to graie or loam
at pleasure over these large fields, but are fed in enclosures formed of moveable
hardies in different ports of the field, where their manure is required. Cattle
never go at lai^e npon them ; and the convenience of cultivating where the
lands ate thus open, to say nothing of the beauty of the appearance, in addition
to other advantages already alluded to, is at once obvious and decisive.
VIIT. — loOIf AKD SUKREV FeKCBS.
t liava promised to give an aoconnt of the cnltivation end management of
thorn hedges presently, but I may as well as not speak in this place of
two kinds of fences which are common oa gentlemen's seats, and one of which
may be saiely recommended to my own oonntrymen. The first is an iron
fence, called hers an invisible fence. This is made of stout iron wire, about
one third of an inch in diameter, and consists of four or five bars or rods, with
upright pieces of iron, about an inch and a quarter in width, and about one-
tlurd of an inch in thickness, plaoed at about six feet distance from eaeh
other. Through these upright and fiat pieces of iron the bars or rod^ are
passed, and they serve to keep them secure. Every alternate one of these up-
right bars has a foot to it, and being sunk in the ground abont a foot or more,
serves as a post to keep the fence steady ; and' oecasiosaDy these posta, if so
lORICUItTUBAL TOVR. SI
diey may be called, have side-8apport9,tliDs; . these, of coune, increase
ibfl strength of the fence, but they are not I indispcD sable. Tbeee
foicea are very cJieap, on account of the abandaoce of iron and
the &cility vith which it is wrought ; and being kept painted oom-
monly of a green oolour, tfaey do not appear until you approach near them ;
bat no animajg attempt to pass them, and, when well taken care of, they are
dantble, and, it is obvious, may be easily removed from place (o place.
There is another kind of fence often formed, called a. sonken fence ; or, " ha !
ha!" from its generally taking persons by surprise, as it does not appear until
yon reach iL A trench is dog as deep as it is required that the height of tlie
wall shall be from the bottom of the trotch ; one side of the trench is perpea*
diealar, and agunst this side the wall is erected ; the other side is made slant*
ing at an ai^ie of about fiirty-five d^^rees, and the slanting side is grassed,
end may be mowed dear to the bottom, so that no land is lost; but, in truth,
a small amount is gained. The object is to conceal the fence, so that when
placed round the grounds of a gentleman's house, the prospect of tfas lawn or
fidd is not iotermpted by an unsightly wall; and the grounds within tlte en-
cloanre may be cultivated or embellished in any way with shrubs or flowers
or fniit, and yet the cattle feeding beyond it, whom no visible obstruction
appears to keep at a distance, are effectually excluded, as no animal attempts
erer to leap nich a ience.
IX. — The English Parks.
I will take this occasion to speak of the extensive parks which are to
be seai in many jKirta of the country, and which constitute a truly magnificent
featare in English scenery. These are the open grounds, which surround the
houses of the rich and noble in the country. By open, I do not mean entirely
free from trees, because many of them are exceedingly well stocked with trees,
•omctimea standing single, at other tiroes in clumps ; sometimea in belts, some-
times in rows, and squares, and circular plantations ; and more oft«i scattered,
as if Ihey were carelessly thrown down broadcast. The ground under them is
^pt in gnus, and depastured 1^ cattle, sheep, and deer ; and affords oAwi the
jOo»^Ic
23 AORICULTUBAl TOUB.
lioheat herbage. With Bome exceptions, a plough is never suffered to distuib
these grouods ; aod in the neighbourbood of the house, which is generally
pUced in the oentre of them, the portion which is separated from the rest, as I
have obserred, by an invisible or sunken fence just nov described, for the cul-
tiration of ornamental trees and shrubs, is kept so closely and evenly shorn,
that to walk npon it seems more like treading upon velvet than upon grass.
Nothing of the kind can be more beautiful ; and I never before knew the force
of that striking expression of the prince of poets, Hilton, of "waLkbg on the
smooth shaTen lawn ; " for it seems to be cut with a razor rather than with a
scythe; and after a gentle shower it really appears as if the field had had its
face washed, and its hair combed with a fine-tooth comb. It is brought to
this perfection by being kept often mown ; and I have stood by with perfect
admiradon to see a swarth mowed evenly and perfectly, where the grass to be
cut was scarcely more than an inch high.
These parks which I have desoribed abound, as observed, with trees of extra-
ordinary s^ and size. They are not like the trees of our original forests, grow*
ing np to a great height, and, on account of the crowded state of the neighbour-
hood, throwing out few lateral branches; but what they want in height, theyguo
in breadth ; and, if I may be excused for a hard word, in umbrageousaeas. I
measured od« in Lord Bagcrt^s celebrated park in Staffordshire, and going
round the outside of the branches, keeping within the droppings, the circuit
was a hundred yards. The circumference of some of the celebrated oaks in
the park of the Duke of Portland, which we measured together, when he did
me the kindness to accompany me through his grounds, seem worthy of record.
The Little Porter Oak Oieasured 27 feet in circumference ; the Great Porter
Oak is 29 feet in circumference ; the Seven Sisters, 39 feet in circumference.
The Great Porter Oak was of a very large diameter 50 feet above the ground ;
and the opoiing in the trunk of the Green Dale Oak was at one time large
enough to admit the passage of a small carriage through it ; by advancing
years the space has become somewhat contracted. These indeed are noble
trees, though it must be confessed that they were thrown quite into the shade
by the magnificent Kentucky Button-wood or Sycamore, of whose trunk I saw
a complete section exiubited at Derby, measuring 25 feet in diameter and 75 feet
>,Goo»^lc
AOBIOULTUBAL TOtTR. 33
in cifenm&ience. This was brought from the UDited Stalai, and indeed
ndgbt well be denominated the mammoth <^ the fore§t.
In these sndient porks, oaks and beeches are the predominant trees, with
oee—ional chestnuts and ashes. In rery many cases I saw the beauty and
force of that fint Ime in the pastorals of Virgil, where he addresses Tityrus as
" flajing nptm his lute under tMatpreadrnffthadtofabeechtree." These trees
•n koked npon with great veneration ; in many cases they ore numbered ;
in some, a label is affixed lo than, giving their age ; sometimes a stone monu-
ment is erected, saying when and by whom this forest or this clamp was
planted ; and commonly some record is kept of them as a part of the Amily
history. I respect this trait in the character of the English, and I Bymp&thise
with them in their veneration for old trees. They are the growtb, often of cen-
tones, and the monuments of years gone by. They were the companions of
our frlbers, who, it may be, were nonrished by their fruit, and reposed under
thor shade. Perhaps they were planted by the very hands of thosefrom whom
we have descended ; and whose ftr-sighted and comprehensive beneficeooe
embraced a distant posterity. How many revolutions and vicissitudes in the for-
tones of men have they surveyed and aurvived 1 They have been pelted by many
astonn; the hoarse and swiflwind has often growled and whistled among their
blanches ; the lightnings and tempest have many a time bent their limbs and
scathed their trunks. Bat tbey, like the good and the truly great in seasons
of trio], have stood firm and retfused their integrity. Tbey have eeea one
gmeration of men treading upon the heels of another, and rapidly passing
■way; wars have burst forth in volcanic explosions, and have gone out; revo-
Indons have made their changes, and the wheel again retsmed to its starting
point; governments and pnnces have flonriabed and faded ; and the current of
haman destiny has flowed at their roots, bearing onwards to tfao traveller's
bonne one family and one people afUr another ; but they still stand, green in
their old age, as the mute yet eloqnent historians of departed years. Why
■hoold we not look upoo them with reverence? I cannot quite enter into the
enOnimasm of an excellent friend, who used to say that the cutting down of an
old tree ought to be made a coital offence at law ; yet I deem it almost socri-
legions to dartroy them, excepting where necessity d^oands it; and I would
)■, Coo»^Ic
84 AaRiotFLTViui TOtm.
filwayi advUe that an old tree, Btandiog in a oongpicaonB station eitlier for uae
or oraament, shonld be at least once more wintered and nunnered before
the Eentfince of death, whieh ma; be passed npon it, is carried into execution.
The trees in the park of the paltce of Hampton Conrt are many of them, the
horse^hestnnt and the Ume, of great age and eminent beanty ; sevsral straight
lines of thran forming, for a long distance, the approach to the palace. On a
clear, bright day, at the season of their flowering, I passed through this mag-
nificent avenue with inexpreesible delight I passed throogh them i^n late
in the autumn, when the frost had marred their beauty, and the antnmnal gales
had stripped off their leares; but they were still Tenerable in thesimpla
majesty of their gigantic and spreading forms. I oonld not hdp reflecting,
- with grateful emotion, on that beneficent Power, which shall presoitly breathe
-Upon these apparently lifeless statues, and clothe them with the glittering fbli*
age of spring, and the rich and splendid glories of anmmer. So be it with those
of as who have got far on into the autumn, or stand sfaiveiing in the winter
oflife!
The extent of these parks, in many coses, filled me with surprise. They
embrace hundreds, in some instances thoosands of acres ;* and yon enter them
by gates, where a porter's lodge is always to be found. Atler entering the park
gate, I have rode sometimes several miles before reaching the house. They
are in general devoted to the pasturage of sheep, cattle, and deer. Iq tlie
park at Chatsworth the herd of deer exceeded sixteoi hundred. These deer
are kept at no inconsiderable expense, requiring abundant pasturage in summer,
and hay and grain in winter. An English pasture is seldom or never ploughed.
Many of them have been in grass beyond the memory of any one living. The
turf becomes extremely close and hard ; and the feedmg of sheep and cattle
undoubtedly enriches the land, especially under the careful management of one
eminent &nner — and many more, doubtless, are like him— on whose pastnre
grounds the manure of the cattle was daily collected and evenly spread.
In speaking of the parks in the country, I surely ought not to pass in silence
the magnificent parks of London, as truly magnificent they must be called.
* Wlndtor Omt Park contains 9,600 sere*, and the Little Fsric 30O w
ogle
AOBICULTinUL TOUIL OS
indttding St. James's Park, Green PBrk, Kensm^ii GbrdaiB, Hjie Park,
and Regent's Paik.
Kensingtoii Gardens, etdnsive of private gardens, within its enolosorea con-
tains 2S7 acres ; Hyde Park, 980 oores ; Green Fork, oonnected with Bt
Jmniea'* Faik, 66 acres; Bt. James's Park, 87 acres; Regent's Park, 372
acres ; terraces and canals oonnected with Regent's Park, 80 acres — makii^
a grand total of 1202 acres. To these should be added the large, elegant, and
highly embellished public squares in vorions parts of London, and even in the
moat crowded parts of the dd city, which, in all, probably exceed 100 acres.
These magnificent parkii, it mnst be remembered, are in the midst of a popuknu
town, inelading nprards of two millions of inhabitants, and are open to the
pablic for exercise, health, and amusement They are, at the same time, to a
degree stocked with sheep and cows.
It is impossible to OTer-estimate the Tolne to health ofthese open spaces, and
the amomit of recreation and rational enjoyment which they afford to this vast
population. In each of the large porks — Kensington, Hyde Park^ and Bt,
James's — there are eztensive bodies of water, artificial lakes, in some places
wioned with elegant bridges, and in Bt James's Park stndded with pretty
islands and shmbbery. Here large farieties of aquatic birds arc kept, to d)«
great amusement of the thousands of children, who ooax them to the shorn with
crams of bread and cake, the birds heing so tame as almost to feed ont of their
bands, and for the instmctioii of older heads. There is likewise an exceedingly
beaatifnl and tasteful cottage of gotbio architecture, at the end of the lake in St.
James's Park, for the residence of the keeper of the birds. There are always
to be fonnd in some parts of the parka, or at Ihe ke^ters' difierent lodges, some
cowskept,wbereaglaasof milk, unadulterated and fresh from the fountain, can
be had for those persons wlio, for health or pleasure, seek the delicious beverage
in its pnrity. The numbers and tomeness of the birds in these pleasure
grounds is a beautiful circumstance which it might be well to cimsider in some *
other qnarlers. Their aaiety and lives are held sacred ; and the birds grate-
fully and, to a feelii^ heart, delightfully acknowledge this kindness by the
most expressive confidence, alighting fearlessly in the path before you, as
though they would iavite yon to cultivate their acquaintance. Man, in general.
_.oo»;
..^Ic
96 AGBICULTintAL TODR.
ii B great sarage, and a ferociooB and inaatiate animal of prey. He makes
continual war upon many of the animals belon bim, not for anbaietence merely,
bat for pleasure. Hu conduct towards the bnite creation ahowg, too often, how
certun he is to abuse unlimited power, and conveya a strong argnment againat
despotic authority. Indeed, bis war upon the birds merely as matter of
aport, always nutkea me look upon him with a decree of shnddering, and feel
that a aum who can find his pleasure in the wanton destruction of little birds,
the noit humble of all animab in tbeir claims, the most delicate, innocent, and
pure in all tbeir tastes and habits, and comparatively useless for food, puis him-
self beyond the pale of humanity, and oould scarcely, with safety, be trusted
with a child. It were worth considering always, how many of our pleasures
are purehased at a most bitter expense of happiness and life to othersl Two or
three days' coursing, manly and healthful as the exercise on faorsebgck
undoubtedly is, and strongly exciting as the sport is, did not quite reconcile me
to it; and the wailings and shriekings of the affrighted and dying hares in the
jaws of the hoonds, sounded in my ears for several days afterwards like the cries
of expiring children.
I shall not be straying from my proper duty if I urge the beneficent example of
London strongly upon my own conntrymen. Excepting the Common m Boston
-Hjontaining about for^-five acres of ground, exceedingly beantifnl in its loca-
tion and improvements — and two other small openings in Franklin-place and
Philipabni^-square, both upon a very limited scale, here is a lai^ and con-
stantly increasing population crowded tt^^ether in one dense mass, with narrow
streets and confined alleys, and basement stories, doomed to a comparadre
privation of Heaven's freest and greatest blessings — light and air. A Botanical
and Pleasure garden has been laid out, and is maintained bj private subscrip-
tion, accessible to subscribers or upon the payment of a light fee, which it is
earnestly to be hoped fer the credit of this city, long distinguished by its libe*
rqlity and public spirit, may receive every encouragement, so that its im-
provements and advanti^es may be greatly extended. New York, with
a population of three times the extent of Boston, is scarcely more favoured,
excepting in the width of its streets ; for, with the exception of those delightful
grounds, the Battery, at the very extremity of the city, the open space in fixKit
AQBICULTirnAL TOCB. S7 '
of the City TSbil, dignified, par eceedlmce, hj the name of the Park, tnd the
npea groonde attached to St. John's Chorcb, but not accessible to the publii^
the dty has no pFovisioii of this Idad for pablio recreation and health. As
dtere is little room in the cit^ proper which can now be obtained, she ought at
onoe, at any expense, to secate the charming gronnds at Hoboiten, to be devoted
Sit erer and ezclnsiTelf to these objects. Having ahready, with Uie moat
honoorable enter^iise, achiered one of the most extraordinary mterprises of the
age, or indeed of any age, that of bringing, by a capacioas tunnel of forty miles
ia les^jtb, a rirer of pure water into her city, and dispensing, with an unre-
strained monifioence to those who cannot purchase it, this moetimportantelement,
next to vital air, of human existence; let her go on and make the other pro-
•vmoa, to which I have referred, for the health and comfort of a population
already great, and deetined to increase with an unexampled rapidity beyond
any boonds which the imagination would now even dare to prescribe.
Philadelpliia haa set a better example than most other cities in this respect,
in having laid out her streets of a capacious width, in havii^ given to most ot
ha houses yards or gardens of a good me, and in bsTtng fbrmed, in different
ports of the city, public sqnaret of some extent, which are equally ornamental
and useiu]. Bat she has done little compared with what she might have done ;
and it is to be hoped that she will be prompted to add to a city, the most con-
venient and beautiful in the Union, some public gardens and pleasure grounds,
admis8i<m to which shall be freely offered to her inhabitants; and more esp^
cially for the benefit of that class of them who can have no such indulgences
bat as the offerings of pablio beneficence. Baltimore has nothing that deHerves
the name of a square Or a pleasure-ground, unless we are to rank under that
designation the beantiful enclosare which she has recently purchased for a
cemetery ; a place, indeed, for a melancholy and instrucUre pleasure, but more
properly devoted to ulence and seclusion, and not at all of the charaoter to
whicb I reier. Lowell — destined to contain a large and laborious population,
and of a character particnlarly demanding sach places of recreation, with an
unlimited extent of land at her dispoeal coating scarcely anything, and with an
investment in ber manufacturing establishments of ten or eleven millions of
dollars — has not a pubUc square eo large as a pocket-haadkerchief. Thif
>,Goo'^lc
S8 AQRICULTITRAL TOUR.
omuBion has alirftys impressed me with psinful sarprise. Knowing, as I do,
the high cbaracler of the gentlemen who founded and built this fionrishiag
city, now grown to manhood almost in s day, I can ascribe such an omis-
sion only to a want of oonBideratioD, and to the fact that the population has
already extended &r beyond any calculations wbioh they coald, with sobriety,
have formed at its commenoement. It is not too late to supply this omissimi,
which interest as weD as philanthropy most strongly dictates.
Cleanliness, fresh air, and pure water, and the opportunity and the means of
relaxation and innocent recreation, are almost as essential to morals as to health.
No one can doubt, in this respect, their direct and beneficial inflnence. The
rich can take care of tbemselres, and can See the Boorces of pestilence, and go
after health and recreation where they are to be found. Not so with the
poorer and hnmbler classes in sodety,to whose labour and serrice the rich owe
alltbeir wealth and many of their pleasures. Whoever goes into the low places
in crowded cities, into the subterranean abodes where these wretched beings
congregate lilte rabbits in a warren, or, rather, like swine in their styes, and
enters into the melancholy statistics of mortality, in such coses will learn some
measure of the suffering whioh is here endured. In London, and other
places ofa similar character, the presence of the police and the officers ofthe
peace, always in such places in strong force, will remind him that there is a
connection not to be overlooked between condition and character, between desti-
tnUon and crime, between outward filth and impurity of mind, ncfulect of person
and neglect of morals. The most crowded parts of London are the most vicious
parlsj and a new should not neglect the experience of an old country. A aty
without public squares and public gardens should provide them, and on amost
liberal scale. In a pecuniary point of view, as rendering a residence intheciQ'
the more desirable, and so increasing the value of estates in it, I have no doubt
that St would yield ample advantages and profits. But health and morals are
not to be measured by any pecuniary standard; and where wholesome mter,
and firesb air, and light, and sunshine, and cleanliness are concerned, no expense
and cost are to be considered as exorbitant. To talk about the value of land in
such cases, and to place this in competition with health, comfort, and morals,
is equally Bhort-sighted and inhuman.
)yGoo»^Ic
AORICULTURAL TOUR. W
The public parks and pleaaure-grounds in London are highly ornamented
wilh shmbfl, plants, and flowers, and accessible to the pablic for exerciso and
recreation. In St. James's Park, and in some others, metallic labels are affised
to the foreign plants and shrubs, vith the botanical and the vulgar name of ths
plaiitB apon them, and the class and the country to which they belong. This
is a beaatiful arrangement, and well deserving imitation; famishing instnic*
tion, as well as satisfaction ; inciting to the study of botany, and opening s
Ksled book to the anaided and cniions student of nature. Every one knows
the advantage of teaching by example ; and what an interest is given to the
oijects, which the natursl and visible world presents, by the associations which
science throws around them. This practice, I found, prevailed in other public
gardens and pleasuro-groands. It was the case In the beautiful and highly
ctdd*ated botanical garden in the neighbonrhood of Liverpool, wliicb, though
created and supported by private eubsoriptions, and for scientific purposes, is
ret free of access to the public one or more days in the week. The same is the
case with the very tasteful garden in Sheffield, a romantic and charming piece
of groand, which, though on a small scale, combines many attractions; and
Bkewise with the Arboretam at Derby, embracing, I think, about eleven acres,
sod formed into a garden and pleasure-ground for the public recreation. This
last is the fruit of individual munificence. Mr. Stmtt, an eminent manuiB(><
tniti at Derby, employed Mr. Loudon— the late distinguiahed horticultural
wi^er— 4o lay out, plant, and ornament these grounds, at an expense of tea
thousand pounds sterling, or fifty thousand dollars ; and then, with eminent
liberality, gave them to the city of Derby for the public use and enjoyment of
its ialiabitants. Tens of thousands of pounds expended in the erection of a
Corinthian column, or a marble mausoleum, would not have formed so durable
or extended a memorial of him ; and thotisands upon thousands yet unborn, in
the enjoymoit of this beneficence, will invoke blessings upon his memory.
X.— ORMAUfiHTAI. SRRt^SS AND ^LOIVEBS.
titB Cultivation of Sowers and shrubs and Vines is a remarkable and
t feature in the landscape of England j and a circumstance which
80 AORICULTURAL TOUB.
baa pvea no little gratifioation to my national pride has been the profusion of
American plants, azalias and kalmias, magnolias and rhododendrons, and a
large variety of pinea and firs, which are seen in the flbmbberieB and planta-
tions and pleasure grounds, both public and private. A very Urge establish-
ment in London is exclumvel; devoted to tlie sole of American plants ; and
they are everywhere admired for the splendor of their foliage and the beauty
of tbdir flowers. Green-houses and conservatories are almost univerBal in the
country, where anything like a garden exists ; and the better class of houses
are sarrounded and adorned with a great variety of flowering shrubs and plants,
presenting, through the season, a charming succession of gay and brilliant
ornaments. Even the laborer's humble cottage, too seldom, I am compelled
lo admit, anything but a picturesque object, will occasionally hare its
flowering sbrabs adorning its doorway, azid the ivy hanging its beautt-
Ail tresses over its window, forming, as it were, a mirror, set in a frame
of the ricbeet green. The village of Marr, in Yorkshire, not flir from
Doncaster, and the village of Edensor, in IJerbyshire, near Chateworth, and
the village of Lord Brownlow, in Lincolasbire, the best built and by fiu- the
handsomest villages I have yet seen in England, to cottages of an excellent abd
picturesque constroction, monuments of the liberality of their proprietors, add
these beautiftil rund embellishments of vines and shrubs and flowers, and at
first blush compel a reflecting mind to admit the moral influmce of such
arrangements upon tbe character and manners of their inhabitants. Churches
and ruins, likewise, are of^ seen spread over with tbe richest mantlings of ivy ;
and, among many others, the venerable and magnificent remains of Hardwicke
Hall, for example, are covered, I may say, in tbe season of its flowering, with
a gorgeous robe of it, matting its sides with indescribable luxuriance, climbing
its lofty battlements and fringing its emp^ windows and broken arches, as
^ougb nature would make tbe pall of death exquisitely beautiful and splendid,
that slie might conceal the bideousness of decay, and shut from the sight of
frail mortals these aflecting monuments of the vanity of human grandeur and
pride.
I have said and written a great deal to my countrymen about the
ouHivatwa of flowers, ornamental gardening, and rural MBbelUslunents }
AOBICDLTURAL TOUK. U
and I would reid them a homily on tlie subject erery day of crery raDaiDuig
jar of my lif^ if I thought it would have tfao effect which I desire, of indtu^
bg them to make this matter of parttctilar attention and care. When a man
aaka me what is the use of shrubs and flowers, my first impuise always is to
\<xA. under his hat and see the length of bis ears. I am heartily sick of
measDiing sTerything by a standard of mere utility aad profit; and as
heartily do I pi^ the man who can see no good ia life but in peonniary gaiB,
or in the mere animal indulgences of eating and drinking.
The eitablisbment of horticultural societies in Salem, Boitoa, Worcester,
New Hayen, New York, and Fhiladelptua— and I speak of these soueUes in
pwrticnlar because I have attended the exhibitions of most of them— bas
rendered an immense benefit to the country, not merely in the introduction of
new and valuable fruits and rq^etables, and in trbat they hare done to
impmre and perfect the cultiradon of those long known among ns, bat in tb«
inqtrovement of the public taste, and the powerful stimnlns tbey haTegiren
to the cnltiTaUoa of Sowen and the formation of gardens and ornamental
grounds throogbont the country. Few countries in temperate latHades are
ridier in the floral ki^^om of nature, and the luxuriance of vegetable growth
and the splendors of vegetable beauty, than the United States. Why should
tbey sot be cultivated ? Was the human eye, that wonder of wonders, that
niatfhlmn organ of our physical constitution, that inexhaustible instrument of
the most exalted and varied pleasures, made in vain? Are the forms «rf
beaoty in the natural world, so infinitely multiplied as they are around ut^
mule for any other purpose than to be ei^oyed ; and what better means can
we lake to strengthen the domestic affections, of all olhen the most favouraUs
to virtue, than to render our homes as beantifiil and as attr^tive as possible f
Who does not see constantly the infiuence of external ciroomstances upon
character as well as comfort; and perceive how greatly order, exactness, and
personal neatness contribote to form and strengthen the sense of moral exact
uess and propriety 7
The horticultural establishments of England, their vegetable gardens, their
flower gardens, their ahrabbeiies and plantations, their green-hooses and con-
servatories, are upon the most extensive scale ; and I shall presentiy gin it
>,Goo»^ic
AQBICULTURAL TOUB.
full account of some of the prinoipal ones which I have had the {Measure of
Tisiting.
XL— Clihatb of Enoland.
Another marked difference in the agricnltnral condition of England and
the northern portion of the United States, is in the climate. I cannot speak
with an^ confidence of Scotland, hut the climate of England must be pro-
nounced highly temperate. It is faTonrahle to the growth and the oonsfant
TigOF and freshness of the grasses. It is not only temperate, but moist.
The last season may have been peculiar. I landed in Liverpool near the
end of April; and there was more or less r^n for forty-six days in succession,
unBl I became quite satisfied that an umbrella wae as necessary as a hat, and
that it would be advisable to fasten it to my back. When the clear weadier
finally set in, we had tiro months, or more, of as fine weather for barresting
as I erer knew, with scarcely the intervention of a day's nun ; yet there was
nothing of the parching heat of our summers, and I saw no land burnt up by
drought. It is now December, and I have scarcely seen any ice, and not a
flake of snow} and there is no frost in the ground. Many persons speak of
this as the usual temperature, and say that the cold weather does not oommmce
until after Christmas. The dews appear to me very light, owing, as T
suppose, to the mildness of the days ; and there have been none of those
blowing clouds of dust with which our air is often chai^;ed, and which with
us, after long droughts, are very disagreeable. Of thunder and lightning
this season I am unable to recall a single instance; and at no timeofths day
has the heat been in the slightest degree oppressive.*
* theuuiiul avenge dentil of nin In Eagland ii about two feet. la 1840, for lattanef,
tha depth U Aberdeen Wm 31.6S7 Incbee; at Bciplngfaani, 18.5B; tipplaff, 30.767}
Falmoath, SlJill; Ooeport, aCSSG; Greenwich, IB.S*; York, 24.79 tnehee. Tlat If
pcrhqw not mach below the averse of the eontlnent of Europe. Some portion i ofweaCem
bmrope, howerer, arc ezoeeding;!; wet; 123 lochea have been noted to fall at Colmbra In
Portagal la a year. The &II0F rain l«itill greater In Um West Indie*. At BL Domlogu;
120 Inchei; at Cayenne, 110 Inches ; at Maranham, 277 Inchea. So Ih^t Gven onder the
Squalor, a inffident tapply of i«Ia water can be obtained tor the icrvicc of the Inhabltuti.
—Fanntr'i AUnanae,
AOBIOULTURAL TOUR. 88
Tbdir insalar ailuation exposes them to frequent and dense fi^g, which
iuterpoM to prevent the earth being ever parched b; droi^ht ; and the
lains to which they are snbject keep the earth, where it is of a retentive
cfaancter, mncb soaked with water, and preserve an almost perpetual green-
oen (d vegetation.
In many parts of England the crops of tomips are never pulled until
ihey are wanted for feeding in the course of the winter; in other places
they Toqnire a very slight covering to protect them from the frost. In most
cases sheep do not require to be housed; and in some cases neat cattle
get Ihor chief living in the fields through a great part of the wmter, thongh E
cannot but r^ard this pnwtioe as very bad husbandly. Ploughing appears
to be seldom interrupted for any length of time; and wheat b sown from '
October to April. In parts of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and the
states south, the farmers enjoy similar advant^es of a mild temperature ; but
north of these the despotism of frost and snow commenoes, and holds undis-
puted sway for four months in the year. Yet, not withstanding this, our
K&aoos are quite long enough for the perfect ripening of all the crops grown
untng US ; and, with a little extra labour, even the valuable green crops,
vrhieh here play so important a part in the feeding of stock and the enriching
of the land, might, if deemed expedient, be raised and used among us. Of
this, however, I shall speak hereafter. These remarks apply only to what has
ccme nnder my own personal observation ; and I can be said to have seen, as
yet, only a small part of England. The winter management of farms here is
a matter of as much importance as the summer husbandry, and will claun my
ptrticalar attention. The disposal of the produce, the fiutening of animals,
the iHveds or kinds of live stock most likely to make a good return to the
tanner, and the whole management of the manure yards, are subfecls in
ididon to which much useful instruction is to be obtained.
Itwonid seem as thoi^h a country with so rot^h and severe a climate as New
England, and with such long winters as prevail there, which, for more than a
t^lurdpart of the year, interrupt entirely all the out-door operations of hiisbandr}',
must be exceedingly uufriendly to agriculture, compared with one where the
^ters are open and field-labour is praoticable through the whole of Uio
.,,lc
84 AdMODLTtruL wn.
jtm, Thif is, indeed, the caw; yet there are some eompenifttioiu Sx these
privations and disadvantagea, vhich in New England are duly appreoiatad,
H tbe winter, trhen labour is to r great degree aaipended, is the apMial
ssuon for the education or the young j ftr reading and mental improvemmt,
and for the most friendly and social intercourse. If these droumftancM may
b* thotlght to have no oonneotion with agrionltuH, striotly so called, yet th^ are
oartainly to be ooosidered in reference to the condition of the agrionltniml popa-
litioD } and in erery drcumEtanoe which renders their condition more com'
ftrtablg and happy, and, above all, which adTances their intelligenoe, we may
brcttntrlly look tbr a corresponding improvement in their cnltivadoD and
raral huflwndry. A New En^and Tillage resembles, to e great degree, ft
united and happy ftmily, where perfect equaliQ^ prefails; where a fiit&dly
sympathy is everywhere acdn and strong; and where all seem boond to
oontribute, KDOording to their power, to the general welfhre, oomfbrt, and
inprovement. Society exists la the United St&tea tinder drcomatancet to
tttirely di^rent ttom those in which it is found here, tbat a compariaoa can
hardly be instituted between ihem. The intercourse to which I hare here
reftrred, oau eearoely be said to exist in England; the general character of the
IftboriBg popnlatios behig not many removes, as fiir as intellectual improre*
IBent is concerned, above that of the other animals which coltivate their fleld<.
In Several reipeets, it must be admitted, the mild temperature of an English
ellmate afibrds singular advantages. The winter season furnishes liie bcM
opportunl^ for dndni&g and ditcMbg ; the active operations of the Arm being,
hi n dq7ee,iaspended, labor is obtained u a. low rate; and as a great por-
tfon of field worbf In England, is done by the piece instead of the day, Che
khortoesi of the days makea no dtftrence of expense to the employer.
Xlh^-AajaovitunxL PopttiiTioir.
I have referred to some differences in the condition of sowe^ here, and in
the United States, and those differences it may be well to understand. The '
agricultural population in England is divided into three classes — the landloid, i
the tena&t farmer or occupier, and the laborer. '
AGItlCl/LTUHAL T0t)8. 80
Itt — The ZantUordt; Smts; and Taaia.—The\&aA\oTi is the owner of the
nil. Moat of the landlords are noblemen or gentlemeo, and are looked up
to with a dafefence and reneration, on acoonnl of their rank with wbioh thoie of
u who ham been educated in a condition of McieQr where titlea and rank*
are tmknowD, find it difficult to qrmpathiie. They own the land. Some ftw
of them keep portions of their vaet ten^toriee io tbeir own ooonpatioo, and un>
der tbeir own management ; hnt, by most of them, tlieir lands are leased in
farms of diflbrent rizes, seldom less than three or fbur basdrad aorai, and ia
many cases eight handred, a thousand, and twelve hundred aores. The rent of
landTariee in different places ; insomebeingaslowas fire sbillings; iaotben
lirif^ to almost as many pounds. Rents are in general paid in money. Bomt*
times Aey are valued in kind; that is, the tenant engaging to pay so may
boiheU of wheat, or lo many bushels of barley, or anch amount of otbar
products ; but in these cases, also, the landlord usually reeeivet his rent la
money according to the current prices of these articles. The rents are paid
in loiu-annaal paymente. The &lr tent of land u sometimes estimated at a
third of its prodacte ; by some, a di&rent rnle is adopted, which is, alter all
Ibe expenses of cnltiradon and the usual assessments are deducted from the
grots proceeds, that the balance remaining should be divided equally between
the landlord and the tenant. In general, however, as far as my observation
has extended, the rate of rent ia not determined by any particular rule, otbef
tlian that which prevails in most commercial transactions, that each party
makes the best hai^n for himself that be is able. It is only just to add that in
all the cases, without exception, wbtcb have come under my remark, there has
■eemed to me, on the part of the landlords, the highest measure of liberallQ'';
the rents in general bearing a. small, proportion to the If^al interest of th6
money at which the lands are valued, and for which they could be sold at once ;
lands oosting ;£60 sterling, or 300 dollars per acre, being frequently let for
SOi. or £& BterUng per acre, that is less than eight or ten dollars per acre.
We are not well satisfied in the United Stales with a return from our land un*
der five or six per cent, on its cost ; but the landlords here seldom obtain more
thaa two-and-a-half per cent or three per cent, on ibe price which the land would
Gotnmand, if brought into the market. The low rents which are obtained show
2d ,. -.oar.^.wv-vk
36 AQHICULTUHAL TODR.
the abnodance of wealth, and how greatly an inrestmentia land u valued for its
secaiity; and the active compelition for leases, which appears in almost every
part of the couatry when farms are to be let, seems lo imply that the rents are
reasonabU, and, more than that, liberal As I shall not hesitate to pnt down
my impreuioDs of the country, of men and things, with the utmost frankness,
avoiding all personaltties, I must say that there has appeared to me on the
part of the landowners, with many of whom, among the largest in the coun-
try, I have had the pleasure of becoming acquainted, the most marked
lUterality in the management of their great estates, both in the terms and con-
tinuance of their leases, and in the aid rendered to their tenants in making im-
proTements. The liberality and amount of the expenditures indeed strikes an
American withastonishmenL In the United States,and especially in the northern
parts of it, where there is a constant simple lo live, where men have to con-
tend with a severe climate and a stubborn soil, and where money is compara-
tively scarce, the Bccumulations small, and the farms extremely limited, and
where the first lesson taught to a child, even in his swaddling clothes, is a les-
son of self-dependence, it is not surprising that men shonld be compelled
with extreme care to husband thrir small means, and that a frugality, in itself
highly commendable, should sometimes verge within the limits of meanness.
This, indeed, is far betterthan that reckless expenditure, witfaont regard to one's
means, which we sometimes see, and which is almost sure to involve the indi-
vidual who indulges in it, in irretrievable debt and min. But there cannot be
a doubt that in New England we often commit a great error in withholding a
reasonable expenditure in the improvement of our lands ; and that wo arc not
sufficiently impressed with the obvions truth, that a proper expenditure of
capital is as important to a successful and improved agriculture, as to the sac-
cessful prosecution of any branch of mann&ctnres, trade, or commove.
Leases may be annual, or at will, or for a term of years. In a lease at will
it is understood that the landlord is not bound to give his tenant any previous
notice to quit, when lie designs that his possession shall terminate at the end of
the year.' When land is taken by the year, it is understood that the tenant has
six months notice of the intention of the landlord not to renew hb lease, if
such intention exist. The lauds iu England are burdened with taxes from
AaatCITLTDRAL TOVS. 97
i^ch the United States are free. These, in many cases, amount to a sam
equal to the rent of the land. The tithes, or tenth of every article prodaced
Bje not now taken in kind ; bat are commuted and ptud in money. The peor
Bod parochial rates are often heavy ; these all are paid by the tenant, unless a
special agreement is made to the contrary.
Some persons are disposed to question the right of individuals to such ex-
tensive tracts of land, which, in many instances, tbey neither cultivate them-
sdves, nor sofier others lo cultivate, and which descend undiminished through
snceenive generations in the same &mily. The legal or constitutional right
is dtdermined by statute ; upon the moral right, or the right founded upon prin-
ciples of political justice, I am not disposed to enter, as this would lead me
to discuss the foBadations of all property, a subject foreign from my purpose.
The tithe system, as it exists here, strike* a foreign and unpractised eye, as a
trngnlgr featurc in the condition of things. A lithe, or tenth part of the pro-
duce of the land, according to the provisions of the Le vitical law in respect to the
Jewish priesthood, was taken fi>r the support of the established church ; and
the priests and clergy of the different parishes were accustomed to levy it
in kind, and to exact it lo the extremity of every tenth portion of Uie honey
made by the bees m the farmer's hives, every tenth chicken in the good wife's
poultry-yard, and every tenth^laid by her fowls. Indeed, the monks, if reports
he tine, had always a remarkably keen appetite for honey, and poultry, and eggs.
By one of the kings of England, the possessions of the chureli were seized and
conGscaled; and the right of claiming tithes, in many parishes or districts,
was given to his friends, reserving a very small portion for the support of
ibe clergy. A great portion of the tithes are now, therefore, held by laymen ;
and in some parishes, for example, where the tithes amount to several thousand
poonds, the cletgyman gets only as many hundreds ; and the tithes of any
pertiealar pariah or place, or rather the right to enforce and receive them, is
u mitch a matter of sale or traffic as the land itself. It is not for me to quar-
rel with the institutions of a country of which I am neither citizen nor subject;
bat h is obvions that every burden upon the land must, to a degree, operate to
Ihepiqndice of agriculture; and the matter of levying a tax originally intended
exdnnvdy tor the support of religious iaslitntions, afler it has long since
,,Goo»^lc
88 AOBICULnrBAL TOVB.
avowedly oeated lo be applied in taty form to tliat objeot, ii an afiUr for thoM
to coiidder who are efpeoially affoctsd by it. I bare not deemed it seoflHtry
to inqaire into the amount paid iu this way, whioK Taries coniideiably in dift
ferent plaeea ; but the amonnl stated to ns by one farmsr/tbe ocoupier of SfiO
acrei of land, and wboae rent ie £&7Q, ia at least £60 sterling (or 800 dollars)
per year In parochial rataa, including all but speoifio taxaa. The poor-rates
•re in many oases extramely burdensome vpon the land, the wages of Iha
l^xnrera being in general ao limited as not to admit, but in very rare oaaaa, of
their laying aside any of their earnings fiw old age, or seasons of aickneas and
oalstnity. The support of the poor formeriy rested, in a great meaanre, upon tht
religions bouses, which were rery largely endowed widi lands and powea
sions for this very object; bnt when these houses were broken np and tb*
property taken by the state, this burden was transferred to the backs of the
landholders or occupiers. The individual possessions of the landownen are
sometimes enormons, amounting in many oasM to scores of thousands of aoraa,
and, in one Instance within my knowledge, to seventy-fire thousand aorea; and
in another, I believe, to more than a million acres.
3. — The Farmert, — Next come the formers, who lease the land of tha land-
owners. These men are not like formers in the United States, who them-
selves labor in the field; they rarely do any personal labor iriutever.
They are, in general, a Bubatandal and well-informed body of men; and many
of them lire in a style of el^anceand foshion. Hanyof them are persons of
eonsiderable property, as Indeed they must be In order to manage the forma
which they undertake. The capital neceaiary to manage a stock or an arable
form lauBt be always estimated at double or treble the amount of rant ; and, la
general, cannot be act down at lets than £10 aterling, or 00 dollars, per acre.
The atock required for a grazing is, of course, much more dtan for an arable
form ; but in no case can success be looked forwitbout ample means of outlay.
In no respect does the ^rioultnre of England differ more from that of the
United States, especially from that of the northern states, than in that of
capital. Our formers, in general, have very little floating capitaL They
attempt to get along with the least possible expenditure. Under such drcam-
stancei th^ operate to very great diBadvantage. They can never wmt for a
mirket. Tlwy cannot briog out the o^bililiea of theirfamut and the results
tftbur&rmuiKftnconMqaentlf limiledand meagre. The diOerence between
t new ooantrr oontendinK, u it were, for exiitanoe, and u old oountrjr
opentiiig with the acoumoUtioiu of yeart and oantoriei, !■ most uasibly
mubd ; tlu eipensai inenrred on some &rmi in England solely for mannros
porcbasad, uoeeding tbousandi of pounds sterling, and the oost marely of grass
leeds, are perfectly surprising to an American farmer } y«t expericnoe has d*<
monstiated that, in thase oases, the most liberal outlay of oapitol is the moat
Bsre ta be followed by aueensful results.
Tha &rmen in Bogland, u ftr as I hare had the pleasure to meet with
dim, are a veil-informed set of men, es peolally on subjeots oonneoted wi&
tkair particular pursuits. Then, of conrse, is the variety among them vhtoh
is to be fband in other olassea ; but their manners, wlUiout exoeption, aiw
eoarleous and agreeable, their hospitality distinguished, and Ibdr hossa*
kseptng — and I spetk with the authority of a oonnoissear in these matters — li
adaiirable. Indeed It has not yet been my misfortune to meet, in England or
Bootlsnd, with a single instanoe'of slutlishness En any private house whloh I
btve visilad j bat, on the other hand, the most exemplary neatness. Z oannot
sij as much of all the hotels or tarems in the oountry, many of whioh are flur
iaferior in all respects, and none of them superior in any, to our best hotels.
Then is one eironmslanee in English manners so muoh to the credit of their
bouse keeping, that I shall, for the best of reasons, venture to remind my
Amerioan friends of it, although I foar that any reformation in the case is
hopeless. In no private house whioh I have visited have I been smothered or
oSmded with tobacco smoke ; and I have seen the offensive and useless habit
of chewing tobaceo since I came to England in but one solitary instance, and
tlistwas on the part of an American. At public dinners the same reserve is
not practised, and the atmosphere becomes as thick as a London fog. I will
vA interfere wllh any gentleman's private pleasures ; but I will lose no fhir
opportunity of protesting against a practice which has little to recommend it,
snd in respect to which I think we have good grounds to ask — what right has
■oy man to indulge In any mere personal or selfish gratification, in-doors or
without, *t the expense of his nelgiiboar'B comfort? I know very well the
ogle
40 AORICtTLTURAL TOtTR.
value to my ovm country, as a branch of agriculture, of the produclioDof
tobacco ; but I cannot look upon ita culUvation with mnch complacency. Nor
does the exhausted condition of the soil, where tobacco has been sometime cul-
tivated, recontule me to its culture. Indeed, how much were it to be wished
that instead of the production of an article useless for subsistence and pemicioiu
to health, there could be Bubstituted the cnltivation of plants for the food and
comfort of millions now suffering from the want of than !
3. — The AgricuJiural Laboren. — Next to the fiutners come the laboron ;
and these three classes preserve the lines of distinction among them with as
much caution and strictaees, as they preserve the lines and boonduies of thdr
estates. These distincdons strike a visitor from the United States with moch
force } but, in England, they have been so long established — are so interwoven
in the texture of society — and men are, by education and habit, so trained in
them, that their propriety or expediency b never matter of qaeaUon. Tha
nobleman will sometimes, as an act of courtesy and kindness, invite his tenant-
farmer to his table ; but such a visit is never expected to be returned. The
farmer would under no circumstances invite the laborer to his table, or visit
him as a friead or neighbor. I do not mean to imply that there is, on the
part of the higher classes of socie^ in England, any insolence or arrogance in
their treatment of their inferiors. Free as my intercourse has been with the
highest and the middle classes, I have Been no instance of this, nor anytlung
approaching it, but the contrary; and the best bred men in the country —
the true gentlemen — are distinguished by their courtesy and the absence of all
ostentatious pretensions. While they naturally fall into the otlut, in which
birth, education, and the political institutions of the country have aocnstomed
them (o revolve, the well-principled among them would, I am sure, be die
last persons, by any asBumptionB, voluntarily to mortiFjr one below them with
a sense of his inferiority.
The farm laborers are, I will not aay in a degraded condition, for that wotdd
not, in any sense, apply to them, unless where, by their own bad habits, they
may have d^raded themselves ; but they are in a very low condition, and ex-
tremely ignorant and ser^iie. They rarely, as with us, live in the house of
their employers, but either in cottages on the &rm or in a neighbouring
AaitrCULTDIUL TOUR. 41
TiUege. Tbejr are, nanally, comforUbly clad, in thif respect oontrutiiig most
(BTODiablf with the mechanics and manafkcturera in the citiet and lai^
towni; bat the^ are, in general, Teiypoorlj fed. Their v^es, compared with
the wagea of labor in the United States, are very low. The cash wages paid
to them seldom equals the cash wages paid to laborers with ub, and oar la-
bwere, in addition to their wages in mone^, hare their board ; but the GugUsb
laborera are obligedtosaheistthemBelves,witfaftnoocasionalaUowance,inBO[ne
instanoea, of beer, in having or harresting. The division of labor among them
is qaile particnlar— a ploughman being always a plonghman, and almost in*
sifarahle ftom his horses ; a ditcher, a ditcher ; a shepherd, a shepherd only ;
the consequence of this is that what they do, they do extremely well. Their
ploaghiiig, sowing, drtlUag, and ditching or draining, are execated with an
sdmiiable neatness and exactness; indeed, the lines of their work conld not be
morptrae and straight than they osnally are, if they were measarcd with a
marked scale, inch byincb. They speak ofplooghing and drilliag or ridging by
the iach or the half-inch ; and the width of the farrow slice, or the depth of
tbe farrow, or the distances of the drills from each other, will be foond to
correspond, with remarkable precision, to the measnrement designed. Bat
they appear totally destitute of iuTention, and have, evidently, little skill or
ingenui^ when called upon to apply themselves to a work different from that
to which they have been accustomed. Th^ gait is very slow ; and they seem,
to me, to grow old quite early. The former circumstance expldned itself to
no when I examined and lifted the shoes which they are aocostomed to wear,
and which, when, in addition to being well charged with iron, they gather the
Qsotl amount of clay which adheres to them in heavy soibi, fiimish at least
wme reason why, like an Alexandrine verse, " they drag their stow length
aloDg." There are occasional mstances of extraordinarily good management
where they are enabled to accumulate small sums; hut in no case, under the
best exertions, can they nuke, from the wages of labor, anything like a pn>>
vision for their old age and decay.
They are little given to change BituadoiiB, and many of them, both men and
womeo, live and die in the same service. Several instances have come under my
ob«ervation of thirty, thirty-five, end forty years reputable service; and
4A AOKOVVtVnXh TOVS.
rntny wtwM penoni, trm npon tbe moat limited maaiu, hare brought vp
Itrge familiei of obildren without any parochial assiitance. But, in tbii ewe
tlu7 are all yioAen } the children are put to some sort of Bsnioa as ■oon oi
they are able to drive the rook* from the oom, and no dronei are suffered in
the hive. I Tinted one laborer's cottage, to which I wai oanried by the
ftrmer himself, who was desirous of shewing me, as he said, one of the beat
examples, within his knowledge, of that oondition of life. The house, though
very small, was extremely neat and tidy ; the bible lay upon the shelf without
an unbroken cobweb over its corers ; the dressers were covered with an nn>
usnal qnantity of crockery, sufficient to furnish a table for a largo party— a
Und of accumulation which, I was told, was very common ; and their pa^
donable vanity mns iu this way, as, in higher conditions of life, we see the
■•me passion exhibiting itself in the accumulation of family plate. The man
end woman were laborers, greatly esteemed for thdr good oonduet, and had
both of them been in the same service more than forty years. I asked them If,
In the course of that time, tbey bed not been able to lay by some imall store of
money to make them comfortable in their old agel I could not have sur-
prised them more by any question which I could have proposed. Tbey
replied that it had been a constant stniggle for them to sustain themselves,
bnt any surplus was beyond their reach. I cannot help thinking that the
oondition is a hard one in which incessant and faithAil labonr, for so many
years, will not enable the frugal and industrious to make some small proviiion
for tlie period of helplessness and decay, in a country where the accumulations
of wealth in some hands, growing out of this same labor, are enormons.
To the honor of several proprietors, the kindest provision is made for the de-
cayed and superannuated. In some cases the wages of thelaborers are continued
totheendoflife; andineome, as I saw with great plea^re, comfortable cottages
are provided fbr the old and infirm : they haTe their rent and fhel without charge,
endaregularsHpendaslongaBtheylive. This was the case at the seat of the late
distinguished farmer, the Earl of Leicester, formerly Mr. Coke; and likewise
on the estates of the Dnke of Devonshire, where even the old Bchool-master of
die village is pensioned, and has a house and a liberal allowance provided for
him. Several other instances have come imder my observation, where the
MMOUtTTlUL TOTTS. 49
aqpmimiuUed and dMayed laboren wms kindly provid«d for and receired a
pouion adeqaata to their comfortable lupport. This ii ai it sbonld be. In
erery jntt comnmnity the tightg of hooeRt labor ought to be reepeoted end
■ceured. I confesi it would be &r better for them to ha able to provide for
thenwlraB than to be dependent upon the preoarioni bounty eidier of indi-
Tidaala or tba public ; but I thould be unviUbg to orerloolc any act of jnstifla
or honor. It is obrioua that the proapeet of a supply Jrom tlu boun^
of die luidlord can only apply to those who are in the direct employmoit
of tbe landlord, and not to thoee who lerre the tenant fermer, whose ■itoation
Bad permanency, where the leaae of the farm is only for the year, $m
■Iwayi, to a de^ee, doubtful.
It oannot be denied that tboaa who labor with ui are alt<^ether a luperior
i3am of men to the English laborer* ; I refer, of conne, to the natirei of the
eonntry. A oonriderable portion of onr labor ii now performed by fbreiyn-
en, who, when they unite lobriety and frngality with fiiithful induitry, are fare
of good treatment and tuooesB} indeed, I have known lereral instauoei of la-
boriagmen, audiome of then in my own employment, who, by goodoondnot,
biTe fopported themielves, and have accumulated, after a few yean' lervice,
tibnr four and five hundred dollan and upwardi, that ii, their eighty and tb^
bqndred ponndi, an aoqniaition which, in England, a laboring man would
sot dream of as the reinit of his labor, sooner than he would dream of ro>
odnagft pension of the same amount from the goTemment. Withustha
liborer Is vastly better paid than in England. With us the laborer always
it, or always may be, the owner of the house in which he liveB, and of as
anGfa land as he chooses to cultivate. Here Iha cottager is always a mere
tntnt, subject to the pleaaure of his landlord; and, though there are many oases
^rhere allotments of small portions of land are granted them fbr a garden spot,
ud (or tbe obtaining of some small supplies for their ftmilies, yet there are
iBiay where no Indalgence of this lort is aUowed, not even so much as a oab>
bige yard. The laborer here is doomed to remain in the condition in which
be is bom — he cannot rise above it. The provision for the edueatlon of the
ohildnn of the laboren Is, m most parts of England, extremely limited
ud meagre. There are some national schools, and there are, In amy
ogle
44, AORICDLTURAL TODII.
pUoes, •chools eBUbliihed tod supported by the beneficence of the laod-
lonls, tar the benefit of the laborera in their own villagei, uid on their
own ftrmi. Sanday schooli are likewise kept np in all the parisbea which I
have viiited ; and I should be happy, if it were allowed me, to ndom my
page with the names of some noble women, who, with a benevolence truly
maternal, take ■ deep interest in these institutiong, and generonaly support
them, and, better than thai, personally snperinteud them. These are bright
examples. In one case, at a small country tiU^^, on a Sunday, I saw more
than fonr hundred of these children, cleanly and plainly dressed, entering tbe
parish church, and taking their seats together, beharing with the most ex-
emplary propriety. When they lifled up their Toices in the solemn chaunts
of the church, and their gentle and shrill toneu were heard abore all the rest,
I could not help lifting up my own heart to God in thanksgiving, that the
highest truths of religion can be taken in by the humblest minds; that here
was at vorit an instrument of their eleration, which no buman power could
forbid ; that here they were taught to recognise the dignity of their moral
nature ; and that there is one place, where all earthly distinctions betray their in-
significance, and every hnman being may , on equal terms and with equal con-
fidence, invoke a common and a universal Father. This school waa entirely
supported by, and under the care of a noble woman, who, to the highest dis-
tinctions of rank, education, fash ion, and fortune, adds tbe far higher attri-
butes of a deep sense of religious duty, and an earnest deure to be useful .
The Sunday schools do not, everywhere, confine themselves to rel^oas
instruction, but reading, writing, and the elements of arithmetic, are also
taught, because, in many cases, the children of the poor are kept so constantly
at labor as to have no other opportunity of getting this instruction. The
education given them is ofa very limited character,and does not extend beyond
reading, writing, and the first principles of arithmetic, exclu^ve of religious in-
struction. The national ecbools, which are established by aid from the govern-
ment—which measures its bounty by what may be nused by private subscription
in any parish or vill^^e — require the catechism of the established church to be
taught, and the attendance of the children at the church, under the penalty of
exclusion from the school. The British and Foreign School Society allows the
>,Goo»^lc
AOHICULTURAL tOUR. 40
attendBnce of the childrmi at such church u the pBrents choose ; but the cale-
chism o{ ihe established church, and no other, is allowed to be taught in theii-
Bchools. The schools supported by the liberality of the dissenters are, compa-
ntiTel]r,few ; and in most of these, without doubt, the same interest is active, and
die same influences are atwork,toBtlacb their children to the particular sect by
whose patronage the school is established and sustained. I speak now of
Bf^land. I am not yet able to speak of the condition of things in Scotland,
although it is constantly boasted of that the education of the Scotch laborer
u always provided for, and that the Scotch laborer, in point of instmction,
is lar saperior to the English. This remains for me to see.
The condition of the laborers in this country is a subject of such deep
concern to the community, on the ground of pecuaiary profit as well as of
philanthropy and justice, that I shall, in the course of my inquiries, rerert
again to it. I do not feel that as yet I am sufficiently well-informed to speak
with much confidence on the subject; but I shall not leave it withont some
further remarks. The common wages of farm labor, vary for men, from five
ihiliings to twelve shilUngg per week; but I think a fair average would be
eight to nine shillings sterling. A shilling may be reckoned at twenty-four
cents, so that the monthly wagefl for a man may be put down at eight dollars
and sixty-four cents. This is the whole, where labor is p'aid for in money,
excepting, aa a matter of kindness, the fanner generally brings the ooals for
his laborer. There are cases, too, in which the farmer sdpulates to supply hia
Hbeat to the laborer at a fixed price, which is to be unaffected by any
diBi^ in the market. Six shillings, only, a week are reported to be paid in
some places, bat I have met with no case less than eight shillings and sixpence
a week.
It may be interesting to some of my readers to have a more particular account
of Ihe wages and condition of the laborers, and for that reason I will give
■one statements of their condition in that part of the country where wages are
paid in kind.
In the neighbourhood of Haddingdon, in East Lothian, I visited a laborei'i
coltage, being one in a range of six cottages, in a district of country beautifully
cultivated and highly improved, and presenting some of the finest examples of
)bvGoo»^lc
AQRlOCLTUnlL TOUK.
agricnltnnl improvement which I h»Te erer «en. The wife, a very tidy and
civil woman, about forty years of age, was at home ; her hasband and daugh-
ter laboring in the field. This wbb a very good specimen of a neat oott^«,
aad itf inmates had passed the greater part of their lives in !t It bad no
other floor bat the hard gronnd; and two beds were fixed in the wall, Uke
tailors* berths on board ship. The shelves were covered with crockery;
and a bible, and a few religious and other tracts lay upon the mantel*
piece. A cake made of pea-fiour and barley-flonr was baking over the fire, of
whioh I was asked to eat, but the taste of which did very little towards
quickenuig my appetite. There was, besides the one in which I was, a smell
room for coal and lumber, where, in case of great emergency, a \oiffng might
be made np. One of her neighbors in the same block, with no laiger accom*
uodations, had eight children to provide for. Two grown-up daughters, with
one smaller one, occupied one bed; the parents, with one child, occupied the
other; the two grown up sons slept in the lumber-room or coal-house. There
is often much closer lodging than this. The husband of the woman, in whoM
eottage t was, was a ploughman, and likewise a bondager, a epemes of
eervioe or contract which requires him to fumisb a female laborer, at ten-
pence per day in ordinary work^ and one shilling per day in harvest, whenever
her services are required. If he has not a wife or daughter who will answer this
purpose, he must keep a woman in his house to be always in readiness when
required. His wages were —
18 bolls of oats, at 4 bushels per boll ....... 73 bushels.
3 bolbofpees, „ 8 „
4i bolls of barley, „ '..18 „
and jEI for "lint" — or shirts.
This payment of Wages in kind, if the rate is fairly fixed, is certainly an
equitable mode. Its effect upon llie laborers, as in this case, as they them-
selves have grtun ta sell, is to make them the advocates of high prices, and,
consequently, the friends of those reatrictive measures by which foreign compe-
tition in the grain market is prevented. The employer likewise keeps a cow
for the laborer ; or if be has do cow, an allowance is made to him of five or
six ponnds in money. He is likewise allowed 1,000 square yards of ground
AaUCOLTtntAL TOVS. wt
ht potatoei, vhich tlie fanUAF plonghe and maDures ferhim} but which he
coItintM in extra hours. For the rent of his house he giva twent7-one davs'
work in barreat, if required; but ahould it happen that onljr twelve or fonr-
teen are required, it is accepted aa an equiralent.
For the woman's work he receiTes a fized amoant per da^, whenever she it em-
ployed; and for her six months' serrice in the jear, he pays her three pounds.
For the other six months he pays her nothing more than her board and some
clothes. The farmer brings faia coals for bim, which be purchases at a small
sum, being small coals, here called pan-wood. The value of three shillings
and sixpence in coals will serve him through seven weeks in winter. Seven loads
(one horse-load, I suppose) of coals are purchased at the quarries for three
gbilliiigs a&d sixpence. The farmer's shoes cost him ten shilUngs, and one
pur will last bim eighteen months. His daughter's working shoes last her a
ytar: diis is esclnstTe of her Sunday's shoeB. lu most parts of Scotland
the women, in the summer season, wear only their natural sandals and hose,
which have, indeed, the advantages of being easily washed, and easily repaired;
W in this part of Scotland they form the exception of wearing shoes and
■tockiogs the whole year. Their living consists of bread made of barley and
psas, meal or oaten porridge and milk, and potatoes ; and they generally
have a pg. They cannot, of course, lay up any money ; and she added, in her
ovn pleasant dialect, that, " the lassies have muckle sair work in hanrestt"
They depend on the sale of their surplus grain for what little money they need.
I «ill do justice to her modest merit, and say, to the shame of thousands roll-
ing m nnstiated luxury, that she spoke of her condition as comfortable, and
expressed strongly and religiously her contentment.
The wages paid in the coun^ of Northumberland, where the Scotch system
of &nuiag is carried to a high degree of perfection, is as follows— as given by
•erend gentlemen, familiar with the subject, to the parliamenlai; committee.
PIHST B
XAMPLE.
ae bnilels of uta
!i411».of»ool
M „
bule;
A cow's keep for 8 jreaf
>8 „
pa.
Cottage and garden
8 »
«heat
Coals carrying Irom tbe pit
s
170
X4 in oasli.
361040
„ potatoes
,, „™„ Google
AQRIOULTURAL TOVR.
BGCOHD BXAHPLB.
lObiulnliorofaat
30 „ oats
GoUsge and garden
10 „ barky
Coaliled
10 „ rjra
;e3 lOa. in casb
10 „ pan
2 bubela orbarley in Uen or hens.
A Gow'i keep for a year
THIRD BXAHPLB.
SSbnibellcfoatl
A cow's keep
24 „ barley
House and garden
12 „ peai
Coals led
6 „ wbeat
£I!.ineash.
lOOO yanU of land for potatoes
The following, wkich is a specimen of the half-year'B accouQt between s
lai^ former and one of his laborera in a part of Northumberland, is worthy of
obierTation.
Dr. to
:£. B. d.
Jane Thompson (the bonder), 121} days at lOd 6 1 3
Catherine Thompson (a child), 24 harvest days at Is. 1 4 0
Do., TSJdaysatSd 1 10 7^
^izabeth Thompson (a younger child), 7} days 0 1 9^
Isabella Thompson (a dress-nuker at other times), 35| days at Is. 1 IS 9
Do., 30 harvest days at 2s. dd. 2 5 0
Wife, 9 harvest days 1 0 3
His cdd fother, S2 days 8 18 0
John Thompson's half-year's cash 2 10 0
£19 6 8*
This accoont, it will be seen, with the exception of the last item, does not in-
clude any porUon of the laborer's owit service, bat that of his ftmily raily.
The difference in the price of harvest work at differmt periods, «■ between one
* Pultatnentary Beport on EmploTmest of Women and CbUdrta in AgriealtoTe.— ItM3,
p. 307.
AGRICULTURAL TOUR. 49
shilling and two shillbgB and three-pence, ia probably owing to labor becom-
ii^ mwe scarce, on acconnt of tbe general ripencu of the crop, or the hunying
state of the weather.
The Scotch laborers seemed to me, ^m a very limited obserration^
Btnmgly attached to their employers. -On one &rm, where I had the pleasure
of visitiDg, one of thelaboreni had been in tbe employment of the same family
toity years, and another sixty ; to each of whom, although their labor now was
of -very little valae, the &nner continued the same rate of wages, which they
had in early life. This indeed would seem to be no more than just, that the
honest laborer, whose life had been spent in the service of another man, should
not be tamed adrift in his old age; but, alas, how rare is justice!
Of the extraordinary irngality with which some persons in bumble Uie live,
eim where prices are high, I may, as well in this place as anywhere, give an
example, which came under my observation. In Arbroath, near the magnifi-
cent mins of the ancient abbey of Arbroath, I heard the movements of a hand-
loom, and I took the liber^ with due ceremony of going in. A middle ^ed
Scotch woman, of pleasing appeanmce and neatly dressed, was weaving. I
asked her how much she was able to earn 1 She replied that if she rose early
St fire o'clock, and worked all day through the week, after paying for the use
of the lotHQ and the cost of winding her spools, her week's work would amount
to four shillings. She received no parish aoeistance. She paid three pounds
sixteen shillings for the rent of her house. Her fiiel cost her nine-pence per
week; and out of the remainder — less than two shillings — she had to support
and clothe herself and an aged mother, who was very infirm and incapable of
beljHiig herself. What the support that either of the poor creatures could hare
nndo' such circnmstances must be left to conjecture. The woman spoke of her
arcamstances as being difficult, but she made no comphunt; and presented an
exam^ of true christian philosopby which would have done honor to a
saperioF edaca^on and the highest condition in life.
In all parts of the country women are more or less employed on the farms,
and in same parts in large numbers; I have frequently counted thirty, fifty,
and many moT« in a field at a time, both in hoeing tuinips and in harvesting.
I have found tbem, likewise, engaged in varioue other services : in pulling
ogle
50 AOBICDLTUBAL TOUR.
weeds, in picking iUmee, in nnioadlng and treading grain, in tending flinshing-
machiBM, in dicing potatoc* and polling and lopping turnip*, in landing
cattle, in leading out dung, and in carrying limo-Btone and oooli. Indeed,
there is hardly any menial serrice to which th«y a» not aecnBtomed ; and all
notions of their sex seem ont of the qnesdon wltenerer tbor labor Is wmted
or can he applied. Tho wages of vomen aitTocmiDoiiy sizpeflCfl and eight-
pence, and they seldom exoeed teo-penoe a day, ezcdpttflg In ImrrMt, what
they are as high s* B shiUing. The hottn <rf labor for the flieti ars tuuHy
from six o*cloek, a. m., to six, p. m., vidi sn intenral of an hour for breakftst
and an hoor for dinner. The women ranly oome before dght o'clock, and
quit labor at six, with the nsoal indnlgence for dinner. Many of the laboren
walk two and three miles to tbeJr work, imd ntara at trigjit. Th<<r meals
are taken in the fields, and in the moM itinple farm. The dinner ia often
nothing more than bread.
Zn the season of liarrest Immense nombert of Irish omne orer fa> aaidfft la
the labor, and this presentB almost the only opportunity which they hsve, in
the coarse of the year, of earning a little money to pay the rent of their cabins
and potato patches. N'othing can exceed the destitodon and sqoalid&ess in
which they are seen ; starred, n^ei, and dirty beyond all description, with
the tatters hanging about them Uke ft few remaining feathers upon a. plucked
goose. At their first comli^ they am eomparatirely feeble and inefficient ; but,
after a week's comfortable feediug, they recorer stnngtb, ifli^eastng some
pouads in weight, and, if they Etre allowed to perform their wvrit by the piece,
they accomplish a great deal.
I found in one case on two forms — wbich, thoagh under two tenants, m^ltt
be considered as a Joint concern — more than four hundred laborers employed
dnnng the harvests, a hrg6 proportion of whom were women, bat not excta<
Birely Irish. The aver^ wagies paid the men in this case was one shiDlng
sterling, (or twentj-'four cents) per day and th^ food, which wa« esdmated at
abont nine-pence (or about ^hteen cente) per day. Hiot liring consisted of
oatmeal-porridge and a small quantity of soar milk or butter-milk for break-
fost; aponndofwheateabread,aQd apintaad s-faolf ofbeeratdinner; and at
night, asnpper resembling the breakfost, or two pence in money in lien of it 1
AattlCVVtVRAL TOUR. 01
*w carioTM to know bow bo niMiy people were lodged st night. In some owea
they threw theflWelTCB down onder the ititcka, or ttpon some straw in the sheds,
t* ool-bnfldhigfl of the fannj hnt in the cue to which I refer abore, I was
shown into tli« eattle-<talla and vtsblM, tk6 flooft of which irere llttsnd wHIi
sUw j and hdrt the fUen'B coats and the women's eapa and bonneti npon ibt
waDt, indicated that it wu oocitpled hj both parties pfoAiscaotiBlj'. This Wm
Indeed the ftct. ^h petWbj U &r u ptxAhU, Wai supplied with i blankst
and these Wen the whol^ ftCCotninodftdoiiB and tds Whole BtippoM. This wai
tot a stngnlu InstatuK. I am tffiwiUlfig to Make any eoitaineDfa upon siloh
&ct» ng these. They speak Ibr themBelret. ^tbey tM ntttters of general
enfttffln, kud MetnAd to taeile tio attention. I dA bOt ftifbr to theffl fts matter of
reproacli to th« employers, Who were pefsotu 6f reipect&ble ehlAuiter mA
condition, And wKose AmilieS were dlstiftgnished for thrir refinemeBt. Bttt tt
presenls one among many instances in which habit and costom reooncile 01 ttf
many tliinga wlilcli Wdold othelwisd offend ilsj find lesd as to view ftdme
practices, ntterty onjsstifiabte in theinselte:^, with k degree tS complaoetiey of
indi^rence ; and as unalterable, because t\iej tiave been so long established.
1 heliOTe there is only one part of ike ITilited States where anything resembUtt^
Budi a condidon of tilings prevails, or Would he permitted j and there OtAy
among A class of* Wage whose ctaims to liumanity seem not very well eetab-
liahed in aH minda, and whose d^radadoo, on account of their eomplextott,
appears absolntely hopeless, fiu^ eVen here, libSs indiscriminatfl cdnMtU&j[
is ncd common j nor would it be permitted by any respectable planter.
This ficHtdition al things should certainly save this country from the reproach,
if it be one, which some Snglifih tourists are disposed to attribute to
American manners, that of treating the sex with too much courtesy and defer-
ence. I cannot hnag myself, hoWerer, to view the subject with any lightnus
whatever. My confident conviction is that the virtue of a community
depends on nothing more thad on the character of (he women. In propordon
as they are unproved, and treated with deference on account of thdr sex, the
women are brought to respect themselves, and the character of the men is
directly improved: character Itself becomes valuable to both parties. But in
proportion aa the condition of women la degraded} and they are considered and
Stt AaOICCLTURAL TOUB.
treated as mere Biiiinali, self-regpect is not known among them ; oharaoter is of
no valae; and the moral condition of Bucb a claw, or rather ita improTement,
ia absolutely without hope. Not is it without its perniciom infiuences, which
moat be too obvious to require to be pointed out, upon the clasies in the com-
munity abore them. Much fault as some penons have been pleased to find
with the deference paid to the sex in the United States, I should be very sorry
to see it in the smallest measure abated. I do not beliere, takei as a whole,
there is a more Tirtuous population upon earth, than are the women of New
Et^land and the middle states ; and nowhere is there a greater decency and
pK^rietjr of (^nrersation and manners. I speak of these portions of the coun-
try in particular, because with them I am intimately acquainted, and have a
right to speak with confidence ; but I have no reason to say that the same
lespectabilitf of character does not prevail in other parts of the United
States.
Z do not claim for my country anythug like an immaculate condition of
sode^} very for from It: but I do claim for them a highly improved moral
condition ; and have no hesitation in saying, that in most of our country vill^ea
prostitution is unknown, and an ill^idmate child is a comparatively rare
occurrence. I add with equal confidence, that nnder the influence of our free
schools and universal education, and the disinterested and philanthrojnc exer-
tions among all sects, for the religious education of the young in Sunday
schools, the beneficial and ameliorating results fully equal evety reasonable
expectation. This comes of the value of character, and the lessons early
incnlcated upon them to respect themselves as women, I would, if possible,
strengthen this sentiment; and therefore would, in no department of life, render
less prominent the distinctive barriers between the sexes. In all my intercourse
with society in the United States, and with opportunities as large as any man
of observing all classes among thera in the various conditions of life, I have
never known an instance of a woman going to a public bar for drink, or sitting
down in a public bar-room with men, or alone, to regale herself. The ale-
houses and gin-shops in England are as much accustomed by women as by
men, and the results of such practices are exactly what might be expected — an
extreme valgarity of manners, and a large amount of dmnkenness amoBg the
AOHIOVLTCKAL TOUE. fi3
lower cbw8 of women. What, u a mtUer of coune, coniM with it need not
be told ; but the Tccordf of the polioe oourti leave no one at ■ low.
My obaerTStioiu in thia caae miut be anderetood ai (fipljring; solelj' to the
lowest ckM : theae oonatitate a very nameroui poitimi. Ttuy ^^7 likewiae
mainlj to atitm and large towm. In napect to the deportment of the middle
and the higbegt claaaes — with whom mj intarconrae, through their lundneaaf
has been fimuliai and extenaiTe — notfaing in manoMfi or conTerHtton oan ba
&rther ramored from that whidi ia Talgar or o£lei»Te ; and for propriety
and the hj^ieat degree of refloement, nothing can be more exemi^afy and
del^tfiiL
In diatricta atrictly agricnltnral, tho low nte of wagaa doe* not admit of
much expenditure in thii way; andjifthereareindulgenoea, they mart beat home
in the Tillage alo-honaea, and only oooautmaL Por a OMuidenble portion ot
the year, the fium laborera an not allowed any beer ; in the bayii^ and har-
Tflating thetr allowanoe aeldom ezoeeda one and a half pint, which, aa it te
•mall beer, cannot be oonaidered ezoemire. I could not learn that any allow-
ance of whiskey or spirit is ever giren them by their employers, or that it ia
emr carried by diem iato the fields. The drinking, in thia cotintiy, with the
Iowa and laboring rlannns of people teems, in a great decree, confined to the
licensed honsef, of which, certainly, there is nowhere any want. In pasting
through the Tillage of Oloeaop, in Derbyshire, a modem and an exceedingly
well-bailt Tillage in a ■^■■t"'". Z shonid jndge, of leas than three-fourthi of a
mile, I counted, as I passed along on the box of the coach, thirty-five licmsed
retwl shops, most of which were protmbly for the sale, among other things,
of intoiiffatirg liquors. Indeed the number of licensed retailers in every
Tillage in England is quite remarkaUe, and would teem, in many cases, to
indnde almort every fourth house.
I am not diapoeed to objeot to the em[4oyment of women in tome kindt
of agricoltnnl labor. The employment of them in indiscriminate labor
ia liable to the most seriont objeotiona. Nothii^ can be more animating,
and, in its way, more beautiful than on a fine clear day, when the
gcddoi and waring harvest is ready for the sickly to tee, as I have several
times teen, a ptrty of mon than a hundred women and girls enterii% the
)yGoo»^Ic
04 AOBICULTPBAIi fW8r
Mi, eutting the pm, w binding it up aAw tlu Mapen. Is onUtYtfins A*
tiimipB the; an likewiia extntmely egpert In tedding Asd miking W, «a4
iBTaiioi^DtbarsgnfloltiiralUbon, t^csnythair mdoftherolMeren; bnt
in loading and iM^ng ait dung, md Mpsgully, a* I b4T9 aem th^n, in mr*
■yjng broken Uraaatma in baiket§ on tbelv head«, to U put into ttie lUln^ and
in baaring haaTr loadi of oaal from tbo pilii, Z bave &U Aat their |t»oig4 V*b
nnnatorallf taiad, and that, at Least w tbna oaaeSftbv vw^tttlteOflt ^'' TO"
nan'i sphera." I confeu, likewisa, that my gallai^ bai oftm bflen sentvly
tried whra I ban saen than at the inaa anting as aatlmi, biia^ng ont ttiP
bones and assisting in changing the coach team, while the coachaao went
into the Inn to try the ptsength ^ the ale.
As &r as beaitb is ceneenied,the eatrdooB fimploypwnt bT wtaasa i$ allagethar
AtTsnble. As &i as virtae or nuwal parity is oanonnad, oubdftftr onployx
aent in itsdf is not mere obJeoticuiBble than emplaynent within doon, Indeed,
from the inquiries whiah bars been made into this raattw, and the elabaiata
retorts that have been gtves te the goTerammt, it daes not Kfipav that the
agrioultaral distrieli, whwe the onstom of outidoM- emplayment ftir wocba
pMT^ls, are more immoral dias the manuiketariag diatrioti. !Qnt the natural
e^ot of BU(^ empl^^ment upen WMnen is ta render them negligent ef tfaair
penMmi, and squ^id and dirty in their appnMaee } and with tliis negleo^ sf
pMMn, they eease to be treated with any deiarenpe by the oth» sex and loM all
MSpeet fbr titemselres. Personal neglect and nnelaanliness ape followed by
ttielr almeet invsriable eoneomitania, moUal and mmi. impurity uid d^np
dation. The working likewise prsmisanonsly with men, whteh ia d<me oon-
tinually, must expose them to rude jests, and to language and manners which,
among the low«r class of men, are too often gromly indeeent and immnaL
In all other respects many kinds of out-door Bgrionltnral employment must be
and is, as it Is admitted, &Torabla to health and vigor. The general health
and vigor of such women, bo many hours engaged ia reasonable exerctae in
the opm air, contrasts most ihrorably with the efibmlnaoy, debili^, and eariy
decay of those who are confined in heated and close manu&otorles, or In
sedentary employments wlthU doors. Nor In point of moral conduct as fkr
as mere occupation is concerned, is there any reason to soppoee that Ou
AOtiaVVtUlLAh TOUB. 55
•grisBltunl oUwe* wonld aufier in ooinpiruMi with the mBonfaoturiog ctoiaei,
or with the bott of yonnf; ironun in ciUei, employed in variona trades and
in-doop oeoapationi. We have tew initancai, in the free state*, of women
being employad in fiald labor. The women in Wethenfleld, Con- .
necticat^ httre for yean been wKnutomad lo the onltiTation of onions, doing
eTarything for the orop, axoeptisg Roughing and mannring tha tend, even to
pNpning it for tha marlut ^tey certamly bare mffered no evil, but, on the
aontruy^ bare derived mnidi benefit from tha oconpation. Nowhere, it is
beUarad, can m«n> dependent npon tbMr own eceftioni for nipport, find wivee
batter able to nunage their hooubold aflaira, more A-ngal, more indnstrions, or
more tidy, than among the indnetrlooi yoang women of Wetherafield. It
mnit team itrange to many peraont if I also add, as I know I may with
tmtb, that many of theaa yonng woman are penoni of good education, and to
a degree, aUowlag for the retired condition of lociety in whioh they have
bean brought np, even of refined manners: so totally different, indeed, are
the conditions of the laboring classes in England and the United States. In
tnith^ no comparison can properly be institnted between them. In general,
among the laboring olaases in England, their low condition, their ignorance,
and want of education, and the almost absolute impossibility of rising above
the estate in wluch th^ are bom, render them, to a great degree, reckless and
improvident. Character becomes conseqaently of fkr less importance than it
wonld otherwise be. There are wanting, conseqnently, the motives to that
self respect, which oonstitiiteB the highest secnrity of virtue ; and, under such
a condition of things, it is not surprising to find a laxity of morals, which
produces swarms of illegitimate children. This is attended by the uanal con-
sequence—«n absence, on the part of the parents, of that sense of obligation to
support and provide for their offipring, which is to be found in its purity and
strength only in legal wedlock.
There are two practices in regard to agricnltoral labor, not universal, by
any meaits, but prevtuling in some parts of England and Scotiand, which I
may notice. The first is called the " Gang system." In some places, owing
to the size of &nns being greatiy extended, cottages being snfiered to &11 into
decay and nun, laborers have been congregated in villages, where have pre-
jOo»^Ic
66 AQRICDLTUHAL TODH.
vailed all the evik, physical and mora), which are natiinllj to be expected
from B crowded population, shoved into small and inoouvenient habltalioiu,
and subjected to innumerable privatioiu. In this case the ftrmer keepe in
permanent and steady employment no more laborers than are abeotntely re-
quired for the OMistant and nninterrupled operationB of the &rm ; and relies
upon the obtaining of a laige number of hands, or a gang, as it is termed,
whenever any great job is to be accomplished, that he may be enabled to effect it
at once and at the smalleat expoue. Under theae circnmstaDcea be ^ipliee to
a gang-master, as he is termed, who contracts for its ezecniion, and Ihroogh
whom the poor laborers must find employment, if they find it at all; and
nptm whose terms they most work or get no work. The gang-ntaater has
them then completely in his power, taking care to provide wdl for himself in
his own commissiooB, which mnst, of course, be dedocted £rom the wagea of
the laborers, and subjecting them, at pleasure, to the most despotic and
severe condidons. It is not optional with theae poor creatures to say whrther
they will work or not, but whether they will work or di^— they have no other
resource — change their condition they cannot— contract separately for their
labor they cannot, because the lanner confines his contracts to the gang-
master ; and we may infer from the Reports of the Commissioneis, laid before
the government, that the system is one of oppression, cmel^, and phmder,
and in every respect leading to gross immorali^. The distance to which
these laborers go is often as much as five or six miles, and this usually on
foot, and to return at night. Children and giria are compelled to go these dis-
tances, and consequently must rise very early in the morning and reach home
at a very late hour at night. Girls and bo^ and young men and women work
indisoriminately together. When the distance to which they go for wotk is
ten miles, they are sent in carts. When the distances are great, they oc-
casionally pass the night at the place of work, and then lodge in bams, or any-
where else indiscriminately together. To talk of morals in such a case is idle-
One of the gang-masters, who has been an overseer seventeen years, gives it
as his testimony, under oath, " that seventy out of a hundred of the girls
become prostitutes," and the general account givm of the operations of the
system shows an utter profligacy of mind in their general convenaticm and
)■, Coo»^lc
AOBICITLTinUL TOUR. A7
mazinen, vfaen monl* mait fidlow of couth. If they go in the moming and
fltajr oolj ft little irhile, cm aocoimt of nin, or other good canve, they^ are paid
nothing. The day is divided into qoarlen, but no fractions of time are in uy
eaae aUowed to them. Then the perBona employed are required, in many
eaaw, to deal with the gang-maeter for the lappUei they reoeire, in payment
ftr their labor. The reanUi of tnch a system are obnoos. The wwk being
taken by the pieoe, the gang-maaler prenei them to their ntmoat strength.
The fragments of days, in which work is done and not paid for to the laborers,
are all to the benefit of the gang-mast^, who, in such case, gets a large
amount of woric done at no cost [DieBe poor wretchea, being nnaUa to con-
tract for thenuelTse, or to grt any work but thrangh him, he of oourse de-
tttmines the prioe of the labor, and, one may be sure, pnta it down to the
loweat point But hie adrantagea do not end here, for there is no donbt that
lie get* a high advaaoe upon the goods which he nqoirea them to purchase of
bim, and thus their wages are reduced still lower. \o just or benevolent
mind, it would seera, can look upon any such system in all its details, as
given in the Commiasioners' Beport, but with a profound sense of its injueUce,
oppreseion, and immorality.
One of the gang-masters says, " If they go to work two hours and a half, it
is a quarter of a day. If they go a long walk, seven miles or so, and It
comes oa a wet day, there is the walk all for nothing. Children of the
i^es of four, five, uid six, work m the gangs. They earn 9d. a day, the big
ones ; the small, 4d.; children of seven years <dd, Sd. a day." " It u the ruin
ot a girl," says a parent, one of the laborers, " to be in such a place as
that" " My children's hands are so hUalered," says anotiier of the parents,
" palling turnips, that I have been obliged to tie them up evety night this
winter. Pulling turnips blisters the hands very much — they an obliged to
poll than up— they most not take turnip crones (a sort of fork) for fear of
damaging the turnips."
" The gangsman, or leader," says another witness, " pays the vrages of all
employed in the gang, and, of course, makes his profit entirely from their
labor, as the ftrmer takes care that the gang system shall not oost him
more than the common ^stem of individual hborers. The leader's profit
)yGoo»^Ic
06 MBnmmui. wvi*
w I IvmlMMrd, U tomttimtH Ifii. pw ds^. The aMMoUing of twin^-fiTa
and thirty womm and cbildMn and lads, of all agea and oondituma and
ohafsotan, togsther, baa a moat &tel effsot npon Uwir morala and conduct."
Another reapaolable and Mvarend witneM aayt, " The gang ia anperintand d
by a laaTt idla M\aw, of profligato mamun and a dlahmiaat eharaoter»-«Boh,
at aU avants, are tht sharaotan of tiro in mj own nalgfabogifaood."
t wHI not dweQ upon th« eviii of s nunaganunt of thla Idnd, It ii
obvioni what a power eiuh a man, the employer of diaie people, bai orer
them } and U i* aa eaay to infer what li likely to be the ofaaiaoter of yoong pei^
fl0B» more eipeoially plaoed under hie oontrol. When are men to be juitl
and when are men, who lira npon the hard labor of othem, and who h(dd not
merely their pbyaloal but their moral deatiny In their handa, to ieel thdr
rMpondbillty at ofariatlani and aa man 1
The moat mslanoholy elroanuta&ee ia the eaae ia given in the teatimony of
one wltoeis, a olergs^man, who aaya, ." that he fean the gang ayrtem will and
mnit inereaae, eapeoially npon large farme." It would not be unreaaon^le to
ftar that Qod would eend blight and mildew upon fields where hnman life and
virtue are thus lacrifioed, and decency and morala thrown to the winds ; and
where the crops are watered with the tears of these wretched vietims of
tnjufltica and oppreeaioii.
There is another ayatem of empb^ment whiofa preraila in NortbnmlMrland
and in some parts of Scotland^ to which I have already alluded: thta is called
the bondage syatem, but it does not appear to me liable to the strong objec-
tions which the name woald seem to imply. In thiB ease the laborer, when
he contracts for his services, makes a condidon that he will, as may be
required, famish a woman as an additional laborer ; and he recdrea so much
per day fbr her labor,' according to the number of days she may be employed.
In such case, if he has not a wife or daughter to supply the place, he engages
some young woman who lives in his &mily, and to whom he pays such a sum
by the year as may be agreed upon, in mone^, clothing, or otherwise, and she
llrei in his fimiily as one of the &mily for the whole year. There are few
forma of servitude which are not liable to abnsea, and the greater the state of
dependance and weakness, so much increased is the liability to abuse; but
)■, Coo»^Ic
AaMcvj.muii ton. 00
when tba tmfiayn i» % soBHuentioui tnd joit man, mdt • oontnet may be
mbiiUr advuteg«eiu.
Id pwta of ScotUsd wliat is i»U«d tha Bodiia tytma pnrulB, and tbs ntp*
pMt of thfl Ubwen is » t»7 mmmftry pnowi. Tht wagM ue paid in inoiuf
or kind, M iBftj b« opBfld npon ; and tbB labsnn, if nngU Buo, ftps fimiilMd
wtth a lOom, faal and boddiiigj with two paoks of oatmaal od Monday mom-
ii^ uid villi a daily aUamopo of pair or of muf nilkwooaaiioBallj tluy
ma; Iiaf o b«w and fanad im dinner initead ot tha porridge. NotUng iq(h«,
howaver, iadoqafei thorn. Thay propare thair porridge for themMlret in nioh
w»f aa thof obooM i but tbia oomprohendB the whole of their living. It would
not be troe to aay that this diet is insufficient for the lupport of a laborli^
man, aa It ipnat bo admitted that few lab^m eihibit firnur health, or more
nnwolar ▼igor, or reaUy porfevm more work than many of tbaaa men. Tbla
mode of living would bowaror, I think, be a little too primitlre ftr the New
Bnglaqd taste, Aou^ on matteia of taata we are told there Is to be so dispute.
Having mysdf visited % Sootcb Bothie, I eannot, how much soever the
aoooomy of the arrangemaits may be praised, very muoh eommend the
a^Ie of the bonse-kec^ing, Indeed It is not difficult to infer that where young
men and others are turned into a bevel together, and without any one to look
after their lodgii^ or prepare tiieir meals, the style of living cannot have the
advantages even <rfthe wigwam of a North American sav^e; Ibr there, at
least, there la a squaw to provide the food and look after the premises.* The
wi^ea of a Sootch laborer are about JCIS sterling per year, and living as
■bove; and for a woman, as a field laborer, ftnr shillings sterling per week,
or about dghty-dgbt cents, out of wUch she provides fer herself
'Hie condition of labor fbrms, as Is obvions, a most Important element Id
the agrienltun, of a country. Human labor, indeed, seems fhr more eseen-
* or Om Botblfl i^ttn, M It li caUed, or empIornMiit of muouriod men, IMng togetlur
la a botUt or kar«I kltubsd te tha itMdlng, it U tuudlj BtoMtuy to n; OM k noM albet*
Ire rneaaa of demonliiing and bratsUalng a pcBMuttrr conld not ba derlwd tban that of
crowilliig together k panel of yonng men, hi]f of thorn perlupi itruger*, Irlth, or l9«d
ehmeteFt, Im ■ kovel b^ thoudTM, wltfaonl area u atlenpt at mortl Mperinteadeneo.
Thkltouofthewonterlli that hH attended the IntrodBCtlMi of llw large luin *]r*teiBv—
)yGoo»^Ic
60 AORICULTUBAL TOUB.
tialty oonceroed in Bgricultorfl tlian in either commerce or mumfsctores. A
few hands may manage a large sHip, freighted with immeiue wealth, and
perfbrmlDg yoyagea which doable the circuit of the globe. A child m&j
Buperintend a large number of ipindles ; and a single power wheel s^ in
motion a vest and complicated machinery. Agricnltare has already derired
vaat benefitfl from meohaoical ingennity, and may oon&deotly anticipate from
this Bonroe an immenae extension of her power; bat there can be no qaeatuni
that she most, at least, for a long timo to come, continue mainly depeodaat
upon human labor. The cost of labor, therefore, and the general support
and oouditioa of this labor are allies intereatbg to the agrionltarist and
the philanthroinat.
In an old oountry like England, where labor is so abundant, it is to be
expected that the rules of labor should be exaot aud stringent ; indeed, without
thiA the managemeat of a large &rm would be impracticable. The wome
usually begin work at 8 o'clock, and, resting an hour for dianer, they work
until fire, or, in a pressors of work, until six. The ph>ughman muBt feed and
clean his horses at four o'clock m the morning, and at six o'clock the plough
must be under way. At two o'clock his horses are put up for the day, and be
devotee himself until six o'cloek to their cleansing aud feeding, and to the care
of his plough and harness ; eight hours in the field and the ploughing an
acre of ground, being considered a full day's work. The other Uborers bt^
labor at »x o'clock in the morning, and work until six iu the afternoon, with
the intermission of half an hour for breskbst and an hour for dinner. So
laborer leaving his empbyment before the termination of his engagement,
without good and sufficient reason, can recover any portion of his wages ; and
no employer, withoat equal reason, can dismiss a laborer before the end of the
term for which he is engaged. In general, however, laborer* oontinne tat
years in the same employment, especially married men ; and it is extremely
interesting, speaking well both for master and eervant, to see men and women
who have remained in the same service fwentf, thirty, fort^, and even fifty
years, and their children coming forward to take their places. In sach cases
they become, as it were, an integral part of the establishment, and both partie*
are equally benefited.
)yGoo»^Ic
AORICULTURAL TOUR. 61
Id some p&rta of the country, ae in Lincolmliire for example, twice a
year, id ihe Bpiing and aotamn, are held, io some prindpal market towns,
stalnte fain, vulgarly called " Statties," where yoang men and women
wandng serrice assemble, and persons wanting laborers or servuita go
there to SDppJy their wants. Such arrangements hare certainly many
advantages; but they have also their erils, and the assembling of large
nambere of men and womeo, in such cases with, not un&eqnently, the usual
accompaniments of a Fair, are said to lead to much dissoluteness and diasipar
tion. This is to be expected. This arrangement serTea to average the rate of
•wtgBB, and must be to all parties a great aaTuig of time. In the present opn-
dition of female labor in the United States, there could be none bat the worth-
less to offer themselves in this way ; but with respect to young men seeking
employment, there would be great advantages in having a day and place fixed
ID soma principal town, when and where persons wishing for emplojrment
m^t be found by persons wishing to empl<^ them; and such an " Exchange"
might be annually held to advantage. An arrangement of this kind has often
recMnmended itself to my mind for its convenience, and I have, before this,
v^^ its adoption.
I have endeavored, with strict regard to truth, to state what I nnder-
•taad to be the condition of the agricultural population in this country.
Turtber inquiries may serve to correct or modify my views on this subject.
I am perfectly aware how difficult it is for a foreigner to obtain a correct
knowledge or to form a fair judgment of the customs and manners of any
ooontiy which he visits ; and especially where his residence is limited, and
liis obeervations necessarily partial. Feeling no prejudices, and having no
private interests or partialities in the case, other than those which are insepa-
rable from an education in another condition in society, and under poUtical
institntionB differing entirely from those which prevail here, I am desirous
above all things, to bold my mind open to the light of further and more exact
inquiry.
It does not need any long experience to learn that first impressions
are not always the most correct; and every intelligent and candid mind must
allow that most men have some reasons which, to their minds, appear auffi-
at AdMCtftrtnut foirs.
cient for wlut ibey do; that tnahy oustotna which hare "prevailed 6a tges,
faowsrer objMtlotiable at flrat eight thej* mky appear to ut, hare giim oat
of peoQliar cinramBtanoM of titne and plaoOf whloh Mtnotioa their inpedisBojr
at the time of theh- origin, if not the jnt)priet;f of tbelr Oontinttaaoe ) and that,
In mpMt to Buny loknowMgod irlla, it !■ &r move taty to dsploro tha «*>
istefice thu to pobt ont the T«tnedy. WhiU elrauiutuoeg of thb MMr«
prompt to caotlon and forfoeara&ce is oar jvAgmmu, they do sot reqalra va,
ai the flspfltUB of ou- nond mtee, to r^aM ibam atOb In aAjr ^bu than Orit
true chancur, td palllatfi ritber their &fetar« Or est«n^ or to look upon tbonij
tuder any ttircttniManOMi Id Utter deepKlr of their fettOfftl or aUotiation. Nor
vrOI th^ 6tetM anjr ne^eot «f dl pmpfr and poMihM aterttoti f« nuedy an
Mkoowledged evil.
Tte ootktltioii of tibe Ubotiag a((rietiltiirtl aIom te oMalnlT', In mmy jtam
of England, exceedingly dOpreMedj Snd tbongh in frequent Imtaaaefl K inay
be colled oomfbrtable, hi few tliat I hdtd »een «an It b« eooBidered proipeTonii
Thetrlsbof iiflotettratH'dlnariljrieVen; tlt^Uti hytd tneaos trgated iHth
ttnkindneas, W, ftteptilig throbgh the nlsfertane 6f the lU'teniper Of du^
employer, with sererity ; they are decoitly ctad, and there is a gtM aiHotint
of adlte bebefoleuee everywhere at tt'ork lo aaistt them, tUid to aOeriato tlieir
dietresB in «i6ktlM fltid ibisforttUi^. Bnt they are tery poorly ftd ; With
tnany exCeptioiiB, they are wretchedly lodged; their wages are badeqaate to
th^r <!oilifortahle flapport— 4nd tfa^ Bttdation kShrdB little of no hope of fan*
prov6fnetit— at least, tlid power of olahhig tt bettef do^ n«t rMt, where It
should, with themselfefl.
It is a p^nfhl, though tiot aii dnheard of* ationialy, tha^ iii the midst of thd
greatest ahundance of htim&ti food. Immense nnmherff of thdse hy whtfse labor
this food is produced are actually suffering iai perishhig from hunger; that
where ten millions of acres of improvable lands, capable of b^g made pTO~
ductire lands, lie uncnltiTated,* millions of haadu, which might sUbduo,
enrich, and beautify this waste, from necessity remain nnemplt^ed ; and that
in acODtitry, vhere the accumulations of wealth surpass the Visions of oriental
splendor and magnificence, there etist, on the other hand, such contrasts bf
* Jonnsl of Bo7«l Agricultural Society, ToL IT. Fart 0. p. 906.
,, -iroaD^GoOt^Ic
AdBIOTlTIFRAt TOVft. 6S
mat, dflatitotion, printion, mi miaaj, u wonld fOTpass Iwllef and defjr Qu .
power of the imigln&tloti, bnt for tfaa fldpport of inootitforertibte and orar*
vbelming eridenoe. Under tbe pr«Mnt inititntloni of thft Muntrr a peifoot
mmtAj i» hopdcBs, and an aUniation of thew erUa i» all which «aa be lookad
fitr. An oiUre rerolntion In lh« intdttttlini of tha otmntr)', la the finnu of
MMlety, and fai the condition of {Mpef^, eooU only be eftoM hy Tloltmee)
and tho odOMqaeaew of mofa a rerolotlon it would be ftigbtfill to eontenplate.
But Bhoold a revoldUon ocenr, ftsd the (Hmo^eak olattdetf ba brokn tip, and
lb elemeota b« thrown Into a itaf« of ehaodc oonAulon, what sagaal^ oonld
predict Oie remits, and what Becnritj' It there that Iti flttjr t^antagemoA theae
eribwoold be reetifled and the rights of lahoranjrhetta'iifotaetectf Isaj'the
riglita of laboor, for who, tmder my oircrmuttancea, wilt pr^one to ieaj that
they, hy whoae labor the earth ii made to yield her fruits, and all aoctimnla*
tloiu of wealth are obtained, have not, Indeed, in cdmmOH Jnstloe, ft perftot
ddm to a flill share ofthe products oftheir own toil, t e&re not what olalnu
taHMnry and despotic power may Aet up ; (tor by what laws and fulei she may
•eek to ^ipropriata to her own use or laxuiy fflUch (he largest portion df these
prodneta; bnt 1 claim tor the laborer an ample share of the fruits of his in-
dnstry on the ohrions g^rcnnds of batoral nght and jostice and the plainest
principlea of chtbtiaalty.
1 am not at all disposed to quarrel with any of the ins^ntionS of this great
and enUgfatened country— great and enfightened, as a whole, beyond almost
any precedent. I am not disposed, in any odensive £>nn, to profess
my own preferences for tustitutlons to w!iich birth and education may hare
ttrongly attached me, fbunded as they aee on the great principles of dniversal
liberty as the birthright of erery man, and of sodal equality as conformable
to nature, and the only relatlofi in which men can stand to their Creator, or
trader which they would dare Ui approach him. Bat, to my mind, it is
d>rloiis that no great InproveMent can take place in the chaiacter and con-
dition of the labouring population white they remam a distinct and servile
class without any power of rising aboTe their condition. At present the most
imagifiatire and sanguine see no probability of their rising above th^ condi-
tion, of being anything bnt labtvers, or of belonging to any other than a
64 AQBICCtTUBAL TOUR.
servile and dependant claw. The low stats of their wi^es abatdntely forbida
tlie accumulation of any property. They cannot own any of the soil which they
cuitiTOte. The houses which th^ occupy belong not to themselres, and (bey
mxy at any time be turned out of them. They must ask leave to live, or
they must take it by violence or plunder when tlwy will not be snfiered to live.
Their only home is the grave, and even their repose here is not almys secure.
In a country where labor is superabundant, and the price of laud places it
utterly beyond the reach of those who have no means to purchase but from
the scanty products of their own manual labor, the condition of the laborer is
that of absolute dependance. In a condition of society where artificial nmks
and classes exist, and where all the wealth and all the power are in the pos>
session of the upper, or, as they are sometime) denominatol, the &vored
dasses, the barriers which hem in the lowest class — without property, without
power, without edacation, without even a home which they can call theirown —
ore, of course^ impaseable. In a conntry where labor is scarce, where land is
cheap and free, and where the advantages of a good education areo&red gra-
tuitously to all, where no arbitrary distinctions of rank eiist, and every man by
the force of his own talents and character may occupy that condition in sooie^
to which he chooses to aspire, it is obvious how different is the situation of the
laboring portion, or, if so it may be denominated, the lowest aute.
I believe it is impossible for a man who lives in a state of entire dependance
upon others to hare the spirit of a man ; and who, in looking out upon ihe
beoutifiil and productive earth, where Ood has placed him, is compelled to feel
that there is not a footof soil which, under any circumstances,he can claim ibr
himsdf ; that there is not a tree nor a shelving rock by the road ride, where
he can shelter himaelf and gather under his wing the little ones whom Ood
may have cast upon his care, but he is liable to be driven away at the will of
another —at the caprice of avarice, selfisbnees, pride, or unbridled power j that
the use of his own hands and limbs are not his own ; that he cannot, but at
the will of another, find a spot of ground where he can apply them ; and that
even the gushinga from the rock in the wilderness and the manna which
descends from heaven are intercepted in their pn^ess to him, and doled out
too often in reluctant and scanty measure.
)yGoo»^Ic
AOHICCLTUaAL TOOH. 65
Tbia will not be pronounced an exaggerated or colored portrait of tlie con-
diti<m of the agricnltoral laboring population of England. I sappose that,
with the exception of some few rights of common, where some miserable mud-
hat has been erected and the pOBseasor has a kind of allowed claim daring his
life, few instances can be found of a laborer's owning, in fee simple, a col>
lage, or so much as a rood of land, I recollect, in passing throngh a part of
Derbyshire} in a r^on which I was told afterwards was, from the contignity
of senaial large estates, called the " Dokeries," the coachman, hy whose Bide I
was seated, said to me that this was the Doke of DevonBhire'a Tillage,
and this the Duke of Rutland's, and this the Dnke of Norfolk's, and
BO on ; and I conld not help asldng myself, with some sinking of hear^
where is the people's own Tillage ?
In a part of Lincolnshire, an excellent landlord and friend, disdngnished
for his integ^^ and philanthropy, was kind enoogh to take me to visit aereral
of Us cottages, that I might see, as he said, some of the best examples of thia
kind of li&> It was on a Sunday erening. The houses were humble, but
dtey were neat and comfortable. The inhabitants of one house which we
entered were adranced in life, and alone ; for, although they had children, their
chQdrcn had been under the necessity, as soon as capable of senrice, of leaTing
home in search of a livelihood. The appearance of these people was alto-
gether reepectable, hut there were two incidents which, though Tery small in
themseiveB, at least fhmished matter for graTC reflection. The Undlord had
grren notice, a few days prcTioosly, to some of his cottagers to quit, because, with
a Tiew to the smalt profit to be deriTed from thdr board, they had taken lodgers
into their ftmilies, who were not t^reei^le to him. The old people whom I
Tras Tinting, though they bad occupied the same place for perhaps more than
diir^ years, and felt themselves quite too far adranoed to seek a new hom^
were snfierihg under the apprehension that they too might, in some way>
hare involantarily incurred the landlord's displeasure, and might be turned
ont'of their homes likewise; and the woman said that her husband, through
fear of such an event, "had had no sleep for several nights." In another
house, which we visited, we found the woman of the house had just returned
from attending the aceoudummt of a nwghbour, the wife of a laboring man }
>,Goo»^lc
66 AdUcCLTOut tmrft.
tnd ihA told tu that «h«n the aanoaitoed to the fktber tbd lurdi <^ twins^ he
reoeived the intelligeace with sadoeu, tod raplied, that " it would have betn a
kinder aot if HaaTes had bMn pleaaed to hara taken thsm both away." Where
honert and laborioai petqilo, in advaiioed aj;*, ftel oonatantly tbat Ocj my ba
tanad adrift, at thajkapriM of thtlr landlord, from the home <tf thcJr JovA,
and when a ftfbsr ragaidithe Urdi of a child iM a cam, Aebennolant
mind imi erila in the oonditioR, whioh it mnM lament If it oannot romady,
and whieh ft murt lament the mon, fat proportion, ai all remedy aeens hoip^
)«■•. The lantioid in &a oaae, at I am peraoaded, was be^iahle of oonk-
mitting, knowing, any aot of injnstioa or imUndneei ; bat H is obvtooi t»
wliat abuse* nth a power ,is llablet and to what «Tils a rehtkm of toak
serrlle and abject dependence may subject one.
In the preaut oonditioa of abdMy hi England, no material altetatioD,
hDwercr, is to be hxiked ftr ia the poddoa of the labwlng clamw Thar
lot Beems to be sealed, and ihay must renab in thia oenditioB of aervility and
d^mdanea. ^ey oannot rise above it. Thtj are not elavaa ; bnt they an
not free. Liberty and indepaadsnoe, to tbem,'D!« wopla widioat meoabi^.
They have no ohuna apMi their hands, but the iron antait into their «odB,
Ibair limbs may ba awiliackliri, but their apirila are bound.
At Ae auiversaiy meeting of the Notfhamptonahire AgriealtBral Sodaty,
•evuBl ^ed and reepootaUe laborws wera onUed in and advanoed to Aa
^par taUa to receive the premnuna for good ouidnct, "whtoh tbey had
jMritad,''iiithe terSM of the n^ut, " )>y matqr years of Mlhfiil avrata^" I
ooaftn, aa I satdtm diO oooaslw to Qte noUa prsaideBt, thia term sooadad
hai^y to my ear, and the more, if it exprsssed thair trne ooiditiaB. Go
whara dny wfll, the same bairien iii^>6di6 their hdvaaoe} andff dwimbilion
of woddi, or raaJ^ of in&Hnoe, of which th«y aae swh gliOaring awmphi
GonlinMily plaaliig before Uttm, ahonld evisr dawn in tibsir anida, it wooU
kindis only to be'azlingaiahed nndar isezonible eitoumatanosB.
Tbm are persons who bos in tfab oondltion no evil nor hardsfaipi I am
not about to expatiate upon its evils or faardahips, if evils or hardshipa than
be in it. I^ in the present oondibeB of sooiB^, peoaniaiy g^ ii to ba die
mfy worthy olgect of porsuilj and a peouoiaiy riandard llie only tnia hf
iau:citi.T(nuL too*. ^
■wkich th0 gAodf of IMfa we to ho meMHHd, and the humBO fitme is to be
regarded as only so macli oiganized &e*h vai bono to be worked ip at oar
]^eu«ie iato the BMaaa of mtldi and lutiny, than As luimnvaieiit of the
chomcter and condition of the laboring classea is not a subject to attmot the
attention of the -ptiSSetl eoononiBt, ekoeptiiig m' flur as the perAgtioii of the
maddne may omdics to the increased amonnt ol^e work to be aocompUihed
"by it Bnt, if ft better rule is to praTi^, and men are to ftd their mofal
responsibility to each other, and the phj'ucal comfort of Aon by whose tM
ve live, and the nioral imprDTement of those, upon whoa aa wiallaiaponthnr
more favored brethren, Ood has «qoaIly impreocod- his- own aieral Image, are
to be cared for, th« donditiob (^ the Iidioring classes deserves the most serious
attention and the most cordial int^«8t of every man who has a spark of
pBtriotism, pnhUc epiiit, or philaiidiropy in his boMU.
Tliis attention is naw given, in various parts, c^ the ooimtiT', by many
persons of distingaiehed- benevolence and -active -osefnlness, who know no
higher purmit and fifad io richer' pleasure than in doii^ good. They are not
willing, while tbf^ enjoy the loaf, to- put- their labwers off widi merely the
iBideT crust, and not always enough of thi4-
The census of Great Britain reports the number of laborers employed, in
agricnlture, at 887,167, and these, with dieir &nulies, compose a population
of not less than 3,SOQ,000, or one-fifth of the whole population of the kii^
dom. The wages of labor, according to the reports of the committees of
Parliament, vary, in diSerent counties, &om 7s. sterling to Ifis. per week;
and the rent of thmr cottages may he sud to average abont Is. 6d. sterlii^
per week, or £3 16b. per year.* tt may interest some of my American
readera to leam the expense of some of the jamilieB of the cottagers as thcj
are given from authentic sources, as helow : —
"H. Sopp, laborer, has a wife and four children; earns 9s. 6d. a week}
spends 7b. 2d. in flour and yeast ; has been without lea, cheesy butter, soap,
Srtog 83ad ettdle8,'tAetiM iaid bee*, fbf Afte noDths.'*'
One (Ulllag ttnling may be leckooad at 34 c«ut« i inUIi; when a m* erelgn, u
■tdaUiki.88.
p2
Coo»^Ic
68 jLaBICDLTDBAL TOUK.
" Slemenfa, laborer, haa a irite and four children; £aiiu lis. 6d. per
week } ipenda 7s. 3d. in flonr and yeast."
" Pollen, laborer, hai a wife and biz ohildren ; wages 11*. 6d. ; Boor
and yeast, 9*. 7d."
I shall quote farther, tlie actoal expenses of a laboring mas with a wife and
six children, in Iitarch, 1841 ; and "this wUl aSbrd aa average riew of the
manner of living of Uie agricnltnral popnlation of the sonthem and midlutd
counties of England."
BgallonBoffloar 8s. Od.
Yeast 0 8
llb.ofmeat»and ilb. of suet 0 8
lib. of bntter 1 0
lib. of cheese .' 0 6
Jib. of candles. 0 ^
ilb.of soap 0 8i
Potatoes 1 0
Worsted, etaroh, cotton, and tape 0 S
Total 12 3
" This leaves nothiag for rent, clothing, education, or any other expeneee,
the only fund for defraying which consisti of the extra earnings daring
harvest'time, a resource which, in many parts of England, is greatly limited
by the periodical influx of Irish laborers. It is obvious, from a glance
at this statement, that the bulk of agricultural laborers in the conntiy are,
at the bett, just able to struggle on from hand to mouth, and that any
aaspension of employment, rise in the price of provisions, or nnfinseen
casualty, must, of nececsi^, compel them to resort to charity, ot to descend
to a coarser diet, and exchange the habits of an English for those MT an
Irish peasant."*
* The eondltloD of lirlng kmeng the poof sgricBltanl Uwren ma^, pethqw, find aono
Strong Illiutrktloiu In the intjohied note, which it tot thoM 0&I7 to read who take an
Intenrt in m htnuble a (abject : —
" A poor man cui leldom afibrd to porchau eren thccoaneat Joiotof mntton; hot If ho
llim near a town he can often get the tAe^'t luad and phtek tot lew than Is. 6d., Indtel
Tei7 freqneDtlr for a ihllUiig ; and with theae hli wife can make up fitir hot meala. n<se
AaUCDLTUBAL TOUB. 09
The following wu giTen me ag the wages paid on a &nn in Lincolnshire,
when the wages are more liberal than in vaaiy places, and the fiuming of the
bigfaert order of excellence : —
twTritMithI and ttu\j tnorj mnli nuy be etten with potalMt only, u braad is twt
u 5o inttnieUai If Mcttiarj/ for the auklag of plet and poddlngi" (that Ii beunu the
labofer Ii nerer axpected to have than), " whethar of fruit or meat ; bat we ma; Jut
TcniBik that a mtat-ptiiitSKf (when a laborer can aflbrd It^ Ii one of the moit iDbatantlal
and MTorj diihea that can be brought to a hnngry man'a table ; and If Instead of patting
ide-eiut orer the meat, you corer It wtlh mailwd potatoea, and pat It dther into the oren
or bahe it b; tiie aide of the Ore, It will aniwer quite u well a* paate. In Cornwall there is
a eonman praetlee among tboie oottagen who bake at home, of making Uttla paatiea tot
the dlnnen of tboaa who ma; be working at a dlitance in the Sddi. They wHI last the
whole week, and are made of any kind of meat or finilt, rolled np In a paste made of floor
and aoet or laid. A eoople of oonoet of baeon, and |lb. of raw potatoea, both thinly alked
and subtly leaioiied, wUl be found faffldent for the meal; the pasty ean be carried in the
man's pocket, but it cotti 4d., at Urns :—
i]b.of floor.... Id.
Ehiet 01 lard. ... Id.
Potatoes (44.
iIb.of bac<m .. Ifd.
" Oatmeal is a freqnent diet of the Scotch and Irish peasantry. The preparation Is simply
to pnt a handful at a time gradually Into a pot of warm water, and a little salt, drrnri^ng
it over the Are and keeplDg it stirred with the other hand, antQ It becomes as thick as a
podding; or In abont ten minntes tima. It nay then be eaten with a little treacle, or with
a piece of bntlapnt into the centre; bnt the better way Is to eat It with cold mOk, taking
> ^aonfdl of the stliabont with a moDthfnl of the milk ; fiw If boiled hi milk it Is not near
to good, nne meal does not answer the psipoae, and the coane ground ' Beotth eatmidlf
ia Qm best. Vow, abont half a ponnd of this, aloi« with fliree phits of mUk, will make a
snhatantlal and a Tery wlwleaome taeakftst or sapper for the fomUy. It b indeed a hearty
Aiod; and the cottager, who seAs to snppMt his wife and children both finigally and heaUb-
fnBy, shoold never be iritbont It. Tbn price In London Is 4d. per qoart, and the qoart
welgba neariy I|lb. j so, snppoahtg the mDk to be booj^t at Id. the qnart, three good meals
ean thne be got fbr aid.
" Potatoes will erer be the peasant's standard Tegetable ; for, if of good mealy qoall^,
Uwr eontafai more natiiment than any othw root ; and three or four pounds are eqoal in
point af noorlshnunt to a poimd of the best whaata bread, taridM Aovtiv (t« fivnf wfedN^a^
<< UtttrjmiMff tlbstaNodk.
"nellqnciin which any meat is boiled iboold always be »Ted for the maklag of sonp,
^td tkt bmut gam qfJUh s&mU alto &*/nwrsad; fir altkongX gtrfto tart tf mtat, yet If
atawed dffwn for aareial home Ihey will yield a spades of broth, wbleh along with peas or
oatmeal win make good sonp. Alotof bones may always be got f^om the batchers' for two-
pence, and tliey are n<T*r semped so deao as not to hare some sers^ of meat adberiiv to
ogle
Hh I house and guiea (above 3 npdi) rant fiM
He keeps three young men, for which, he bu £1& a jtat
each, .£40.
He hu 6 buBhels of malt fer each man
— 1 quarter do. fbr himself
— the best wheat at 48b. per quarter
— seoonda do. ttdSlB, ^
— fbur pig* kept in the yard with hb iiuster*B
He ibada and kiUi his own bacon
and baa ;fi24 in oash, aitd two oova kept.
" nJf done, the bone* are to b« a^In ioiUd In tlie Mme manna, bat for • longer time,
uid th« broth mny be made the next d»y hito a *tew with rice.
" Nor la thll all ; for the bonei, if again boiUd for » itOI longer time, will once more jleld
« nooriiliiiig; broth, which ma; be made iniD pea-toop | snd when thni done with (!)" (for,
rIuI eTerfthing mortal hu an end) « may dHMT be mM to the enuheroT ponnded by yoor-
•df, and iiMd M mannre for joor garden.''
llieae direoUona are extracted tnm a IVetttM, af whkti J do not qneatlon the ntUity, on
CMatiUaauKT, pidiUihediii tba Jowiialof tbt Sn;*! ^pknltiinl Sw)e^, vA whkh
ewWaly aoBWamany nioaU* «nwiili<m* far tlM pmr MtUg*. Th* pattet eoqlsaH
and «alm pUkMiitiT, bonvter, wUti wUtnk tb* initec4*H*nt»Bfw a dJigU ibaep'a baad
aai pfauk MsUaic *)<v M**^ dianan ftr ft ftAtlj ; airi K iHtrtr vutda of a«j Uttd ofnwt
wrft<dtTaBadapinn*torlard,wlthao«a^a(«MC««f b«a(iii,iiBdhaVa ponwl«{i«v
]MMoMtUBl;ill0a4,iaddWyBeM«Bri,faRMln av«n'>|we)t*t«ta]iaBMito wtrt
ftfaaddMnutlhrnlHoe. MagMtjUtforUidiaMrj wA apm BateMw tettat iha treat
ad«afttftgaM«rbtMd^War>Kiv'Atttemml;an&4lHMlTtMr(w«)tl|igau podilng of
tka MOM baMi again ni again, tlvaa aiwrasiM ivt, Mka MH tUok, to nia e«d»^
OTywtoa, "IWt Iha HoiWt Bqitei maat bam fUnad" tohn tte; <mmU ]wn attidaad
mi htft di«n« of pUltMptv.
lkadiiwU9B«^r«alla« tbi aUNhait or aatMal pairidfl^ wm Iktadfe wv kMly
glren to thoaa who appear to hare m little um for their mouthi aa haiiK; to taW tbo WU
tathm. nnetattra w«; !• t*«att|wttkeaUtaak,takk>f aarooafrtgf tlM ttirabwit
«M«Be«tb(UDf thaiidlkjOpwhapftKdlaaof Oa |ur potato aawrtioaadabaa^ k«ptla
a*iUaalUMmwtk,»JgWaa**we4aB>r wdaia «•!«) tUi wmU amU) Hmsb ta
dlqienae with the raQk alao, and laTelheae poor Mlowi,wlu)MnMMllwaMkaiit aaeaolvpaa
tbaMMlpMlyframlhailaattraf toaaadteikkatMltlaata fopAwklak bM baan wrmd
oiw a Am iMtaU of b^Bf aairM In the poahet.
na eoatiuta aonatMilj pt>NeBija( MMowdvat la hwnaa lUa an aAw aMtUw a«4
liMtnetiTa}aa«ltnajn<tbawia<«*H*MnliM if,i«tk ttat Www^ "mt49" viNri*,
Uaihawi^ bMdtitd itlHArUioiWiaa^.aaAUiliawbaMtkm^naa «rN> (apOtr
with the wbolttome adrlce glTen In tb« same treatlae, "to plndi and screw the bmlljjni
AaMODliIUBAL MUB. 71
Has a houM and garden (about 2 rooda) rent free
— 2 qoarlere of wheat at 488. per quarter
— 2 biuhelfl of malt
— a covr kept> and
— £SSi a year in money.
la the eonmonnt neeemttiei," nntll b« gtta i w«d^ wlgw befcre tttad, ihftt Iw may not
nm In debt, (Qoery, what In the name of luuaMlty dOM "piNdU>v inidwr«w6ig" mean
la thi* eaae nnlcM It tw to boil the bonet again after the; are poonded ? ) we compare the
bfD of bre mt the dinner glren to the eouncll of the Itoyal AgrlcnltBral Boetet^, by the
lUjorlnbdiitf arth*«itf of Dtttagrjat the late atptooltkral ihow, holtetia Jolf, 1B43,
In that hospitable town- Thia UU, at well it ma? be, U printed on blue satin paper in
lettan of gdiA, In keeiddg with the hutqnet.
HOTAX HOTEL— SBRBT.
Tk» M^/tr't Bmgiut U m Jtoriri Agrtttdtmna CmuO, Jt^ lltk, 1849.
Biu or FAJta.
FIUT COUKBX.
lluee tnrtMta and lolnter nnee.
nuee nliium and ihrlmp do.
Tin dUiea of flUetted hIm.
Bre dlaiwe of tront
Ten tnnaaa of tnvtle tonp.
El^t do. ef gNCB pe* do.
Eight do, of |onp Jnll^ii.
BBCOHD COUKSS.
Tear bannebei of Tenkira.
Foarneeluef do.
Fire eonpkt tit boiled ehlckent.
Foorbanu.
nree calTee' he«d«, slewed.
Four qnartert of Iamb.
Fonr gee«.
Four veal fHcondean and ngont.
Foot pigeon pies.
Two romp* of beef, stewed.
Foot MTory pie*.
Fife tnrhe; ponlt*.
FIto tongne*.
fluree drtolni of beef.
nree legs of lamb, L goowberrr sance.
lobster patUes,
Stewed kldneff.
Xntton mtkiU with tomtt&i.
VmI tcmdoDs.
CuTTjed lobsters.
Teal entlet* and mnahrootns.
Cnnysd rabbits.
Lamb e«tlet« and eacumber sanei
Bight leverets.
Ele^t ooaplea of dncki.
Bight eonpleaof roast ehlckeni.
Eight plum puddings.
Eight; dishes of Bakewell do.
Elglit do. of apricot do.
Twenty do. of cheese calces.
Thirty do. of matds of honor.
Cherry tarts, and currant do,
Jdlles, bUneb mange.
Rhenish cream, $a>., to;.
Ices, grapes, peaches, cherries.
Nectarines, strawberries, raspberries,
Almonds and raisins.
Candled flults.
Damson cheese, Tartarian cheese.
Orange marmalade.
Preserred ginger.
Sponge calces, pound eakes.
Fruit, brandy, wine, biscuits, gbger cskes^
)vGoo»^Ic
78 AGMCULTOEAL TODB.
Fonr Uboien hvn the (bllowii^ ycvly mges, from Maj-da; to Mijr-
2s. 9d. per day, from May-day to MichaeLuBS
Is. 9d. „ from Michaelmaii to Uay-day
Sih 3d. per aore for gran and clover mowing
?■. „ for com cutting
16 bvdieb of wheat, at 6*. per biuhel
1 btttbel of malt, without charg«
1 cow kept do.
Each laborer paya £4. 4a. for a hoiue, and has about 3 roods of garden.
CaktiJatum ofnhat each man reeenw.
90 days, at 2i. 3d £10 S 8
21 acres of grass and clover mowing, at 3i.Sd.. 3 7 8
18 „ of ooni catting, at 7i. 6 6 0
172 days, at Is. 9d IS 1 0
Cow kee^g 6 8 0
42 4 9
Dedact hoiise>rent 4 4 0
Nett yeariy wages 38 0 9
" The Ei^Iieh labtwer," says an anistant poor-law commiflBioner, " evea if he
has transcendant abilities, has Bcarcely any prospect of risii^ in the world,
In theM eonpMifOni mMt eertalnlj I mesn no dliretpaet to sn; bmiutn bdng. I mjuH,
wtth a Urge party, bid the honor to dt down it the hoipltablo and el^ant table of the Kiyor
of Derbf, who, In company with many of the dtlxeni of that aaeteat town ipared no eSbrt
to mike the Tiilti of their frteadi u agreeable and eomfottable ai poailble; and certainly
hi thlt rMpcct DO penoni eoold hBTe nicceeded better. Nor am 1 dlipoaed to find faolt with
the Imnrlei with which any gentleman or company are dlipoied to mtcitaln thdr gueati.
But the contrMt here preaented between Uta condition of the producer and the conannet^-
between him whoaa toil CTentei the food and him who eat* 1^— cannot &1] to read a mott
important woA InitnetlTe leaion. What Itt monl n«ea an, I tItLnli, no &Ir and reflecting
mind will be at a Iom to 'percelre. I ahall not therefore, u In Ewp'i hblea, wilte the
moral at the bottom, hut I ihall leare the whole to my reader, withont note or comment ;
bellDgiure that if It leads to no lerkiu* reflaetiani tliera mnit be ■ itirliiii biilf iilitnirenai iif
latelleet; and if It itin no pity, and no humanity witliin Um, tiMie i« reaaon to fear tliat
all the spriogt are cot off, and the well ij atterly dry. Such, alai I an bat too ofbn,
hongh not alwayi, the melaoclioly eficti of bixiiiy and proeperlty.
AGBicrrLTraAL tour 73
and beooming a smaU Armer. He oommencea hii osreer m n weeklj
laborer, and tlie probabiUty ia that what«T«r may be bis talents snd indiutiy,
as a weekly laborer be will end bis days." " This is the kri side of the
picture ; what is the reverse ? "if he has do chance of rising in the vorld,
how many ohanoeshaa be of ftlling? If be is thrown out of employmoit } if
be has a large fiunily of giris or yoong obildren; if be yields to temp(ati(m
and becomes irregular in bis habits ; what is to become of bim ? The answer
is obvions ; tor a time he will be assisted by oasoal charity, and straggle on
against extreme privatioaB; bat if the causes of distress cmtinoe, one or
other of two things will be his final lot — he will either be enrolled among the
1,072;978 paapers receiving parish relief nnder tbe new poor law; or he
win be starred out of the country into some large torn, and absorbed in tbe
floatit^ popnlation wbo tenant the cellarB and lodging-houses, and live by the
worst-paid desoriptifHi of roannfiuituring indnatry, or by thieving, piostitation,
and casnal employment."*
As I have before remarked, it is mnoh more easy to point out and deplore
an evil, than it b to si^^^ a remedy, A republican would say that the evil
is fundamental, and grows out of a MHutitntioa of society establishing
di^rent ranks, the appropriation of the land in a few bands, the high price of
land, the depressing sense of dependence, and the hopelessness of competition
and of all attempts to acquire influence, respect, or wealth, incidental to, and
iaseparaUe fiom, such a framfr-work of sotue^. Persons bom to affluence and
distinctioo, and persons who have never felt their efforts checked or suppressed
by a sense of a dependence which they cannot escape, can very imperfectly esti-
mate tbe e&ct of these (urcamitances upon character. But whether desirable
or not — and, in this matter, I would leave every man to tbe enjt^ment of his
own bonest (^nkm — as aH expectation of a ohasge in the oonstitatton of English
Bodety seons as vain as to expect to reduce tbe ineqaalittes of tbe sur&oe of
the oountry to a common level— it only remdns to connder what alleviations
of the evils of tiie condition of die laboring classes can be succesfully attempted.
Tbe inquiry is one which most deeply concerns religion and bumani^. It is
• Lstng'sPdse aUnsi.
U,0,:i?edbyGoO»^Ic
yt MKcrnxmAz ikfb.
only jtufclilc«wiM toronwli:, mi I^ Ufrith tbeU^eitpiMMn^tlMttbe nd*-
MOtuiKiw iBtM«8tiQgiiiiuiin«ntblQbei)eT(^Btpenoiitiathebif|^ie(trBnk»aDd
in tlie middk 09uditi<HU of hh, to & degree periups never befi»e knowB] and
ibat many of tlu Imghtott mliide m now coaooqtntiQg their Miagiw npoa iti
invHtigMioii and oure> It is vrilb oqual ploatuta tiiat I ou s^ ikai I hun
ioBiid BmoDg umaj of tb« landlorcU Uia mwt wttohfiU atttntim to (ha vdftn
of theii labor«rt, afti eiracy kind pFOTtsyiR fiw them in uda»eM> iHa;, or
auBfortniw. AUsI that tbwe a» w maajr, who do not ooms widun the leai^
of this prowioBf and M maay, who rtfiue or Mgleot to nake iL
Xni.— Allotuent Stbteh.
That, wfait^ BMma to bs admitted oa afanoit all handa to ban epetatnl to
.tb«niostadTuitag^is wbatittanuod thaallofusantB^tan. In thia okm, Ihi
laborer biree of the landlord a small piece of land, and it ia gantnl^ limited
to one qsarter of aU acn, aad sddom exoeeds half auaare^for whidihepays
BOoh a roit as may be agreed upoo; aad. lie and Us fami^ cuMnle
it in their spare time, vtbm befere going to woA or after haviiig letmned
fiiom their day's wodc. The maoMr, in w^idi this land shall, be ^pro-
priated, is . genea^y detennioed or preaoribed by the landlord ; (hoagh^ in
some oasce^ it remains optional wHib (he laborw. Thsie small lots of land,
though genunlly leased at a modetats rent^ ia some cases^ aa at the l>ak« of
Devonsbiie'e Tillage of Edsoeor, at • tent sunly nominal^briiig at the rate of
from one pound to oght pounds sa aorc^ thoagb, in the latter oas^ the land
generally lias condgnons to s<»no huge manofitotanng town, vhere the laborer
finds an opportunity of disposing of loaay small piodacla at a high price. In
genaml, tlie Und so taken, exehuive of atmie iew gfoi^i T^tetaUM ibr daily
use, is applied to the growing 6( potatoes and vbeat ) and altamMed with
these two crops.
The efiect of these allotmentii upon the ehanoter of the oeeopant is qnile
remarkable. Ha beoouea himself, for the time being, an owner of tfa« m^;
he has a feeling of independence which nothing else can give, and which at
once exalts his character. He is able to avail Umself to advantage of the
Aonetrurau. totm, 74
U1h» of Iiii wifa and ctuUraa, vbo in mma ohms pufonn nuwt of the woik
OK the poond in boon whioh would oUierwin be irBttod or missppropriated.
ffis groapd yMda him « teige mpplr »f vegetaUes £w bk fimuly, and eial>lM
him to keep wd fiUten » pig or two, uid likimae Bonw poultry^ which very
nmch omdiiee to hit ownfort, and that of bis &mil|f . Tba onltiTatioii of lu>
groimd likewioe occupies boon which might otherwise be spent in the dliok-
ing-booi^ where nothing good is to be kemt, and where tlie fonndation of the
rain of muT a laboiw ia bid } iod the raia of bis fitnilf .fiiUows generally, aa
miMer of oouiMt Beudes lb««e adrantagea from the allotment sTstem, bis
jrovBgoet eluldian are here early trained to habits of indiuti? and carefolnaw.
The mare ka^bg of a pig in saoh osaes is a matter of seiiotu profit, and
not of tb«t onlyj bat of j^Minret and I bare been so mnoh straok> with the
renvrlu of one of the.ooininisaioMrB on this sulgect, that I tnnsoribe them
for tbo gratifioatiw of my nadera i—
" Of tooh a i^ the first product of allotmeot, gudea or potato headland,
it i* th« Aahioii amtng politioat eoonomiata to speak diir«q)eotf))lly. Now,
whateTer m^ht, bo the saperior profit to the oottager> of faving tiie money
wUt^ ha spends on his piga and billing big bacon in the market, this, as it
MiTW baa besn, and serer wilt be so saved, we may dismiss. In the mean-
tins his pigr besides its as^nlneaB} is also a real pleasure to him i it is one of
hit priaeiptl interests in life i be makes aaotifioca to it; he eiepoises seIf-000-
tiol Sat its sake; it prerotts him living &om hand to month, stu^dly oajreless
idihefv/tvn, X am penoaded that a greater act of onultyooqld hardly be per-
petrated, than the discoantenanciiig this practice, or rather anmsement and
tH^aymaUt anong the poor."*
80 Bwob for the moral efiects of this simple matter of the poor man's keep-
ing ft ^gt ^ vbich I perieotly agcoa wil^ the writer, aad booor the beoevo-
leaee wbiob Asoena, evea in theaa bumble matters, a moral utility. Itis
difievh to say, irhy, when the rich man finds bis pleasure ia bia banters, bis
dogs, his gama, bis mcauge(i«^ and ariaries, the poor man should not have
Ui plowre in Us jugj •& animal, indeed, not always of the most agreeable
• fllrB«I>i7VsBv«*tMBM»ii>]nMnt«rT<m«aadCUItaii,p.W0.
L.-,reab,C00»^Ic
78 AQBICULTirUL TOUR.
endowmenttj vet of veiy refined manners, bat yet in temper ukt mumer
susceptible of a considenble improvement by edacaUon, and endtled to no
small respect for his usefulness, since if hb master feeds him when living, he
returns the kindness when dead, by feeding his master; a merit wbioh cannot
be ascribed to some other domestic pets &r more expensively cherished and
Too much indeed cannot be said in &Tor of the allotmeot Bystem, of its
justice, its humanity, and its nsefntness. Its influence upon the happiness of
the poor, and its moral tendencies — its tendency to prevent idleness and disn-
pation, and to produce sobrie^, industry, and frugality ; and especially to keqt
men at home, and attach them t* their homes, most strongly recommend it.
Hany facts prove that the laborers in some instances pay full double the
ordinary rent of the land, and find their account in it. In most oases, how-
ever, the lease of a fanner fbrbids his nnder^lettbg any portion of his land ;
and allotments can only be granted under special agreement, or by the parti-
colarconsenl of the landlord. This ia not always to be procured; nor is it
always without strong oppoaition from the iarmers themselves.
It will perhaps be asked by some of my readers, why do I enter so iully
into the condition of the rural population ia England, when we have notiiing
whi(^ bears a resemblance to it in the United States ? This latter is one of the
very reasons why I do it } but I hope that others will present themselves,
opoQ reflection, which will at least excuse, if not justify me. I may as well
give some of those reasons in this plaoe; then, peAa|)e, I may be heard with
more patience.
I have promised my friends here, and in the United States, that they shall
Jutre my honest impressions of whatever comes under my observation oon-
neoted with t^ooltural and rural afiurs, and the condition of the rural popu-
lation. In the next place I see in the list of my subscribers the names of many,
who will talw a much stronger interest in such views, than in details of crops,
accounts of live stock, and the practical operations of husbandry, which I shall
go into at large in the course of my reports ; certainly I am bound to oonsul^
in some measure, Oieir tastes. In the next place, we shall find in the manage-
ment of nnall farms and small allotmmts, examples of Boocewfol cultivation.
>, Ct.)<,)^lc
AaBICULTUAAL TOUB. 77
which cannot be withont their oae and application to fanniDg on a mnch more
extended scale. Lastly, I cannot think it will be withont its use to compare
the condition of a laborer, vhere to him land, under the present condition of
things, is unattainable, and labor superabnndant, with a condition of labor
wherc^ as in the free states, erer; indnstrioos man can hare land of the most
fertile and prodnctiTe character almost at bis pleaear^ and where the price of
land places it within reach of his labor; where ererjr man may have his
home, and sit down qni^f without the apprehension of remoTal ; where it is
not a necessary study with him how often be may hare neat, or how many
days in the week he may hare bread ; but where, with industry, sobriety, and
frugality, he may always have more meat and more bread than he requires,
and something for the poor and the stranger.
I shall take the liberty here of mserting an acconst, sent me by a kind frigid,
of the working of the allotment system in a Tillage within his nelghbonrhood —
I bdiere, in Ijncolnshire. It is an interesting and instructiTe account. His
0}riniiHie respecting the size of iarms must rest upon his own responsibiUty. I
neither endorse nor deny them. On the subject of the size of farms I shall
■peak at large when my riews have become matured by farther observation.
" Scampton is the property of a gentleman (Sir George Cayley, Bart.) of
liberal views and enlarged benevolence. One of his first movements, upon
succeeding to the estate some thirty years ago, was to provide for the comfort
of those who, under his superior tenants, were to be the immediate laborers
up<Hi his land.
<'To fourteen cottages, allotments of land were made. A. field of sixteen
acres was set apart as pasturage, that each cottager might keep a cow ; and
another field of twenty-six acres was appropriated as mowing ground, that all
mig^t be provided with fodder for the winter. Each cottage had an acre of
tillage land allotted to it in the field, and something like another half acre as
garden ground, around its little homestead.
" A cow club, or insurance, was established, to enable those cottagers who
lost a cow by casualty, to replace her immediately, and without loss of time.
" In the spring of the year the cows are valued by a competent and disinter-
ested person. Each cottager pays sixpence in the pound on the value of his
cow. Cows . above fourteen years of age ere not insurable. If a cow diss
within the year, the owner recdves three-fourthi of lier value. The dead cow
is the prqierty <^ the club.
ogle
7S AOKicm.'nrBAL tour.
" eixpmM in &b pomid, anniwUy, haa actmdly coTend to tltr«e-fBmih$ o£
Ui« value, all oasaaUiet apon a rao of twenty yean.
" Under the iiiapection of a shrewd and spirited agent the whole aSair has
worked to admiratioD, and been productive of peace and plea^ amidst the little
commnnity whose happmess itwas designed to promote. No burning of staclcs
here, because every man haa one of' )ub own. No invMaon of die ri^ris of
property, beoauae every man is a pMSOsaor of property and anziona to
guarantee his neighbonr's rights, that he may hold hia own in the better
security.
"The rent that each cottager pays is something less than :&10 per annum.
The prodncs that b yieldad, anioh' to the oradit of tba humble aultiTatora, is
abundantly ample to covor the ont-goingi, aad leaves a Burploa that makes
them comfiwtable.
" The acre of tillage land is remarkably prodncdve. It is divided into two
allotments — half an acre is in wheat, the other half in potatoea ; alternating
the crops, of course, every year. On tUa abort rotation, the land has not
Bufiered, tmt aetual^ inerttuedinfirtiUtg. For the last ten years the flropa«f
wheat have yielded twenty bushels to the half acre. The twenty yean preceding,
eighteen boahela was the average. Instances of twen^-seren bushels to
the half acre have been known. The half acre of potatoes, with othars grown
in the garden, are usually fed to piga, aud instaaoea han been kabwa wiuve
the oottager has sdd twea^ pooads wordi of pigs and w^ supplied bis own
family with bacon. It is common for them to sell from ten to twenty pounds
worth of pigs, or pork, per annum, and still keep a good supply for &milj
use. Some of the cottagers, who have been blessed with careful wives and
good cows, have sent twelve pounds of butter, per weekj to market, dniing
all the flush of the ieed.
" It must bfl understood, that while the cottager's allotments of land are
thus multiplying his comforts, he has a constant supply of work, and current
wages, from the neighbouring farmers. His own ftrmmg is done after his
master's day's work is completed, with perchance e day now and then, as at
seed time and hai^eat
"Happy, comfortable, and superior in condition, as theBe cottagers appear,
yet the Hyatem that makes them so bas often been called in question. It baa
been observed, that the cbildren of cottagers, thus happily situated, are not
over anxious to go to service, and not over apt to keep their places when they
do go. There appears a latent consciousness about them that the house of
their parents is wdl supplied with bread and baCon.
" Perhaps the evil, if it be one, has a deeper origin than at first sight appears.
May it not be traceable to our social system, the genius of which delights to
keep property in lai^ masses, under great proprietors t lliese proprietors
AGUCtiltUBAL VtViL "n
hm a noiilar predileetion for large dtvuioiiB of thar property — loi^e fitnns,
wkL moil of large capital to woA them. All tbb hmj be wsll— tety well
SQked ta the caBt-iron oonscieneeB of the politick economists ; but it creates a
duum betweep the .large &rmer — the farmer of two boiidred aud fi% acres,
with a capital of twenty-five hundred pounds, and the mere laboring cottager.
Hie btter cafi nera hope to paas so great a Toid. There are no inter-
^OMdiate resting [dMeik Than are tio &nnt of twenfj, fiftyi or a Uandted
aen% to which the socceBsful and deeerving cottager oau be promoted.
The steps of the ladder are oat. Harivg obtained the rare blessing of
a cottage sllatment, the language of his heart is, " Let tu eat, drink, and
be meny, for in oar prceent obndiHon ve most^." His highest am-
biliea being aduaved aad the &milf little more to hope &t', it i« not
to be wondered at that some-little kzi^ should be ebserrable. Let the peat
landlords of the land supply a motire by a more natural diTision of their pro-
' perty — ^let them encourage the aspiradonB of the industrious cottagen by
nnall ftnas in prospectire, and larger beyond tii^n, and the enei^et of onr
feumtry will nferer ba Amd to Bag. Bat thii is, peihapi, acahjely to be
hoped fori"
Iiiudlgo irtiU more largriy into th«8aljaat<rf^totmantt,Bipi'eiiBMtiiig one of
the first end most efficient means of bettering the condition of tbs agnCnttanl
Uierw. My'owhooiiTiefiobs are strong oaOiisp^t; and tb^ an tiut^ned
mud ilnngflMBed by dte testinionyof nmqr nwnof largeezpetieooeuidafaiewd
ojbnmtion. "nie laborer fioda, in an alletmatt, a aeand of toining his spare
hours to adrentage, and in a mode of labor which, from its nxf dunote^
being in the associadon of his wife and children, nnder his own control and
management, and fiir his own immediate and personal benefit, becomes a
pleasure instead of a toil. He finds in it the means of ekeing out bis scanty
wages ; of providing, to a degree, for an occasion of sickness, or other sus-
pension of his employment and wages. He is enabled to bring from this
source many rare comforts to his own frugal table j and has himself, if he is a
man of feeling — and why should henotbe?— an opportunity of enjoying one of
the richest of all pleasores, that of making a small contribu^on to relieve an
unfortunate or a sick neighbour. It presents a good school of industry fi>r his
children, under his own immediate inspection. It quickens his own intelli*
gence in making agricultural experiments upon a small and useful scale ; and
rouses a sinrit of wholeeome onulation in his crops even vith the master
ogle
80 AOaiCULTintAL totib.
ftnners. It remores him from Htrot^ temptatiom to gambling, low disnpa-
tion, and intemperance. It gives him ut interest in the soil ; it attaohea faim
to his home; it inTolvea him in all the risks of the public safety; and makes
him the friend of public peace and order. It gives him the spirit of a man,
raising him abore the sense of slaTish d^iendence, and the dread of becoming
a pen^oner on public charity. In so doing it at once exalts him in the com-
• munity; induces a most wholeaomc self respect; inspires a jnst regard for the
rights of property ; attaches him the more stKmgly to his superior, who thus
shows his wiUtngness that he should walk erect instead of keeping him upon
the ground with his foot upon his neck; and presents innmnerable, constant,
and powerful motires to improvement and good conduct. I wish it were in
my power to convey to those, who have been bom to affinence, rank, and au- .
thority, the force of these sentiments upon minds aIt(^;other diffio-ently circom-
■tanced from diemselres ; but I know it would be difficult — I fear it might'be
imposfdble. A consciousness of absolate dependents, so extremely difficult
to be oigrafted in the human mind, seems indispensable to teach us our duty
either to man or God.
That the whole of this subject has an important bearing in its economical
and moral aspects upon my own coontcy cannot, I think, be overlooked by a
raflecUng mind; and, in the course of my r^rts, will, I trust, be made mwo
folly apparent.
)yGoo»^Ic
„Gooi^lc
-"4
„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE.
SECOND REPORT.
Xm. — ALLOTMENT SYSTEM. (CMtituud.)
Mt First Report was coDcluded with the important subject of
allotmects of land to laborers. This subject, without an explant^
tion, would scarcely be imderstood by a majority of the f^iners
in the United States. The agricultural laborers, or, as they are
here termed, the farm^aervanta, are seldom or never owners of
land. They receive their wages in money or produce, as I have
already described ; and some of them, living in compact villages,
have not even a small piece of ground for a garden, though, in
many parts of the country, the cottages have small gardens at-
tached to them. The unmarried laborers sometimes live in the
houses of their em^oyers ; but this is not now a general nor a
frequent practice. The married laborers live in cottages on the
estate, or in a neighboring village.
It is obvious how great advantages a poor family in the
country may derive from a small piece of land, and how much
produce may be obtained from it for their support and comfort
by the application of even a small amount of labor, which other-
wise, without such opportiuiity of applying it, would be lost, or
rather would not be exerted. Many persons, therefore, have
leased to their laborers small portions of land, varying in size
from a quarter of an acre, or even less, to an acre, and in some
cases more than this, to be cultivated in such crops as the laborer
may select, or as may be prescribed by the {voprietor. One
)yGoo»^Ic
82 ECBOPEAN AOEICULTUBX.
condition is usually made absolute in these cases — that the land
should be cultivated with a spade, and not with a plough. The
results therefore become the more interesting.
I shall give here an account of a successful attempt at the
improvement of the condition of the poor rural laborers by allot-
ments of land, cultivated by the spade, uniting with these allot-
ments, at the same time, a provision for the education of the poor
children by whose labor these grounds are cultivated. The
accoimts have a twofold value, in lowing the practicableness
of meeting the expenses of education by the labor of the pupils,
and the increased and extraordinary product which may be ob-
tained from land under the spade husbandry.
" A friend to the more general diffusion of a sound education
amongst the peasantry of the United Kingdom, who has long
witnessed the success with which education may be, without cost,
combined with instruction, in the best modes of cultivating the
soil, begs to submit to those who are impressed with the impor-
tance of the effort, the few following facts: —
" A landed proprietor has established what are termed ' Agricul-
tural Schools,' upon the principle of uniting our present national
with i^icultural instruction, by making the labor of the little
scholars, while tmder tuition in the art of husbandry in the after-
noon, to compensate the master, in the way of salary, for the
instruction they receive from him, in the usual coaiae of our
national education in the morning. Schools have already been
established upon this plan at the villages of East Dean and Wil-
lingdon, and they are attended with the happiest results. The
usual quantity of land required for the purpose does not exceed
five acres ; and for this the master pays a rent, certainly equal to,
and in most cases beyond, that of the adjoining land, occupied
by fanners. In the case of the Willingdon school, there is an
appropriate house, for which the master pays an additional rent.
The only payment in money to the master is the usual pemiy a
week from each scholar.
" Nor can any reasonable objection be made to this plan on
Uie groiuid of so emjdoying the boys in the aftranoon. The
girls in our national schools are taught, and for the same number
of hours, to work with the needle, the use of which is not more
important to them than that of the spade and the hoe to the
boys.
)yGoo»^Ic
ILLOTMEHT STSTEH. 8£
"As T^ous questions will natiually suggest themselves to
those who read this Btatement, the following answers, by the
schoolmaster, to numerous inquiries already made, are inserted
here: —
"Replt or THE Master to Iitquihies respecting this School.
"'I have twenty scholars, to whom I teach leading, writing,
and accounts, the Church Catechism, Collects, and Psalmody on
the national plan, with the approbation of the vicar, without any
salary, for one penny per week from each boy, from nine to
twelve o'clock ; and from two till five in the afternoon cultiva-
ting the land. I have not lost one from dissatisfaction, but I am
glad to say that they willingly assist me,
*' ' I am satisfied that I can keep two cows on the same quantity
of ground, stall-fed, where I could keep but one if I allowed her
to graze ; and grow more corn.
" ' I have no grass land, and all the first winter my cows had
only straw, turnips, and mangel-wurzel, till green food came on in
the spring ; and now my faayia the clover I sowed with the grain
crop last year.
" ' I have experienced a great deal of good from the liquid
manm« from the two tanks, one from the cows and the other
from the pigs.
" ' I have just killed a pig weighing twenty-nine stone seven
pounds, and one before about the same weight, which I have
used in my family. I have a wife and four children,
" ' It is allowed that my oats are the best sample in the parish.
I tied my oats in sheaves, and set them up the same as wheat,
which saves a great deal of scattering : this is the general prac-
tice in Cornwall and Scotland, and, I hear, in some parts of
Kent, and is particularly useful for barley to malt.
" ' I thrash my com over the cow-house, as in Cornwall,
Switzerlfmd, &c., which keeps it perfectly dry, being thus kept
from the damp ground.
" ' I am entirely supplied with water by the rain which falls on
the house, preserved in a tank in the ground.
" ' The quantity of land I rent is, five acres, on the side of the
South Downs, et £3 an acre ; this with £5 for my house,
makes £30, which I have paid for the year ending Micharf-
)yGoo»^Ic
84 EUROPEAN AGRtCULTDRG.
mas last, though I might have taken off my crops, and lived
rent-free ; but I preferred staying and teaching, though I have no
salary ; and so, I think, would many others.
" ' I have now three cows, a heifer, and a calf, standing oppo-
site to each other, with a road between their mangers for feeding
these stall-fed cattle, which have never needed a farrier; and
from skim milk I have made cheese like the Dutch cheese.
'"Georoe Cbdttenden.
" ' WiLLiNODon, ne&r Eastbourne, Siuaez, Jlpril, 1842.'
" ' At your request, I send the particulars of my produce last
year, which I am perfectly satisfied with, leavii^ me a balance of
£40 after every thing is paid, thoi^h the last was an un&vorable,
dry summer.
" ' I am likewise happy to say, the principal farmers of the
parish have taken into their employ six of my scholars, all imder
twelve years of age, into their service since Christmas, and two
of them under nine ; and all, after leaving my day school, where
they paid me one penny a week in addition to their work, have
each paid me fourpence a week out of their wages, for evening
instruction ; and their master is now using the liquid manure the
same as I do, which I have found most beneficial.
" ' I have a wife and four children, whom I support in a
comfortable way, and wish I could see many of my ne^h-
bors do the same ; but that is not the case.
" ' G. Cruttendbn.
"'WiLUKSDOH School, ,^rS 14, 1843.'
" A landed j»vprietor at Willingdon, seeing the success of this
school, recommended the establishment of a similar school in the
adjoining parish of East Dean, where, in the spring of 1842, five
acres of land were let to John Harris, an infirm man, who, two
years before, had been in the Eastbourne Union House, with his
wife and seven children, where, at three shillings per head, they
cost at the rate, yearly, of £70 4s., which is equal to the rent of
three hundred and fifty-one acres of sheep-walk : now he is
supporting his family on only five acres, and, when recommended
to give up his five acres, said, ' he had rather continue to pay
rent, rates, tithes, and taxes, and teach without a salary, than
have fourteen shillings a week without the land.'
)yGoo»^Ic
ITUf. 65
" Harris, in the Unioo House, resembled a mouse in a granary
derouiing the fruits of labor ; but does not this same Harris, on
his five acres, resemble the mouse in the fable, releasing
die famishing lion? for by bis rent he is helping to support
the OTuer of the soil, by his rates the poor, by his tithes
the church, and by his taxes the state, which surprises those -who
have long been accustomed to hear it is requisite to let land in
large Janns, for the 8U}^y of food for large towns.
" But do not the biohie bcnts paid for allotments of land
by the spade than the plough, show that, after suj^rting the
coltiratOTS and their families, they send more to market per acre
than the great farmers ?
" It was the eagerness of laborers in Sussex to hire land, that
suggested the possibility of some men to obtain as much as five
acres, undertaking to teach reading, dtc, three hours daily with-
out a salary, without at dl anticipating that twelve boys, arer*
aging eight years of age, by their labor for three hours after noon,
coold well pBy for their instruction in school before noon ; bqt
a trial of upwards of three years has pat this beyond doubt, as
dozens of signatures in the visitors' book testify, of ctei^ymea
and members of both Houses of Parliament, not only of this
neighborhood, but ^so from Ireland and Scotluid, amongst
whom was BIr. Townshend Mainwaring, H. P. for Denbigh, who
iaqteeted these schools April 29th, 1843, and entered in the East
Dran visitors' book, that he was much gratified by the complete
snceosB which appeared to attend the simple principle upon which
the school was conducted. ^
" And these self-snpporting schools require much less superin-
teodraice than where the master has a fixed salary, because, if be
neglected or misused the boys before noon, their parents are not
likely to send them back to work for him after noon.
" He is interested in cultivating the land well, as it is the only-
support of his family.
" Ijmdiords are interested in letting land to masters who pt^
high tents.
" Bate-payers are interested in able-bodied men being enabled
to maintain themselves.
" Parents are interested in sending their children where they
early learn to earn their livings in that state of life onto which k
has [deased God to call them.
)yGoo»^Ic
86 EDBOPEAN AOBICUl/nim:.
" The farmers around, seeing the great produce from staJl-
feeding and liquid mauuie, are interested in taking additional
hands into their service.
" The more food that is raised fi-(Mn the soil, the more there
vill be to exchange for dotbing, and thus an increased home
market be provided for our mauofiicturera ; who, the more they
earn, the more they have to lay out in meat, &«.
" And to effect this, there is no deficiency in capdtal. There
is no want of hands, as our UnitHi Housea are overflowing with
the able-bodied ; nor is there any want of land, as the heaths,
commons, and grazing land, even round London, show."
It is stated, likewise, — and it is a fact deserving of all remark,
•^ " that, duTtog a course of twelve years, out of four hundred
rents, only three rents have been deficient, though the tenants
were taken without reference to character, and told the rent
would not be demanded if not tendered ; but the desire of keep-
ing the land has secured the annual payment, and only one, duhi^
the whole of that time, has been convicted of a misdemeanor."
"In fifty parishes in one county in which there are above
three thousand allotments, after the most careful inquiry, ouz
f^ent heard only of one commitment to prison in 1840, and not
even one in 1841, out of the whole three thousand families."
The general condition on which allotments are granted being
that they shall be cultivated by the spade, the extraordinary
product obtained in this way deserves to be remarked. The
statements to which I shall refer are drawn &om the reports of
a committee of Parliament, and seem, therefore, entitled to coor
fidence. I have myself visited several allotment grounds in
different parts of the coimtry, and am quite satisfied that the
results under this system of management are not overstated. On
this subject I shall say more hereafter ; but it may not be out of
place if I give here some examples which have been referred to.
John Piper, in Sussex, holds an allotment of four acres. He
obtained, in 1843, forty-two bushels of wheat &om three quarters
of an acre of land ; he had two hundred and fifty bush^ of
potatoes from three fourths of an acre ; he had ten bushels of
barley &om the other land, and kept two cows, and three and
sometimes four pigs ; he considers that there might be an acre
of grass, and the cows were kept entirely upon the produce of
the four acres ; a portion of thi^ was not arable, as some trees
)yGoo»^Ic
ALIiOTMUIT SXBTKIL 87
were growing upon it. A peculiarity in this man's management
is, that he works one of his cows in his cart, and calculates that
her labor savea him an expense of five pounds ; she is milked
in the morning before she is put to work, and, althoi^h worked,
she makes eight pounds of butter a week, besidea fumiahing
some milk for the femily. This is a sort of Robinson Cnuoe
management, which is well deserving of attention. It would
not be easy to find a reason why the female of one class of ani-
mals ^ould be exempted from w(»rk, rather than of another ; and
there is no ground to suppose that, with good feeding and carefid
usage, moderate labor would be iiijurious to the health of an
aoimai ; much more likely is it to be conducive to health, and
even, in such case as this, to the more liberal secretions of milk.
O^er circumstances in this man's economy are worthy of ob-
servation j he saves all his liquid manure in a tank by his own
house, and mixes with it a proportion of soot and salt ; he throws
his land into heaps, and puts the liquid upon the heaps, and then
s{»eads it abroad — "because," aa he renuirks, "hia land is so
near the chalk, that if he put his liquid manure upon the land,
three fourths of it would be wasted — it would go clean away, so
as never to get it again ; but when put in a heap of mould it is
retained."
Produce of four Acres, held by J, Piper, in 1842.
£. s. d.
4Si bushels of wheat, at 7 s. 6 d. per bushel 15 15 0
250 do. potatoes, at 16d. per do 15 12 6
Pood for one cow, which gave 4 lbs. butter per week,
at 1 s. per lb 10 0 0
The other cow do. do. do. do. .10 0 0
Food for three pigs, at 2O9L each, and at Ss. 6d. per st 10 10 0
£61 17 6
This examine shows the extiaonUnary results of minute and
exact cultivation, and the value of economy in husbanding with
extreme care all the resources for manure. The cow is an ani-
mal I have always looked upon with the greatest respect for her
justice and her liberality ; in this case she pays for her board by
her yield in milk and butter, and adds to it her labor, 01, as
is said in case of a free pass^e on board ship, " she works her
)vGoo»^Ic
88 EUBOFEAM AOSICtrLTDSZ.
own passage ; " but the good creature's usefulness does not end
here. When she has completed her round of beneficence, her
benefactions do not close with her life ; her hoofs are made into
glue ; her hoins into combs ; her bones into knife-handles and
cane-tops ; her hair worked up into plaster ; her skin into shoes ;
and her meat into food. Who can wonder that the Hindoos
■(dways regarded her with a religious veneration ?
The next instance presented by the Parliamentary Reports is
that of J. Dumbrell. His allotment is six acres, and is managed
by himself, his father, (seventy years old,) and a child of nine
years old, " The soil is chalk, on a deep soil, in a valley."
His stock consffits of two cows and a heifer, and from two to
three pigs. His succession of crops is thus described : " First,
Italian rye grass, cut four times, watering it each time with
liquid manure after cutting it ; then tares ; then clover ; then
cabbage comes in, and mangel-wurzel ; and second cut clover,
and sometimes three; and that carries us all the summer
through : then we begin upon the roots in winter, turnips and
mangel-wurzel, and straw."
The following is the statement of his produce for 1840 : —
£. s. d.
From two cows in nine months and a half, from the
16th of Jan. to the 26th of Oct., made 400|lbs. of
butter, which at 1 s. per lb 20 0 3
The cow, all the year stall-fed, yielding a third more
than the other, which grazed half an acre ; and their
two calves sold for 6 18 0
The skim milk, at 3 pints 1 d., or given to the pigs, is
estimUed at 10 0 0
On one quarter of an acre he grew 18 buahels of oats,
which, at 4 s. per bushel, amounts to 3 12 0
On 88 poles (*. e., a little more than half an acre) he
grew 32 bushels of wheat, worth, at 8 s, per bushel,
(which is equal to the consumption of himself, his
wife, and three infant children,) 12 16 0
Besides pigs, potatoes, vegetables, and the butter to be
expected to the end of the year, which may fairly
be estimated on the whole of the land (including
the foregoing, as I understand the account, which is
rather imperfectly drawn up) at 60 0 0
)yGoo»^Ic
ALLOmZNT BTETXIC 89
Out of this he paid —
Rent, rates, tithes, and taxes of one acre, . £17
Rent of one acre and a half, 7 0
Rent of half au acre of grass, . . . £3 10
Lodge in it, 1 00
Rates, tithes, and taxes, 15
£4 6
Hired labor, £2 0
Seed com, 2 0
£4 0
Leaving .... £43 8 0
The two pounds paid for labor were paid for threshing.
There are two other accounts of the same individual subjoined.
■ Produce of three artd one quarter Acres, in 1841.
£. a. d.
Wheat, 21} bushels, at 8 s. 8 12 0
Oats, 44 bushels, at 2 s. 9 d 6 10
Potatoes, 80 bushels, atls 400
Two calves sold for 5 10 0
Butter, 423^ lbs., at Is. 21 3 3
Milk sold, and given to the pigs, 10 0 0
£55 6 3
Produce of six and one quarter Acres, in 1842.
£. s. d.
Wheat, 40 bushels, at 6 s. 6 d 13 0 0
Oats, 93 bushels, at 2 s. 6 d 11 12 6
Peas, 22 bushels, at 4 s. 6 d 4 19 0
Potatoes, 150 bushels, at 1 s 7 10 0
Two calves, one fat and one suckled, 3 7 0
Butter, 290 lbs., at Is. 14 10 0
Milk sold, and given to pigs, 8 0 0
£62 18 6
In 1842, he lost two cows by death, and the additional land
was taken in bad condition.
At the same time, he presented a sample of his wheat, on which
were eighty-four stalks from one grain. There is another secret
)yGoo»^Ic
90 EUXOPXAH ABBICULTUBE.
of this man's success — be had signed the temperance ple^ej
he is a tee-totaller, and drinks neither spirituous nor fermented
liquor.
An inquiry was made of Mr. Dumbrell, "how it was possible
to keep two cows, and maintain a family of five persoHs, on only
three acres of land ; " to which this is his answer — " The state-
ment you saw was very true; half an acre of pasture, half an
acre and eight rods in wheat, and one quarter of an acre in oats ;
the other part was green food for the cows, such as rye, tares,
cabbages, clover, mangel-wurzel, turnips, and Italian rye-grass.
^t if you are surprised at my keeping two cows on this quantity
of land, I must tell you that one crop a year wilt not do it : but my
.plan is to take second crops ; that is, rye is the first thing I cut
green in the spring ; then I dig the land, and manure it with the
liquid manure, as far as it will go ; then finish with rotten (lui^,
and plant mangel-wurzel and turnips ; and the part that I manure
-with the liquid is always the best. The next thing I cut is
winter barley and turnips, and plant some cabbages for winter :
by this time I cut the grass and clover, which grows again in a
short time, with a little of the liquid manure as soon as it is cut.
tiast siunmer I cut the Italian rye-grass and clover three times ;
and this year I have nearly cut it twice already, and there were
really two good crops of the Italian rye-grass, and I think there
will be two more this summer, with a little manuring. My early
cabbages I always let stand to grow again all the summer, and
they bring a great deal of food. I plimt again in November, and
put the liquid manure to them as far as it will go ; but to the
rest I use dung or ashes, which are not so good as the liquid,
■which any body may tell in the sfHring by looking at the bed of
cabbages ; so I hope it now appears how the cows are maintained
in winter as well as in summer. During last winter, I had no
tay, only turnips, mangel-wurzel, and straw, and they did very
well."
I have already apprized my readers that my Reports must be,
in a degree, desultory, from the necessity of giving them before
the whole ground has been gone over. Compelled at once to
begin the erection of my building, I must use such materials as
I have ; and which, I fear, under such circumstances, may appear
incongruous and ill-assorted to an eye accustomed to order and
exact arrangement ; whereas, if every thing were at hand, I might
)yGoo»^Ic
ILLOniENT BTSTeH. 91
better succeed in preserving the symmetrj- and adjusting the
uchitectuial proportions of the edifice. I ahall therefore make
no excuse for saying here something more of spade husbandry,
and the extraordinary products of small pieces of land ; and it
must he admitted that it is by no means disconnected with the
subject of cottage allotments.
The utmost productive capacity of an acre of land, in any
crop, has not yet been fully determined. The amounts attained
firequently suri»ise us ; but we have not yet got to the end of
the line.
One of the witnesses before the Parliamentary committee gives
8D account of a man who supported himself, and wife, and son,
firom two acres of land, for which he paid a rent for the two of £9
10 8. ; and in the course of seven years, he had saved enough from
the jcoduce of his two acres to purchase two acres of land, for
which he paid about £30 to £40 per acre. He states, likewise,
his own personal knowledge of six acres of land, which, under
the spade cultivation, produced at the rate of fifty-two bushels of
wheat to the acre. Another witness testifies that on the estate
of Lord Howard, Barbot Hall, in Yorkshire, a rood of land was
dug and planted with wheat by bis lordship's direction, and
twenty-eight bushels of wheat were obtained fivm this quarter of
an acre, which would be at the extraordinary and unheard-of
rate of one hundred and twelve bushels per acre.
The authenticity, or rather accuracy, of such a statement as
this may well be considered as questionable; hut I hare the
[Measure of presenting one, exhibiting a most extraordinary yield,
on which ftdl reliance may be placed.
In visiting Horsham, (the last summer,) in the county of
Sussex, my attention was strongly attracted by two small pieces
of wheat in a garden by the road-side, exhibiting an extraordinary
luxuriance ; and I have been able to obtain a detailed history of
its cultiu^ and yield, through the politeness of C. S. Dickens, Esq.,
of Coolhurst, near Horsham.
The seed of this wheat was brought from Australia, being the
product of some wheat which had been sent there two or three
years before. The quantity of land sown, in one of the pieces,
was thirty-four square yards. The wheat was dropped in rows
nine inches apart, and in holes six inches apart, and only one
grain in a place. The number of corns planted was 682, out of
)vGoo»^Ic
EUSOFEAlf AaBICDI.TnRK.
■which 33 failed to germinate. The cultivator obtained four
gallons of good -wheat horn the land, exclusive of several of the
finest plants, -which he saved. The usual number of stems from
each seed -was 18 to 20 ; a considerable number gave 30 to 36,
and one -was counted which had 40 full-sized stems, and three
of a smaller size. The straw from the 34 yards weighed 73
pounds, which would be 284 trusses of 36 pounds to the acre.
The weight of the 682 corns piwited was 17 drachms. This
being multiplied by 142, the land being the l-142d part of an
acre, gave about 9^ pounds as seed for the acre ; consequently
one bushel of wheat, at 63 pounds per bushel, would plant more
than six acres. The produce of 4 gallons, multiplied, as above,
by 142, gives the great quantity of 71 bushels, or 17 sacks 3
bushels, to the acre. The ground had borne potatoes the previous
year, and had received no top-dressing, nor been in any way
manured for the wheat. A sample of the wheat, which has
been kindly sent to me, in the straw, and which I have de-
posited in the museum of the Royal Agricultural Society, -was
six feet in height
These are remarkable facts. What has been done can be
done. They forbid our resting satisfied with what has been
accomplished ; and they encourage the hope that the productive
powers of the soil are vastly greater than have yet been deter-
mined. Onward ! is the watch-word of the present day, in every
department of science and art. Why should agriculture form an
exception? Away with the drones ! Do not let us mistake a
fog-bank for land, nor think that we have reached the end of
the voyage until our feet actually press the solid ground.
The idlotments referred to above I have myself had the satis-
faction of inspecting, and add, with great pleasure, my humble
testimony to the skill, industry, and good conduct, with which
they are managed. Indeed, in many respects, I do not know
where they can be exceeded. The establishments presented
striking examples of the most exact economy. Three of the
parties had been driven by their necessities into the workhouses,
principally, however, owing to accidental injuries and sickness ;
but now, instead of being dependent upon public support, they
were paying punctually a full rent for their land, and were jwo-
curing an honest and comfortable living from their o-wn industry.
Another of the families, presenting one of the most beautiful and
)vGoo»^Ic
AIXOTHKHT BT&TEJC. 93
affectum examines of indefatigable industry, of severe economy,
and of grateful and religious contentment, which I have ever
witneeaed, said, with tbeii eyea flooded with toais, that they
had been saved from the workhouse — a &te which many of the
poor seem to diead almost as much as death itself — only by the
kindness of their beneficent proprietor in toasii^ them the land,
and in furnishing them with tools and with cows to commence
their operations. Besides supporting themselves and their child,
they had also supported an aged father and mother ; and had ,
nearly paid a debt of twenty pounds to the physician, incurred
by a sickness of three years, of the man himself, before he had
the allotment ; and the whole of which they were determined
fully to dischaige. They expressed themselves but too happy
in being able to assist and succor their aged parents, who, in
time of his dhiess, took the kindest care of them. In no condi-
tion of life have I seen a brighter example, without any preten*
sions and without ostentation, of some of the highest virtues
which can adom the human cbaracter. An inflexible rule with
&em was, not to incur even the smallest debt for any thing.
The matter of medical relief must, of course, form an exception.
This same man, living in a poor village, wh«« it would seem
that education was never more wantii^, had proposed, after the
plan of the others, to keep a school, and assist himself by the
labor of the children ; but a principal foimei in the neighborhood,
disconcerted by the extraordinary success of this bumble family
in sustaining themselves independent of his aid, had threatened
his laborers, if they sent their children to this school, they should
be dismissed from his employment, and so prevented it. It is to
be hoped, for the honor of human nature, that examples of such
cold brutality are rare.
Three of these tenants have been kind enough to furnish me
with their accounts of the products of the Isst year, (1843,) which
will, I think, not be without interest to my readers.
Mr. Crittenden has five acres of land, of which the following
is the produce for the year 1843. He adds, in respect to it, " I
have not put in the com, roots, and hay, which the cows and
pigs consume, as they answer to them in their milk and flesh."
)yGoo»^Ic
94 .i
" WiLLiNsiMH, MarA 4, 1844.
"The produce of my landj five acres, the laust year, (1843,)
beii^; the quantity and the price : —
£. s. d.
8 ^t 6 bo. of wheat, at 62s. per qt 22 15 0
3 " 0 " of oats, at 21 8. per qt 3 30
I " 6 " of barley, at 30 b. per qt 2 12 6
1 " 0 " ofpeas,at348. perqt 1 14 0
120 bushels of potatoes, at 1 s. per bushel, ... 600
1 La^e h(^ sold for 4 15 0
1 onall do. 15 6
1 calf, sold yoong, 1 10 0
1 hog for self, 25 stone, 3 15 0
Butter and milk, 11 0 0
1 calf, reared for a cow, 2 10 0
1 young BOW, ■ 200
£63 0 0
Rent, 2600
38 0 0
1 1^ of tail wheat, worth £2, which we eat, ... 200
Total, £40 0 0"
I subjoin the letter with which he has favored me : —
"Sir,
" I send yoa the rotation of cropping for six years, which
I adopt myself; likewise the kinds and quantity which I sow, for
two cows aud a heifer, on my five acres. First, I sow about one
and a half acres of wheat, which I drill in, about nine inches apart
between drills. I sow two and a half bu^els to the acre. Then
I sow (HW acre with clover in the spring, — about three gallons
of seed to the acre, — in order to cut for the cows green, and the
rest for hay for the winter ; this is the best food that I can get.
It may be cut three times. Second, one acre of either oats or
barley that I drill in, as every thing drilled is so much best for
the boys to woik amongst, and likewise a saving of seed.
Third, I sow about twenty rods of rye, and sixty rods of winter
tares, in September, for the cows in the spring, and they will
come off soon enough for potatoes or turnips ; after them, then it
)yGoo»^Ic
ALLOmCNT STSTEIC 9S
comes in for wheat. I sow the rye and tares broadcast, as it
should be thick on the ground. Fotuth, I sow the rest of the
ground with swedes, turnips, mangel-wurze), carrots, and pota-
toes, for winter food ; the mangel-wurzel produces a great deal
of food for the cows, if \he leaves are taken off properly.
" I leave a piece of ground for spring tares, to come in after the
winter tares. I sow these in Febniaiy.
" This will keep two cows and a heifer all the year round, if
they are stall-fed.
"Rotation or C&ops.
1845.
—46.
—47.
—48.
—49.
—SO.
1645.
—46.
—47.
—48.
—49.
1845.
—46.
—47.
—48.
—49.
—60-
Wheat
Clorei
Wheat.
Turnips and mangel-wurzel.
Oats or barley. . . . ^
Potatoes
T^ird Dwititni.
Oats or barley
Rye and tares. ....
Wheat
Clover.
Wheat
Turnips, mangel-wurzd, )
carrots, >
r
lyaDieitimt.
Spring tares and turnips. <
Wheat
Turnips, mangel, turnips. .
Oats or barley
Potatoes
Wheat
Rye and tares.
Wheat.
Clover.
Wheat
Turnips, mangel-wurzel,
carrots,
Oats or barley.
JWM iKmmn.
Wheat.
Turnips, mangel-wurzel.
Oats or bailey.
Potatoes.
Wheat.
Clover.
Mangel-wurzel, carrots,
swedes, turnips.
Oats or barley.
Rye and lares.
Wheat.
Clover.
Wheat."
The next account which I shall present is that of Mr. Dum-
brell, at the village of Jering:ton, Susses county, who occupies
)yGoo»^Ic
96 EOBOPBAH ASUCOLTDBE.
six acres aad a quarter. The jHvducts of the years 1841 and
1842 are already giTen. The folloving ia for 1843 : —
Six Acrei and a quarter, 1843.
£. B. d.
Two calres, 4 10 0
Peaa, 3 bushels 3 galloDB, at 4s. 6 d 0 16 3
Wheat, 47i bushels, 6s.6d. 13 13
Barley, 10 bushels, eX is. 200
Tores, 6 bushels, at 4s. 6 d. 17 0
Oats, 66 bushels, at 2 fl. 3d 7 86
Butter, 3641 lbs., at lid 16 14 41
Potatoes, 200 bushels, at 1 8 10 0 0
Milk, txAd, 8 0 0
Total, . . . £63 16 3i
He adds, in his letter to me, "You may be Burjuised at my
not mahing more from sijc acres aod a quarter, than I did, in
{»oportion, tiom three acres and a quarter ; but it is to be mider-
stood that, since my farm was made up to six acres and a quarter,
the products, as the two last tables show, have not sold so well,
and the last three acres, which were added to my form, were very
poor soil."
1 give next the report of last year's crop, which has been sent
me by John Harris, as the products of the labors of himself and
his scholars. He adopts the same system of qiade husbandry,
and the appUcatiou of liquid mamire to his crops. Hi6;B]lotib«\^
comprehends five acres only.
One acre and twelve rods of wheat produced . . 63 bushels.
Half an acre of oats 61
Thirty rods of barley, 13i
Twenty rods of peas, 4}
One acre of potatoes, 404
Half an acre of turnips, 160
Sixteen rods of carrots, 3} tons.
Fifteen rods of mangel-wurzel, 3 "
The rest of his land was occupied with green food for his
cows i such as cabbages, rye, clover, tares. Sec. He kept two
cows. He had from eight to twelve pigs all winter, and they
)yGoo»^Ic
ALLOTHKKT STBTBH. 97
consumed ail hia potatoes, and his turnips, mai^l-vurzel, and
carrots, were given to hla cowa He fatted one hundred and
twenty stone, or nine hundred and sixty pounds of pork, which
be sold to the butcher. He sold six shotes, at three months old,
foi stores, and one pig for roasting ; and he sold also one sow in
pig, for £2 12 s. He kept* no account of the produce of his
cows.
Several thin^ are remarkable in regard to these allotments
and modes of maoagement. In the first place, they aie all culti-
vated by the spade. Where labor is abundant, as in England,
and the great difficulty is to know how to employ it with advan-
tage, this might be attempted even upon a large scale. The
expense of horses upon a farm is always a great consideration ;
and especially upon small farms, the expense of horses, compared
with tfie amount of prodact, is very great, and absorbs a large
proportion of the income. It is estimated by many intelligent
formers in England, that the horse-teams require for their main-
tenance full one fourth of the produce of the soil. I propose
{vesently to discuss this whole subject of brute labor upon a
form, and shall therefore go no farther at present than to add my
conviction, that the expense of their horse-teams in Kngland, the
cost of their horses, which, after a certain age, is always a de-
teriorating capital, the expense of their maintenance, shoeing,
harness, &-c. &,c., constitute a most serious drawback to the pros-
perity of English farmers, and that some little of this may be
charged to the vanity of display, and the ambition of extraordi-
nary size. Whatever it may be, on these allotments it is all
saved ; the labor, with the exception of the working of the cow
on one alCgfrneut, is all human.
The second observation, which occurred to me, was the extra-
ordinary pains taken in saving the manure. Nothing was wasted.
The animals were stall-fed, and kept constantly in the stable, and
a small brick or stone tank, well cemented with lime, was sunk
near the cow stable, and near the pigstye, which received all the-
liquid manure ; and the contents of these tanks, on their becom-
ii^ full, were pumped into a small cart, with a sprinkling-box
Ulached to it, like that used for the watering of streets in cities,
and distributed over the crops, always with the greatest advan-
tage, and with effects immediately perceptible. The tanks in
this case were quite small, because the stock was small, and
)yGoo»^Ic
96 EUBOrSAIf UIUCULTURE.
made, with little expeose, of coidiqou stooe laid in lime, aod
having a wooden cover for secuiity on the top. They were well
cemented within, and might be emptied by a pump, oi dipped
out with a bucket.
An eminent lanner in Yorkshire has lately stated that he has,
within the last ten yeara, made three tanks upon his faim, for the
purpose of receiving the liquid manure. The first he made con-
tained forty cubic yards of liquid, but he had enlarged it to one
hundred and fifiy yai^ which was filled three times a year, by
the |«oduce of hia farm. He is satisfied, from his experience, that
thirty cubic yards of this liquid manure would cause it to pro-
duce as heavy a crop as any other manure which could be
^>plied to it. With the manure which flowed into the tank, he
had manured twelve acres ; and this had jwoduoed heavy crope of
glass, which he had mowed three times, and tb«i there was tat
abundMice, which he mowed late in the season and gave to his
horses. This he had found to be the case upon land which had
not been pastured for nine years, but always been mown.
I shall not ofiend any truly sensible person, if I add that the
most careful provision is made for the saving of all the boman
ezcreonents, by a movable tub placed under the seat of the water-
closet, and concealed by a door, which is oaiefully emptied and
cleansed daily, and thus saved from being offensive. This is
always mixed with soil, and, in the experience of one of the
farmers, cannot be safely i^iplied to the land until it is a year old.
Of the value of this source of manure, now, in many cases, much
worse than thrown away, I shall subjoin some curious calcalap
tions in a note, which my reader, being forewarned, may peruse
or not, at his pleasure.*
* The eommittiw for boilding a Lunatic Aijlum, at Derby, propcaed to iSi.
Haywood, in agricultural chemiat of nuich talent aod Bzperience, the inqoirj aa
to tha remjta which "the fflannte obtained &oni a given mmber of patienta ia
capable cf pcodncin;, in tbe growth of cropa, nqipoaing tiie «ntiie drainage of tba
ertabliahmeiit to be applied to thia we."
To thia Hr. HsTwood rejdied in a very elaborate and scientific report, with a
copy of which he favored me; from wluch I shall qoote a few puagrapfaa.
«Tbe great object of my ioqoiry it, to aacertain what quantity of arahh land,
in tlie pvaent four^course ayatem of culdvalion, can be kept in a conatant atata
of fertili^ by the application of all the excretJona, both liquid and aolid, which are
produced by a certain nnmber of iDdividiuilH, together with the minor fertilizing
mbatancea which the {Roper management of a large domestic estabtiahiDent is
«apaU« of producing ; alao to give, aa accwatdy aa poaaible, tiie extent of land
)yGoo»^Ic
ALLOTHENT ST8TEX. 99
The third ciicnmBtance reoiarkable in the case vas, that the
cows are fed in the stallB, and never turned out. The i^incipal
food giveo them was clorer, tares, or rye cut gieen ; the leaves
of mangel- vursel, and, in the winter, turnips, mangel-wurzel,
carrots, &c., and straw. The cows were in good condition, and
though evidently not of a character to [vomise much milk, yet
the health of the animals was perfect. They were not sheeted,
wfakhcaa be kept In the eMonattteof fartUUf bjAe ezcremoiili of ■ MfHia
tmAn Dtbonm, onn, and ibeep.
" The CDmM I have adi^ttad in thk iaipiiy hu been, in the fint pUce, to
Meertain the annge quanti^ of (bod, both animal and vegetable, consmned by a
certain nnmber of individuab in a giren time, and fnnn a knowledge of the com-
poeition of sacbfbod to deduce the conqweititHi of flw Mteiwnenti, and ■ftenmdi
apply tliiata&e con^Meitlon of cnpt; flir h ia now unireiMUf admitted that aU
ttoM eteHMtfaiy conatituaiit* vhicb enter into the ciHiipoaition of planta w
"■"»!■, are primuily derived frun the air or the loil, and that whatevei be the
^ujotitf of alementaiy conatitiiMita taken in the food i^u aduh n»n, in a given
time, the Mme qvantitj of flieee cooatltnenta wiQ again be eliminated ftom his
tjtbem bf dielaBg^akhi,kidDeTa,a]idinHatiiieB,in^aame lime. I^tfaeiefbr^
wa piMuitiJ tbe iibti* of the exeietJona made by an individual in a given time,
we pneeire the whole t^ the elements of the fbod he haa consumed in that time,
and, bj applying tbeae to land, ahoald be able to prodnee again the lame tmonnt
of food in the form of com and potatoes, together with an extra qnanti^ of vege-
taUe matter, iriiich, being oonanmed by a glowing animal, woold yirid an aqaiva-
leat amoimt of fleah ; and these changea would be ctmtinned ad k^btUum.
"It fertonately happens that those conatituenta of food which are eliminated by
tfie hugs are derived solely fkim the atmoei^ieTe, and, as there ia an inexhaustible
■apply of theee in the atmosphem, no reetoiation of them to a soil is teqnired.
On the otter hand, tbon diminatad by tbe kidneys and intMinaa, are darind
ascloaively fiora die soil, and, eonaeqnently, reqoiie reetoring, in order to main-
tain infertility.''
« a • « • • ~ •
"Thus we export ftnm the fifty acns of wheat and bariey, and the flfty acrea
of green eiopa, by one hondted y<imig lamba, fistj yeariioge, feur yonng eowa^
(bar calves, and two hore«e, the Mowii^ qnantH; of thoae eoattitaenta cf a sdl
TflOlba.
9*8 "
Fboefdiorie acid, 1519 "
Solphatea and chlorides, 91 <•
SOka, 460 «
HetalUo oKlde^ 8 «
Nitragen, 9681 «
a U win be Men fhmi the tablea c^ the conotitiientB of food, that the ingredients
coDtuned in tbe lii^id and aolid excrementa t^ one hnndred individnab^ and Sw
)vGoo»^Ic
100 ClTBOrCAS ABKICDLTUBZ.
but chance animals ; in one case, the yield had averaged seven
poonds of butter each, per veek ; in another case, nine pounds
had been obtained, when another cow, which vas grazed in the
pastuie, yidded a very inferior quantity. The cows stood in
well-ventilated stalls, in one case upon a stone pavement, in
another upon hard-trodden earth j were well littered, and kept
quite cleatL The whole of the manure is saved in Uiis way, and
bonea pnwiv«d ftom tfaeir food, etowrf the above qnanti^ id ereiy KilMltBee
except ntfivgen and njtoa ; but the deficiency in thaee substuicea iiill be uuMih
more than compensated h; the almcBphere ia the Tonaer cue, and by the atal in
the litter ; ■□ that I shoulil not have the least heaitatioD in nying that the ezcie-
menta of ooe hundred imnatea or your Asylum, or any other, where the supply trf*
fbod i« nmilor to tite above, would keep one hundred auceof landonihe eotmatiia
four-couiMsyBteniaf lotatianinaconMaiitBtateoffertili^. It appeui from tin
calculations I have made, that ftK eveiy two bundted and fiffy pounda cf flerii '
produced, the elements of one acre of ground are extracted annually on the fbor-
courca ayBtem, and aBaioiilated by tiie animals consumiiig it ; from which it tbIJawa,
that for every additknul two hnndred and Sl^ pounds of fleah ^oduced, above
the quantity here (fiv^ the anthe exoietiona of one man will be required. I
have purposely omitted the piga in the above account, as they would live eotii^
on the grains from the brewhouae and the refuse from the kitcben.
" Should you think it feasible to grow a succession of wheat crops, withoot any
inteimiiBion of green food, then the above quantity of ingredieuta would very wdJ
«up(dy sixty acres. The object of ^wing cropa of tumipa, cIotn, &«., ia to
allow time for those constituents of white crops which exist in the seal, in an
htsoluble state, to become soluble by the action of the atoMephere in sufficient
quantity to supply them. Were the whole of these added annually to a soil in
Ae fotm of manure, no reat would be required, and a aaccession of white cropa
might thus be jBoduced iitdefinitcdy. The cauae of thia not having been ptoto-
biy occonqdiahed hitherto, ia not ao much &am any difficulty which attends it, as
from unwillingness on the port of the faimer, or his ignorance of the mode of
proceeding. Had a portion of those liquid manures, which are suffered to run to
waste, fhnn every town and farm-yard in the kingdom, been uaed for ttis purpose,
socceas would in all casea have attended the experiment; for theae contain the
tery dtmaU, which are rendered soluble in every soil by the year's rest, and
which, being assimilated by the plant, and oftarwarda removed in the grain, are
allowed to run to iwufc in the fbllowing year."
I cannot with entire confidence endoise Hr. Haywood's views, eapeeisHy on
the theory of vegetation, in respect to the cultivation of the suae crops in saccea-
uon, on the aame soiL It cannot be said to be yet determined whether a change
of crop is rendered necessary by the abstraction of certain ingredients of the soil,
which are again supplied to it by the influence of the almoe[Aere upon it when in
a state of rest, or by the excretions of the crop, according to the notions of Decan-
dotle, which are poiscmous to a crap of the same kind coming in immediate saccca-
skin; but the quotations which I have given from hie paper show the workings of
a laboiious and inquisitive mind, upon a homely, and at the aame time an impor-
tant subject
)yGoo»^Ic
UXOTHBHT STSTEK. 101
the amonnt is much beyond what would be thought, where the
experiment had not been made.
There waa another econmnical arrangement here, which
attracted my attention. Two or three of the allotments, with
their buildings, were on elevated land, where welts could not be
sunk but at great expense, and a supply of water would be un-
certain. In this case, tanks were formed about eight feet in
diameter, by twelve in depth, into which the rain water from the
loof of the house and the stable attached to the house was led ;
and thus, as experience had proved, an ample supply of ptue
water was obtained for the use of the famUy and the stock, at a
small expense. These tanks were surmounted with a cast-iron
Aame, which furnished a strong cover and a small windlass by
which the water was drawn. These tanks were formed of stone
foond upon the place, laid in mortar, and carefully cemented by
water lime.
The coWs were kept in a stable connected with the house,
arvr which w«e the schoolnroom and the threshing-floor. The
grain, with the hay that was cut, of which there was very little,
was stacked out of doors ; and the cows were fed, almost exclu-
sively, in winter, upon turnips or mangel-wurzel and straw. I
have no doubt a more liber^ feeding would hare been found
{vofitable, but they were under the necessity of getting along
with the most limited and simfde resources.
This management showed conclusively, in the fourth place,
that, where the resources are all carefully husbanded, and the
^odace consumed upon the farm, the land is capable of keepii^
itself in condition. The grain which was grown here was
mainly sold in order to pay the rent ; but the rest of the [voduee
was used for the animals within doors and without. The crops
were certainly good ; the wheat yielding about forty bushels per
acre, and the potatoes from three to four hundred bushels. The
clover was usually mowed three times in a season, and the first
mowing was made into hay for winter resoivce ; the lucem was
fed green, and was mowed five times. The success of the crop
depended much, without doubt, upon the immediate application
ot the liquid manure. A rotation of crops is made absolute by
the conditions of the lease, so that two white crops may not
follow each other without the intervention of a green crop. The
clover crop of Mr. Cruttenden had snlTered a good deal from the
9*
)yGoo»^Ic
lOS EUBOFEIK ASBICULTOKE.
wire-wonn, which he attributed to keeping the crop two years
ML the ground. I do not know how fax the supposition is well
ibunded, but it deserves attentioo. A great problem, then, is here
solved, if, to any intelligent minds, it has been matter of question,
that, where the product is consumed upon a farm, it may be
made to fumi^ an ample supply of the means not only tat
maintaining but imfaoving its condition. I do not say that
manures may not often be purchased to a gieat advantage ; and un-
doubtedly a supply from other sources is indispensable where much
of the produce ia sold from the farm, I have no doubt, likewise-,
that even these small Csirmers would find their account in extend
ii^ their live stock, and purchasing oil-cake, which makes a most
enriching manure, or other substances, for their consumption. A
farmer in Lincolnshire, of whose successful management I shall
[Hesently give a full account, is of an opinion that his profits
have regularly increased in proportion to the quantity of oil-cake
which he has purchased for the consumption of his stock. There
are, undoubtedly, many cases in which the apfdication of mineral
manures may be both useful and indispens^ile, and fully repay
any reasonable outlay which may be required for their purchase.
It is not certain that even these small ianners had availed them-
selves of all the resources within their reach. Nor had either of
them any advantage from the clearing out of ditches, from bog-
mud, or from deposits of marl. Nor had either of them, that I
could leam, mode any experiments in turning in green crops with
a view to enriching the sod. The experiments, therefore, must
still be considered as imperfect, and yet conclusive as to the
recuperative power of the soil &om the economical use and
application of the results of its own products. This teaches a
lesson to large farmers of the highest importance ; for, while trade
and commerce depend, to a considerable degree, upon lai^e invest-
ments and successful adventures, the success of agricultural
operations depends most essentially upon the limitation of unpro-
ductive expenses, and the most careful application and use of the
{voducts of the farm. In too many cases it happens, as Scott has
described the farming operations of Triptolemus Yellowley, " the
carles and the cart-aveis make it all, and xhe carles and
cart-avers eat it all."
It was another beautiful circumstance in the case, that three of
these individuals, who, with their families, were now subsisting
)yGoo»^Ic
108
independently upon the fruits of their own labor, had been ten-
ants of an alms-house, vhere their spirits were broken down,
dieir children separated £rom them, husband and wife divided,
and all power of mending their condition effectually taken away.
New life was imparted to them as soon as they were uncaged,
md an opportunity afforded of obtaining from the prolific earth,
by their own willing labor, that support which Heaven formed it
to yield to weU-directed industry. Separate from all moral con-
siderations, instead of being a burden and an expense to the
community, they now became themselves aids to bear these
burdens and to share in these expenses. This was an immense
gain ; and, regarded by a reflecting mind in all its various bear-
ings upon the community and upon themselves, its value caimot
be overstated.
There was another circumstaiice in the case, to which I cannot
help referring with peculiar pleasure ; and that is, the provision
made by the labor of the boys for their own education. The
education, it is true, is of a very limited description. It embraces
only reading, writing, the first principles or rules of arithmetic,
and instruction in the elements and ftwrniUaries of the established
r^igioD. Even this was a great gain. To be taught even the
use of their own minds, in the acquisition of knowledge, is a great
gain ; to have even a few scattered rays of intellectual light
poured into the darkened soul, may call into powerful exercise the
desire of knowledge, which will impatiently search for the means
of furtiier gratification, and invent resources for itself. Its effect
must be to elevate a human being, &om a mere senseless imple-
ment or machine, into a consciousness of his own intellectual
nature, and bring with it a degree of self-respect, which, in its
humblest form, cannot but be favorable to good conduct and
virtue. But the chUdrea found at these schools, in addition to
mental instruction, that which many schools of a higher descrip-
tion do not furnish. They were trained to habits of regular and
useful industry, instructed in the arts of husbandry, and in the
most intelligent and economical application of labor. To what
better school could they be sent ? Under what better discijdine
could they be trained ? I can fully imderstand how much in
diis case, as in all others, must depend upon the character of the
teacher ; and I can easily suppose that it may be necessary often,
especially in a first attempt like this, to work with very imperfect
)yGoo»^Ic
104 EDBOrEAM lOniCULrCBf.
instrumeDts. But vhils every proper jsecantion is taken to
ncure a good moral character in the teacher, and all ' practicaUe
giiarda are placed over his conduct by bis Emccess being made
entirely dependent upon its correctness, a good deal, certainly, is
done ; and befier minds, and persons of higher qualifications, from
the success of these experiments, may presently be induced to
seek these situations, in a country vheie the means of subsist-
ence and profitable employment are, from the redundance of the
population, becoming every day more difficult.
It is to be regretted that the fanners in general — perhaps it
would be more just to say, that many farmers — look with very ill-
himior apon the allotment system, and are opposed to grantiBg
land for these objects, even when their landlords desire it. I have
found no instance of a landlord opposed to it, though I hare
found with them a prevalent disposition to limit the allotment to
a very small size. I am not willing to impute motives where
they are not avowed. I have seen too many instances of the
highest and best minds acting under very partial and mistaken
views, in a manner unworthy of them, to allow me to commit
myself by any harsh judgment. The fanners, it is said, are
I^ejudiced against allotments, because the crops obtained uDd»
this limited and minute cultivation throw their own inferior crops
into the shade, or, by demonstrating what the land is capable oi
ftodacmg, may induce their landlords to raise their rents. It is
alleged, further, that the farmers are not willing in any way to
diminish the dependence of the laborers upon their favor, as it
might give them the power of demandii^ a higher rate of wages.
The farmers, in the next place, it is said, are not willing that
their laborers should appear in the public markets as selleis (rf
produce, which, if the competition was not to be regarded as
affecting prices, yet it might inspire them with a hurtfiil sense of
their own importance. 1 report here only the su^festions of
others, and presume to hazard no judgment. The motives
named are, alas ! but too consistent with the weakness and the
too often unrestrained selfishness of human nature. Every man,
certainly, has a fair right " to live ; " and the duty of every just
man is "to let him live." Blessed will be the day, if come it ever
should, when every man will learn that Am own troe prosp^ty
is essentially concerned in the prosperity of his neighbor, and
that no gratification on earth, to a good mind, is more delicioni
)yGoo»^Ic
100
than that which is lefleeted irom the bappines of another, to
which he has been himself instnimenlal. I hope my readms
will not consider diese reflections misplaced. It is evident that
the fanners have no direct pecuniary interest in the success of
theii lahoreis, as &r as that success might save them from be-
coming a tax upon the public. This tax, though always assessed
by the farmers as guardians of the poor, is yet always paid by
(be landlord. It is collected from the fanner ; but the amount of
rent which he pays for his land is always regulated by the
amount of taxes by which the land is burdened. If any of the
motiTes which hare been assigned do jarevail with the farmers, one
can scarcely exaggeiUe the meanness and unworthiness of sueh
motives, and can only desire that these persons may have justei
views of what they owe to themselves, and to those whom the
dispensations of Providence have made in a degree dependent
upon their favor.
I am sorry to add my strong conviction, that the education ai
the Idtmring classes is not viewfd with favor by those who move
in a higher condition of life ; at least that they consider it of
doubtful value, and are desirous of keeping it within the most
restricted limits. There are, indeed, many noble minds, who,
properly appreciating its immense value, are willing to impart as
liberally as they have themselves received, and heartily aid all
efforts to extend its advantages to every individual in the com-
munity ; but this feeling does not appear to me general. Every
allowance is to be made for a condition of society whrav different
ranks are established ; where the lines of demarkation are main-
tained with extreme pertinacity; where there can be no high
rank but as there is a low one; and where, acciwding to the
depression of the one, the elevation of the other seona increased.
Every approach^ therefore, in this direction, is likely to be resisted ;
and this feeling of superiority pervades, with an almost equal
intensity, every class La society, above the lowest, from the mastw
of the household to the most menial beneath whom there is any
lower depth. Education is the great leveller of tdl artificial
distinctions, and may, therefore, well be looked upon with
jealousy.
There is wanting, likewise, that just appreciation of the value
and benefits of universal education, which can hardly be looked
(m but among those who have lived in a community where its
)yGoo»^Ic
106 xcxopZAM AotucirLTfntE.
facilities and advantages are enjoyed by every indiridual as fieely
as the sonshine and the lain. While I am writing, a highly^
respectable clergyman, not vanting in a beoerolent regard for his
fellov-men, has said to me that " the most limited education is
all that is wanted for these persons, as more vould make them
discontented -with their condition j and if they can read theic
Bibles and {arayer-books, it is quite sufficient ; " and this same re-
mark I have heaid several times fr<Hn others. I cannot say that
I have not beard the education of the lower classes i^ken of, by
persons apparently respectable, in very harsh terms, and in terms
with which I ^ould be unwilling to ataii) my pages. I wilt only
add that I deem such views entirely erroneous and unfounded. If,
indeed, there are good reasons for the laborers being discontented
with their condition, let the evils of it be remedied. But if it
be a discontent arising from circumstances of hardship — if so they
must bo deemed — which no human power can remedy, education,
besides furnishing in itself resources to mitigate these evils, will
serve to give them more just views of human life, and to recon-
cile them to a condition which the divine Providence has nuu]«
inevitable. If education has a tendency to make persons discon-
tented with their condition, is it not equally objectionable in
respect to other classes in the community who find others above
them ? and in truth, as far as my own observation goes, the rich
and the elevated are quite as subject to discontent as the poor
and restricted, from whom the luring baits of ambition and
avarice are absolutely withheld.
That cotidition of society is of all others most favorable to
improvement, and to the development of the best elements of
the human nature, where every means of imiH'ovement is fur-
nished without restraint, and where men become the creators of
their own fortune. The fevorite nuudm of the great French
emperor was, "Let the career be open to talents." In New
England, this great principle every where jvevails ; and here,
where the advantages of education are freely offered to all, and
the highest conditions of influence and honor are equally acces-
sible to all, it may be safely asserted that no evils have grown
out of it, and that its moral and social influences have been the
best which the most philanthropic could have desired. In New
England, where, even among the most humble classes of society,
the literary attainments are often respectable, there will be found
)yGoo»^Ic
AhLOXiaUtT srSTClL
107
among thow eluau the mort diovoted jhends to public order, and
the most stanch supporten of her social institutions. I trust I
shall not be thought to speak with an undue enthusiasm in
saying, that the time has now coins when there should be recog-
nized in every human fona a moral and an immortal mind ; that
the ore in this quairy should be brought out and polished ; mid
that the higher coaditiona of life will be themselves elevated, and
the whole community odrantaged, by all improvement of the
lower claases. The subsoil plough is deemed the' great discovery
of modem agriculture ; and by bringing the lower strata up, and
mingling them with the surface soil, and exposing them to the
sune genial influences of sunshine and air, it will not be denied
thai the whole, without itfjury to any, has been rendered the
mote productive.
The experimuita of the public-qiirited proprietor of these allot-
ments hare been perfectly successful in a pecuniary view. I
have seen the accounts. The rents have been paid with punc-
tuality. There has been no distress levied, and, among upwards
of four hundred tenants, scarcely an instance of ftiilure to pay.
The rents demanded have been fully equal to those received for
lands in the vicinity, of the same quality, held in la^e faims ; in-
da«i, they have eneeded them. At starting, she has found it
aeceawry to assist her poor tenants in the purchase of tools and
stock ; but these obligations are required to be Uquidated.
The allotments are held in the followit^ amounts : —
In 4 rod pieces, 3
in 13 rod pieces, 1
in i sore, 13
.. e ■■ .. 5
" 16 "
' 1
..J ., 3
" 7 " " 5
n 20 "
' 76
"1 '• sa
" 8 " " 76
" ii "
' 2
" 2 acies, 9
" 9 " " 8
" 30 "
' 6
"4 " 2
"10 " " 6
« 10 "
' 108
"6 " 6
"la " " 71
« 60 "
' 2
" 9 " 1.
Total, 42 1 allotments. Amount of rent received, £ 428 6 s. 5} d.
This is without bouses or bams, the rent of which is a separate
chaige.
Of the occupants, the f<dlowing are stated to be the number in
the famiiids supported from the land, with the exception of the
■mall income from the instruction money.
)yGoo»^Ic
108 SUBOFXAK AOUCITLTDS£.
4 acres, 4 persona in family ; 3 acres, 6 persons in fomily ;
6 " 7 " " " 5 " 9 " " "
6 " 7 " " " 6 " 6 " " "
39
I submit these facts to my American friends aa exceedingly
curious. With us the land is not locked up by patents, entail, or
mortmain. With us land is erery where attainable, and at prices
which bring it within the reach of every industrious and fhtgal
man. But it will, I think, be interesting to look at these humble
instances of domestic economy; and thej must stimulate the
most useful inquiry into the productive capacities of the land,
which seem as yet to be very imperfectly developed. We are,
likewise, not wiUiout our poor in the United States ; and the vast
influx of destitute emigrants is constantly augmenting the number.
For idleness and profligacy there is no just claim upon public
compassion ; but I am convinced that a considerable portion of
the poor would be glad to earn their own living if they could be
put in the way of doing it. Whatever contributes to this object
confers a public benefit.
It would be wrong for me to quit this topic without adding,
that, since my First Report, I have visited portions of the country
where, on the estates of some very large proprietors, (to one of
whom the United States and Great &itain are under the highest
obligations for adjusting their conflicting claims, and through
whose beautiful grounds I rode eight continuous miles,) the
cottages of the laborers were of the very best description ; and
their establishments, both within and without doors, indicated the
greatest neatness and comfort. Gardens for fhiit, vegetables, and
flowers, were attached to all of them ; and they were charmit^
pictures of rural taste and embellishment. Many of these persons
had likewise small allotments of land. The wages paid to the
men were from 10s. to 12s. per week, and to the women 8d.
per day while at work. This, of course, however, with the
current expenses of living, did not allow them to accumulate any
diing for sickness or old age. During the four weeks of harvest,
by working by the piece, the laborer would sometimes earn more
than 20 s. per week ; and the women and children, by gleaning the
scattered heads of wheat after the field is cleared of the crop, or, as
)yGoo»^Ic
(tuurmr or seed. 109
it is here called, by leeatng, not infrequently collect four or five
buflbels of grain. I have met with instances, where even more
has heeo collected. Such are the fruits of the most exact
frugality.
IIV. — aUANTITY OF SEED.
The quantity of seed jffoper to be sown has been a subject of
much debate. There may be an excess ; and an error may be
committed by sowing too small a qucuitity. An intelligent
former makes the following calculation of the advantage and
saving which would come to the country, if, instead of sowing
two and a half bushels of seed to the acre, it should be found, as
he maintains from his own practice and experience, it is sufficient
to sow one bushel to the acre,
" Allowing," he says, " that, upon a fair calculation, 7,08S,370
acres are annually sown in the kingdom, in wheat, at the rate of
two and a half bushels per acre, which is the ordinary allowance,
there would he required 2,214,178 quarters (eight bushels per
quarter) for seed. But to sow one bushel per acre, only 886,671
quarters would he required ; so that the annual saving of seed
would be 10,628,056 bushels, or 5,901,192 bushels more than
the average importation of foreign com the last fourteen years.
Though I merely take the instance of wheat, I am at the same
time proving what may be done with all other com ; for the
saving of seed, which I practise, is in equal proportions with all
other kinds of grain, and with equal success."
The testimony of this fanner is so important that I shall be
excused for speaking more at hu^e on this subject. This gentle-
man has been a practical farmer of mote than seven hundred
acres of h^hly-rented, poor land ; and what he recommends, he
says, he has long and successfully practised — that he grows crops
much lai^er than the general average, and on soils of inferior
description, and with less than the ordinary expenditure of labor
and manure.
I will allow him to speak for himself; and the results with
him, and the account of the proportion of seed for an acre used at
Horsham, in the experiment which 1 have detuled above, afford
10
)vGoo»^Ic
110 EUSOrCAM AOMCDLTUBX.
the strongest reason, if foi nothing else, for making further and
more exact trials. The subject is clearly one of the first impor-
tance.
" The practice throughout England is to sow two and a half
and three bushels per acre, and the yield is seldom forty bushels,
and more conuuonly only twenty bu^iels ; and one tenth, at least,
of the crop grown, is consumed in seed. These facts, and the
knowledge that a single grain of wheat planted where it has
room Ui tiller out, will readily produce four hundred fold, and
often very much more, have induced me, in the course of the last
eleven years, to make a variety of experiments, the results of
which have shown me, that, independent of the waste, a positive
and serious injury is done to the crop from so much seed ; and
the result is perfectly analogous to attempting to feed four animals
upon a pasture sufficient only for one ; and, in consequence, I
have gradually reduced my proportion of seed-wheat Irom three
bushels per acre, which was my practice, down to about three
pecks, which reduction I hare accomplished to the evident im-
jffovemeat of my crops.
" My practice is to drill every thii^, (clover seed alone ex-
cepted j) to carefully horse-hoe, hand-hoe, and weed, so that
the land may be kept perfectly free irom weeds, and the soil
between the rows may be stirred, and receive the benefit of fine
tilth and cultivation, of which gardeners are sensible \ but by
farmers this is lost sight of, or not sufficiently attended to. My
rye and tares for green feeding are sown in rows at nine-inch
intervals; all my white com at twelve inches; my pidae at
twenty-seven inches ; and my root crops, on the ridge, at twenty-
seven inches.
" My. proportions of seed per acre are as follows : —
Of rye, 1} bushel ; Of oats, 8 pecks ;
" tares, li do. ; " barley, 7 do. ;
" mangel-wurzel, 6 lbs. ; " wheat, 3 do. ;
" swedes, 1 quart ; " peas, 8 do. ;
" turnips, 1 do, ; " beans, 8 do."
" cabbages, 1 every three feet ;
After detailing his mode of cultivation, to which I shall here-
after refer, he goes on to say, " I have frequently produced above
)yGoo»^Ic
(tDAnriTT or sied. Ill
fire quarters (forty bushels) to the acre, and have grown aboTe
thirteen quarters of oats, (one hundred and four bushels,) and
above eight of barley, (forty bushels.) Harii^ shown the suc-
cess, on an extensiTe scale, with thin sowing, I will explain why
it 19 that three pecks of seed-wheat must be much nearer Uie
correct quantity thui ten or twelve pecks ; and that any surplus
of seed beyond a bushel must be very injurious to the latter
growth of the crop. The produce of one ear of thick-sowni
wheat yields about forty grains, (I say thick-sown, for thin-sown
yields very much more,) and, therefore, the produce of an acre
(or twenty bushels, the ordinary average) most be, no matter
how much has been sown, the growth of the ears &om one
fortieth, or two pecks of seed, (and that, too, is allowing only one
ear to grow (rom each grain, and forty grains from an ear.)
This being the fact, of what use are, I ask, or what becomes of,
the remEuning eight or ten pecks of seed, which are commonly
sown ? But, in allowing one ear only to grow from a grain of
seed, and each ear to contain only forty grains, I am far fix}m
taking what in reality would be the produce ; for a single grain,
having room, will throw up ten or twelve ears, and these ears will
each contain from sixty to eighty grains ; and, supposing some of
my small allowance to be lost or destroyed, the deficiency of
[daot is immediately met by the lai^er size of the ear, and by
the tillering which is made, and the additional ears so produced,
wherever room admits of the increase.
" Among the many proofs I have had of the advantages
from thin sowing, the following is a striking &ct : In the
antumn of 1840, I had to sow with wheat a field of eight acres,
and I gave out seven bushels for the seed ; but owing to an error
of the drill-man in setting the drill, when he had sown half the
field, he found that he had not put on half the seed ; but that I
might not discover, by the overplus, his error, he altered the
drill, so as to sow the rest on the remainder of the field ; and in
this way one half of the field had little more than two pecks to
the acre, while the rest had nearly five pecks. I did not know
of the error, and was surprised, in the winter, by finding part of
the field so thin, and, had not the rest of the field looked much
better, should have ploughed it up ; but at harvest the thinnest-
sown half proved the best ; and I shoidd never have known the
error of sowing but for this fact having induced the carter to
point it out to me."
)yGoo»^Ic
113 EDBOPEAN uitKUvruam.
" At fiist, no matter how much seed haa been sown, newly
every grain vegetates and finds space to grow ; and in the early
stages, when the aii and soil aie moist, and the plants small,
there is food for all. But as the plants increase, a struggle for
room and nourishment commences, which increases with their
growth, and finally terminates by the destruction of the weaker
by the stronger plants ; but not until after a contest, lasting up to
harvest, which leaves the survivors stunted, and the soil ex-
hausted by having had to support three plants instead of gdb ;
and jvoducing mischief, which is frequently the cause of blight,
mildew, and the falling of the crop.
" It is to this I would principally ascribe the mildew, and
blight, and fidling, of the crop ; for so far my [oactice proves it,
that, since I have taken to sow only a bu^el of wheat per acre, —
and I have done so now for some years, and on many hundreds
of acres of wheat, — I have rarely found any portion affected by
any disease." •
This is certainly strong and decisive testimony, and shows
how deserving the subject is of the most exact and repeated
experiments. Since the foregoing account of the Horsham
experiment of the last season, I have received information of the
result of a second experiment made this season by the same
individual, Mr. Allman, nursery-man of Horsham, Sussex county.
He has dug an acre of land with spade or fork, and dibbled it
with the same kind o{ wheat which he sowed the previous year,
and the crop is fast advancing to maturity. The amount of seed
required for planting the acre, one grain in a hole, at the distance
of nine by six inches, was a little more than one and a half
gallon ; the seed was covered about two inches in depth ; the
cost of digging the ground ten inches deep was Zi d. per rod ;
the cost of planting or dibbling the seed was 10s. per acre, and
the expense of hoeing it was 7 s. per acre. No manure has
been applied to the land this year ; but of the character of the
soil I am not informed. I am assured that it i^omises to yield
as well as it did the last season. A specimen which has been
sent to m6 fully ripe, shows an equal growth both in the size of
the stalk, which is more than five feet, and in the number of
stems from a single seed. I shall presently have an exact
* HewHt-Davia, aa thin sowings
)yGoo»^Ic
^vurrm or seed. 113
account of the result, which my readers will receive with great
interest. The expense of dibbling by hand has been accurately
kept, and, as above, in point of cost, would show a great saving
in comparison with even the best machine. The increase from
a single seed has been in some cases most eztraordinaiy, and
shows the prolificness ' — may I not properly say the unstinted
beneficence ? — of nature. I have myself counted, from a single
grain of wheat, ninety-five seed-bearing stems ; and I shall give
the account of another experiment, the product of which I saw.
A farmer, B. King, at Eastbourne, Sussex county, on the 2Std
July, 1841, planted three grains of wheat ; and one of them pro-
duced a root with upwards of a hundred ears.
One grain, the shoots of which were divided and transplanted
twice, yielded, in 1842, three poimds twelve and three quarter
ounces of clear grain ; and the third grain, the shoots of which
were divided tkree times, yielded seven pounds fifteen ounces
and a half. The whole product of roots from this grain was
173; of ears, 3272; of grains, 97,028, and the weight as
above. Half an ounce of this wheat, carefully weighed, con-
tained 382 grains. This was the product of one grain in one
season, which, according to what was required for the Horsham
experiment, would be sufficient, in the second year, to plant two
thirds of an acre. Of course, it is not to be expected that such an
operation as taking up and dividing the plants could be economi-
cally practised to any great extent ; but it shows how very
easily and soon the seed of any valuable variety may be obtained
with a little pains-taking. Some of the most esteemed varieties
of wheat have been procured Irom the selection of a single head,
which showed in the field an extraordinary predominance over
its neighbors. This is understood to be the origin of the cele-
taated Chevalier barley, which was propagated from a single ear,
found by a gentleman of that name in his field, and carefully
cultivated. By the methods adopted above, a single head of
wheat might be made, in the second year, to furnish a supjdy for
acres ; and the means of speedily introducing a new grain into a
lai^e district of country, might be transmitted thousands of miles
in a letter. Such are the facilities of improvement which a
beneficent Providence oflers to those who are willing to use them.
An experiment of a similar kind was made, some years agoj by
a Hr. MUler, and reported in the Memoirs of the Bath Agricnl-
10*
)yGoo»^Ic
114 EOBOPEAN AflUCDLTDIte.
tural Society, in which the lesuJt of the cultiviitioiL of a single
season was even much more eztcaordiDary than the above ; but
it is well known to the agricultural woiid, and need not be
restated.
XV. — STEEPING SEEDa
I may as well here as any where recur to an experiment ex-
hibited at the Dundee Show, of the effect of i»:epBied steeps for
seed. It excited great attention on that occasion. I visited the
grounds of the gentleman who made the experiment ; and he has
been kind enough to write me, on the subject, a letter, which 1
subjoin.
"Semdwukb, Dohdxb, 13Ui S^tanhr, 18431
"Sir,
" Since I had the pleasure of meeting you in Edinbui^,
I have thought a good deal about the way in which I ought to
proceed as to concealing for a time, or at once revealing, my
method of preparing seeds, so as to produce superior crops of
grain. I hare at last determined that the better way is to make
the process known to the heads of agricultural societies.
" In accordance with this resolution, I have written to the
Duke of Richmond, as i«%sident of both the National Agricultural
Institutions of Great Britain, and to the president of the Royal
Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland, disclosii^ the
processes which I have used ; and I now do the same to you, as
agricultural commissioner from the United States.
"I consider this plan better, in every respect, than sending
prepared specimens of seeds, as the applications for these might
soon become too numerous to be attended to.
" The specimens of growii^ com, which I exhibited at the
show here, were the produce of seeds steeped in svlpkate, nitrate,
and muriate of ammonia ; nitrates of soda and potass, and com-
binations of these. It was objected by some that the tallest
specimens of oats were too raiLk, and would break down before
coming to the ripened seed. I should by no means be airaid of
such a result, as the stems were strong in proportion to their
)yGoo»^Ic
SmPtNO SEED8. lis
height ; but should there even be some reason ia the objection,
the result might be modified by a modification of the process.
The tallest oats were prepared irom sulj^iate of ammonia,
and I am convinced, from ezperimeiit, that ^e addition of a por-
tion, say one half, of sulphate of soda, or sulphate of potass,
would BO modify the growth as to make the stalks moderately
high, and at the same time preserve the superior productiveness
of the seed.
" The barley, which, you may perhaps recollect, consisted of an
average of ten stems &om one seed, and thirty-four grains on
each stem, was the produce of seeds steeped in nitrate of ammo-
nia. I may mention that the best illustration of the comparative
productiveness of prepared and unprepared seed was exhibited by
the coutiBst of wheat, sown 6th July, which, by the 10th of
August, the last day of the show, presented the followii^ results ;
the jsepared seeds had tillered into nine, ten, and eleven stems ;
the unprepared into only two, three, and fota- ; and both were from
the same sample of seed, and sown iu the same soil, side by
side.
" The vaiioua salts above specified were made by me &om
iheix carbimates, and were exactly neutralized. I then added
from eig^t to twelve measures of water. The time of steeping
varied from fiAy to ninety-four hours, at a temperature of about
60° Fahieoheit.
"Barley, I fotmd, does not succeed with more than sixty
hours* steeping. Rye-grass, and other cultivated grasses, may
do very well with from sixteen to twenty hours ; but clovers will
not do with more than eight or ten hours, for, being bilobate,
the seeds are apt to burst in swelling.
" On the 16th ultimo, I caused four cart-loads of earth, dug
from about six feet under the surface, to be laid over tilly ground,
and spread there, and in this virgin soil, totally destitute of any
organic matter, I sowed seeds of oats and bailey prepared in
seven different ways; but, having to leave on the 31st, I could
not form a correct estimate of the comparative progress of the
seeds, as the season is far advanced, and vegetation slow ;
but, if in health, I shall revisit the place in October, and
shall then be able to judge better of the result. Along
with the prepared seeds, I sowed also some un^f^epaied, both
in the virgin soil and in pure sand. They had all sprung
)yGoo»^Ic
116 ECROFEAN AOHtCCLTUBE.
well when I left. 1 hope soon to have the pleasure of writing
you again on the subject. Meantime,
"I remain, sir,
"Your most obedient servant,
"J AS. Campbell.
"HiiTKT CoutAir, Ehi^ Lonthm."
There were exhibited, on this occasion, specimens of oats,
bailey, wheat, and rye-grass, raised from seed chemically pre-
pared. Mr. Campbell adds in another letter as follows : —
" It is now a considerable time since I begui to imagine that,
if the ultimate principles, of which the proximate constituents of
most of the gramineous seeds are composed, could by any means
be made so to enter the substance of the seed, and at the same
time not to injure its vitality, as thoroughly to imbue its teztoie
with an excess of these principles, the end (viz., of supwseding
manures) would be accomplished ; and it is by doing this to a
certain extent that I am certain I hare succeeded.
" The specimens of oats prepared &om sulphate of ammonia
are magnificent, both aa to height and strei^th, being six feet
high, and having stems like small caues, and consisted of an
average of ten stems from each seed, and 160 grains on each
stem. The oats from muriate of ammonia were vigorous and
equally prolific, but not so tall ; and those from the nitrate of
soda and potass were nearly equally prolific, but still less taU.
Big, or bear, from a preparation of nitrate of ammonia, like that
in which the barley was steeped, had an average of eleven
and a half stems from each seed, and seventy-two grains oa
each stem."
Mr. Campbell states " that the grotmd in which his experiments
had been made had received no manure for eleven years, and in
it there was little organic matter of any kind." It was in a yard^
or old garden, next to his house ; but unless he had made an
analysis of the soil in respect to the amount of organic matter
contained in it, I should conclude that his judgment here was
at fault. This circumstance, however, is of little consequence,
since the experiments were comparative, and made in the same
soil, and under the same circumstances. The plants had been
principally removed from the ground when I saw it ; and I had
only to regret that the experiments, of which, from the apparent
)yGoo»^Ic
STEBPUta SEEDS. 117
results, he could haidly, beforehand, have realized the impot-
tance, had not been made with more scrupulous exactness.
They are, howerer, sufficiently interesting and decisive to in-
duce other experiments, in which the results may be more
defined. Mr. Campbell's disinterested conduct in communicating
them to the public does him the highest honor.
Mr. Campbell has since sent the following communication to
the Agricultural Society, as to the results of the unfinished
experiments noticed in bis former letter : —
" The salts were neutralized by adding the carbonates until
effervescence completely ceased ; and this was done that there
might be no excess of acid." Mr. Campbell adds, with respect
to his succeeding experiments, which he proposed to examine on
the 12th of October, that they were completely successful, show-
ing a decided contrast in favor of the prepared seeds. In the
soil dug up from 6 or 8 feet under the surface, the prepared seed
showed plants with seven and eight stems, while the unprepared
had not more than three.
The preparation of seeds by steeping is not a new process.
The preparation of wheat, by soaking in brine or in a preparation
of arsenic, has been recommended, and, so far as my own expe-
rience and observatjoQ go, may be considered as a sure remedy
against smut. The steepii^ of Indian com in a solution of
copperas and of saltpetre has likewise been supposed to stimu-
late and promote its growth, though this is not so well established
as m^ht be desired. But a scientific attempt, like that of Mr.
Campbell, to combine, upon chemical principles, the ingredients
at salts deemed essential to the growth of the plant, and to fur-
nish them by soaking the seed in them, is a rare, thoi^h not
wholly an unknown attempt. Its partial success, in this case,
affords strong encouragement to further experiments. The steep
,may be supposed to operate in two ways — either as astimulant,
to cause the seed to develop its powers of germination more
rapidly and fully than it otherwise would do, and thus gather
more of the nourishment which it needs from the soil or the
atmosphere ; or as supplying that [Hroportion of saline or inor^
ganic matter which the plant requires. This is indeed very
small, " though absolutely essential to the perfect condition of the
seed, and to the healthy growth of the plant which springs from it."
This is said to be, in wheat and barley, from IJ to 2 per cent, of
)yGoo»^Ic
118 ETTBOPSAV AGElCm.TDBE.
the whole weight ; and in oats it is said to be 3^ per cent., though
much of this is in the husk of the oat. In being applied at once
to the seed in a form to enter and saturate the pores of the seed,
it may be expected to be taken up by the small roots of the
plant as soon as they are developed ; and its effects, therefore,
must be immediate. Bat whoever may be the theory in the
case, should Mr. Campbell's results be confirmed by further
experiments, the fact will be obviously of great importance.
From some pamphleta translated from the German by Pro-
fessor Johnston, extracts from which hare been published in
the Edinburgh Journal of Agriculture, it seems that great dis-
coveries have been made in Glermany, in the steeping of seeds ;
and, in the enthusiastic expectations of one of the discoverers, the
application of manure may be dispensed with, and the rotation
of crops on the same soil, in order to recruit the soil, will no
longer be necessary. The confidence with which these experi-
ments are given, and their results proclaimed, would seem to
entitle them to attention.
I shall here take leave to quote from a paper of Professor
Johnston some of these statements. Franz Heinrich Bickes, of
Castel, Mayence, has published An Account of the Discovery of a
Method of cultivating the Soil without Manure. He says; " It
is twelve years since the discovery was made. The experiments
have been made at various seasons of the year, and the same
crop has been repeated on the same soil without regard to
the usual rotation. The cost is trifling, and the supply of the
materials to be substituted for manure is inexhaustible. The
testimonies in its favor are said to be from practical men ; and
they assert that, from examples in the Imperial Garden in Tieima,
in general the prepared seeds exhibited a very much stronger
growth, were of a deeper green, had thicker stems, finer and
fresher leaves, lai^er grain, and the grain was thinner skirmed, -
and therefore contained more meal.
" The hemp was of a much larger size, and had many side-
shoots bearing seed.
" The Indian com had more ears.
" The buckwheat was upwards of three feet high, and frill of
seed.
"Wheat, rye, barley, and oats, are thicker, and have more
nomeroiis stems, larger ears, and more grains in each.
)yGoo»^Ic
STIIPINO SEKDS. 119
" The Inceni was beyond all comparison stronger, had more
shoots, and its roots were as thick again.
" The disks of the sunflower were doubled in diameter ; the
cabbage had larger heads, the cucumber larger &uit, while the
unprepared seed yielded nothing."
Other testimoDJals are added irom persons of respectable stand-
ing and condition. Other plants, besides those above mentioned,
aie said to have been equally benefited. One fourth only of
the usual quantity of seed, of wheat and rye, was sown on a
poor, unproductive clay ; and yet the product was greater than on
the newest laud of good quality, though aided by manure.
" Ten or twelve potato plants gave, on an average, thirty large
potatoes each, and had stems seven feet in height.
" Fifteen stalks of Indian com had, on an average, five ears
each, some having as many as eight or nine ears to a single
plant.
" The buckwheat was four and a half to five feet high ; the
flax had four to five stems from each seed. The white clover
was as large in the loaves and stems as the red clover usually is ;
the red clover and lucem three feet h^h."
The experiments of Mi. CampbeU induced many farmers to
try the effects of steeps upon their seeds. One of the most ex-
peiieneed and intelligent cultivators in Scotland informed me
that his success had been partial. He had made numerous ex-
periments, and in some instances with remarkable, in others with
no effect. I am not yet in possession of the detaUs, which I
presently hope to obtain fi'om him, and on which I shall greatly
rely. As my Report is going through the press, I have been
fiivored with a reply to a letter written to Mr. Campbell on this
subject, which I annex,
" The accounts which I have received from various quarters
.are conflicting, some exceedingly good, and others equally bad;
but this I have learned, that the greatest success has attended
the experiments on a great variety of soils.
" I believe — and Uiis isalsothe opinion of many others — Uiat,
where failu«s have taken place, they are due either to misman-
agement or to the drought of the season. The results of my
own experiments are highly iavorable ; and I have a variety of
gpecimens for the exhibition at Glasgow."
He adds, " My nephew writes me as under,"
)yGoo»^Ic
ISO KCROFZAH AaBICULTITBE.
" I have just seen Sir John (^ilvie's overseer, and he states
that the steeped oats sold by roup, yestetday, at Id. per pole
more than those vhich weie not steeped on the next rig."
" N. B. The prepared seeds were sown much thinner than the
unprepared, at least one quarter.
"Cranch &. Co., (Newcastle-upon-T3rae,) 30th July, write,
' We have received some good accounts of the steeps.'
"P. Bruce, (Hull,) 3Dth July, writes, ' I am glad to inform
you that one or two parties tell me that they will buy the steep
again, supposing that any falling off is attributable to the
drought.' He has himself seen some that looks very well.
" I may add that any that I have hitherto seen looks exceed-
ingly well, better than the unprepared, although sown tiiinner."
I cannot say that I am sanguine as to those extraordinary
results to which, from the quotations which I have made, s<nne
persons look forward, when there will be no longer a necessity
for a rotation of crops, and even the application of manure to
the soil may be dispensed with. But I cannot help thinlring
that much remains to be achieved, and that much may be hoped
for. We are not to be surpsised that fiulures occur ; but one well-
authenticated experiment, conducted in an exact manner, and in
which the extraordinary results may be directly traced to the
application, is sufficient to outweigh a hundred failures. The
e^diibition at Dundee, supposing Mr. Campbell's statements to
be true, — and I know no reason to doubt, but, from his manly
conduct, the best reason to believe them, — satisfied me that some-
thing important had been efiected. I rely little upon mere
opinion and conjecture, even of parties above suspicion of dia-
honesty. The mortification of failure, the desire of success,
the ambition of notoriety, and especially any degree of personal
or private interest, — all may serve to color the vision, to bias the
judgment, and present groimds of hesitation, if not of distrust
With a full share of confidence in the virtue of men, I have
been too often disappointed not to require the most ample evi-
dence in all cases of moment. I was not a little amused in visit-
ing, with several gentlemen, the farm of an excellent cultivator
the last summer, that, when he showed us in his field of swedes,
with an air of the most confident triumph, the surprisingly
beneficial effects of a certain application upon some marked
TOWS, every one of the party except himself was satisfied that
)yGoo»^Ic
IDS. 121
the rovs in qu«atioD had no other distinction than that of ab-
xdute inferiority to all the rest. It would have been as useless
as it would hare been uncivil to avow our convictions to him,
for men are seldom convinced against their will, and assaults
open an unduly-ezcited organ of self-esteem, if they do not
arouse combativeness, inflict only needless pain. In agricul*
ture, being eminently a practical art, and as yet, I believe, claim-
ing not a single theoretical principle as established, excepting
as first deduced from long-continned practice, experiments are
ol the highest moment. The careless and slovenly manner in
which they are commonly conducted, the haste with which men
jump to their conclusions, the variety of circumstances which
belong to every case of importance, and the imperfect manner
ID which these circumstances are observed and detailed, are the
just opprobrium of the agricultural profession. A most intelli-
gent and agreeable friend, in speaking of the best modes of
ftttening poultry, and in expressing her distrust of some which
were recommended, said that her venerable grandmother alwajrs
ied and fattened Ker poultry in a very different way. But upon
being asked whether h^ grandmotber's fowls were the best
layers, broi^ht up the most chickens, and produced the best
poultry for the table of any to be found, she was compelled to
answer that on this point she had no information. A learned
natnralist, who, in many respects, was justly celebrated for his
scqnirementa, was once asked why black- wooled sheep con-
sumed more food than white, and proceeded gravely to give half
a dozen philosophical reasons for it, without having once inquired
whether the fact were so.
It is stroi^ly hoped, that, under an enlightened system of agri-
cultural education, for which the auspices now are most encour-
aging, and by the establishment of experimental farms, many
important suggestions, in relation to agricultural practice, as yet
only conjectured, may be determined, and much actual progress
made in agricultural science, by the only infallible teacher —
exact and enlightened experiment.
11
)yGoo»^Ic
rUKOFEAir liJKirDLTDBX.
XVI. — SPADE HtlSBANDRT.
The spade husbandry, to which I hare already refeired, has
been undertaken by seTetal gentlemen, in England, on a some-
what extended scale, for the purpose of giving employment to a
□umerouB population in the vicinity of some large towns, suffer-
ing for want of the means, or the opportunity, of eamiiu: a
subsistence. In one case, the extent cultivated by the spade has
beeu fifty acres j in two other cases, over two hundred acres
each ; and the crops produced have been the same as in other
field cultivation with the plough ; such as turnips, cabbages, beets,
potatoes, barley, clover, and artificial grasses, oats, beans, peas,
tares, and wheat. The crops have been cultivated at not an
unreasonable expense, and the yield has been fully remunerating.
Oats have given at the rate of forty and fifty bushels per acre,
and, indeed, very much more ; and wheat thirty, thirty-two, and
forty bushels. The instrument found by experience best for
use has been a thiee-pronged fork, fourteen inches in depth,
and seven and a half inches in width. By this instrumeDt the
ground has been stirred to the iiill depth of the i^ongs of the
fork, but only about nine or ten inches of the soil have been
taken out and inverted.*
The principle upon which this practice is recommeDded is the
same with that of subsoil ploughing. The object desired is to
loosen the substratum or under soil, so that, in the first place, all
superfluous water may be drained off ; in the second place, that
the soil may be brought into a finer tilth, and rendered more
permeable to the roots of the plants, in order that they may find
the easier access to the nourishment which they draw from the
soil ; and in the next place, that it may become enlivened, if the
* Hr. CrattendeD hu contrived b fork with a Bhaqi blade of aboDt
u inch in width, which wemed an improvement on the common form,
■nd which he deemed very usefiil. Tho aimezed engraving exhibits
the shape of the im{dement The blade, like a opade, cuts oS the Toots
wtOi which it comes in contact, and the earth, when lifted, becomes
broken by falling throoi^ the open spacM between the prangs, eora-
bining the advantages both rfa spade and a fork.
)yGoo»^Ic
SPADE HCBBAHDRT. 123
expression be allowable, and enriched by the admission of the
air, by which all portions of it are thus visited, and gain from
the atmosphere the elements of vegetation which it furnishes.
Of the value of this circumstance no intelligent agriculturist can
entertain a doubt. There is another advantage attending the
spading of land. The tendency of drawing a plough through
the land is to render the ground more hard at the bottom of the
furrow, where the shoe or bottom of the ploi^b presses upon it,
and to make it consequently more impervious to ^e roots of the
plant than it would otherwise be ; this is of course avoided in
the spading of land. The subsoUing of land is deemed of com-
paratively little use, unless connected with a system of thorough
drainage ; and this drainage would seem to be of equal impor-
tance upon land cultivated with a spade.
la Flanders, it is sEiid that the cultivation by the spade pre-
vails to a great extent, and is eminently successful. In the
United States, where land is abundant and labor comparatively
scarce, it would be idle to recommend to any great extent
cultivation by the spade. Yet it would be curious to see what
might be done in this way on a small scale. One of the most
(Kodnctive farms for its extent in New England, within my
knowledge, — if farm it may be called, — consists of seven acres,
from which the farmer or cultivator sells annually to the amount
of twenty-five hundred dollars, or five hundred pounds sterling.
The industrious and frugal owner sustains his ftunily in comfort
and independence from this source only, and is actually growing
rich. He resides within a few miles of a good market, and by
his skill and industry he sometimes obtains five different crops in
a season on the same land. The great question of the size of
&nns will come into discussion as I proceed ; but I cannot now
enter upon it. Such examples of what may be called cottage
economy, are not without instruction to those who hold and
manage large possessions. In France, the farms are greatly sub-
divided, and the holdings are very small. It is estimated by a
statistical writer, whose authority is respected, that, among
1,243,200 of small proprietors in France, their possessions do
not average over five acres apiece. Political economists strongly
object to such small divisions of land, as unfavorable to the
production of wealth, and not likely to lead to those improved
)yGoo»^Ic
1S4 EUBOPEAK AOKICULTDOE.
modes of agricalture, which wotild be pursued under a system
of lai^e proprietorship.
There is undoubtedly a good deal of weight in the latter
reason ; for implements and fixtures connected with an improved
system of husbandry Sre themselTes expensive, and few great
and substantial improvements can be made without a con^der-
able outlay of capital. Such improvemeots likewise demand
systematic arrangements, and often extensive combinations, in
order to their being effected. I bare known numerous instances
where lands required draining, and indeed were comparatively
worthless without it ; but this draining could not be effected,
from the obstinacy of a neighbor, through whose land only could
the water be made to descend. In other cases, where fields
were held in common, the same evil has been suffered ixom a
refusal on the part of the owners of the several pieces to eiKlose
the laud, and to unite in accomplishing the conmion object. It
caimot be doubted, likewise, that the minds of men an
greatly affected by the nature of their employments; and
although there are many cases in which active and strong mindB
will rise above every barrier, and, iu spite of the ciicamstanoes
by which they are sunounded, will develop their native great-
ness, yet the constant confinement of the mind to a nanow and
very limited sphere of action, will not be without its effect
upon all its operations. The succesefttl management of a large
^rm, like the management of any other large concern, requires a
great deal of inquiry, calculation, reflection, and knowledge ;
and all this, from the necessity of the case, begets more inquiry,
calculation, reflection, and knowledge. It is to minds only of
this superior cast that we can look with confideuce for enterprise
and distingTiished improvements.
The effect of such small subdivisions of land as those of which
I am writing, and those which are said to take place in Franoe,
upon the production of natiotial wealth, is another questitm, and
must be put in an exact form before it can be answered. If we
could suppose all these small farms to be cultivated in the most
improved and perfect manner, the gross produce would be greater
than under any other system. This, however, is not to be ex-
pected, and, for reasons already assigned, would hardly take
[dace. In a pecuniary result, therefore, the subdivision of land
into small farms is likely to fall much short of the product of the
)yGoo»^Ic
SPADE HDSBANDRT. 13S
land cultivated in large occupations. But in reference to a general
competence, and a more equal and just distribution of the prod-
octe of the land, and in its moral effects upon the character of
the laboring population, the system of small farms should doubtless
be preferred.* If pecuniary gain alone must be the paramount
object of consideration, and the prosperity of a country is to be
measured only by dollars and cents, or pounds, shillings, and
pence, the cultiration of the land in large parcels would doubt-
less best effect the purpose ; but if the true prosperity of a
country is rather to be determined by the general comfort, im-
proremeut, and personal independence, of its population, we can
hardly doubt that arrangements which most nearly connect an
iodividual's interest with his own exertions and character, and, if
the expression be allowed, make him the creator of his own
fwtune, are those which are most likely to effect these ends.
The difference in the condition of an individual laboring always
at the will of another, and having no other share in, or control
over, the products of his labor, than that which he obtains from
the willing consent, or wrings from the reluctant necessities, of
his employer, and that of an independent freeholder in the soil,
who has a personal stake in the products of his labor, who s^
jdies this labor as he chooses, and baa the absolute control of its
results, can be best understood by those only who have seen
mankind in these two different situations.
There are two cases in which the spade husbandry might
have an important a^t^cation in the United States. The Eng-
lish know nothing of, and can scarcely, as far as my own obser-
vation goes, be made fully to understand, a condition of things,
* " No one," aaja tiie Baron de Stacl,"caDcoiiipa»thepcesent state of Fn.nc«
widi that which prevailed in 17S8, without "being Btrnck with the great increase
oT the national riches. Throii^ont all Fnoce, the greater number of laboien
and Gomem are at tlte.eame time proprielora. Nothing ia more common than to
*ae a day-laborer propriclor of a cottage, which aerres aa an asylum to bis family j
a garden, which feeds his children ; a little field, which he cultivatee at his leisure
hours, and which enablea him to auataio, with more chance of aucc:eB8,the terrible
struggle between laborious pomt^ and engrossing opulence.''^
"In 1838, the number of eeparate properties taxed fbr the ui^ fowMr, in
France, amoimt^d to the enormoDS number of 10,696,000. The population of
buided proprietors, with their families, is estimated at 30,000,000, or nearly two
thirds c^ the total population. The average size of each property is about four-
teen acres." t
t Qnoted in lAiDg*! Addnn. X Poiter'i Pragma of the Nation.
11"
„Gooi^lc
126 EUBOFJCAK AaSICCI.TUKE.
in which every man of coQunon intelligence, industry, frugality,
and sobriety, the great and certain elcmenU of success in almost
every depaitment of life, may become a freeholder, that is, the
possessor in fee-nmple of more or less land, according to his
desires or vants. Here, in England, land is so dear as to be
beyond almost the aspirations of meb with small means ; still lean
is it within the reach of those, whose whole wealth consists in
the labor of their own hands ; or it is held in large masses by
men whose active capital corresponds with the extent of their
possessions, and who, in such cases, would almost as soon sell
their teeth as their land ; or it is locked up by the laws of ^i-
mogeniture and entail, so that even those who hold it have not
always the power to ahenate it.
It has been said more than once to me, since the publication
of my First Report, that it is no evil that a man, and any man,
cannot own a house and land, and that the condition of a free-
holder is not preferable to that of atenant. Certainly this moat
depend, to a great degree, upon the conditions under which the
tenancy is held. But, without pronouncing it an evil, and
leaving every one to enjoy his own opinion of the case as it is,
I deem it a great good where such a blessing as a home of
one's own, and a small £um of one's own, subject to no othfir
conditions than such as the common laws of the laud extend
over it for [U-otection, is within the reach and the early attain-
ment even of the humblest member of the community. Nov,
ve have in New England, and in other parts of the country, a
great many instances, in which men and their families, pursuing
some handicraft or in-door trade, and professional men, with
small incomes, are the owners of houses in the coimtry, with a
few acres of land attached, on which they are occupied in their
hours of recreation, or at seasons when the calls of their trade
or profession do not press too stroi^ly upon them. While these
small farms famish a la^e proportion of the supplies which they
and their families require from the garden or the field, they are
alike conducive to their physical, and, 1 add with equal confi-
dence, to their moral health. To such persons the spade cul-
tivation, and the minute and exact husbandry to which it leads,
would be of great importance. Among the Romans, seven acres
were regarded as an ample allowance for a family ; and it would
be extremely desirable to know what are, in fact, the jffoductiTe
)yGoo»^Ic
WU>K HrsBiJISBZ. Iil7
povers of an acre. Aa yet, I believe, they are very far from
being ascertained ; but, in the coarse of my agricaltural obser-
vations, many cases have come imder my notice, in vhich the
products trom a very few acres, cultivated vith all the care and
tibendity which such cases admit of, have kx surpassed those of
fiums many times as large.
In one instance, which hi^pens to be before me, the following
waa the result : —
Three men were employed three weeks in digging an acre
with a spade, at 9b. per week, . 27s.
The same amount of land, in ploughing, cost 7 s. per acre, 21
Against the spade, 6 b.
At harvest, however, the spaded land |«oduced fifteen bushels
of wheat more than that under the plough. Here, then, waa a
clear profit, at the current jmice of wheat at ^e time, of £ 4 19 b.
per acre.
Another examjde is given of a former in Essex, on a fann of
one hundred and twenty acres.
" I have aimually dug," he says, "from three to five acres, for
the last five years. The soil I have operated upon is light, with
s substratum of gravel, sand, and tender loam. The expense
<^ the forking is Hid. per rod ^ 33s. 4d. per acre; but I
always dig under the furrow left by the plot^h, which adds one
laughing to the expense, viz., 8 b. By adoptii^ this course, I
do not bring up the inert subsoil until the second time of dig-
ging. The influence of forking on the crops seems to be, that
all root crops are much increased in quuitity ; the cereal crops,
irtiich follow, are less injured by drought ; and the land becomes
much more &ee from annual weeds, as well as from those which
are of a more permanent nature. I had recently a person with
me who has made a series of very caiefully-condocted experi-
ments, in whidi digging has been conti'asted with ploughing.
He thinks the produce of the forked land . wb3 neaily double
that of the ploughed."
This former adds, " First, a man can dig a greater quantity
of land, in a given time, with a fork than he can with a spade.
Hy experience shows one sixth ; and it strikes me it must be so,
because the pointed ends of a three-pronged fork can be more
)yGoo»^Ic
126 ZDBOPEAN AORICDLTtTKE.
easily pushed into a hard subsoil than the continuous end of a
spade ; secondly, it does not bring up so much of the subsoil as
the spade, but mijtes the earth more, a great portion slipping
through between the prongs ; thirdly, the bottom is left more
uneven and broken by the fork, which I consider a great advan-
tsge. One great objection to the plough is, the anooth, glazed
surface which it leaves below, and which presents a resistance
to the delicate fibres of the plant. If it is correct that, in most
instances, the present surface soil is nothing more than a portion
of the subsoil improved by cultivation, it must be right to
increase the quantity of corn-growing earth by subjecting more
subsoil to the same operation."
" An instance is given of the spade husbandry of a fanner in
Worcestershire, who has cultivated four acres of very stiff clay
land, two acres .of it for seventeen years, and two acres for
twenty-seven years. He grows, annually, wheat and potatoes,
with about one quarter of an acre of beans, the crop being
shifted alternately from one division to the other. His mode of
cultivation is as follows : As soon as the wheat is off, he ploughs
his stubble-ground, raking up the stubble to litter his pigs ; he
then digs it over with a fork, and plants on it potatoes in the
following spring ; this crop being kept clean, the land needs no
further preparation for wheat. He does most of the labor him-
self; but he estimates it to amount to about £4 6s. per acre:
his average produce has been nuher more than forty bushels of
wheat and twelve tons of potatoes per acre. The system he
follows, as regards the cropping of the land, therefore, is evi-
dently of the most trying description ; and this is not all, for he
sells all his produce, even his straw, excepting a few potatoes
and beans, which he consumes in tmnually feeding about thirty
or forty score of bacon for his own consumption. He Utters his
pigs with the potato haulm and stubble ; and the manure from
this source, and from his privy, with some clay out of his
ditches, which he gets occasionally and bums, is all that he has
to fertilize the land with.
Leaving out of consideration the small quantity of beans
raised and bacon fed, valuing the wheat at 7 s. per bushel, and
the rest of his produce at the price he obtains for it, we shall
have something like the following account of bis fanning : —
)yGoo»^Ic
139
£. s. d.
34 tons of potatoes, at 60s. per ton, 60 0 0
60 boahels of wheat, at 78. per budiel, 28 0 0
3 tons of straw, at 50 a. per ton 5 0 0
93 0 0
Deduct from this, manual wages, at £4 6 s.
l^d. per acre, 17 4 6
Seed potatoes for two acres, 26 bags of
ISO lbs., at 48. 5 0 0
4 bushels of seed wheat, at 78. 6d., . . 1 10 0
23 14 6
Leaves him, subject to rent and parochial payments, £69 6 6
This farmer then gives stroi^ and unanswerable evidence in
&Tor of the fork or spade husbandry. He adds that he has pur-
sued this system of cultivation during the period of the last
twenty-four years, with the exception of the first three years,
when his neighbors ^/ou^A«d his land for him for nothing; that
tiiey are willing to do the same now, at any time, but he pre/era
going to the expense of digging it, to having it ploughed for
nuking."*
This is certainly an instructive examfJe, and shows what may
be done by very limited and small means. We have, in the
United States, beyond a question, a large number of farmers,
vlio, if they would cultivate, to the utmost of its capacity, a
small extent of land, in the most thorough maimer, would find
Uiemselves comparatively independent ; whereas, now, without
capital, spending their deficient labor over a large surface, and
doing nothing thoroughly, they lead a life of vexation, toil, and
disappointm^it, without any compensating result.
To these examples I add the subjoined experience of a Scotch
farmer, who received a [ffemium from the Agricultural Society for
his sldll and success.
"In 1831, I determined to ascertain the difference of the
expense and produce, between trenching land with the spade,
and summer-fallowing with the [dough in the usual way. I
* Tbeaa two hubncea are qnoted by that able aai indnitrioua agrtcuJtun]
writer, Cutlibeit W. Jobuaon, F. R. S., in Jonnul of Agriculture for JaniuiT,
1B».
)yGoo»^Ic
130 EUBOPEUr AQHICCLTIIKE.
tbererore trenched thirteen acres of my summer-follow break, in
the months of June and July. I found the soil about fourteen
inches deep ; and I turned it completely over ; thereby putting
up acleau, fresh soil in the room of the foul and exhausted mould,
which I was careful to put at the bottom of the trench. This
operation, I fotmd, cost about £4 lOs. per Scotch acre, paying
my laborers with Is. 6d. per day. The rest of the field, con-
sisting of nine acres, I wrought with the plough in the usual way,
giving it six furrows, with the suitable harrowing : I manured
the field in August : the trench got eight cart-loads per acre, the
ploughed land sixteen: the field was sown in the middle
of September : the whole turned out a bulky crop as to straw,
particularly the trenched portion, which waa very much lodged.
On threshing them out, I found them to stand as under ; —
£. s.d.
To two years' rent, at £2 10a. per annum, .... 6 0 0
" expense of trenching, 4100
" seed, 3 bushels, at 68. 9d., 10 3
" 8 cart-loads of manure, at 4s., 1 12 0
" expenses of cutting, threshing, and marketing, . . 1 10 0
Profit, 3 18 9
By trenched wheat per acre, S2 bushels, at 6s. 9d. . £17 110
£. 8.d.
To two years' rent, at £2 10 s. per acre, 5 0 0
" 6 furrows and harrowing, at 10s., 3 0 0
" seed, 3 bushels, at 6 s. 9 d., 1 0 3
" 16 cart-loads' manure, at 4 s. 3 4 0
" expenses of cutting, threshing, and marketing, . . 1 10 0
Profit, 093
By ploughed wheat per acre, 42bushels, at 6s. 9d, . £14 3 6
" I now saw that, though it might be profitable to trench over
my fallow-break during the summer months, it was by no means
making the most of the system, as the operation was not only
more expensive, owing to the land being hard and dry during
the summer, but that it was a useless waste of time to take a
whole year to perform an operation that could as well be done in
a few weeks, provided laborers could be had ; and as, in all agn-
)yGoo»^Ic
SPADE IIITSBAMDBT. 131
cultural operations, losing time is losing money, — as the rent
most be paid whether the land is carrying a crop or not ; so that
ID talcing one year to fallow the land, and another to grow the
crop, two years' rent must be charged against the crop, or at least
diere must be a rent charged against the rotation of crops for the
year the laud was fallowed. As I felt satisfied that, by treoctung
with the spade, the land would derive all the advantage of a
summer fallowing, and avoid all the disadvantages attending it,
I determined on trenching thirty-four acres of my CEdlow-break
immediately on the crop being removed &om the ground, and
had it sown with wheat by the middle of November, 1832. I
may here remark that I did not apply any manure, as I thought
the former crop was injured by being too bulky. As it is now
threshed out and disposed of, the crop per acre stands as
follows : —
£. s. d.
To rent of laud, per acre, 2 10 0
" expense of trenching, 400
« seed, 110
" cutting, threshii^, and marketing, 1 10 0
Profit, 670
By average of the 34 acres, 44 bushels per acre, ^ ? f-is en
7b. per bushel, >
" The advantages of trenching over summer-fallow are, in my
opinion, very decided ; as it is not only cheaper, but, as far as I
can yet judge, much more effectual. I am so satisfied of this, not
only from the experiments above noticed, but from the apparent
condition of the land after it has carried the crop, that I have,
this autumn, cultivated about a hundred acres with the spade,
and the crops at present are very promising."
There are various cases in which the spade husbandry might
be most usefully introduced. In New England, especially in
Massachusetts, for the support of the poor, several towns have
purchased farms, to be connected with their alms-houses and
pauper establishments, where there is an opportunity of using to
advantage the labor of those persons among the paupers, who are
able to do any work, and who are thus made to contribute, in a
healthful and unexceptionable occupation, to their own support.
This is an excellent arrangement, uid the results have in many
)yGoo»^Ic
132 EUnOPEAK AOBICDLTUBE.
cases been highly successful. Here, in many cases, the land
might be wholly cultivated with a spade, end the expense of a
t«am be saved, which now oftentimes consumes a la^e porticoi
of the products of a farm, especially where the farm is small, a
full or complete team being as much required for the cultivatitm
of a small as of a large farm.
In reference to this subject, thoi^h it may not be deemed
exactly in place, I may be allowed to remark that, as &r as my
observation extends, nothing of this sort is done in England ; no
farm being ever connected with a pauper establishment, and only
the smallest avails being had from the labor of the inmates.
Indeed, it is obviously judged best — a conclusion which I
regard with great distrust — to prevent rather than employ the
labor of the paupers. At one of the Unions — for the poor-houses
in England go by that name, being' maintained and managed by
several towns or parishes uniting together for this object — I saw
a welt-dressed and lespectable-looking man employed in sweep-
ing the walks, and trimming the grass-plats, in the front yard ;
and, upon my inquiring whether this man were a pauper, I was
answered in the negative, and informed that be was hired as a
laborer in the establishment, because it was deemed bad policy
to employ any of the paupers in any such work, lest the place
should be rendered too comfortable and attractive. I said to
myself, — and I hope not to give offence in publishing my
thoughts, — " The English certairdy have their own ways of doing
things." I am not, by any means, prepared to say, they are not
the best that could be adopted. Indeed, we perhaps ought to
think them the best, if we consider how much experience they
have had, and how many means they have possessed for makii^
the most full experiments. But they aie certainly, in this respect,
very different fiom what prevail on the other side of the water.
It is an extraordinary condition of things, when, in the mid^ of
Taut and suffering, human labor must be thrown away, or
rather the exertion of it forbidden.
)yGoo»^Ic
or THE LAB0EER5.
XVU. — CONDITION OF THE LABORERS.
I hare no disposition to obtrude my opinion, in any form, so as
to give offence. Indeed, it has always seemed to me unreason-
able in any case, or on any subject, that the honest opinions of
any man should be the occasion of offence, as though we had
the same control of our opinions as we have of our limbs ; as
though we should have any other object, in any matter, but the
attainment of truth ; and as- if there were any way of attain-
ing truth but by the utmost freedom of discussion ; and, above
all, as though men should, tmder any circumstances, feel at liberty
to exercise the same tyranny over the mind which physical force
and political stratagem give them over the person.
One cannot help seeing that wealth and prosperity are not
always coincident ; that wealth is not therefore the infallible in-
dex of prosperity. In many cases, — and perhaps it may only be
rendered more striking from contrast, — the extraordinary accu-
mulations of wealth on one side are followed by a corresponding
depression on the other ; while the rich are made richer, in the
same proportion the poor are made poorer. As wealth increases,
avarice is more powerfully stimulated, and labor more severely
taxed. In the richest communities, the price of labor is always
the most depressed ; and with the increase of luxury the desire of
indulgence is quickened with all classes : what might properly
i>e termed luxuries and superfluities become absolute necessaries
of life, and the expenses of living are proportionally increased to
ail. We may deplore such results, and deem it easy to suggest'a
remedy ; but what remedy is of general or of practical applica-
tion? The more artificial the state of society becomes, the
more difficult it becomes to provide the means of living ; and
yet who would return to the state of nature, or abate one tittle
in the actual refinements of life ? Communities are growing up
among us upon the principles of perfect equality of rank, the
equal combination of labor, and an entire community of goods ;
and there are examples, where such communities, bound together
by a strong religious tie, and subject to a most despotic govern-
ment within themselves, have been maintained, and are still
flourishing. But without this religious tie, or some strong
12
)yGoo»^Ic
134 CtlROPEUI AaEIClILT0B£.
personal and pecuniary inteiest, and without an absolute head,
does any sober man dieam that such communities can be sus-
tained, excepting within the narrowest limits ? or that such prin-
ciples can be applied, to any great extent, to society at lai^,
without an entire change in the whole structure of society,
and, I may ahnost add, an entire renovation of human nature
itself? Far be it from me, however, to suggest that the erUs of
society are without a remedy, or at least beyond alleviation.
Our own country, under a bee constitution of government, and
with an almost unlimited extent of the most fertile territory,
accessible upon the easiest terms, presents, perhaps, the moat
favorable condition, which has been known, for a seciuity of the
rights of labor, and the just fruition of its products ; but it would
be a great injustice to infer that there are not to be found in
England many generous and Just persons, devoted to the
maintenance of the rights, and the welfare and improvement, of
the himible and laborious classes. There cannot be a doubt,
that, in a noiseless and unobtrusive way, much is, and infinitely
more can be, done for these objects ; and the aim of every good
man, as far as he has any power, should be to diffuse, to the
greatest extent possible, the means of subsistence and comfort to
all, and to remove every impediment to the most equal distribu-
tion of the products of labor among those whose labor in their
production gives them certainly a fair claim upon these products.
Now, whether it be by large iarms oi by small allotments, by
|dough or by spade husbandry, that mode of husbandry by
which the largest amount of product, and at the least expense,
can be drawn from the soil, and with the least injury to its i»o-
ductive powers, is to be preferred. This great point is not yet
ascertained ; and its determination must necessarily be different
in different places and conditions. But it is with England a
question of tremendous importance, what is to become of the
vast acciunulations of people, which are continually increasii^
here at the rate of from seven hundred to a thousand per day.
It is impossible to become accurately, thoi^h it may be slightly,
acquainted with the condition of things in England, the actual
suffering for a want of the means of subsistence, which prevsUs
among large portions of the population, especially in some of the
i^cultural districts, and not to feel tlmt there are powerful
elements of disease at work in the social body, whose disastrotu
)yGoo»^Ic
CONDITION OF THE LABDREBS. 136
effects must presently be felt in all their violence. Men with
families dependent upon their labor, earning not more than 7 s.,
and in some instances even less, per week, and oftentimes with
only occasional employment at that rate, present objects of deep
interest to. a philanthropic mind. Men living themselves upon
8 single meal per day, and that potatoes only, for the sake of
keeping a wife and children from absolute starvation, ~ and there
is ample evidence that such cases exist, — present a sad spectacle.
What are the remedies for such a condition of things, if remedies
there are to be found, it is not within my province, in this case, to
discuss. It is a hard lot, where the most severe and unremitted
labor will not avail to procure a subsistence for one's self and
femily, and where, with immense tracts of uncultivc^d land,
the opportunity even of exerting this labor, however cheerfully
it might be rendered, is, for any cause whatever, refused or
j»evented.*
The subject, it appears to me, — and perhaps wholly from my
being unaccustomed to a condition of things in any degree re-
sembling it, — is daily assuming a fearful aspect ; I do not mean
of danger to the government, — for the government of the country
seems never to have been stronger, — but fearful in its bearings
Qpon the public peace, the public morals, the security of property,
and the state of crime. I make no apology for touching upon it,
because the experience of an old cannot be without its advan-
tages to a new country, and the condition of labor is a subject
which materially concerns every just government. Any hopes
of a government being founded or administered upon strictly
moral principles are contradicted by all past experience.f The
* One can Bcsrcely read, withoot a, riiudder, the fbDowin^ decluUion of a,
celebnted ecooomicAl writer: —
•■A man bom into the worid alieadj paaseeBBd:, if he haa do BaBiBtance fiom bk
pwrenta, upon irhora he has a just demuid, or ftom aociety for his labor, haa no
claim for the rm&llest portion of food, and no bneiness where be was. At Nature's
mighty board there was no cover tor him ; she tells him to be ^ne."
This passage, which appeared in the fiivt edition of bia gre*t woA, was after'
VBtds snppressed, heing, it is said, too strong for the temperature eren of the
rankest of the economical acliool.
t " To provide for us in our necessities is not in the power of government It
would be a vain preeiunption in statesmen to think that thejr can do it The
people maintuD them, and not they the people. It is in the power of gorenunent
ta prevent much evil ; it can do very little positive good in this, or pertupe in snj
ddngelae. It is not only so of the slate and the statesman, but of all tiiecIasBss
)yGoo»^Ic
136 ECBOPCAN AGBICULTOme.
objects of almost all governments seem to be the security of life
and property, the prevention of crimes which endanger life and
property, and the aggrandizement of those in power. I do not
know that more can be expected of them in the way of promoting
good morals, excepting in the suppression of the direct instruments
of vice, the support of religious institutions, and the provision for
the education of the people. A citizen of the United States, from
habit, if not from principle, at once resists and abjures any inter-
ference whatever with his religion, whether considered as matter
of worship, or faith, or feeling, because, under the government of
his own coimtry, with which he has every reason to be satisfied,
all such interference is absolutely prohibited. All attempts at
enforcing moral duties by legal enactments would be futile and
hazardous, since, as it is with human rights, many of them are
imperfect, so it is with human duties, many of them are so imde-
fined that it would be difficult to joescribe them with any jhsc-
ticable exactness ; and laws of this nature are necessarily of a
negative character. They may forbid that which shall not be
done } but it is much more difficult to enjoin that which shall be
done. They may determine by law that provision shall be made
that no man actually perish of hunger in the streets ; but what
degree of provision short of absolute starvation, how much relief,
and how much comfort, he shall have, is a matter far more diffi-
cult to be thus arranged. The provision for the education of
the people is more clearly within the power and the duty of an
enlightened government, on the ground, not simply of moral ob-
ligation, but of improving the national industry, increasing,
consequently, the national wealth, and of elevating generally
the character of the people, and so advancing the general
improvement, and promoting public happiness and order.
mA descriptions of the ricli. They are the pensioners of tbe poor, and ore nuun-
tained bj their guperfluity. They are under an absolute, liereditary, aod inde-
feasible dependence ou those ivho labor, and ate miscalled the poor. Nothing
con be M base and wicked as the political canting language, ' the laboring poor'
Let compassion be shown In action ; the more the better, accordiog to every man's
ability, but let there be no lamentation of their coodltion. It ia no relief to their
miserable circumstances ; it is only an insult to their miserable understandings.
It arises from a total wattt of chari^, or a total want of thought Want of one
Jdnd was never relieved by want of any other kind. Patience, labor, sobriety,
ftugali^, retig^n, should be recommended to them ; all the rest is downright
fivud. It is horrible to call them < the ottet happy laborers.' " — Edmijiid Bokke.
)yGoo»^Ic-
coNsinoR or thc libokcks. 137
But it is Toin to look to any goremment for uiy thing like ft
paternal superinteodeQce of its peojde. On a laj^ scale it is not
ptacticable. Those who govern can scarcely be expected to
have virtue, and disinterestedness, and wisdom, sufficient for such
a task ; and those who are governed would not willingly submit
to their injunctions or regulations. Any compulsory influence
would be unavailing. But, then, it is the duty of every just
government to afford to every one of its subjects, as far as
depends on itself, the means of subsistence ; and institutions or
i^lilations, by which the right and opportunity for a man to
exert his talents in a way not morally injurious to another, are
taken away, or abridged, or in any degree interfered with, seem
wholly wrong and tuijust. It would be invidious in me, because
perhf^ out of place, to point out in any way how the institu-
tions of this country so interfere, if interfere they do ; but, as 1
have said before, the condition of a large portion of the popula-
tion, — I speak of those in the rural districts, — being prevented
the opportunity of applying the labor by which they might secure
not only a subsistence, but the comforts of life, forebodes nothing
bat evil, and may, with strong reason, engage the anxious
inquiries of those who have any power in die case, either of alle-
viation or remedy.
The population is increasing throughout the kingdom with
amazing rapidity ; and, strange as it may seem, the fact is beyond
a doubt, that the increase is always greater among the wretched
poor, whom extreme misery has made entirely reckless of con-
sequences, than among that class whose circumstances are com-
paratively comfortable, and who have letumt that their comfort
can be secured only by a wholesome and wise providence. The
complaint is universal and continual, that the population is too
numerous; but this does not prevent their increase. Few will
be bold enough to hazard the question, Who is here who has not
a right to be here ? nor, like a party of shipwrecked sailors in a
boat, to propose the decision by lot, as to which of the party shall
be thrown overboard. But the great question must be met — not.
How are the surplus population to be got rid of? but, How shall
they be sustained? The insular character of Great Britain
necessarily and absolutely limits its capacity of providing for its
population from its own soil, although that capacity is yet far from
being reached. Idleness begets idleness ; beggary produces and
12*
)yGoo»^Ic
138 ECmOFEAN IGKICULTURX.
perpetuates be^aiy ; crime engenders crime. Sickness and neg-
lect — a sad relief, alas ! to the benevolent mind — may do some-
thii^ towards checking this rapid accumulation ; for it is stated
in the commissioners' returns, and has been asserted recently in
the House of Peers, by a distinguished nobleman, that, in England
and Scotland, fifty thousand individuals perish annually by
disease, arising from the wretchedness of their habitations, owing
to imperfect ventilation, and the want of sufficient drainage.*
This, however, is a small number to be set against the annual
increase. Emigration may somewhat alleviate the evil ; trans-
portation contributes its small share. It is a curious fact,
however, that disease seems scarcely to produce any sensible im-
pression on the population, and that the losses occasioned by
severe and wide-spread epidemics are rapidly filled up and
obliterated. The effect of the extraordinary im^xivements al-
ready made, and daily beii^ made, in machinery, in the manu-
facturing districts, is to diminish the amount of human labor
employed, and throw more destitute hands into the labor market.
What, then, under these cireumstances, is to be done, is a question,
to the great moment of which I have already alluded. It is not,
in such a case, for men to wrap themselves up in their own
selfishness and indifference, and say, " Let things take care of
I was conversing with a friend on this subject, a gentleman
of great intelligence, and not wanting in benevolence ; and his
remark was, that an increase of production would do little for
* Thifl same nobleman, in diacuSBing thia important anbject, et&ted that, in ten
jeats, a larger number perished, io Fjigland, fMm these c&usee, than the n-hnle
number of slaves emancipated in their colonies i and for which Great Bntatn paid,
by a noble exertion, twenty million pounds sterling.or nearly one hundred million
of dollars.
This is a curiam &ct, and every day's history of public beneficence presents
analogous facts — casee in which thousands and millions are lavished upon objecia,
doubtless dcaervin^afaympathyandkindnesB, thousands of miles distant from its,
where the teaults are sometimes doubtful, and can never be known, but through
the testimony of interested parties, while objects of mercy and kindness, whose
claiiDS are not less strong and urgent, and wha»e condition can be perfectly
known, and where tlie results of our efforts may be watched and aecertained,
perish in all tbeir want, ignorance, wretcliedness, and profligacy, at the very
thresholds of our iloora. Certainly, true charity, which extends its wide embrace
to efQinted humnnity every where, will not end at home ; and it mi^t often be U
well for it to begin there.
)yGoo»^Ic
COMDITIOM OF THE I.ABOBEIU. 139
the lower classes, for they would get no more ; with the price of
bread, theii wages, if lower be possible, were likely to be re-
duced i the advantages of such increased products would, of
course, go into the bands of the land-holders and farmers, or the
la^e nmDU^turers and mill-owners ; and that, for his part, he
saw no ultimate remedy but starvation ; that is, such an actual
reduction of the means of living, that multitudes should gradu-
ally perish from want, and so thin off the surplus population.
He said this, too, with all the coolness and indifference with
which he would speak of brushing off the flies from the dinner-
table. " Good God I " I said within myself, " has it come to
this, that familiarity with want and misery can render the heart
of man capable of contemplating such .a result with calmness,
and that human life on ear^ should come to be deemed utterly
worthless ? If there be any humanity, or any religion, left in the
world, they must be roused to prevent such a catastrophe."
Whatever anxiety, however, the prospect may excite in a
benevolent mind, there is no room for despair. It is not consist*
ent with the nature of my present undertaking, to discuss this
subject, in its various bearii^s and aspects, in this place. If life
and health are spared me, I shall do it in another form. The
people do not bo much demand charity, as work. They do not
so much require to be supported, as to be allowed to support
themselves. The* remarkable experiment, already referred to,
of Mrs. Gilbert, a sagacious and benevolent wonum, at East-
bourne, in Sussex county, who has four himdred tenants, on
small allotments, and of whom not more than three have failed
to pay their rent punctually, and who, on these small allotments,
do, in many cases, all that is necessary, and in all, much for the
support of their families, should command attention. There
remains, as I have before stated, an inunense amount of land,
which might be coltivated and rendered productive. These
considerations present the strongest inducements to an improved
agriculture. More land should be brought into cultivation ; that
which is cultivated should be better cultivated. The laborers
should have every encouragement and opportunity to help them-
selves. The interest of the farmers cannot be separated from
that of the laborers ; the interests of one class from that of
another. Embarked in the same vessel, they must succeed or
suffer, they must sink or swim, together.
)yGoo»^Ic
140 BIIBOPEAN AaiUC0LTtntK.
I have been, again and again, told that a materia] change has
taken place in the condition of the farm laborers, within the last
fifty years, or even a much less lime. The practice of forming
large farms, by uniting small ones, has tended to remove the
laborer farther from the intercourse and superintendence of his
employer. Being engaged in large numbers, individual interest
and character hare been lost sight of ; and, cottages on the estates
having been suffered to fall into decay, and not being renewed,
the laborers have been driven into villages, with a great restric-
tion of their comforts, and exposed to the temptations incident to
such localities. The lai^e establishments have lost that patri-
archal character vhich used to belong to them ; men axe em-
l^oyed much more by the day, uidthe week, than by the year,
as formerly ; and are used, and thrown aside, as occasion may
require, like mere implements upon the farm. Those strong
personal ties, so favorable in their induence upon the lower classes,
and not without most valuable moral effects upon the higher,
have almost ceased to exist. It was a delightful circumstance,
when, formerly, without any infrii^ement of personal liberty, a
lalxirer was considered as a fixture upon the place, and as having
a sort of hereditsry connection with the fcunily and the estate
of his employer, which only the most imperious reasons could
dissolve ; so men and women lived in the same service twenty,
thirty, fifty years, and often for the whole course of their natural
lives ; their children and children's children were often bom
upon the homestead, and the interests of the master and the
servants became identical. As they were paid, likewise, in kind,
instead of money, they themselves, being, in a small way, sellers
of produce, became personally interested in the state of the
markets ; and ties of familiarity, long vicinity, and connection,
mutual dependence, and a mutual stake in the results of their
joint labor, served to connect them the more closely t(^ther.
No one, under these circumstances, can doubt the advantages of
such a relation on both sides. There are many cases, which have
come under my observation, where a similar connection exists,
though in a form very much qualified by modem manners, and
where individuals and families have been in the same service for
many long years, and the aged among them are provided for, by
those in whose service their lives have been passed, in the kindest
manner, after all power of useful or active labor has ceased
>, Goo»^Ic
CONDITION OF THE LABOBCRS. 141
ftnd they are staggemig under the heavy burdens of age and
decay. I have already, in my First Report, referred to instances
of this nature. But the system most prsvalent is perfectly heart-
less: labor is considered merely as labor; human muscles and
sinews aie regarded like the parts of any other implement ; and
when their power ceases, or their elasticity is destroyed, they are
thrown aside, like worn-out machinery, into those melancholy
receptacles of decay and poverty, which have, very properly,
ceased to be called aljtu-houses, and which necessity, and not
charity, provides. I cannot say that such sentiments are pecu-
liar to England. They are, it is feared, becoming too common
in the United States ; not merely in the departments of agricul-
tural, and manufacturing, and mechanical labor, 'but likewise
reaching the domestic and household relations, where least of all
they should have obtruded themselves. This comes, in some
measure, from that narrow and mean utilitarian philosoj^y,
which stimulates avarice into a diseased action, and measures
every good in life by a purely pecuniary standard. Whatever
tends to divide these different classes, either in interest or feeling,
is, to a degree, and ultimately, I fear, it must prove in an equal
degree, injurious to both parties. Feelings of indifference, or
contempt, or cruel disdain, on the one hand, are likely to be met
with a sense of injury, a feeling of hate and revenge, on the
other ; and one of the greatest curses with which. Heaven could
hare visited mankind, would have been to have made them in
any sense independent of each other. There are no circum-
stances connected with tbe condition of society more to be
regretted than such as separate different classes too strongly from
each other, and create hostile or conflicting interests. A perfect
equality of condition among men is a chimera ; and if, by any
conceivable or possible arrangement, it could take place, the
earth, in its rapid revolutions, would not pass the half of a degree,
but it must be interrupted. But an equality of natural rights is
a position which, if I may be allowed to speak for one bom
and educated in a condition of society where it has been always
acknowledged, would not be readily relinquished. Now, if there
is any right which should be held sacred, next to that which
every man has to his own person, it is the right of honest labor
to an ample share of the products o£ that labor. The rights
of tbe rich man to his possessions, honestly and honorably
)yGoo»^Ic
142 EDROPEAN AGAICULTOBB.
acquired, are as just as those of the poorest man to the crast
which feeds or the coarse gBiment which covere him ; but, in
every condition of society, the rights of the rich and the po<»
are reciprocal, and their dependence mutual and absolute. If the
poor are compelled, under the arbitrary institutions of society, —
and I use the term arbitrary in no offensive sense, — more sensibly
to feel their dependence, the upper classes in society, with that
spirit of justice and kindness which constitutes the ht^est
grace of power, and wealth, and rank, should be prompt to show
their sense of how much they owe even of all this power, and
wealth, and rank, to the labors, and services, and fealty, of the
poor ; and, without losing sight, as far as is consistent with the
spirit of Chr&tianity, of what is called their position in society,
to endeavor to soften the severity of those distinctions, which,
if they mark the elevation of their own condition, equally
indicate the depressed condition of others. In that beautiful
language, to which every serious mind will listen with [»v
found reverence, " The eye must not say unto the hand, I have
no need of thee, nor yet the head to the feet, I have no need
of you ; " seeing that even those parts of the body which are least
" comely," are as essential to the perfect and healthy organiza-
tion of the machine, as those on which the Creator has im-
pressed the highest attributes of grace, expression, and beauty,
and must be equally nourished &om the great central reservoir
of life and strength, or the whole must suffer from weakness oi
decay.
I do not mean to imply that there is any greater disregard of
these principles than is to be expected in a condition of society
so highly artificial as that which exists here, and where the
accumulations of individu^ wealth, and of what, from its heredi-
tary and inalienable character, may be termed class-property, an
so enormous. I do not mean, as I have already said, to express
any apprehension or alarm for the safety of the present institu-
tions of England ; for, though the flood of population is rising with
a continually accelerated force, and in almost a geometrical ratio,
yet wealth here is so strong, and poverty so powerless, and the
safety of the whole is so essentially concerned in the mainte-
nance of the integrity of its present form of society, and, above
all, the experience of a neighboring nation, on the subject of
revolution, is so admonitory and terrific, that almost every thir^
)yGoo»^Ic
CONDITION OF THE LABORERS. 143
vill be endured before any violence Ib hazarded or permitted.
Still it is obvious to every reflecting mind how important it is to
the public peace and the security of property, that the rights of
dte laborious classes should be fully acknowledged, and main-
tained in the spirit of kiadoess and equity, as well as of strict
legal justice, and that every phUanthiopic effort ^ould be
stimulated and encouraged to protect and comfort them, and,
more than that, by education, moral and intellectual, — for, with-
out moral, intellectual too often |»x»Tes a curse, — to elevate them
ir. their social condition. Next to the satisfactions of an honest
conscience, the highest of all earthly pleasures to a good man, is
that of confeiring happiness upon others. I have seen, in Eng-
land, with a gratification which it would be difficult to express,
among persons of the most biUliant rank imd the most com-
manding influence, many instances of a conduct which deserved
and secured idl this felicity. Every where men are to be found
feeling their high responsibleneas, and, without any offensive
assumption of superiority, devoting all their enei^ies to the {oo-
tection of the houseless, and to the comfort and improvement
ot those whom divine Providence has cast within the circle of
their beneficence, aod «ijoying all that calm security which such
conduct is sure to bring with it. I confess there has been no
occasion in my life when I have been so much disposed to envy
the posaessioo of wealth and power. On the other hand, I dare
ny I shall only be compassionated for my simplicity, when I
add that the high stone and brick walls, with which houses, and
parka, and properties, are here often intrenched and foriified, so
h^ that even the nimblest jail-bird would look at them with
despair, and the fences every where bristling with iron spikes and
broken glass, and the sullen gates opening " with discordant jar,"
and the ferocious watch-di^s, to say nothing of other masti&s,
(rften stationed by them, from whose terrific grow) even the
honest ap{4icant shrinks back with dread ; and then the signs
which meet your eye constantly, " All vagrants and beggars for-
bidden here," " All trespassers here will be prosecuted to the
utmost rigor of the law," and " Steel man-traps set here," oAen
bring a cold chill over me, and compel me to feel that property
held under such cautions loses somewhat of its value. At the
same time, it makes mc estimate the more highly a condition of
lociety where the road of acquisition is ei^ually open (o all, and
)yGoo»^Ic
144 EVSOPEAn AOBICin.TDSE.
where property being more equally distributed, and in almost all
cases the fruit of 'personal industry, its rights are more readily
admitted, and its protection becomes matter of equal and uni-
versal concern.
I return now to speak of the present actual condition of agri-
culture in England. I have dwelt largely, but I hope not too
Largely, upon miscellaneous and incidental considerations. I
propose now to consider the actual condition and character of
English agriculture ; the imi»orements which it has effected ;
and those which remain to be devised.
XVni. — PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE, COMPARED
WITH OTHER PURSUITS.
I have already said that the agriculture of England — and here
I include Scotland — is highly imjffoved ; but I may say, I think,
with confidence, and certainly without censoriousness, that it has
not yet reached that degree of excellence to which it is capable
of being carried. la parts of the country, not much has been
done ; in the best cultivated districts, it would be [H«8umptuoils
to say that the goal of perfection has been reached. Amoi^
the highest gifts with which Heaven has endued the human
mind is a generous and insatiable ambition after excellence ; an
avarice of improvement, if so it may be termed, which character-
izes a great mind ; which knows in no case entire satisfaction ;
which no sooner mounts one summit than it essays to climb a
higher; and which, if in any thing it should reach barriers that
are absolutely impassable, would, like the celebrated hero of anti-
quity, "weep that it had no more worlds to conquer." I am
not willing to admit that this ambition, one of the noblest attri-
butes of the human soul, can ever be stimulated to too great a
degree. Cobbett, in bis terse, energetic, but rather coarse manner,
says that " he despises a man who is contented with his condi-
tion ; " and in the sense in which he obviously designed to be
understood, I quite agree with him, that no man should be sati»-
fied with good while better is attainable ; and that it would
)yGoo»^Ic
rBOGBXss or aokicdi;tube. 146
iadeed be a sad coodition of things, when the capacity, and still
more the disposition, for im[Hi>venwnt should cease.
It is, and, as long as I can remember, it has been, common to
decry the fanners, as a stupid, ignorant, plodding race, satisfied
always to jog on in the steps of their fathers, and averse to any
improTements, such as are going forward in other departments of
industry. I think I may confidently deny the allegation ; and I
regard the re[«oach with the disdain which it merits. My own
observations, in England and the United States, lead me to the
conctusion, that, after making every just allowance for the neces-
sary difference of circumstances in the different cases, there is as
much intelligence in regard to their art, and as strong a spirit of
improvement, with the agricultural as with any class in the com-
munity ; and, more than that, the improvements, which have been
actually accomplished in the agricultural art, are in no respect
inferior to those which have been effected in manufactures and
commerce, or in the higher professions, — if so we submit to call
them, which I confess I do with great reluctance, — medicine
or law ; I would add theology, if I dared ; but I am a&aid I
should get into hot water.
In medicine, if under that head we include snidery, one can-
not go through the streets of London, and observe, at the shop-
vindows, the models of wooden legs, and artificial ears, and glass
eyes, and mineral teeth, and the promise of a new nose, where
tb& victim of misfortune has been deprived of his proboscis,
without acknowledging that the triumphs of the su^ical art are
as brilliant as they are useful and humane. If one likewise
Aoidd place any reliance upon the numberless patent medicines
and nostrums which decorate the pages of the newspapers, he
would be led to infer that the reign of disease was broken up,
and the elixir of immortality at length discovered. But whoever
looks into the medical reports, and observes the variety of systems
and modes of [onctice which prevail, and which different col-
leges of physicians seem to bring out as regularly, and in shnost
equal numbers, as the good housewife's hens bring out their broods
in the spring, and especially reads the accounts of the various
experiments, to which, for the benefit of science, their patients
are unconsciously subjected, and by which, without the credit of
inclination or consent, they are made, at their own personal ex-
pense, suffering, and peril, to contribute to the most ^ilanthropic
13
)vGoo»^Ic
146 EDROPZAN AOMICULTURE.
discoveries, — it caniiot be claimed for medicine, that it is alto-
gether above the charge of empiricism, or that it has yet accom-
plished all that is to be desired in lessening the number or
alleviating the virulence of diseases, or in restoring human life,
with any confidence, lo even a tithe of that longevity, which is
claimed for it in those patriarchal ages when apothecaries' shops,
and medical schools, and degrees, do not appear to hare been
established. It is scarcely better with the law. One of the most
distingui^cd legal gentlemen in EIngland has lately stated, in his
place in Parliament, ttiat such is the condition of the criminal taw,
that even the most learned in the profession catmot, in many cases,
determine whether he is, by particular actions, committing an
offence or not. The records of the courts daily show that the
most momentous decisions often turn upon points the most
abstnise, and as yet absolutely unsettled ; that even the most
learned judges on the bench disagree in matters both of law and
equity, involving property and life ; and it seems but too often
the test of legal eminence and skill to ascertain, not whether it
be practicable to get "a camel," but whether the lawyer can get
himself or his client, " through the eye of a needle," as being the
most brilliant triumph of his art.* In theology, it cannot be said
* fn ■ recent tria], a bnite in human ahape, or rather a demoniac, — for bnitea
are not capable oT actions so malicioiu, — waa indicted for wotrndtng, mamhtg,
and a^wing, a horse. He, it Beema, in the fluy of his patKoa, had diawn out the
toninie of the hone, and, by nibbing it againot one of his teeth, had cut off four or
five inches of it, which he threw at the hone's bead. Hia counael oppoaed the
indictment, on the ground that there could, sa defined bj law, be no teounding
but where BMue tni6wiMntwaa used; but the tooth waa notantwlnwitiri; — there
could be no nurimH^ but where some limb waa injured ; but the tongue waa not a
Umb ; — and that there waa no injury, because, though the horse Ibund some diffi-
culty in eating hia oats, he waa otherwiBc as useful for labor aa before hia tongue
waa cut oS: On these grounds the pmeecutioD failed, and the aavage escaped.
Under auch an administration of jnsticG, it wonldscairely have been surfniaing, if
the horse, had he not loat his tongue, had himself apok en out ; and it would have
been only fair if he had been allowed to bitt: off the ears of the lawyer, and of a
magistrate who sanctioned auch law.
At a court of aaaizea which I attended, and where the criminal calendar wm
heavy, a young muried wocnan, of decent and respectable appeaimnce, hannff a
husband and children, and against whose character, in other reapecta, nothing was
alleged, was sentenced to ten days' solitary ioiprisonment, for having taken fcr her
fire, on the estate of a connteae, near which her cottage stood, a stick of wood,
valued at threepence, from a tree that had been felled and partly cut up. If
the tree bad not been cut down, and she liad taken a piece aa large, tbe act
)yGoo»^Ic
FILOORES8 OF AORICULTCRE. 147
that much progress has been made in determining many (ques-
tions which have vexed men's minds for centuries. I confess,
when I was in the Bodleian library, at Oxford, that immense
repository of the labors of so many burning brains and aching
hearts, with its five hundred thousand volumes, and considered
that, beyond all question, more than three hundred thousand of its
thick octavos and ponderous quartos and folios were commenta*
ries upon the Scriptures, or discussions of disputed questions in
theology, and yet, in respect to most of them, that we are still at
sea, and no land in sight, I could not escape the conviction, that
h^re, too, man is still iu leading-strings, and has yet scarcely
taken " the first steps of infancy."
In respect to manufactures and conmierce, if we compare the
common operatives in either of these departments with those of
the same class in ^riculture, — the laborers in the mills, or the
sailors on boardship, with the common laborers on the farm, — we
^lall find no great advantage, in intellectual progress, which the
one has over the other ; but, again, if we compare the highest
class of farmers with the highest class of merchants and manu-
facturers, it will certainly be no disparagement to the latter
classes to say that they are not in advance of the best-informed
agriculturists ; and that agriculture is now as much a matter of
the mind, as much a matter of intellectual observation and in-
tfould have been s Himple trttpOM, aai she would have been mulcted in a fine
oa\j: B0 it was, boireTer, it wu a.filony or crime, and aha was punished accord-
ingly. I could easily imagine the Bmazement of the poor unfortunate creature
at 9o Ribtile ood philosophical a distinction. 1 must add, though it may seeni out
of place, that a criminal proeecutiou for an offence of this nature can have no
other eSect than to engender a bitter malignity on the part of the poor towardB the
powerfiil, and that the generally severe adminietcBtion of penal juiticc upon the
humble and detenceleaa, (not, I must confess, peculiar to England,} when the large
flies so often break through the cobweb of the law, and escape by intrigue or in-
fluence, can have little effect in producing refonnatioii; and its main tendency
must be to nounsh, on the part of the lower classes, a deep Tesentment of the
partiality, and an utter hatred of the power, to which they are aubjectsdl A
paternal adminirtration of justice is not, of comae, to be expected ; but what an
infinite unount of guilt and wietchedneaa wonid be saved, if the ciicnmstaQces of
the gnil^ conld be more mercifully considered ; especially if humanity and pub-
lic justice could be more exerted in preventing rather tlian in punishing crime ;
■bore all, if society itself, by its omissions or its institutionB, were not, in too
many easea, the tempter, the minister, and the pander to crime, as well aa its
teniUe avenger!
)yGoo»^Ic
148 KtntOPEAM AQKICITLTimX.
quiry, as any one of the practical arts of life ; and at the present
moment, it is occupying as much attention from the highest class
of minds as any other of the business pursuits of life.
I hope, viewed in this aspect, I shall not be thought, to speak
with undue warmth on this subject. I have, 1 am aware, already
alluded to it ; but I am anxioiis to assert the dignity of a pursuit
which I regard among the most honorable, as it is among the
moat innocent and useful, in life ; and I would, if possible, soften its
aspect, and multiply its attractions, to a large class of persons,
who have been accustomed to look upon it with indifference or
disdain, but who would be sure to find in it, if aidently ai\d
intelligently pursued, health for the body, and peace and satisfac-
tion — nay more, the strongest and most delightful interest — for
the mind.
XIX. — ACTUAL IMPROVEMENTS IN ENGLISH
AGRICULTURE.
But of what nature are the improvements which agriculture
has actually made in Great Britain, which determine the present
high condition of the art ? A strainer cannot, of course, from
personal experience, compare her present condition with what it
was ; yet the marks of progress are so obvious that the most
transient observer recognizes them ; and many are now in the pro-
cess of accomplishment, which fill him with delightful surprise.
Many of these improvements are among the noblest triumphs of
art, and mark, as strongly as in almost any other cases, the power
of mind over matter, the subjugation of physical elements to an
intellectual sovereign.
1. Draining, Irrigation, and Warping. — Much of what has
been done is entirely out of sight ; whole fields, thousands and
thousands of acres of land, have been underdrained by pipes and
channels, s[»^ading themselves like beautiful net-work under the
surface, taking off all the surplus moisture, and converting cold,
unfruitful, and imsightly morasses into productive and beautiful
fields. It would be curious, if it were possible, to approxifnate
)yGoo»^Ic
1.CTDAI. IltPROTSKEirrS IH ENGLISH tCRICULTDKE. 149
the amount of this work which has been done ; but there are no
means even of iraming a reasonable conjecture. It undoubtedly
embraces hundreds of thousands of acres, and much more is in
prepress, since, important and indispensable as moisture is to
vegetation, nothing can be more prejudicial than a superabun-
dance of water, and especially st^lgnant water. Of the different
modes of draining I shall speak hereafter at large. - It is a sub-
ject of great importance and utility, and requires to be treated in
the fullest and most exact manner. The next great improve-
ment, that I have witnessed in England, is in the feii>country of
Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, where vast territories, embracing
many thousands of acres, have been, it may almost be said,
created, that is, redeemed from the sea, fortified by strong and
extensive embankments, and now rendered as fertile and [Koduc-
tive as any lands which can be found upon the island. These
lands, likewise, are kept drained by immense steam engines,
which move with an untiring power, and accomplish this mighty
work with ease. In other cases, in Lincolnshire, another
process is going on, here denominated warping, by which, on the
banks of the Humber, immense tracts are enclosed, the tide shut
in, and compelled to leave its rich deposit, thus forming, likewise,
the richest meadows. Still another process is in progress, by
which the crooked course of a river is straightened, its channel
deepened by its own new cmrent, and rendered navigable, and,
by the erection of artificial banks, the soil within them continu-
ally raised, and hundreds of acres, where so recently the fish, at
high water, sported with impunity, are rescued from the sea, and
covered with thriving flocks of cattle and sheep. In Yorkshire,
not only are varioiis processes of redeeming and improving land
goir^ on, but the curious process of removing, by the aid of
steam machinery, the rich deposit from the bed of a river, whose
current has been diverted from its natural course ; and this de-
posit, after being taken out, is laid, at not an inordinate expense,
OB a peat bog hitherto unproductive and worthless. By judi-
cious management, it is spread on the land to the depth of eight
inches, and the covering proceeds at the rate of five acres per
day. In Nottinghamshire, a most splendid improvement has been
effected in turning the course of a small river, so as at pleasure
to irrigate several hundred acres of land, which were formerly
poor and comparatively improductive, but now yield the most
13*
)yGoo»^Ic
160 EimOPEAM AGSICCLTtnUE.
abundant crops ; and in Staffordshire, the same results have beec
reached, not by a river, but by collecting the springs, and form-
ing a gruid reseryoir, from which the water is carried over
extensive fields, which are thus irrigated at pleasure.
2. Lite Stock and Vegetables. — The next great feature in
the improved husbandry of England is apparent in its live
stock. I do not speak of it as seen at the cattle-shows of the
different agricultural societies in the kingdom ; for here the ani-
mals are all selected, or at a very great expense, and after a long
time, fitted for the exhibition; but I speak rather of them as
they are seen in Smithfield market, every Monday, and at the
other smaller markets and fairs in various parts of the country.
Here are the cattle and sheep of several distinct breeds, and all
of remarkable excellence of their kind ; I do not say perfect, — for
that, in almost all cases, is assuming too much, — but leaving very
little to be desired beyond what has been attained. Their con-
dition and form, their symmetry, their fatness, are all admirable ;
and each breed is seen retaining its distinct properties, and,
what is most remarkable, showing how much can be done by
human art and skill in improving the animal form and condition,
and bringing it to a desired model.
From Smithfield market, if he goes to Covent Garden market,
in the infinite profusion and variety of fruits, and vegetables, and
flowers, which are always to be found here, and in the perfection
to which they are carried, and many of the finest fruits, in defi-
ance of an uncongenial climate, he will find evidences of the same
admirable skill and art which are displayed in other departments
of rural industry.
3. Agriculturai. Implements. — The next evidences of the
improvement of the agricultural art are to be seen in the extra-
ordinary display of agricultural implements at the great shows.
The exhibition at the meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society
at Derby, in July, 1843, was so remarkable, that I shall be
excused for giving a statement of the number, and many of the
kinds, of the machines and implements there exhibited.
Of Tallage Implements, then, there were, — of ploughs, 148 ;
harrows, 31 ; scarifiers, 26; clod-crushers, 7; rollers, 12; couch
rakes, 4.
)yGoo»^Ic
ACTUAL IHPBOTKIIENTS IK ENQLISH AORICULTUBE. 151
Of Drilling, Somng, Manuring, and Hoeing Machines.—
Of drills and bessere, and seed-sowing barrows, some designed
for sowing manure with the seed, there were 61 ; of dibblers, for
putting in the seed, 4 ; of horse-hoes, adapted to the cultivation
of drilled crops, TIO.
Of Harvesting Machines. — For hay-makii^, 4 ; horse-
rakes, 7.
Of Bam Machinery. — Horse engines, locomotive or station-
ary, 7; steam engines for threshing or grinding, 6; threshing
machines, 15 ; winnowing and cleaning machines, 20 ; crushing
and splitting mills, 36 ; com aad meal mills, 20 ; chaff-cutters,
51 ; cake-crushers, for oil cake, 14 ; com weighers and meas-
ores, 2.
Field, Fold, and Yard Machinery. — Of turnip-cutters, 12 ;
root-graters and cider mill, 3 ; potato-washers, 2 ; steaming
apparatus, 6 ; feeding appaiatns and fodder preservers, various ;
weighing machines for carts, cattle, &c., 4; fire and garden
engines, 11; machines for slock yard, various; sundries, ma-
chines for breakii^ stones, iron field gates, hurdles, trucks,
fences, &c. &c. &.c.
Agricultural Carriages, Harness, and Gear. — Wagons and
carts for market, for harvest, for manures, (solid and liquid,) for
family nse, &c. inc., 38 ; breaks for carri^es of all kinda; sets
of wheels, axles, &c. ; harnesses and horse-gear ; drain tiles, and
implements for forming tiles, 9.
Dairy Implements. — Chmns, 8 ; cheese presses, 6 ; curd
mills, 4 ; miscellaneous and various implements, and tools and
vessels for domestic and rural purposes.
It cannot be expected that I should characterize these machines,
and point out their various properties ; though this is what I pro-
pose to do hereafter, in respect to f^uch of them as seem to me
most desirable to be introduced into my own country ; but the
number and variety of them which have been produced, and the
neatness and care with which they are made, evince great
mechzinical skill and knowledge, and show that here, as well as
in other departments of industry, the mind has been at work, and
has produced the natural fmits of intense and well-directed
application.
4 Application or Steam to Aobicdltdre. — There is, indeed.
)yGoo»^Ic
EUROPEAN AflBICULTUKE.
one giant power, of comparatiTely modern invention, which, it is
thought, has not been as successfully oi extensively ^fdied iu
agticulture as in some other departments of the arts. Every one
knows, at once, that I refer to the power of steam, which seema,
wherever introduced, to defy all competition ; and every day's ex-
perience appears to demonstrate that its extent is yet hardly con-
ceived, and its application only begun. The experiments, which
have been made in the ap^dication of steam power to the movement
of ploughs, have not, as far as I can learn, been attended with
success. It will not be safe to assert that this cannot be done to
advantage ; but certainly that is not the only application of steam
to the purposes of agriculture, which is to be looked for.
Indeed, besides the impossibility of an art, so intimately associ-
ated as agriculture is with almost all the practical arts of life,
escaping its share of the general advantages which the com-
mtmity is enjoying &om this mighty agent, it has already
received many direct contributions from it. In the Lothiaos of
Scotland, those beautifully cultivated grain districts, which, when
seen in the season of their glory, with their green and their
golden crops, so rich and delightful as to make the heart of an
enthusiastic agriculturist beat as though he himself had a stewn
ei^ine under his waistcoat, a steam engine is to be found on
every principal farm, for threshing out all the giaia,andfor other
economical purposes, to which, on a great farm, these engines ar«
capable of being applied. The average size of these engines for
threshing is horn a six to an eight horse power, and the cost,
which was formerly more than £120, or $600, is now greatly
reduced.
The advant^e of steam, as a motive power, must be obvioi^.
It is always available, at all seasons, and without reference to the
weather. Its movements are uniform, whereas horse power is,
to a degree, capricious and unsteady, and horses often sufTer a
great deal, both from too constant and long-continued piUls, and
likewise irom frequent stops and starts. The steam power never
tires, and its operation may be continued to any length of time
or quantity. These are all great advantages, especially when a
&rmer, from any sadden advance, wishes to bring his grain at
once into the market. It is obvious, at the same time, what
advantages he has in having his horses saved from the severe
work of threshii^, and jresh for other farm work. The saving of
)yGoo»^Ic
ACTDAI. IHPROTEITBHTS IH BNOLISH AGRICULTURE. 153
a pair of horses, on a farm, is estimated at £100 per year, (very-
much more, indeed, than it would be -with us;) and intelligent
fturmers assert "that, with steam power, they save one fomth of
the horse power on large farms."
The usual quantity of grain threshed by a six horse steam
power is at the rate of from thirty to forty bushels per hour ;
though the quantity must vary with the condition of the grain
and the straw. The average work of a threshing mill, driven by
horse power, is 160 bushels per day, and by steam power may
be reckoned at 250 bushels per day, which is certainly a great
preponderance in favor of the steam power. The wear and de-
terioration of the horses, and the expenses of keeping them, are
most important considerations to a farmer. Indeed, so far as my
observation goes, there is no single source of expense, none
which abstracts so much from the profits of farming, and none
of which the farmers in general axe so little aware, as that of
horse teams.
In the great experiment, or rather improvement, going on at
Hatfield Chase, in Yoikdiire, of emptying the deserted bed of a
river, and spreading this rich alluvion over a peat bog, the earth
carts are moved on a temporary railway by a steam engine, and
carried to their place of deposit, so that, as I have before re-
marked, five acres can be covered in a day, eight inches deep ;
and that which it would be perfectly in vain for any inferior
power to have attempted, is accomplished with perfect ease by
this willing but mighty agent. The fens in Lincolnshire, where
the uncertain and capricious power of the wind was formerly
depended on, and, of course, with little confidence and uncertain
results, are now relieved, at pleasure, of their surplus water, by
two steam engines, one of sixty and one of eighty horse power ;
and the quantity of water removed, the time required, and the
expense incurred for doing it, are all matters of exact calculation.
The workmanship of these engines — for I have had the pleasure
of visiting the spot — is extremely beAUtiful ; and the advantages
of the whole arrangement can hardly be overstated. I can easily
believe that the same machinery, on a small scale, may be applied
in many other similar cases ; and a very intelligent and spirited
farmer consulted me on the subject of his determination to erect
a small steam engine, at his own expense, for the purpose of
draining a part of his own premises. At the show at Derby,
)yGoo»^Ic
154 EUBorcjUf lemcoLnnTiu:.
there was exhibited a movable steam engine, intended to be
carried to a iiaxmer'a {vemises as it might be wanted for fumif^-
ii^ a threshing power, and other purposes. I hare not yet learnt
how it succeeds ; but if success is not attained at a first attempt,
it is ultimately certain. These machines are made of two, foiir,
and six horse power. The cost of the two horse power is £60,
OF $400, aad a three horse power, £110. This does not include
the thi^hing machine. A fixed steam power must have many
advantages over a movable steam machine. It is never safe to
calculate upon doing a great many things with any single ma-
chine. A self-directing machine would be a great discovery ;
but, short of man himself, we can hardly look for that, though it
seems sometimes to be nearly approached. A great difficulty, in
many cases, is, that the machinery must be trusted to the hands of
the stupid, careless, and sometimes mal^nant.
Such a power as this, on a lai^e farm, may be applied to a
great many uses ; and its advantages, in many cases, will be
incalculable. The turning of a grindstone for sharpening scythes
and axes, on a large farm, would save, in the United States, a
great expense of labor and fatigue ; and its application to cut-
ting roots, and chopping long fodder for stock, to breaking and
crushing com and oats, and to grinding grain into flour for the
family, as well as for cattle, would be highly useful, especially in
those ports of the country where water power is difficult to be
procured. This is the case in all flat countries, and particularly
on the prairies in the Western States. There, in many cases,
coal abounds ; and there, if ever it may be expected, where miles
almost may be run without occasion to turn the plough, steam
may be applied for the purposes of draft.
Agriculture owes, also, a considerable debt to steam, for the
advantages it affords in the construction of i^icultural uni^e-
ments, in respect to cheaimesG and uniformity. In cutting, saw-
ing, and planing wood, in grindii:)^ and fashioning metals, steam
power is applied to great advantage. In one, if not more,
extensive establishment, for the manufacture of agricultural
implements in New England, steam power is used, so as greatly
to reduce the expensiveness of ploughs, and other articles, which
are here made. The same thing is done in England ; and this
application of this wonderful power is every day extending itself
to a most extraordinary degree. I may well call it wonderful ;
)yGoo»^Ic
ACTUAL IMPBOTEIIBNTS IN ENeLtSH AOBICULTURE. 1S0
for who could have dreamt, on fiist seeing a tea-kettle boiling
orer the fire, that there were the simple elements of a power
destined to exert a greater influence in the progress of the arts and
sciences, and consequently over the whole condition of society,
than any other known ; which was to rend rocks, and snap iron
asunder, like bands of straw ; which was to ride securely and
triumphantly over the mountain waves of the sea ; which was to
drain floods and lakes, and lay open their fertile bottoms to the
ploughshare ; which should compel the deep [daces of the earth
to diverge their mineral treasures ; and, disdaining time and
space, plant distant countries, for all the practical purposes of
commerce and friendship, of reciprocal supply and mutual im-
[at)vement, in the immediate neighborhood of each other I
This brills me to another great benefit which agriculture
has derived &om steam power, which I should do injustice to
pass over. I was in Smithfield market a few weeks since, and,
in conversation with a very intelligent salesman, — whom, let me
say by the way, I shall never remember but with a grateful sense
of his kindness, and a high respect for his character,* — he said
to me, "We have the contributions of seven hundred miles
thought to market to-day, and without the slightest injury to
their condition. We have beasts and sheep here from Suther-
land, and from the southern counties of England ; " and I be-
lieve he might have added, from Ireland and from Belgium.
Steam vessels and railroad cars bring them at once to the great
places of sale. It was always calculated, by the diovers of cattle
from Connecticut River to Brighton market, near Boston, — an
* This gentlenuui, whose business, in the uiukBt, is of the most extensive and
iwpoiwible character, presents an example so fiiU of wholeBome iDstruction, that I
hope I shaJl be pardoned for enlivening my Report by a reference to it He
■pendB sDvcnl days in the w«ek in the moat confused, Doiqr, and busy place in
the world, fiiithful to the invests of his employers, and retiies at night, a few
miles from the city, to enjoy his cup brimfiil of domestic pleasures, at his own
fireside, in a crowded circle, where mutual love teigne triumphant, where the table
. ii covered with the literary gems of the press, and the wolle of his dawing-rooma
ace adorned witli the splendid products of his own pencil, displaying taste and
ikilL So true it is that men, if tbt^y will be but tnie to thoii own intellectual and
mm\ natures, need not ba utter dkres to the drudgery of bueineas ; and, if they
will only look for them, may find, at the most moderate expense, within their own
reach, in the houra of pecroation, too often sqnandeted or abused, sources rf the
tichest and moot elevated pleasures.
)yGoo»^Ic
156 EUBOPGUf AGRICULTUBE.
average distance of about one hundred miles, and which occu-
pied a week in its performance, — that a beef animal so driven lost
one hundred pounds in weight ; and then he usually came into
market foot-sore, sunken, in a state of fever, and looking like the
victim of cruelty, and the picture of misery and exhaustion.
Where steam power is employed, a journey of excessive fatigue
and labor, which formerly occupied seven days, scarcely occupies
now as many hours, and the animals are transported without
fatigue oi labor, or loss of substance.*
A farmer at Ware told me that the driving of a fat beast to
Smithfield, about twenty-six miles, occupied, formerly, two days.
The animal now goes by railroad in two hours, at a cost, I
think, of not more than 2 s., and comes into the market fresh
and sleek, like a new bonnet from the band-box. But there is
another animal benefited besides the quadruped ; and that is the
drover himself, who, instead of spending eight or ten days or
more upon the road, at a great expense of money, and not a bltle
increased hazard of morals every day he was away from his
family, his business is now accomplished, and his mouey re-
ceived, and himself returned to his home in three days. These
are considerations of immense importance. f
* I cannot aaj that tfaey have not even aome pleaaura in the tranaiL Thia,
perhaps, mig-ht be very well Bscettained b}r mi inquiiy of tho paosengeis io the
third cliaa cara, who, through the extraordinarjr diBiuterestedneBS of the railroad
directors and coiporations, are conveyed with the same advantages of the open
air, the reTreshing showers, and tlie full enjojmeDt of the niral sceDery, and, in
general, in the same afiectionate aggregation, and in (n«ciaely the aanw circum-
Btances of position and comfort, in which the cattle ace transported. So much fur
the improved philanthropy of the age, and the considetateneaB and kindness of
monopoly towards the poor and powerieaa.
t Id a recent debate in Parliament, a member, otherwise of considerable clever-
seag, in referring to the practice of the railroads in rendering the transits of second
and third class tmiits less frequent, and mncb slower than first class trains, was
pleased to say that " it was well enough ; for the time of the poorer classes was
not of much consequence, and they might ss well pass it in the cars as any where
else." It would be difficult tossy what, to an; one but himself, is the value of the
time of a man who could make so heartless an ssaertion. The poor man*s time
and labor are his only capitaJ. Ehmble him to do as much again in half the time
employedi, and you quadruple his power of serving the community, and supporting
himself and family. As for the rich man, who made this declaration, I wish him
nothing worse than to travel in a third class car attached to a slow night freight
train, sotiist, in one of the long tunnels between Liverpool and tiandon,tus pleas.
ant imaginations might be rectified by sober facts, and binwelf have time ftr
reflectian and repentance.
)yGoo»^Ic
ACTDAI. IHFROTEinitm IM IMGUSH AGRICULTURE. 157
It will not do, then, to say that steam has done nothing for
^icultuie : perhaps no depaitment of industry has been more
essentially benefited. In its equalizing the value of landed estate
throughout the country, it has conferred immense benefits. A
fann, accessible to the great markets by steam conveyance, though
two hundred miles from London, ia now of equ^ value as if it were
within twenty milea. The Cfinner near London may complain
of this ; but it is propet foi the community to remember how
many more farms are at a distance from, than how many are neat
to, London ; and how little the interest of a few individuals is to
be brought into consideration, compared with the interest of a
la^ community, who are to have the advantages of the ex-
tended competition. Singular as the result is, however, and
contradictory as it may seem to all theories on the subject, it
does not appear, in fact, that any parties are injured by the facili-
ties given to the most distant to reach the market. In respect to
all the great interests of society, which are in their nature fiuctu-
ating, or at all dependent on external circumstances, ao many and
such various elements are intermingled and combined, and so
many sew conditions present themselves, that the calcula-
tions of political economists artf constantly at fault j and the
results are deeply humbling to the pride of human sagacity.
Into what a snarl of misery and confusion would every thing in
this world be thrown, if man's providence were substituted for the
divine providence ! and so it constantly proves that, just in pro-
portion as men attempt to interfere with the divine arrange-
ments, to control the great natural laws of Heaven, and to create
a perfectly artificial mechanian for the government of society,
they find their plans defeated ; and the certain result is any thing
but unmixed or even general improvement. I remember, a few
years since, it was confidently said, that, when the great Erie
Canal of New York should be finished, by which the agricul-
tural treasures of the Great West should find an easy transmis-
sion to the Atlantic, farms in the neighborhood of New York
city would become comparatively worthless. Yet, strange to say^
they have much increased in value, and are now certain to hold their
own. The vast increase of population throughout the country ;
the great increase of population in the city of New York, occa-
sioned, to a considerable degree, by the amount of business
which this very canal has produced ; the multi|dication of trades
14
)yGoo»^Ic
156 ECBOPEAN AOBlCDLTDSe.
of every variety, and the influx of wealth to which it has con-
tributed ; with wealth, the increase of luxury, and the demand for
fruits and vegetables, — articles In their natiu« perishable, and
demanding a rapid and certain conveyance, — with various other
circumstances, have conspired to keep up the value of farms,
and, indeed, to increase their value in the neighborhood of New
Tork, and in every point irom which, by these improved facili-
ties of conveyance, this great mart has been rendered the more
accessible.
The poorest markets — those which are most poorly supplied —
are in general those where the prices are lowest. Competition
and abundance create, and, to- a certain degree, quicken demand ;
for the reason that they bring more customers, and create more
wants. Peaches are now sent by steam conveyances from New
Jersey to Boston, a distance of nearly three hundred miles ; and
strawberries from Providence, nearly two hundred miles, to New
York. What has been the effect ? To lessen price in a very small
degree in any case, but in many cases not at all ; to increase the
consumption greatly ; and to induce the farmers, directly ia the
neighborhood of Boston, to go themselves into the cultivation
of peaches, to take immense p^s to guard against the evils of
an imcongenial climate, and to cultivate, as &r as possible, fruits
of the best quality. Some trades may be overdone ; they may
be concerned only with articles not of necessity, but of mere
fancy, and subject to the ca[ttices of whim and fashion ; but in
all those for which the demand is necessarily permanent, and in
a state of general prosperity in a country, the increased demand,
growing out of an increased 'consumption, will be always likely
to afford a remunerating price. But in any event, whatever
tends to the improvement of the general condition of the com-
munity is to be encouraged. It may often be attended with
partial loss or temporary inconvenience ; yet, in all cases, unless
conscience or morals are involved, individual benefit or advan-
tage should yield to the public good. The farmer near a lai^e
town thinks himself injured by a railroad or canal which brings
the farm of another man, a hundred miles distant, in competition
with his own. Svery one sees that the great public is to be
benefited by the increased supply which is thus produced. Now,
ia there any good reason why the distant farmer should not come
to the market by any facility which he may create or obtain, as
)yGoo»^Ic
ACTCAL 11IPROTZMENT8 IN SXaLIEH AQBICDLTURE. 159
well as his neighbor, j^ovided he does not hinder that neighbor
&OIQ coining in the best way he can obtain, any more than
there is why the distant farmer should be compelled to come on
foot, and bring his load upon his back, instead of availing him-
self of his horse or his carriage ?
6. Imc&eased Pboouctiok. — But ii^ speaking of the ad-
ranced and impioved state of English agriculture, there are,
perhaps, stronger evidences of its progress than any to which
I hare referred, in the increased productiveness of the fruits
of the earth, and in the increased population which are sus-
tained by them. *
In the ten years from 1801 to 1810, the average annual import
o( wheat into the kingdom was such as to allow, if divided
among 17,442,911 souls, — the population of the kingdom at that
time, — a small fraction over apeck for the annual consumption of
each person. The average amount imported between 1811 and
1820, when the mean number of the population had advanced
to 19,870,589, would have allowed each person not quite one
gallon and a half for the yearly consumption. The average
amount of importation for the five years from 1831 to 183S,
when the mean number of consumers was over 35,000,000,
if fairly divided, would have given to each person one gallon
of wheat. Taking the three years 1833, 1834, 1835, the im-
portation- would have allowed only one pint and one fifth, or
about fifieen ounces, of fine fiour to each consumer.*
This is certainly a very small amount, and demonstrates the
immense agricultural resources of the country. It shows as
stroi^ly the improvements in cultivation, by which, under a fast-
increasing population, the dependence on a foreign supply for
bread is continually growing less. This can only arise from two
causes, the bringing more limd into cultivation, and a more im-
proved cultivation. Both causes have probably operated to a
degree, and of the latter the evidences are every where numer-
ous and striking.
I was asking a ^rmer in Berkshire county, England, — vener-
able as an octogenarian, — whether he had seen any great im-
* See an Kdmirable work, fiill of infonDBtioti — Poitei^ ProgceM of die
Nation, V6L L p. 147.
)yGoo»^Ic
160 EUBOPEAir AGBICDI.TI7HE.
pTovements in agriculture ; to which, in spite of the prejudices
which too often obscure or peirert the vision at so advanced a
period of life, he replied, with perfect candor, " Immense im-
provements ; ice knew nothing ; every thing is now better done ;
the crops are far more various and more abundant ; the product
of wheat has almost doubled ; the turnip cultivation has been
created ; the implements are far better ; the live stock is beyond
ail comparison better ; every thing, every thing is better." The
good old man had lived, like Simeon, in, indeed, a far hum-
bler sense, to see the marked and strong tokens of the divine
goodness in the progressive improvement of every thing around
him ; and he proclaiided it with the glowing enthusiasm of
youth, and showed the fiie still bumir^ under the snow.
Happy old age, when, instead of a mind soured under Uie accu-
mulated burdens and infirmities of advanced years, and covered
with mossy prejudices, it benevolently acknowledges good wher-
ever good is found ; progress wherever progress is made ; and,
instead of growling at the degeneracy of the present times, and
sighing over the fading reminiscences of what it deems the
superiority of years which are passed, delights in the actual
improvements of the present, and sees in them the foreshadow-
ii^ of far greater improvements in the distant prospect, when
the advances now made, great as they may actually be, and still
greater as they seem in comparison with those of days gone by,
wilt be found to be only the first lessons of childhood I There
is considerable of this spirit or temper here, called by the gentle
name, in England, of conservatism; but this man's mind was
happily iree from it. I have all reasonable respect for antiquity ;
but, if the {Resumption may be pardoned, I beg leave to say,
with Lord Bacon, I reckon that to be antiquity which is farthest
from the beginning. The present times are, therefore, more
ancient than those which have preceded them, and are to be
reverenced as imbodying the accumulated wisdom and ex-
perience of past ages. This spirit of improvement, now so rife
and active, is the foundation of all intelligent hopes of further
progress ; and I am happy in saying that in nothing is it more
obvious than in agriculture.
6. RoTAL Agricdltdral SociETf. — In this progress the
Royal Agricultural Society of England contributes its full share.
)yGoo»^Ic
161
This was established about 1837, ani embraces a lai^e airay of
the highest rank and talent in the kingdom, and a vast body of
fimners, landlords, and others interested in agriculture. Its fimds
are large, arising from donations and an annual subscription of
& guinea from each of its members ; but it has receiTed no
endowment from the govemment. Its objects comprehend every
branch of husbandry and rural economy. It has a central office,
or building, in Hanorer Square, London, where the secretary of
the society resides, and where the council of the society and
other members hold weekly and monthly meetings, for the man-
agement of the business of the society, and the discussion of
agricultural subjects, and the reception of agricultural infor-
matioQ. . This conduces very much to the interest felt in the
projects and operations of the society, and is the means of
diffusing a great amount of valuable information.
It has begun here the establishmeot of an agricultural library
and museum, which presently must assume a considerable im-
portance, and become curious and useful. The object of the
library is to collect the most useful and valuable publications on
subjects connected with agriculture, in all its various and kindred
iHsnches, including likewise geology, botany, agricultural chem-
istry, engineering, and manufacturing, as far as they are con-
nected with the making of agricultural implements, and the
great agrictiltural operations of draining, embanking, irrigation, and
other important farming processes. The object of its museum is to
exhibit specimens of agricultural productions, which are capable
of preservation, seeds, plants, grasses, samples of wool, mineral
manures, models and drawings of agiicultural implements, and
whatever, in any way, may conduce to the advancement of the
science or practice of agriculture. It is obvious how very im-
portant such an establishment must prove, by giving practical
men an opportunity of inspecting, at their leisure, the most
improved subjects of cultivation, the best grains, and the best
grasses and vegetables, and, at the same time, the best tools and
machines, with which to cultivate them. I have often urged the
establishment of agricultural museums upon my countrymen,
especially in the capitals of the states and of the United States,
where the members of the different legislatures assemble. Com-
ing, a^s they do, from different and distant parts of the country,
they will be enabled to carry home information of the utmost
)yGoo»^Ic
162 EOItOPEUf, AGRICHLTUSE.
importance to the farmers, besides having their own knowledge
advanced, and their own zeal quickened in thia great cause. The
commissioner of patents in Washington, distinguished by his
indefatigable exertions for the advancement of agriculture, haa
already laid the foundation of such a collection, at the metropo-
lis of the country, and in connection with his own department,
where models of all patented agricultural machinery are always
to be seen. It is to be hoped that the friends of an improved
{^culture in the coimtry will encourage and assist him in ex-
tending his collection of valuable grains and seeds. There am
few ways so little expensive, in which they may render so much
service to the country. It would be desirable that the govern-
ment should enjoin it upon the commanders of all their ships of
war, visiting different parts of the globe, that they should collect
and bring home such seeds and plants, and such models of im-
plements, as would be likely to be of use. That universal vege-
table, the potato, furnishing so much food to man and beast, and
scarcely second to any in value, considering 'the multitudes whom
it supplies, and the quantity of food it affords, is said to be an
importation from South America. The cotton plant, a source of
enormous wealth to the country, is likewise esteemed a foreign
plant.
Besides this, the Royal A^icultuial Society issues a semi-
yearly publication of valuable communications and papers, both
on the science and practice of agriculture, which f^l in its way,
or are made to the society in reply to queries proposed for discus-
sion and for information, upon which it offers premiums of a
pecuniary or an honorary nature.
The society, likewise, at some place in the country, easily
accessible, hold an annual show or exhibition of animals,
implements, and agricultural products, upon the best of which it
awards premiums. This occupies, generally, four days. Tues-
day is exclusively assigned to the several committees for the
inspection of subjects of premium, in the way of implements
and agricultural machinery, when no persons whatever, except-
ing the committees and persons necessarily attendant upon them,
are admitted to the yard, so that they have a favorable opportu-
nity of quiet inspection, uninterrupted by any interested or curi-
ous parties ; Wednesday is devoted, in the same way, to the
examination of the animals, and afterwards the yards are open
)yGoo»^Ic
ACTUII, IMrROrEHENTa IN ENQLISH AORICULTUUE. 163
to the public upon payment of a reasonable entrance fee ; and on
Fridays a public sale, at auction, is held of such animals, or imple-
ments, as their owners are willing to dispose of in this way. The
collection of people, on such occasions, from all parts of the coun-
try, vid, I may properly add, from all parts of the world, is im-
mense. Two lai^e public dinners are given on the occasion ;
the one called the council dinner, on Wednesday, and the other,
called the society's dinner, on Thursday, when [ODvision is made
for fifteen hundred guests, in a pavilion erected for the purpose.
These dinners are, in general, seasons of great hilarity, and pro-
motive of sympathy in the great cause of agricultiural improve-
ment. If no other good comes of them to agriculture, they serve
at least the purpose of consumption, and so quicken price and
demand.
On these occasions, the prizes are announced to the successful
candidates ; and these premiums are given either in medals, plate,
or money, and are received with no sm^l degree of public and
self-congratulation.
The arrangements, in general, are made with great care. The
animals are assorted in distinct classes, with separate conunittees
for the examination of each class ; and the implements are placed
according to their different designs and uses. It would be im-
possible to convey an accurate or adequate impression of the
number and variety of the animals offered, in such cases, for exhi-
bition and premium. I have already given a list and the niunber
of agricultm'al implements exhibited the last year at the Derby
show ; but that conveys no idea of the ingenuity and skill
evinced in their construction. One is led to conclude, from the
inspection, that there is no operation or function, connected with
human life and labor, for which mechanical labor does not attempt, ,
and may not presently succeed in furnishing an instrument or
machine. In many cases, a machine is any thing but a facility j
and not a few of the machines, both in their contrivance and the
expensive and showy manner in which they are got up, evince
pretty strongly the gauge which the contrivers and makers have
taken of the imderstandings and pockets of the probable pur-
chasers. They are seldom at a loss to put the pail under a full
cow.
In many respects, the arrangements are admirable, and well
)yGoo»^Ic
164 EUROPEAN AGRICULTCRI:.
vorthy of imitation.* Every possible effort is made to secme an
impartial decision among the competitors ; for besides that they
aie not suffered by their presence to influence the ezBminers, the
examiners themselves are selected from among persons who are
as far as possible disinterested, and not likely to be influenced.
They are chosen, likewise, with a special reference, in their charac-
ters and qualifications, to the nature of the subjects submitted ;
* The teniu on which the premiimiB fbr seed wheat ue to be awarded are
well worth the obBemtion of other agricultural aocietieB, and I therefore subjoin
"SEED WHEAT.
"L Thir^ Sovereigns^ or a Piece of Plate d* that value, will be givea ta ttts
Ezhibiter at the Meeting at Derb; of the bett 14 buMbeia of White Wheat, of the
barreat of 1843; and grown bj himself.
"IL Thirt; Sovereigns, or a Piece of Plate of that valne, will be given to the
fijdubiter at the Meeting at Deitiy of the bert 14 boshels of Red Wheat, of the
harvest of 1842, and grown bf himselE
"IIL TweDtjr Sovereigns, era Piece of Plate of that valne, will be given totite
Exhibiter at the Meeting at Derbf of the best 14 bushels of Spring Wheal, of the
harvest of 1B43; and grown b; himself.
" Competiton are requested to «eiul with their Wheat, ■peoimens, iairij l&ken,
of the ume in the eir, with the whole of the Straw, in a bundle not leaa than
one foot in diameter, and with the rooti attached,
" [IS buBbeta of the Wheat will be ■eiled op by the Stewards, and one of lbs
remaining buaheli of each variet; will be exhibited bb a ■uaple to the public i
the other being kept lor comparison with the produce of the next year. At
the General Meeting, in December, 1644, the Friies will be awarded.]
" The two best lampie* of each of these three classes of Wheat, withont at that time
distingnishing, in anj of the caaes, between the compaiative merits of either
sample, will be aelecled bj the Judges, appointed for the meeting at Derby;
and wUI be sown, under the direction of the Society, (the Winter Wheals in
the autumn of 1M3, and the Spring Wheat not earlier than the lat of March,
1S44,) bj four fhrmers, who will tatke their report, upon which the prizes will
be awarded, provided there be sui&cient merit in anj of the aamplei, Ten
• Sovereign! will be given at the Meeting at Derby to each Eihibiter whose
wheat baa been selected for trial.
"*.* Jfo variity of tehtat lehitk hat htaiselattd for (rial of ■Byprmtow ■how
^taU b» quatijud to eemptte,"
The following are the instcvctioBs to the Judges on other subjects : —
" As the abject of the Socie^ in giving the prizes fbr neat cattle, sheep, and
{rigs, is to promote improvement in breeding stock, the Judges, in making their
award, are instructed not to take into their consideration the present valne to the
butcher of animals exhibited, but to decide according to their relative merits fw
the purpose of breeding."
"In the Class for horses, the Jndges, m awarding the priies, are instnicted, in
addition to symmetry, to take activity and strength into their consideralioit.''
)yGoo»^Ic
ACTUAL IHFBOTEWENTS IM ENflLlSH ACBICULTlTRe. 165
and every pains is taken in this way to secure the greatest apt-
ness and talents. The name of the competitor is not given where
it can be avoided, but only the numbei of the article presented.
The rules of admission and competition are stringent and abso-
lute, and no exceptions are, on any account, allowed. When, last
year, a competitor attempted to introduce a machine out of sea-
sou, or in some way contrary to the published rules, and wrote to
one of the agents of the society, that, if a silver key should be
found necessary to its introduction, he begged him to use it, —
this attempt at bribery was rejected with proper indignation by
the society, and the individual concerned, though eminent as a
machinist and a manufacturer, and offering every apology for
bis " indiscretion," was forever irrevocably excluded as a^ com-
petitor for any of the premiums of the society.
The society likewise offers premiums for essays, which are
deemed deserving of such reward, upon any given subjects, and
for reports on the agricultural condition and habits of different
counties and districts. This has been the means of bringing out
many valuable papers. Here, too, the decision is sought to be
rendered as fair as possible ; for the name of the writer is not
given with the essay, but under a separate and sealed envelope,
which is not opened until the successful essay is announced ; and
then the seal is broken, and the writer's name declared, in the
presence of the society.
The society likewise has a consulting chemist, a consulting
engineer, a botanist, and a professor of the veterinary art, of
whose services, in any desirable case, it avails itself. Some time
unce, it numbered on its lists more than 6500 members ; and has
been, since that time, steadily on the increase. It is impossible
to overrate the advantages which such a society brings with it to
the ^ricultural community ; for, though it enrols among its mem-
bers many gentlemen, who are mere amateurs in the profession,
and take little interest, and have little knowledge of its practical
details, yet, on the other hand, it combines, among the highest men
in the kingdom, a very la:^ amount of jvactical talent and skill
— men of the most accurate observation, who carefully enter into
the whole subject. There is another great and good influence,
which it powerfully exerts, and which must not be overlooked.
It gives a high respectability to the agricultural profession, and
presents it as a pursuit, not, as has been too often said, for mere
)vGoo»^Ic
166 XmOPEAM AGSICULTCBE.
dolts and clod-faoppere, but for minds of the highest oider, and
for men of all conditions, from the prince to the peasant ; for " the
king himself is served by the field." The prizes are contended
for with an ardor little short of that which displays itself in the
contests of political life, and received with a high sense of their
value. I have seen, at the tables of some of the highest noble-
men in the land, the premiums of agricultural success, exhibited
in some form of plate, with more triumph than they would dis-
play io the brilliant badges of their rank.
7. AfluccLTDBAi. SociETX OF ScoTLAMD. — The Highland and
Agricultural Society of Scotland is an institution of a similar
description, and of a longer standing, than the Royal Society of
England. It is richly endowed, and as powerfully patronized,
and has long rendered itself illustrious by its Journal, published
quarterly, in Edinbui^h. This Journal, for the ability with
which it is managed, and which has been displayed also in the
prize essays of the Highland Society, which are always published
in connection with the Journal, has certainly no superior. The
Scotch have been long distinguished for their acuteness and
excellent management ; and the evidences of the justness of their
pretensions in these respects, were too obvious and numerous, on
my transient visit to the southern portions of Scotland, to leave
any doubt of their just claims to the highest reputation.
The exhibition of the society at Dundee, the last autumn, was, in
the character and condition of its animus, in no respect, in my
judgment, inferior to that at Derby, though the Scotch cattle
present different varieties from those which are fashionable and
most esteemed in England. The short horns and the Leicesters of
Et^land would be, as a stock, very poorly adapted to the bleak
hills and cold climate of Scotland ; while the hardiness and thrift
of the Scotch cattle and sheep show how well suited they are
to the homes where they are bred, and whence they are sent, ia
immense droves, in certain seasons of the year, to the southern
portions of the country. The general management of the Scotch
Agricultural Society does not essentially differ from that of the
English Royal Agricultural Society. The general exhibition at
Dundee passed off much in the same style as at Derby, except-
ing that I thought the Scotch drank their toasts with a little
more heartiness than the English — a characteristic of the country-
)yGoo»^Ic
BELATION or LANDLOBD AND TEHAKT. 167
men ofBums. This is not the place for me to describe the differ-
ent breeds of stock shown at eithei place, or the various imple-
ments exhibited. This I propose to do in another part of my
Reports, with all the particularity which my friends can desire.
The stock shown at Dundee would bear a comparison with the best
stock shown any where ; and the fact is loo, well known to need
any confinnation of mine, that in point of intelligence and agri-
cultural skill, and in point of success, — the best test of intelli-
gence and diill, — the Scotch farmers yield the palm to none.
XX. — RELATION OF LANDLORD AND TENANT.
The holdings of many of the Scotch farmers are very large ;
and their farms are generally held under leases of nineteen and
twenty-one years. One would be led to infer that the terms on
which the landlords live with their tenants, in Scotland, must be
honomble and just to both parties, since renewals are common :
the same estates have been, in many instances, in the same fam-
ilies for a century, and the expenses incurred, in some cases, by
tenants, in the erection of permanent buildings and other fixtures,
are very heavy ; showing the confidence of the tenant in his
landlord. One farm was pointed out to me where the tenant had
recently died, leaving only one child, an infant son. In this case,
that the lease might be retained in the family, three of the neigh-
boring farmers had agreed to take the whole management of the
estate until the young man came of age. In such cases, there is
very little difference between a lease and a freehold in fee-simple.
I caimot say, however, that the tenant is raised above all depend-
ence on his landlord, or that removals do not sometimes take
place imder circumstances of great hardship. In one case, which
came under my knowledge, a farm had been withdrawn, or,
rather, the renewal of the lease refused, though it had been in
the occupation of the same family for many years, on the ground
of political opposition and prejudice, the avowed opinions and
votes of the tenant not coinciding with those of the landlord.
It is easy to believe that this may often happen, though any
)yGoo»^Ic
168 EUKOPEAN ARBICirLTIIIlB.
direct influence of (his kind would be likely to meet the repro-
bation of the public. In one case, in England, to my inquiries
whether the tenant was not expected to vote with the landlord,
the fanner replied that his own politics were opposed to the poli-
tics of his landlord ; and that, when taking his lease, to his great
regret, he had pledged himself to remain neutral, and -withhold
his vote — a course by which many overwise and prudent people
think that they escape the responsibility of the duty, whereas, in
truth, by so doing they virtually give a vote to their opponents.
In another case, the reply of two very intelligent and substantial
farmers was, that they were at liberty to vote as they pleased ;
but it was almost the only way in which they could show their
respect to, and evince their sense of the kindness of, their land-
lord, and they felt it therefore a duty of gratitude to vote with
him. We are not beyond this influence even in our democratic
communities. The voting by ballot may seem to give a perfect
security ; but this is invaded or destroyed when the candidates
of a party are publicly prescribed, and the votes given are in a
printed form ; so difficult is it, under any circumstances, to main-
tain a perfect freedom and independence, and in practical life to
realize our ideal theories. But politics are not my province ; nor
should I have thus far ventured upon them, but as connected
with the important relation of tenant and landlord, in which I
know my countrymen feel the strong interest of curiosity. I
shall, perhaps, excite some surprise in stating my belief that the
manner in which farms are held here, on hire for a year, or on
lease for a term of years, rather than being owned by the occu-
pants, is itself a powerful instrument or incentive to agricultural
improvement In the United States, where farms are owned by
the occupant, the farmer seldom keeps any account, and it matters
not much to him what is the result of the year's management.
The effect of this is to render a man negligent and indifferent to
success or loss. But when, at the end of every six months, the
rent must be paid, it is not a matter of indifference whether hts
farming turns out well or ill ; for not only the labor employed is
to be paid for, but the rent of the farm must be punctually dis-
charged. This consequently compels him to make every exertion
by which he may be assisted to meet his obligations. He finds
no room for idleness or neglect ; and the continuance of his pos-
session depends upon his good management and the punctual
)yGoo»^Ic
RELATION OF LUIOLORD AND TENANT. 169
payment of the rent. This prompts to watchfulness, skill, ex-
periment, and improvement ; and especially it gives to farming a
conmieicial or mercantile character, and obliges the farmer to
keep accounts, and so to learn the exact pecuniary result of his
operations — a matter in which the farmers of the United States,
as far as my observation goes, who are the owners of the farms
which they occupy, are almost universally deficient. The strict
responsibility to which the farmers are here held by their land-
lords, is undoubtedly a material element in theii success. At the
same time, where the occupation is from year to year, and leases
are refused on the part of the landlords, as is generally the case in
England, — though in Scotland leases are almost universal , — the
^ect must be to prevent or discourage substantial improvements,
as few persons will be inclined to make such improvements with
aa uncertainty of continuance. It is a fact, however, which may
create some surprise, that many farmers are unwilling to take
leases when landlords would be willing to grant them. But this
happens only when there is a perfect confidence on both sides ;
the tenant has entire reliance upon the honor and liberality of the
lan<Uord, and the landlord is equally confident of the good con-
duct and management of his tenant. An excellent landlord, in
Lincolnshire, says he considers himself boimd to continue his old
tenants and theii children in possession, in preference to any
other tenant, as long as they choose to remain, unless some
extraordinary contingency presents itself; and virtually admits
on their part a property in the soil. The great length of time
daring which families, on his estates, have held their possessions
from father to son, shows that he acts upon the most liberal prin-
ciples ; and the condition of his tenants, and their great improve-
ments, evince that his honorable conduct secures their entire
confidence. It cannot be doubted, however, that the uncertainty
of continuance, the absolute power of discharge on the part of
the landlord, the risk of his caprice, and the possibility of a new
one coming in possession, " who might not remember Joseph, but
foi^et him," must have some efiect in preventing or discouraging
improvements.
A farm which is well managed cannot change tenants without
great inconvenience and evil on both sides. On several very large
estates, which I have visited, the occupancy had been in the same
families for a large portion of a century, and there seemed not the
15
)yGoo»^Ic
170 EUROPEAN ACBICULTL'RE.
siigtitcst apprehensioD of any change on either side. A good
tenant is evidently almost as important to his landlord as his con-
tinuance on the estate can be to himself; and where, under such
eircumstancea, substantial and pennaneiit Jmfjrovements are to be
made, the landlord himself bears a portion of the expense. In
draining, for example, the landlord furnishes the tiles, and the
farmer makes the drains and lays them. A skilful and inlelligent
farmer, worth having as a tenant, would hardly be found willing
to take a farm for a year, without an eipcctation of a much
longer continuance, and certaiidy would not, under such an oc-
cupation, attempt any improvements but at the risk or expense
of the landlord. In Scotland, where leases are, in general, for
nineteen or twenty-one years, if the farmer has seven years of
unexpended lease, he is expected to pay a third of the expense
of any permanent fixtures or improvements ; if fourteen years, he
is expected to pay two thirds, and the landlord one ; if the wh<de
term, the whole expenses are deemed properly chargeable to him.
I confess, under the best circumstances, I should greatly prefer
being an owner or freeholder, to being a tenant. There is an
excessive caution which characterizes some shrewd calculators,
who consider (he yalue of a {Nroperty diminished, where the lease
is limited even to nine hundred and ninety-nine years; but, with-
out any sympathy with such persons, there is, at least, a gratifica-
tion to a man's self-esteem, to feel that he is " the monarch of
what he surveys," and that whatever improvements he makes
upon his estate will enure to the lasting benefit of himself or his
heirs. In a pecuniary view, however, it is really matter of in-
difference whether the occupant pays a reasonable rent for the
land as tenant, or, as the owner of it, loses the interest of the cap-
ital invested in the purchase of the soil. There are few cases, as I
have before observed, where the rents paid equal the legal interest
of the money which the lands would command, if ofiered for sale.
Certainly, as far as my observation goes, — and I have seen some-
what both of landlords and tenants, — there prevails a disposition,
and there are the strongest inducements, to cultivate a mutually-
good understanding between the parties. There is, in general,
no more reason to fear that landlords will be oppressive and
imju8t, than that tenants will be wasteful, negligent, and fraudu-
lent. Power is always a hazardous possession, and always lia-
ble to abuse, and cannot, therefore, be too much guarded and
)yGoo»^Ic
RELATION or LiNDLOHD AND TENANT. 171
limited in every condition of life. The abuses of power are not,
hovever, peculiar to persons occupying a high condition in
society, but are as often found among the lowest, who seem to
have nothing else but the ability to injure and exert it most
cruelly when they are most loudly claiming compassion for
themselves, as the victims of injustice. I believe there is a great
deal more abuse of power on the part of farmers towards their
laborers, than on the part of landlords towards their tenants.
The farmers can protect themselves ; the laborers, in general, are
without power. Indeed, the more cultivated and improved is
the education of a man, and the higher the condition which he
occupies in society, the stronger are the inducements to a just and
honorable conduct, not only in his enlarged mind, but in the
increased value of character to such a man. In Ireland, the
middle-man, who comes between the landlord and the poor ten-
ants, who there are themselves laborers, and especially those
middle-men who are themselves subletters of the soil, are always
feared for their severity and oppression. How far a man's politi-
cal independence is affected by his relation to his landlord, is
another consideration. A man living under such a constitution
of government as that of England, unless he is himself an office-
seeker, or dependent upon the emoluments of public office, will
not deem this of so much importance as many might consider it ;
and if he makes up his judgment from the representation which
the minority in a republican or elective government always give
of the character and measures of the majority, he may be led to
conclude that his chance of being protected in his rights, and
secured in his person and property, is as good under an hereditary
government, or one chosen for him by others, as under one in the
choice of which he himself, with others, is permitted to give his
snffn^e. I would not be thought to undervalue political liberty ;
and, in my opinion, human wisdom has never devised a constitu-
tion of government so just and so favorable to the happiness of
its subjects as that of my own country. But I have been too
often in the minority not to have learned that a majority com-
posed of thousands may be as despotic as a single tyrant ; and I
am not unaware that the position occupied by the governments
of al! civilized countries, is, at the present day, very different
Irom what it was a century ago. As the reformation, under
Luther, gave a blow to the doctrine of the infallibility of the
)bvGoo»^Ic
172 EDKOFEAM IGBtCULTDKE.
chiirch, from which it can never recover, so the successful asser-
tion of the right of revolution against oppression, in 1776, read a.
lesson to all arbitrary governments, which is not likely soon to
be forgotten. Under any form of government, the great security
for the subject is, that they who govern shall be equally affected
by their own measures as they who are governed; and in
countries so free and enlightened as Great Britain and the United
States, whoever may rule, no measures of extreme injustice or
wrong are likely to be long endured. There is a force in public
opinion which can scarcely be resisted, and which is more power-
liil than any mere legal enactments. What is mainly to be desired
is, that education should be so general in its extension, and so
elevated and just in its character, that public opinion may be
wisely formed, and be not only a commanding, but a safe and
worthy guide.
The form or conditions of lease, in England, somewhat diff»
in different places ; but the main tenns are every where the same.
Leases, generally, are drawn up in an exact form, and become
sealed and legal instruments. The farm is entered upon in the
s^ng, and the rent is made payable semi-annually. The mode
of cultivation is generally prescribed by the landlord, from which
the tenant is not at liberty to depart. Two white crops are seldom
permitted to succeed each other without intervention upon the
same land. The green produce is required to be fed upon the
fiace ; and if hay or straw is sold, an equivalent quantity of ma-
nure is required to be brought on. All substantial improvements
are the subject of special agreement ; and the tenant is never
. allowed to cut down any tree or timber upon the place, or othei^
wise to commit any waste. Where a farm is to be quit, or entered
upon by a new tenant, the going-out tenant is at liberty to come
in to gather the crops which he himself has sown.
There is a class of men, in England, of which we know nothing
in the United States ; these are called land surveyors or valuers.
These are generally persons of experience and judgment, who
examine the condition of the place, and estimate what would be
a fair rent to be paid ; and by their opinion the parties are usually
governed. . Such a person is often employed to estimate the value
of growing crops, where an allowance is to be made by the in-
coming to the out-going tenant. This professional man, if well
qualified for his office, may be highly useful ; and such a conrse
)yGoo»^Ic
OAIIE AND THE GAME LAWS. 173
ifi likely to render the transaction more just than where it partakes
more of an accidental or arbitrary character, where one party may
be led by his caprice to demand too much, or be betrayed by his
ignorance to obtain too little ; or the other party may be driven by
his necessities, or led by a mistaken judgment of the capacities of
the farm, to take it upon very hard terms. The taxes and tithes
are usually paid by the tenant ; but their amount is always con-
sidered in determining the rent, so that, properly speaking, they
are paid by the landlord, and not by the tenant. The leasii^ of
farms, in the United States, is quite rare, and but in few cases is
it arrai^ed by any established rule. In New England, in such
cases, matters are conducted most loosely. Farms are frequently
" taken to the halres," which is imderstood to imply that the
farmer returns half of all the produce grown to the owner ; but
the landlord is almost entirely in the power of the farmer ; and,
after the farmer has, as is but too common, applied to his own
use about half the produce, he divides with the owner the half
which remains. If the owner furnishes implements, the farmer
returns them as good as he received them ; and, if he furnishes
stock, as on a breeding or a dairy farm, the tenant pays the legal
interest upon the cost, makes good the stock rcceived when he
quits the farm, which is generally settled by valuers or appraisers,
and divides with his landlord one half the increase. Our prac-
tices, in this matter, are various and unsettled ; and, as long as
the hiring of farms continues with us to be so infrequent, — and
it is likely to continue so while land remains as easy to be pur-
chased as it now is, — no exact method will be introduced.
XXL — GAME AND THE GAME LAWS.
The farmers in the United States are happily free from one evil
which presses heavily upon the English farmers ; and that is, the
nuisance of what is here called game, and the curse of the game
taws. Pheasants, partridges, grouse, hares, and rabbits, are here
called game, and axe protected, by the most severe laws, for the
benefit of sportsmen who either own or lease the territory on
15*
)yGoo»^Ic
174 BDBOPEAM AGRICULTDHE.
which they find them, and pay a tax to the government for the
privitege of shooting or coursing. The bares and rabbits are ex>
tremely destructire to the fanners' crops, and the complaints of
them are universal. It is considered that five hares, oi seven
rabbits, consume as much as one sheep, besides a considerable
amount of incidental damage; and it is stated that there were
sold, from one farm, in one year, for the benefit of the landlord,
no less than two thousand hares and rabbits, which was a tax
upon the farmer equal to the support of three hundred sheep.
They do great damage to much of the produce which they do
not consume, in biting the turnips and in truupling down the
grain. A fanner is liable to imprisonment ot transportation if he
destroys them, even when conunitting havoc upon his crops. An
allowance is undoubtedly made, in some cases, though not in all,
for these depredations and injuries. It is obvious, however, that,
in most cases, an equivalent can hardly be made, not for the loss
merely, but the immeasurable vexation, which they occasion. I
entirety accord in the unanimous opinion of the farmers, whom
I have met with, that, with the exception of feathered game, the
game laws inflict a most serious injury up«m the agricultural
interest. Of their moral tendency this is not the place for me to
speak; bnt the innumerable convictions for poaching — that is,
entrapping or stealing game — with which the judicial calendars
are filled, — and some trials for which chaiges I have attended, —
and the several murders of gamekeepers which have occurred even
within the last year, present a subject of serious consideration for
those who know that one great preventive of crime is to remove
the facilities and inducements to it, and that whoever, voluntarily,
and without necessity, presents a temptation to crime, necessarily
shares in its responsibility. It is a subject which never can be
too strongly urged upon just and reflecting minds, how much the
manners and pleasures of the upper, the educated, and the influ-
ential classes, affect the morals of those beneath them. They
inflict, oftentimes, an infinitely deeper injury than any injury to
property can be. In the United States, though there are laws to
protect from extinction races of birds and of fish, there are none
which confer any exclusive privileges for the capture or destruc"
tion of that which Heaven has made as free as water and air,
though any man would be liable to a penalty if he injured his
neighbor in pursuing it.
)yGoo»^Ic
TUB HOIAI. AQRICULTCRAL SOCICTT 4
XXn. — THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF
IRELAND.
The Royal Irish Agricultimd Society, for the general improve-
ment of agriculture in Ireland, is of more recent origin than the
English Royal Agricultural Society, and is established upon the
same general plan. It already embraces a lai^e array of num-
bers, combining men of the highest rank and wealth with others
in more humble condition. It is intended to hold its annual
shows in different parts of the country ; and it bestows large
simis in premiums, — thirty sovereigns, or one hundred and fifty
dollars, being the prize, for example, in the class of bulls, and
other prizes of jsoportionate value for other objects. It has
adopted one very wise {urovision : in the high prizes for thd best
live stock, it opens the competition to the whole kingdom, with-
out restriction, so that specimens are brought &om England and
Scotland, of cattle, sheep, and swine ; Euid thus the Irish are
enabled to see, and compare with them, what has been done by
others, and in what respects they exceed or fall short of them.
This [vesants the most powerful stimulus to excel ; whereas, if
the competition were confined wholly to themselves, not know-
ing what has been done by others, they might be satisfied with
inferior attainments. At the agricultural show at Dublin, which
I had the [Measure to attend, a good many anim&ls were exhibited
fix)m Scotland and England, which were of a superior character,
and which gave the Irish farmers a favorable opportunity, not
only of seeing the favorite kinds in the sister kingdoms, but the
degree of perfection, to which, by careful breedii^ and keeping,
they had been carried.
When I have recommended, as I have repeatedly done, the
adoption of the same liberal practice among the county societies
of Massachusetts, and with other societies in New York, I have
always been met with the ai^iunent, that this would be sending
the money paid in premiums out of the coimty, or out of the state,
which is an objection unworthy of consideration ; for of what
consequence is the money, if we can get the imfffovement ?
The object of a society, in all its measures and premiums, should
be the improvement of agriculture and husbandry. The distri-
)yGoo»^Ic
176 EUROPEAN AORICULTUUE.
bution of money is only an instrument to effect this cud. By
what means that object is most surely to be attained, is the only
matter worth inquiry. Nothing is so likely to serve this end as
seeing and ascertaining the degree of improvement to which the
art has any where, at any time, or by any persons, been ad-
vanced ; and how far, and how effectually, in our condition, we
may adopt the same means of progress. There is, in my opin-
ion, nothing less worthy of a liberal mind, nor less friendly to
advancement in any thing valuable and useful, than a miserable
self-conceit, which passes often under the name of patriotism,
but which is a spurious metal, and a mere counterfeit of that noble
virtue. To value a thing because it is American, or because it
is English, or because it is Irish, without regard to its substantial
qualities, is worthy only of a child ; and a mind bent upon im-
provement, and capable of any great progress, rises above such
mean prejudices ; values things according to their intrinsic merit ;
acknowledges excellence wherever excellence exists, and seeks
that which is good, wherever good is to be foimd. We should
dismiss all pride in our own improvements when others have
gone beyond us. The advances which others have made, be
they whom they may, shoidd only be with us an incentive to
new exertions ; and so fai from indulging the slightest t^ret that
they have surpassed us, if we discover that to be the fact, let us
rejoice in what has been accomplished, and regard all improve-
ments, of every description, as so much gained for science or for
art, for general comfort or advancement, and as the common
property of human nature and the world. This is the truest and
noblest patriotism, which heartily exults in every good conferred
upon its own community, or its own country, and, in the spirit of
an enlarged philanthropy, seeks for its universal extension. To
a good mind, the good is not diminished by beii^ the more
widely diffused.
No benevolent and just man can look upon poor, suffering Ire-
land, a land full of brilliant minds and generous hearts, and
whose eventful history is resplendent with a galaxy of the most
noble sacrifices and services of patriotism and philanthropy,
without rejoicing in any good which comes to her, or offers
itself in prospect. Her Agricultural Society promises to prove of
the highest benefit to a coimtry, the soil of which is capable of a
most productive cultivation, where labor presents itself in unlim-
)yGoo»^Ic
THE KOEAI. AOtUCDLTDSAl. SOCIETT OF ISXLASD. 177
ited abimdsnce, smd where crowds, almost without number, of
the wretched, the half-clothed, and the hungry, demand, in tones
which would touch any heart not made of stone, an opportunity
of satisfying theii own wants by their own labor, and of obtain-
ing from the willing eaxth that which a beneficent Providence
has formed it to yield for the subsistence and comfort of his
creatures.
The exhibition at Dublin was, in various respects, creditable
to the society. The collection of grasses and grains, dried speci-
mens of which were exhibited by several nursery-men, were
extremely beautiful, and h^hly instructive to the tanners. They
were presented in a form which enabled them to compare with
each other, and in some measure to determine, their relative
qualities. Numerous specimens of flax, and of linen, and
lawn which has been long a distinguished product of Ireland,
likewise attracted deserved admirstiotL Specimens of soils, and
mineral and artificial manures, and exemplifications of different
modes of draining, and models of cottages and farm buildings, were
also exhibited, and suggested improved and economical modes of
construction. I saw, likewise, an American straw-cutting ma-
chine, very d^htly varied from the original, and which had been
patented, in Ireland, of which I could not complain, after many
instances of similar plagiarism, which I had seen, in my own
country, exhibited as rare specimens of Yankee ingenuity. Of
the morality of such tricks, if so they are to be called, I leave
my readers to judge ; but in other respects, from various things
which have come under my notice, the account seems pretty
fairiy balanced between us.
The exhibition of poultry attracted mach attention, and,
though an humble object, was not unworthy of observation. It
was principally confined to geese, ducks, and dunghill fowls.
The Malay and Java fowls, specimens of which are to be found
in the United States, were very large, and appeared almost to
have some affinity with the ostrich family. It was stated that,
when dressed, they would weigh from eight to ten pounds, which
is the size of a common turkey. The valuable race of Dorkings
was shown in great numbers, as being highly approved ; and
likewise some crested Spanish birds, which were reputed most
abundant layers — a property which, in my opinion, depends
as much upon plenty of feed, and houses where a mild tempera-
)yGoo»^Ic
I7S EUROP£AH iGRlCtlLTtlRE.
ture is preserved, as upon any peculiarity of constitution. Of
game-cocks I saw none. The inhuman sport, which once
brought these animals into fashion, is, as fai as I can leam, now
not permitted or known. The cause of humanity has certainly
accomplished much in the abolition of the cruel games of cock-
fighting, dog-^hting, bull-baiting, and bloody boxing-matches.
The various military dresses, most brilliant and magnificent as
they were in themselves, and which were seen plentifully
sprinkled about the show-yard, and in the streets of Dublin, indi-
cated, however, that there were other game-cocks ui training, for
purposes far more cruel and unchristian, whom, with their glitter-
ing swords and bristling bayonets, I seldom pass without a
shudder ; and to the necessity, if there be any, of whose profes-
sion and employment, I can only desire as speedy and as effec-
tual an end may be put. The fights of the lower orders of
animals, for which they have been trained, and to which they
have been spurred on by the brutality of a higher order of ani-
mals, assuming to be rational and moral, are, alas ! but a melan-
choly counterpart of scenes which have covered human history
all over with blood, and stained its pages with crimes of a demo
niacal malignity and revenge, vulgarly, and by a misnomer which,
in a Christian country, makes one's heart ache, called heroism
and glory. The native race of cows, principally from the county
of Kerry, which were exhibited on the occasion, was quite re-
markable. They are much smaller than any thing of the kind
which I have ever seen, and can have little value out of the
country where they are reared, and to whose scanty pastures and
bleak hills they are said to be peculiarly adapted. They are
generally black, kept at a very small expense, and are said, for
their size, to yield an extraordinary amount of milk. A bull of
a year old of this stock, to which a prize of five sovereigns was
awarded, was so diminutive, that I could, without difficulty, have
lifted my leg over his back. The sight of this animal solved a
problem in history which has al^vays puzzled me. It is said of
Milo, that, beginning with a calf, and carrying him upon his
back every day, the increase of weight was so gradual, that the
limit of his personal strength could not be determined, and he
continued to lift him after he became an ox. If it were a Kerry
ox, the otherwise intrinsic improbability of the story entirely
ceases. This Kerry bull was little latter than a goat, and should
)yGoo»^Ic
MODEL FARM AND
fonn 8 part of the retinue of Tom Thumb, that distinguished
American production, who has excited the most extraordinary
sensation in England.
XXHL — MODEL FARM AND AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL.
There is an establishment connected with the agriculture of
Ireland, which is in the immediate neighborhood of Dublin, and
which I have yisiled with the greatest pleasure, and that is a
Model Farm and an Agricultural School. The national govern-
ment have determined to appropriate seventy-five thousand
poimds annually to the cause of education in Ireland, to be dis-
tributed, in proportions corresponding to the subscriptions of
individuals for the same objects, in parts of the country where
education is most needed. It is consid^d, and with good reason,
that the great want, among the people, is a want of knowledge
in applying and using the means of subsistence within their
reach ; that there is no indisposition on their part to labor ; that
there is as yet an ample extent of uncultivated land capable of
being redeemed and rendered productive ; and that a principal
source of the wretchedness, and want, and starvation, which pre-
vail in some parts of this country, often to a fearful extent, is
attributable to the gross ignorance of the laboring classes of the
best modes of agriculture and of rural economy. With this con-
viction upon their minds, the commissioners have determined to
connect with all their rural schools a course of teaching in scien-
tific and practical agriculture, communicating a knowledge of the
simple elements of agricultural chemistry ; of the best modes
and operations of husbandry which have been adopted in imy
country ; of the nature, and character, and uses, of the vegetables
and plants necessary or useful to man or beast ; of the improved
kinds of live stock, and of the construction and use of the most
improved and most approved fanning implements and ma-
chinery. With these views, it is their intention to train their
schoolmasters, and to send out such men as are apt and qualified
to teach these most useful branches. For this purpose the
govemment have established this model farm, which was begun in
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180 EUROPEAN AGBICULTUBE.
1838, and which has already, in a greater or less measure, quali-
fied and sent out seven hundred teachers. To my mind it seems
destined to confer the most important benefits upon Ireland, and
1 may add upon the world, for so it happens under the benig-
nant arrangements of the Divine Providence, the benefits of
every good measure or effort for the improvement of mankind
proceed, by a sort of reduplication, to an imlimited extent ; these
teachers shall instruct theii pupils, and these pupils become in
their turn the teachers of others ; and the good seed, thus sown
and widely scattered, go on yielding its constantly-increasing
products, to an extent which no human imagination can
measure. Three thousand schoolmasters are at this moment
demanded for Ireland, and the government are determined to
supply them. Happy is it for a coimtry, and honorable to
huuian nature, when, instead of schemes of avarice, and dieams
of ambition, and visions of conquest, at the dreadful expense of
the comfort, and liberty, and lives, of the powerless and unpro-
tected, the attention of ^ose who hold the destinies of their
fellow-beings in their hands is Inmed to their improvement, theii
elevation, their comfort, and their substantial welfare.
The Model Farm and Agricultural School is at a place called
Qlasnevin, about three miles from Dublin, on a good soil. The
situation is elevated and salubrious, embracing a wide extent of
prospect of sea and land, of plain and mountain, of city and
country, combining the busy haunts of men, and the highest im-
provements of art and science, with what is most picturesque and
charming in rural scenery, presenting itself in its bold mountains
and deep glens, in its beautiful plantations, its cultivated fields,
and its wide and glittering expanse of ocean. The scenery in
the neighborhood of Dublin, with its fertile valleys, and the
mountains of Wicklow, of singularly grand and beautiful
formation, botmding the prospect for a considerable extent, is
among the richest which the eye can take in ; and at the going
down of the sun in a fine summer evening, when the long ridge
of the mountains seemed bordered with a fringe of golden fire, it
carried my imagination back, with an emotion which those only
who feel it can understand, to the most beautiful and pictu-
resque parts of Vermont, in the neighborhood of I,ake ChamplaJn.
[ have a strong conviction of the powerful and beneficial
influence of fine natural scenery, where there is a due measure
)yGoo»^Ic
MODEL FABM AND ACMCULTUBAL SCHOOL. 181
of the eodowment of ideality, upon the intellectual and moral
character ; and I would, if possible, surround a place of education
with those objects in nature best suited to elevUe and enlai^e
the mind, and stii the soul of man from ita lowest depths. It is
at the shrine of nature, in the temple pillaied by the lofty moun-
tains, and whose glowing aiches are resplendent with inextin-
guishable fixes, that the human heart is most profoundly impressed
with the unutterable grandeur of the great object of worship.
It is in fields radiant with their golden harvests, and every where
offering, in their rich fruits luid products, an unstinted compensa-
tion to human toil, and the most liberal provision for human
subsistence and comfort, and in pastures and groves animated
with the expressive tokens of enjoyment, and vocal with the
grateful hymns of ecstasy, among the animal creation, that man
gathers up those evidences of the faithful, imceasing, and un-
bounded goodness of the divine Providence, which most deeply
touch, and often overwhelm, the heart. The Model Farm and
School, at Glasnevin, has connected with it fifty-two English
acres of land, the whole of which, with the exception of an
acre occupied by the farm buildings, is mider cultivation, and a
perfect system of rotation of crops. The master of the school
pays for this land a rent of five pounds per acre, and taxes
and expenses carry the rent to eight pounds per acre. Twelve
poor boys, or lads, live constantly with him, for whose education
and board, besides their labor, he receives eight shillings sterling
per week. They work, as well as 1 could understand, about six
hours a day, and devote the rest of the time to study, or learning.
The course of studies is not extensive, but embraces the most
common and useful branches of education, such as arithmetic,
geography, natural philosophy, and agriculture, in all its
scientific and practical details. They have an agricultural
examination, or lecture, every day. 1 had the gratification of
listening to an examination of fourteen of these young men,
brought out of the field from their labor ; and cheerfully admit
that it was eminently successful, and in the highest degree cred-
itable both to master and pupil. Besides these young men,
who live on the farm, the young men in Dublin, at the normal
school, who are preparing themselves for teachers of the national
schools, are required to attend at the farm and assist in its labors
a portion of the time, that they may become thoroughly ac-
16
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ECROFEjUf
quaiDled with scientific and practical agriculture in all its
branches, and be able to teach it ; the govenunent beii^ deter-
mined that it shall form an indispensable pait of the school
instructioQ thioughout the island. The gieat objects, then, of
the establishment, aie to qualify these young men for teachers by
a thorough and practical education in the science, so far as it has
reached that character, and in the most improved methods and
operations of agriculture. Besides this, it is intended to fumi^
an opportunity to the sons of men of wealth, who may be placed
here as pupils, to acquire a practical knowledge of, and a familiar
insight into, all the details of tarming. This must prove of the
highest importance to them in the man^ement of their own
The superintendent was pleased to show me his accoimts in
detail, which evinced, as far as I could ascertain, a successful and
profitable management ; but as there were several material
elements to be taken into the calculation, I shall not speak with
any confidence on this subject, without further information,
which cannot now be had, but which I shall take pains to give
in the fullest manner hereafter.
As the crops were uncommonly fine, and the whole cultivation
and management, as far as it appeared, excellent, I shall detail
some few particulars in a ciusory manner.
The first object was to illustrate the best system of rotation of
crops ; and three systems of alternate husbandry were going on ;
one of a coiu«e of three crops, one of five, and one of nine ; and
one especial object pursued in one department of the farm was to
show the most eligible course of management of a single acre of
land, so as to give an example of the best system of cottage
husbandry for the poor man, who might have only a small allot-
ment of land, and whose object would be to feed a cow and a
pig, and to get what supplies he could for his family. Such
lessons, it is obvious, must appear of the highest importance in
Ireland, when we consider the condition of its peasantry, and
cannot be without their advantages to every cultivator of land.
Another object aimed at is to show that a farm is capable of
being kept in condition from its own resources, and from the
consumption of the principal part of the produce upon the land.
No majiure is ever purchased here ; and the manager professed
to have an ample supply. Six years' trial, with crops of the
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MODEL FAHH AND AORICDLTURAI. SCHOOln 183
highest productiveness, and indicating no diminution, hut rather
an increase of yield, seems to have satisfactorily estahlisbed this
point. The provisions for saving all the manure, both liquid and
solid, for managing the compost heap, and for increasing its
quantity by the addition of every species of refuse that can be
found, are complete. The stock consists of seventeen cows, one
bull, six young stock, two horses, and one pony ; and they are all
carefully stall-fed, in clean, wetl-littered, and well-ventilated
stables, with ample space before and behind them, and turned
out for recreation, in a yard, about two hours in a day. The
manure heap is in the rear of the stables ; is always carefully made
up, and kept well coveted with soil, or sods, or weeds, so as to
prevent evaporation, retain the effluvia, and increase the quan-
tity. The liquid manure is collected, by spouts, from the stables,
into a tank, from which it is, as often as convenient, pumped up,
and thrown, by an engine pipe attached to the pump, over the
heap ; and that portion of it which is not retained, but passes off,
is caught again in another tank, and again returned upon the
heap by the same process as before. The skilful manager of the
form prefers this method to that of applying the liquid manure
directly from a sprinkling machine upon his fields. Either mode
may hpve its peculiar advantages, which I shall not now discuss.
The object of each is to save and to use the whole ; and I am
determined, so important do I deem it, never to lose a fair oppor-
tunity of reminding the farmers that the liquid manure of any
animal, if properly saved and applied, is of equal value as the solid
portions ; but in most places this is wholly lost. The manure
for his crops he prefers to plough in in the autumn ; and the ex-
traordinary crops of potatoes grown by him are powerful testimo-
nies in favor of his management.
. His potatoes give an average yield of eighteen tons (gross
weight) to an English acre, which, allowing fifty-six poimds to
the btishel, would be seven hundred and twenty bushels. He has
grown twenty-two tons to an English acre. Either of these quan-
tities, in New England and in Old England, would be considered
a magnificent crop. He plants his potatoes either in ridges thirty
inches asunder, with the potatoes or sets eighteen inches apart
in the drills, or else in what here is called the lazy-bed fashion,
which is a common practice, but which, as it respects the labor
required, is altogether misnamed. In this case, the land is dug
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184 EUROPEAN AOMCULTURE.
or ploughed, aiid thrown into beds of about three feet wide, first
formed by ridging or back-fiurowing with the ploi^h, and after-
wards covered with earth, thrown Irotn a ditch between the beds
about eighteen inches in width, and running between all the
beds. After this bed is smoothed off, the potatoes are planted
upon it, in rows, crosswise, at the distance of eighteen inches by
thirty inches apart, and they are then covered with about four
inches of euth taken out of the intermediate ditch with a spade.
After the potatoes are fairly above ground, they have a second
covering of four inches of earth, as before, and this comprehends
the whole of their cultivation in the lazy-bed fashion. When
they are planted in drills or ridges, the Epace between the ridges
is never suffered to be disturbed by a plough, but is simply dug
with a spade, as it is an important object to avoid injuring the
young fibrous roots of the plant, upon which the tubers are formed.
The potatoes are kept, in this way, with an occasional applica-
tion of the hand to the weeds, sntircly clean ; and the luxuriance
of their growth throughout a large field, as far as my observation
goes, was never surpassed. By his management of his manure,
spinkling the heap with the liquid portions, and so keeping up,
through the summer, a slight but constant fermentation, not only
all the weeds thrown upon it are rotted, but the seeds of these
weeds are effectually destroyed. He says the largest crop of
potatoes which he ever produced was had in a field where the
sets were placed over the whole field, at a distance of a yard each
way from each other. He prefers always planting whole pota-
toes, of a medium size, to cutting them. He showed me a
portion of the field, which had been planted with cultings of
potatoes, sent him by a friend, of a new and valuable kind, and
which he cut with a view to planting more land ; but the differ-
ence in their appearance was most marked, and showed an
inferiority of as one to three to those which were planted whole.
Ten bushels of seed he considers sufficient for planting an acre.
His turnips promised extremely well. I remarked to him that
they were sown in the drills very thickly. He replied that he
had never lost his crop by the fly, and he attributed his success
to two circumstances — the first, to planting his seed two inches
deep, by which means the roots of the plant became extended and
strong before the plant showed itself above ground ; and the
second, by sowing a large quantity of seed ; if the flies took a
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MODEL FjUtM AND ACBiCUI.TURAI. SCHOOL. 18u
portion of the jdants, he would probably have an ample supply
left. He Buffers tbein to get somevhat advanced before they are
thinaed, and then is careful to select the healthiest and strongest
plants to reroaio. I must not be supposed ever to endorse the
opinions of another man, simply because I give them; but
certainly success is the beet test of judgment and skill. How-
ever interesting and ingenious a man's speculations may be, his
practice is always worth vastly more than his theory.
His crops of mangel-wurzel were magnificent ; and he gets a
great deal of green feed for his cows, by plucking the under
leaves ; though, if too severely stripped in the autunm, they ate
liable to be injured by the frosts.
He sows tares and oats t(^ether for green feed for his stock.
The oats serve to support the tares, and the mixture seems to be
greatly relished by the animals. His great dependence for green
feeding of his stock is upon the Italian rye-grass, a most valuable
grass, which is very much commended wherever it is cultivated,
and which, I hopo, will be introduced into the United States. I
saw a field ofr this on the farm, which had already been cut twice
in the season, and was nearly ready for another cropping. In
Uanchester, the last autiunn, I saw specimens of three cuttings
of Italian rye-f;ras8, all cut from the same field in the same
season, the combined length of which was thirteen feet. This
was a surprising growth, and indicated the remarkable luxuriance
of the plant
His oats give an average yield of eighty bushels to an English
acre ; and the oats chiefiy preferred here are the Scotch potato
and the Hopetown oat. The weight of the potato oat per
bushel is stated to be about forty-four pounds. I have known it
in the United States, the first year of its cultivation, to weigh as
much, but the second year not to weigh more than thirty-five
pounds per bushel. This must be owing to some error or defect
in the cultivation ; for I can conceive of no natural binderance, in
many localities, to the most successful cultivation of this crop.
He sows rye-grass with bis oat crop, and gets a good cutting,
after the oats are off, from the stubble. It might be thought that
this is riding the horse " too hard ; " but, as the rye-grass does
not ripen its seed in the case, the soil is not exhausted. The
next season it gives a full yield. I shall hereafter extend the
account of this admirable establishment, if any thing presents
16*
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EUROPEAN AeaiCCLTUBE.
itself, upon further inquiry, desirable to be communicated. The
institution is one of great importauce, and will serve as a model
for others ; and several, in different parts of the country, through
the public-spirited exertions of several gentlemen, who are lai^e
landholders, are in the process of being formed. I shall cooclude
the account with the production, the cunent year, (1844,) of six-
teen and a half acres of land upon this farm, which the nuuu^r,
in whose established character 1 have entire confidence, has been
pleased to give me. In my experience, the yield has not been
surpassed.
From these sixteen and one half English acres, he has fed
entirely, from the 4th of April to the 18th of August, seventeen
milch cows, one bull, six young stock, two horses, and one pony.
Of one acre in vetches, he has used one half the crop ; the rest
remains. Of one acre in cabbages, he has sold two thirds, and
used one third ; the two thirds having brought him by the sale
£13 sterling; and from the same sixteen and a half acres he
has cut and cured, and has in stack, twenty-eight tons of well-
made hay, from rye-grass. 1 took this statement down from his
own mouth, with the stack of hay before me, the qnaotity of
which was ascertained by cubic measurement, by a rule which
is considered established and accunUs.
XXIV. — DUBIJN BOTANICAL GARDEN.
In the neighborhood of Dublin is a Botanical Garden, comis«-
hending twenty-seven acres, enclosed by a h^h stone wall, with
a beautiful rivulet running throi^h it, with ample and elegant
conservatories and greenhouses, and in the highest state of cul-
tivation and embellishment. It is supported partly by private
subscription, and partly by donations from the government. It
is a beautiful retreat, and open to all persona two days in a week,
with intelligent and courteous superintendents to show and ex-
plain every thing. To my inquiry of the superintendent
whether he suffered any injury from the visitors plucking the
flowers, or breaking the plants, he replied, very little, if any ; none
)vGoo»^Ic
WEN. 187
whatever from the highest classes in society, and none 'whab^rer
from the lowest classes, who visited it in great numbers ; and who,
coming out of their damp cellars, and their confined streets, and
their dark and offensive holes, and fastnesses, and common
savers, no doubt found in it, with their ehildrenj almost a transi-
tion from earth to heaven ; and here breathed the perfumes of the
divine beneficence, and contemplated, with a felicity which even
princes might envy, the exuberant tokens of God's goodness in
the flowers and firuits of the earth,radiant with a celestial beauty.
There were other persons, whom he chose to denominate the
vulgar rich, who were not so abstemious, and who required to
be watched. It is to be hoped, as education advances, a higher
tone of moral sentiment will prevail, and that every thing of taste
ot art, designed for general gratification, will be secure against
injury or defacement, so that the odious notices and cautions,
which are now so constantly seen in such places against dejve-
dation, may themselves be deemed a public insult, and the very
idea of violating an honorable confidence, and abusing the public
beneficence, Ibay so trouble a man's conscience, that he shall
desire to ran away from himself.
This garden and grounds, and its conservatories, are designed
to furnish specimens of all the most valuable and curious native
and exotic plants and fruits ; and, in addition to their present
erections, the proprietors are now about to build a conservatory
four hundred feet long, and seventy feet wide, with a height pro-
portioned. The grounds are always open to the studious and
scientific, and a course of botanical lectures is given, with the
illustrations to be found here.
Botany may here be studied to great advantage, as portions of
the ground are allotted to the perfect arrangement of the plants,
according to the classification and orders of Linnseus, and in
another part, according to the natural order ; and for the benefit
of agricultural students and farmers, specimens are cultivated
and neatly arranged of all the useful vegetables and grasses,
with their botanical and their vulgar names affixed to them, with
specimens likewise of the most pernicious weeds, that the fanner
may see what to choose and what to avoid. The collection is
already extensive, and is constantly becoming enlarged. It
is difficult to overrate the value of such establishments, both for
use and for pleasure, for their pecuniary, their intellectual, and
)yGoo»^Ic
188 EUROPEAN &GKICDLTUR£.
their moral benefit. While peiiniag this account^ 1 hear, with
extreme regret, that the Botanical Garden in Boston, a city so
eminent for its public spirit and beneficence, is to be strangled in
its infancy, and abandoned ; and that the ground is likely to be
appropriated to buildings, so that the rich prospect of the charm-
ing environs of the city is to be shut out, and the fresh and salu-
brious breezes from the verdant fields and hills of the surroimding
country are to be debarred an entrance for the refreshment of the
inhabitants of this busy and crowded mart ; and even the sight
of the glorious -western sky, which, with its gilded, and glowing,
and gorgeous drapery, I have made, at evening, a pilgrimage, many
hundreds of times, to contemplate and adore, is to be excluded by
high walls of brick and stone. Should this be done ? and how
can such an injury, if once committed, be tepaircd ? Surely they
will foi^ive one of their owu children, whom no distauce of place
and no length of absence can estrange from his honored and
revered birthplace, in saying that even one half of the expense
thrown away upon public dirmers and parade, would secure to
them permanent provisions for health, instruction, comfort, and
delight, whose value no pecuniary standard can measiue, and
which can never be duly appreciated, but by those who have
enjoyed and have then been deprived of them.
)yGoo»^Ic
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EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE.
THIRD REPOKT.
XXV. — AGMCULTDRAL EDCCATION.
Mt Second Report gave an account of the Agricnltonl
School at Olasnerin, near Dublin, Ireland. I propose to add a
notice of some other industrial schools, which I hare had aa
opportunity of inspecting. The excellent establishment vhich
I described, and three others, of a similar character, which I
have visited, are in Ireland. Ireland, in this respect, has taken
the lead of England and Scotland, where ve might sooner have
expected to find institutioDs of this nature.
That in a country where the waves of political agitation have
for year» been tossing all over it like the sea in a storm, and
where, certtunly in lai^e portions of it, there exist a degradation
and state of destitution utterly beyond any power which I possess
adequately to describe, — in many parts, a struggle for existence
which seems, to an inexperienced spectator, absolutely desperate,
— and, in some parts, a ferocity, growing not out of any innate
mal^ity, but out of unfortunate social relations, (for which the
remedy is not obvious,} scarcely to be paralleled even among
cannibals, — in a condition of society where all the elements <^
social life appear in a state of violent conflict, — that in the
midst of all this there should be growing up institutions of this
character, even in advance of places blessed with peace, plenty,
quiet, and the highest measure of social improvement which
has yet been reached, is not a little remarkable.
)yGoo»^Ic
190 EDBOPEAN i.aiucin.iTrBX.
But this beautiful and vretched country abounds with intelli-
gent minds, glowing with the warmest philanthropy. They
appear, indeed, like stars in a partially-clouded night, pouiiug,
out of theii own native fulness, rays of the purest splendor;
struggling, as it were, continually, to penetrate the darkness
which iutercepts them ; and appearing to shed a tnighier radiance
as the mists and black clouds sweep along, and, occasionally
breaking open, leave, though only for a time, a way for the
transmission of their light. They may, sometimes, seem to
serve no other purpose than to render the darkness visible ; but
they inspire courage, and strengthen the hope of a wider diffu-
sion, and the ultimata dawning of a full day.
These men rightly conceive that education is to be one of
the great means of elevating Ireland ; and that, an education of
a practical character. In an education of a different character,
Iceland is not wanting. Strange as it may seem, in some parts
of Ireland, even the common people are familiar with the an-
cient classics ; and the household deities of the heathen are en-
shrined in their cabins among their own numberless saints.
When in Killarney, in the vicinity of the lakes of that pic-
ttiresciue and romantic region, I took leave to inquire of the hotel-
keeper into the state of education amoi^; the people. He im-
mediately called in a ragged, dirty, barefooted boy, — for, indeed,
very few of the common people in the rural districts of Ireland
are in any other condition, ~ and told him "to bring his books
and show the gentleman what he knew." This boy was only
ten years old, and the son of a shoemaker. He broi^ht in his
Greek Testament, and m the Gospel of John, in which I pretty
thoroughly examined him, he recited with perfect correctness.
I then examined him in the declensions and cot^jugationa of
nouns, and adjectives, and verba, in which he was equally expert
and correct. I found, likewise, upon inquiry, that this was the
general course of education at the school which he attended.
The next day, a tad passed me, evidently on his way to school,
with his books under his ann. 1 inquired his age, which he
said was fifteen years, and then desired him to allow me to see
a book which he had with him, which was Homer in Greek ;
and he was studying the second book. To my inquiry if there
were many in his class, he replied, yes ; and to my question
whether he was destined for the priesthood, his answer was
)yGoo»^Ic
AOUCin.T[mAL SDUCATIOIT. 191
in the negative. I learned that classical learning was by no
meana uncommon in Ireland, and among some eren of the
poorest of the people. Schools, Ukewise, of a more btunble
chaiacter, abound in Ireland, and beoerolent efforts are making
to extend and improve them.
It would be wrong, however, to infer, from what I have stated
above, that education in Ireland is every where of a high char-
acter, or that it is universal. I might do wrong to say even that
it is general, though it is certainly much more general than is
Qsttally supposed. Many parts of Ireland are wrapped in thick
darkness, with its usual concomitant, the grossest superstition.
Indeed, without impugning the prevalent religion of Ireland, a
fair proportion of the ministers of which are indefatigable in
theit pastoral labors, and disinterestedly devoted to the welfare
of their flocks, it will not be denied that it discourages the
general or extended education of the people. I speak of what
strikes me as facta in the case, and neither attribute nor insin-
uate any unworthy motives. Nor would England, as far as my
impreaaoDB go, gain much by a comparison with Ireland in this
respect. In Ei^land the higher classes are not without strong,
and it may be conscientious prejudices against the education of
the lower and laboring classes. The course of education, at the
national schools in England which I have visited, — and they are
not a few,>— is certainly of a me^re and limited description,
embracing no more than reading, spelling, writing, and the
study of the Bible, the catechism and the creeds, with the com-
mittal of hymns to memory. To my inquiry of a noble and
enlightened woman, the benevolent patroness and supporter of
a lai^e school, and to whom, how much soever I might differ
from her in opinion, it would be impossible to ascribe any want
of kind regard for her dependants and beneficiaries, whether it
would not be useful to teach these children some geography,
and induce them to read some books of general knowledge, her
reply was, that " she wanted none of the ologies, neither geol-
ogy, mineralogy, nor chronolt^y, taught in her school ; and that,
in heir opinion, it was quite enough of general knowlet^e for the
children to know their prayers and the catechism ; and of geog-
raphy, for them to be able to find their way firom their house to
their work, to the school, and to the church." If I had not met
with repeated instances of the same avowed sentiments, and of
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192 EUBOFBAir AQIUCULTOKB.
a [vactice confonned to them, I should hesitate in making any
general inferences. Ah it is, however, harii^ stated the case, I
prefer to leave it to my readers to form their own conclusions.
I could not help replying to this noble lady, that one of the
ologies seemed to be pretty assiduously taught in the school, and
^lat was theology ; for the catechism and creeds were inculcated
with peremptory authority, and the Bible was the only reading
book in the school. She admitted this, but an exception of this
nature needed no apology. I could not help thinking that the
course might have been enlarged, and other branches of instruction
have been introduced to advantage ; that some good for religitm
itself might be gathered even from the simi^est discoveries of
geol<^y, and the wonders, and uses, and splendors of the min-
eral world ; that the great and settled truths of physiology, those
which ate directly practical in their' character, might be <^
service both to the health of the body and the mind, and consfr-
quently to the moral health ; that a general knowledge of
anatomy, both human and comparative, could scarcely be with-
out its use ; and that it might be as serviceable, as it would be
interesting, if children were taught to understand some of the
marvels of their own structure, and led to see how this curious
frame of their bodies is knit together and compacted by an all-
powerlul Architect ; and the still more wonderful capacities and
faculties of their own minds, where "the inspiration of the
Almighty has given them understandii^," — and thus be led to
reverence the Divinity, who has made their own souls the
temples of his indwelling spirit. I could not think that it
would be straying for from the best objects of education, if
these children were early accustomed to see every object and
operation in nature instinct with lessons of heavenly wisdom.
I cannot think that any thing would be lost Are we not bonad
to believe that much would be gained by every advance in
knowledge of this kind ] if children were tanght daily to
consider the flowers of the field, how they grow ; what cansea
the earth to yield its food for man and beast, and makes the dry
aeed sju-ing up into a beautiful and fruitful jdant, arrayed in a
splendor surpassing that of Oriental luxury ; and who takes can
of the birds of the aii, who, though they have neither store-
house nor bam, find their daily and hourly wants supplied by
' an invisible hand and a paternal and an inexhaustible bounty ?
)yGoo»^Ic
AomicuLTvau. BsooAVioir. 193
Indeed, I have yet to learn that the acquisition of knowledge
can cTor be otherwise thau favorable to virtue ; or that what-
ever tends to eulai^e and imjsove the mind does sot, in an
equal degree, tend to render character more valuable, moral
obiigtiic«i8 more authoritative, and insjnie and strengthen that
flelf-<espect which is among the most powerful instrumeuta and
securities of virtue.
If I should be asked, now, What has all this to do with agri-
culture? I answer, Much every way. It will be found, with
lespect to agriculture, — what is true in reference to every other
art, — that its proper exercise, and all the improvements which it
has received, have been the effects of the application of mind to
the subject ; in other words, of Inquiry, observation, knowledge,
and especially the results of intelligent experience. Who does
not know the difference between a stupid and an intelligent
laborer ; between a man scarcely raised above the brute animal
which he drives, and a man whose facilities are all awake, and
who ia constantly upon the alert to discover and adopt the best
mode of executing the task which he has undertaken ; between
a beast altogether the creature of instinct, or a mere machine,
moving only as it is impelled, and unable to correct its own
errors, and a thinking, knowing, reasonii^ animal, always search-
ing for the right way, making all his actions subservient to bis
judgment, and gathering continual accessions of power and
facility of action from his own and the experience of others?
Every one will admit that the more inteUigenoe, the more skill,
ihe more knowledge, a man has, the better is he qualified, other
things being equal, for the management of a iarm. It holds
equally true that the more intelligence, the more skill, the mne
knowledge, a laborer has, the better is he qualified to assist in
that manag«nent, and to perform the part which belongs to him
in the working of the whole machinery.
I believe I may safely say, that a New England laborer ac-
complishes in the same time much more than an English
laborer; and this circumstance, in respect to agriculture, and
especially in some of the manufacturing and mechanic arts,
which more demand the exercise of the mind than the ordi-
nary operations of husbandry, is one among other circumstances
which enable us to come in successful competition with the
labor of Europe, so very inferior in its cost. I cannot say they
17
)yGoo»^Ic
194 BUBOrBlM AOBICDLTDKE.
always execute their work as well. Certainly, iu ploughing and
draining, our operations are altc^ther inferior to what is done in
England, where, in the perfection with which these matters are
executed, nothing more aeems to me either attainable or desiia*
hie. But this arises from several causes ; — the more we hare to
do compared with the number of hands we have to accomplish
it ; the extent to which a system of division of labor is carried
in England, so th^ particular individuals are accustomed to do
only particular things, and consequently acquire a precision and
lacility of operation, which such exact attention and long-con-
tinued practice are sure to give, attended with an almost utter
disqualification for any other branches of lalxv. In many de-
partments and operations of husbandry, this exactness is not
necessary, though in many I am ready to admit its utility ; but
in the amount of work which an American laborer will accom-
plish in a given time, and iu the facility with which he turns
fi;om one species of labor to another, be is for before an English
laborer. This, I believe, is, in a great degree, owing to the dif-
ference in their mindB; the one being educated, the other uned-
ucated ; the one being accustomed to depend upon himself, to
inquire, to reflect, to observe, to experiment ; the other scarcely
exercising his mind at all more than the cattle which he drives,
and accustomed to move in the line, and that only, which has
been marked out for him. I hold that education, in every con-
dition of life, is a great good. It sometimes gives facilities for
particular crimes, of which, otherwise, men would have been
incapable ; but the viciousness of these men would have shown
itself in some other form. It is in no sense attributable to their
education. I believe, as much as I live, that every advance ia
the cidtivation and improvement of the mind is an incentive
and *an auxiliary to good conduct ; and although an education
purely intellectual falls lar short of the beneficial influences
which it might yield, when the moral sentiments are cultivated
conjointly with the intellectual, yet am I perfectly assured, that
every quickeniDg or cultivation of the mental faculties, every
thing which contributes, in any measure or degree, to raise man
above a mere machine, or a mere animal, is so far positive good —
positive good for his efficiency as a laborer, and for bis happiness
and moral well-being as a man. I am afraid Z shall be thought
to dwell too long on this subject ; but I have felt such a burning
)yGoo»^Ic
ABBICULTUH^L CDDCATIOK. 199
indignation when I have heard the cause of popular education
spoken of disparagingly, by those who were reaping its richest
fruits ; I have felt such a deep compassion for the very degraded
condition, in this respect, of a lai^ portion of the laboring pop-
nlation of England ; I have seen with so much pain, on the part
of some of those whose laps were overflowing with these rich-
est blessings of Heaven, so strong a reluctance to communicate
of their abundance to these benighted children of ignorance and
want, in many cases, undoubtedly, springing from an honest dis-
trust of their utility, — and, at the same time, I have felt my own
heart swelling almost to bursting, with gratitude, for the ptivi-
li^es in this respect enjoyed by a large portion of my own
countrymen, and the blessed fruits of which are every where
seen among them in such rich abundance, — that I cannot refrain
£toni speaking out ; and too happy should I be if my feeble
voice could do any thing towards commanding that attention
to tbo subject which its importance demands.*
* T\ut I do not expKBi myidf too wtroagty on this aol^iect, nifty appear Horn
file fbllowinf laeaAt of k diatJngniflfaad pKdeasor of K^pricuUnre, who is laiich
empk^ed in lecturing to the fkrmeiB sbout the conntiy. They were made
Rcentlf at s litrge agricnitund meeting.
" I pot DO Stress on the spread oT knowledge, whether here, in Scotland, in be*
iHtd, or elsewhere. I attach no importance to intellectoal inqvorement amitngBt
tike agriciiltunBts. I do not value Ihat inatnctioo which you saw thoae bcTS bd
received to-day, unleaa that knowledge fimiishea you with the meaiis of puttii^
■MMC nxmey into your pocket&"
And, indeed, is tlue aO tiiie value iritich this learned gentleman can see in edn-
eation ? One cannot help feeling that it is greatly to be regtetted that be him-
self Bhaald have been pat to bo much trouble to acquire hia own education, fir aa
abject in which it is not unlikely, with all his success, many a thimble-rigger, or
dog-meat^«eller, would beat him.
At tiie great meeting of the Royal Agricnltural Society of Ireland, in Dublin,
Ae last year, a peer of the realm, of hi^ niik, and who (so ranch better iften-
times Bje men than the principles which they profess] is esteemed withal a very
just and kind landlord, was pleased, aAer strongly proclaiming his interest in the
iapiDvement of the condition of the peasanby and the laboiing clasaee, " to beg
of his hearers not to mimindeTSlaiid him, oca to subject him to the imputation of a
dasire to taise these pe^e out otthmi fioper craidilion — the cwidili<m which
PnmdeBce bad aaaigned tlunt"
One would be glad to know, under such an interpretation of the designs of
PnmdeDCe, how any man should ever attempt the in^trovement of any body, or
•Bf thing ; and whether he himself could by any compulsory fsocess be induced
to eschange his marquisate fora dukedom.
With great personal leapect for both these gentlemen, whose puUicly-ezpressed
)yGoo»^Ic
XnBOFEi.It AOBICULTDBE.
1. OLA8NEV1N AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL.
I i»omised in my fonner Report to give some further accoimt
of the school at Glasnevin ; and smce that time the intelligent
and obliging superintendent has been kind enough to fumish
me with a copy of his farm accounts for two years, which I
think must be interesting to my readers. It is obriously a great
question whether an institution of this character can be made to
support itself; and this question is affirmatiTely and emjrfiat-
ically answered by the result in this case. It is obviously
highly desirable that education should be made as cheap aa
possible. I very well imderstand what often comes of maJiing
things cheap ; that when the {vice is reduced, the quality of the
article is made (o correspond. A milkman in New York once
told me that he always accommodated his customers as to the
price ; six and a quarter cents was the standard price for sound
and pure milk ; but if his customers wished to hare it at five or
fotir cents, be took care always to put enoi^h water with it to
bring it to the standard price. This konest fellow, who was a
shrewd Irishman, by the way, (an evidence that all the wooden
nutmegs are not made in New England,) was pleased also to tell
me that, by straining water through some finely-ground Indian
meal or dour, so as to color it, and adding to it a mere dash of
skimmed milk, he was able then to aSoii it at three cents a
qoart to those who could not give a higher jvice. Host '
certainly I cannot recommend, in this sense of the word, a cheap
edncation ; but if the advantages of a good, solid, and enlarged
education can be made universally acceptable ; if they can be
purchased by that which most young persons have, and besides
which many young men have nothing else which they can give,
opinioDB tre ceitainly jnat objects of Humadrendon, I can onlj expcen the niA,
Oat the7 both mi^ be tnnaported, at least for a while, to a land of fi«e inslitD-
tkma, wtiere edncUioii ia ranreiBal, — and teani thete, that edncatkMi, from its
high tiMml influencea, maj have other Tues than th&t of putting money into jaeifa
pockets ; and diat, where the road of advancement end promotioii is freely and
flqnallf open to bH, even the hmnbleat tn the commnni^ may ascend to a noble.
neas of merit, and character, and intellectual eleradon, l>efoTe which tlie tiwd
splendor of coTonets, and mitres, and maces, becomes dim, and they are seen ia
their proper character, as mere baubles for gtown-op children.
)yGoo»^Ic
AflBlCDLTOBAI. CDDCATIOH. 19T
— their own personal labor, — a great point will be gained ; and
the price itself wUl be an efficient instnunent of their improvement.
I believe this can be done ; that is, upon an adequate extent of
land favoiably situated, by an amount of labor which rimll not
interfere with their intellectual improrement, but, by conducii^
to their healthy and by demonstrating the practical epj^icatioo
of the principles and lessons which they are taught, will most
efficiently further this improvement, the pnpils themselves may
be comfortably sustained, and their instruction paid for. TIw
school at Glasnevin certainly has gone far towards establishii^
this point. If tiiis is too much to be expected, and the fees for
instruction are to be paid in money, yet it will be a great
object gained, if the labor of the pupils provides for their aub-
sistence, and pays a fair rent for the land.
I subjoin the following extracts from the letters addressed to
me by the intelligent manager of the establishment, Hr. Thomas
Skilling.
"I send you copies of my profit and loss account on the
transactions of the farm during the last two years, ending the
3tst March, 1844. The annual accounts and amount for the
previous three years, from 1839, are somewhat similar, with this
difference, that, notwithstanding the yearly reduction in the price
of &rm produce during the said time, there have been increased
profits, from the increased products of the laud, of course fi^m
high cultivation and fertility. The profits of last year would
have been very c<nisiderable indeed, had I not suffered so much
by the fatal disease among my cattle. This year I expect to
realize a handsome sum, and you will recollect that these profits
are exclusive of the keep of my house and family in all kinds of
farm produce."
" From what you will have seen and heard here, you wilt
perceive that my system aims to show what land is capable of
producing, when properly cultivated and managed ; the great-
Mt quantity of ]Hrodace fi«m the same quantity and quality of
land ; and the greatest amount of profitable human labor, as
opposed to horse labor and expensive machinery. This I be-
lieve to be the system suitable for this, or perhaps any part of
the United Kingdom, where we have a numerous population
within small bounds, and even this small space of land not one
17*
)yGoo»^Ic
198
third cultivated, nor one half of oui people employed as they
ought to be. The great evil of this country is monopolp, and
the most pernicious and extensive is the land monopoly. The
masses here have no right, property, or interest, in the 8o0 which
they inhabit. They are the most wretched of slaves. What
ve want is a middle class of small landed projnietors — virtuous,
educated, and industrious. These would be Britain's strength ;
they are at present her weakness. I want' the masses that are
idle and starving, or driven into those sinks of vice, the large
and crowded towns, sivead over the face of the country, holding
and cultivating their small farms, leading a comfortable, virtuous,
and independent life. But our landlords say, ' The people are
poor ; they have no capital ; they are ignorant ; they do not
know how to cultivate and manage our land. We will not give
it to them. We will keep it for grazing bullocks and sheep.
They must look elsewhere for employment and sustenance.'
It would be useless here to inquire, who makes these people
poor and ignorant. We find the people as rejn^sented. This
state of things we wish to remove, and take away all excuses on
that head. We desire to educate them, and render them com-
petent to manage the land."
"Accounr or the Aobicdltural Establishhent at
GiasMEViN, Ireland.
D*. . . . Profit and Loss.
1843. £. 8. d.
Match 31. To cows lost, 47 14 9
." seeds, 279
" smith's woik, 4 9 0
" servants' meat and wages, .... 44 0 0
" laborers' wages, 2 19 lOJ-
" coals for the year, 9 3 0
" turnpike " " 1 7 10
" general charges, 22 3 11
" year's rent, 257 7 8
" profits fOT the year, ■ 120 16 8}
£fil2 10 6
)yGoo»^Ic
ASRICUI.TI7BAL ZOUCkTUOX. 199
C«ntra . , Cb.
1843. £. a. d.
BlarchSl. By bulla raised, 15 0 0
" heifers " 4 0 0
" pigs, 30 7 3
" oats, 66 18 7
" potatoes 89 16 9}
" vegetables, 33. 1 4
" milk, 199 6 55
" butter, 64 12 7i
^ " implements sold not required, . . 19 7 5
£512 10 6"
" It will be perceired that there is a loss on cows in this year.
This always happens, more or less. A lai^ qaantity of milk is
required for the training establidunent,* and when a cow goes
nearly dry, she must be sold, and another ia milk bought in her
jrface, at a higher ynce than that at which the former is sold.
We have it in contemfdation to take another farm, of larger di-
mensions, in addition to the present one, and of an inferior and
different quality of land, in order to show a specimen of the
im[HroTement and management of that kind of soil ; and in this
case the loss on cattle will be obviated, as the second will be
more adapted to the raising of young stock and sheep."
" Db. . . Profit and Loss.
1844. £. s. d.
March 31. To cows lost, 114 0 10
" horses " -. . 6 2 0
" general chaises, 23 8 7}
' '* turnpike, 2 7 4jt
" implements, 6 13 3
" carpenter's work, 0 8 0
" smith's work, ....... 340
Amount carried over, . . £156 4 1
■ This is AeMabliduneiit of tbeUodel School, where jmunginenuetninedM
•clMxilmBaten it the expeiwe of the govenmieitt TboM [dace is mpplied wtth
mplfc and oQier fiungfl from the &nii, bj pmchase.
)yGoo»^Ic
1844
March 31.
ECSOPEAX AQBICCI-TDKB.
"Dk. . . Profit and Lots, . . (continued.)
Amount brought ovei
To seirants' meat and wages,
" laborers' wages, ....
" coals for farm use, . . .
" rent for the year, . . .
" profits " " ...
£. s. d.
156 4 1
31 1 6
S 19 llj ■
2 10 0
267 7 8
49 4 7
£602 7 9}
. Cb.
Contra
1844. £. 8. d.
March 31. By bulls raised, 8 3 8
" heifers "..... 688
" potatoes, 89 16 3t
" milk, 183 10 llj
« butter , 32 6 2i
« pip, 40 11 10
" seeds, 16 4 6
" vegetables, 90 8 10*
" grain, . . 34 17 9
£502 7 9}
" The great lose on cattle, this season, principally arose in con-
sequence of a fatal epidemic^ which has prevailed in this neigh-
borhood during the last two years, and carried off a number of
"Besides the real cash profits every year, there is a very
important advantage gained from the farm, and which has not
been taken into account : I mean, the keep of the family and
servants in farm produce, — nine individuals, besides occasional
visitors during the year, — in milk, butter, cheese, egg^ poultry,
pork, bacon, potatoes, vegetables, Ac. &;c This, at a fair
computation, may be reckoned at from £80 to £90 more."
" An addition is now being made to the buildings, to accom-
modate a superior class of twelve pupils, who will pay a mod-
erate annual sum for their board, lodging, and education."
"You will understand that our ferm was most injudiciously
taken at an enormous rack-rent, double the sum that is paid for
)yGoo»^Ic
AflUCDLTDKAL XDUCITION. 201
mach better land in our unmediate neighborhood ; and vheo I
agreed vith the Board to manage it on my ovn accomit, and
pay all rents, taxes, and other expenses, they agreed to supply ma
vith a certain amount of labor ; viz., at the rate of five men in the
year ; i. e. one ploughman and twelve pupils — the estimated work
of twelve boys being equal to four men, or one man to three
boys. This I find very near the mark. I would, however,
prefer four steady, constant men, to the boys. The boys are
difficult to manage ; very ignorant at first, and neglectful ; and,
besides, they work only a part of the day, jfiom ten until two
o'clock, and from three until six in summer, and four in winter.
This labor, at the present rates, would be equal to about £96,
which, deducted &om the [rofits of the year, leaves a remainder
of about £24 ; add to which the keep of my family and ser-
vants in farm produce, which, at a low estimate, amounts to
£50, with the former makes in all £74 per annum of clear
profit, after paying labor and all."
" The accounts of servants' wages and labor which you see,
have nothing to do with the pupils. That I pay extra, for ser-
rants, cowman, and laborers, occasionally employed in harvest."
" My salary from the Board is merely for scientific and prac-
tical inatmctioQ rendered to the National School masters and
pupils, who are brought up in classes twice a year, (we have one
hundred of them here at ^sent) The profits of the fann are
considered on equivalent for its superintendence. This is as
much as any tanaei gets."
" I am happy to say that, since yon were here, the commis-
sioners have made a new anangement with me, and a liberal
one. They have raised my salary to two hundred pounds pa
year. They pay me for the loss I sustained in my cattle from
the epidemic, the last and the present year. They agree to
build and make accommodation for a superior class of pay pupils,
and giTe me the benefit of that. They will also encourage me
to increase the form by degrees, according as manure, stock, and
capital increase, and some other advantages, which I did not
before possess."
" I am paid eight shillings per week, for the board and wash-
ing of the pupils, and this is very near what it costs me. If
there is a small profit, it arises from my having the &rm produce
within my power, not having to pmchase. They are in general
)yGoo»^Ic
fiOx KDBOPCAN AOUCDLTUBE,
excelleDt feeders. They aie at tiuX time of life, tiom seventeen
to twenty years, when they require most food ; and at an
employment of all othws most likdy to create ao appetite."
" The dietary is as follows : Every morning, except Sunday,
each hoy gets one pound of the best bread, and a pint of new
milk, cold or hot according to choice ; and on Sunday moming
they get coffee or tea, with bread and butter. For dinner, four
days in the week, viz., Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Sat-
urday, they get meat; two days beef, and two days pork or
bacon, three fourths of a pound, each, of good meat, not bone,
with soup, and vegetables, and potatoes unlimited. Two days,
viz., Mondays and Wednesdays, for dinner, one ciuarter pound
of butter, with plenty of buttermilk and potatoes, and sometimes
other vegetables, such as cabbages, Slc. One day, Friday, they
get fish, with melted butter aud potatoes unlimited. For supper,
every day, oatmeal stiiahont, well made, thick, and of the best
meal, with a pint of new milk each; sometimes they choose
potatoes for supper, instead of stirabout. By this you will
perceive that tbej are good feeders. I have always been
an advocate for good feeding and good working. The one
promotes the other. It will perhaps be in your recollection
that the boys, during your visit, were the very picture of a
sufficient dietary. I had almost forgotten to mention that, on
stated occasions, such as Easter, Christmas, Halloween, harvest-
home, ti^. &«., we give them an extra blow-out; roast beef,
plum pudding, &c. &c., with porter and punch for those who
are not tee-totallers. The school was formerly under a different
regimen; and the doctrine then maintained was, 'Peed them
too well here, and they will be discontented with inferior food
when they get home.' My answer was this: 'Give them a
taste for good feeding while here. Treat them as hqman beings,
and as respectable members of society, and they will not relapse
into their former wretched condition, but will work and 'exert
themselves to obtain the comforts of life."
I have laid these details before my readers under the persua-
sion that they will be deemed both interesting and useful. It
is not to be inferred, in any case, bec«ise I quote the opinions
of another man, that therefore I make them my own. I do not
know that it is necessary here, in giving this account, to add a
dissertation upon the value of total abstinence ; though what my
)yGoo»^Ic
laucuLTuaiJi kdccatioh. 203
fiiend here tenns a " blov-out," at harrest-home, jtc, must be a
very gentl« explosion, a mere fla^ in the pan, if we may infer
any thing faxa what he c&lls, in the other case, a system of high
feeding. I vender what a Termonter or a Connecticut River
boy vould think, to be cautioned against excess and indulgence
orer buttermilk and potatoes for dimier, and oatmeal stirabout,
or hasty pndding, for supper ; and whether he would not be a
tittle surjuised to hear a dinner of roast beef and plum pudding
spoken of only as a feast for state occasions, which he feels that
he can command every week at his pleasure. I give it, however,
as a picture of manners, which, while it conveys a useful lesson
in the wholesome example of sobriety which it exhibits, may at
the same time impart not an unseasonable admoaitioo of an
ex&avagance with which many of us are justly chargeable, and
id which, accompanied as it too often is even by ungrateful
complaints, we hare good reason to be ashamed. I am neither
an advocate for high nor for low feeding, but for that which is
{dain and sufficient. It ia certainly a fault with some of our
laboring peoi^e, that they expend, in the indulgences of the
table, too much of their hard earnings ; and it might silence some
of the repiniogs which are occasionally heard, even in the midst
of comparative plenty, if they could see, as I have seen, the
habitations of thousands and tens of thousimds, where the sole
and whole diet, for men, women, and children, three hundred
and sixty-foQi days ont of the three hundred and sixty-five, is
potatoes and wat«i, and by no means always enough of that.
3. TEHPLGHOTLE AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL.'
The next agricultural school which I visited was that of
Templemoyle, in the north of Ireland, and not very far from
Londonderry. In point of situation, it is not easy to find a
place more picttnesque and beautiful. The soil, however, is of
a hard and rather unfertile character, but not the less favorable
for agricultural experiments. The farm consists of one hundred
and eeventy-two acres, and affords opportunities for experiments
in draining, in the effects of various manures, and the common
operations of ploughing and cultivation, and especially in the
adaptation of the crops, and the mode of culture, to the climate,
soil, and situation.
)yGoo»^Ic
tiU4 SnitOPElH AOBICnLTDBE.
The farm is under two different rotations of crope ; one part
being under the fiTo-course rotation, the other under what is
deemed the four-shift. The fire-course system of cropping is,
First year ; oaW after paature :
Second " tumipe, potatoes, Tetchee, beans, or flax with
manure :
Third " wheat, barley, or oats, sows with clover and
Fourth " clorer for soiling, or hay :
Fifth " pasture.
The four-crop rotation is the same, with the exception of the
fifth year in pasture.
The department for in-door instruction consists of a head and
an assistant teacher; and the course of instruction embraces
spelling, reading, grammar, writing, arithmetic, geography,
book-keeping, as applicable both to commercial and agricaUural
accounts, geometry, algebra, trigonometry, with its ap^dication
to heights and distances, and land-surveying, together with the
use of the water4evel, the theodolite, and chain.
The agricultural department is intrusted to an experienced
and skilful farmer, a native of Scotland, who has under bim an
assistant, a gardener, and ploughman.
Of the pupils, the one half are at their studies in the house,
while the others are pursuing their agricultural instruction out
of doors. This is the arrangement for the morning. In the
afternoon, the arrangements are such that those in school in the
morning are at work in the field in their turn.
The garden and nursery are objects of study and practice, and
the lessons received in the house, in surveying and mapping, are
applied in the field. Oral instruction and lectures are given in
their proper place and time.
The buildings afford the necessary accommodations of school-
rooms, dining-hall, and sleeping apartments, and they furnish
accommodations for seventy-six pupils. So &r as I observed,
there was no provision whatever for luxury or indulgence, and
the fittings up were of the plainest description. One of the
regulations of the school requires the pupils to wash their hands
and faces before business in the morning, ou returning from
)yGoo»^Ic
ISBICULTUBAIi KOUCITIOK. 20ff
labor, and aAer dinner. I had my doubts vhether some of the
pupils, vhom I sav, did it much oftener than this.
Oa Sundays, the pupils are required to attend their respectire
places of worship, accompanied by theii instructors oi mon-
itors ; and it is earnestly recommended to them to employ the
remainder of the day in reading the Word of God, and such
other devotional exercises as their respective ministers may
point out.
This is a very commendable liberality, and rather remarkable
in a country, — I speak of England as well as Ireland, — where
the first [»inciple9 of religious liberty are not universally mider-
■tood, and where men of all parties seem quite as tenacious of
their religious differences as of their moral duties. While no
reasonable effort should be spared, in places of education, to
instil and maintain in the youthful mind a profound and habitual
sense of religious duty, nothing can be more unwarrantable than
to take advantage of the influence which such places afford, to
enforce the tHincii^es or peculiar practices of a sect or party.
It may be interesting to learn the general regulations of the
school, which the inteUigent [Nriucipal was kind enough to give
me in a jffinted form.
i. As the great object is to make the boys practical farmers,
(me half of them will be at ail times on the farm, where they
will be employed in manual labor, and receive from the head
fiinner such instructions, reasoiis, and explanations, as will
render the mode of proceeding, in all the various operations
performed on the farm, sufficiently intelligible to them. Every
pupil is to be miade a ploughman, and taught, not only how to
use, but how to settle the plough-irons for every soil and work,
and to be instructed and made acquainted with the purpose and
practical management of every other im{dement generally used.
And all are to be kept closely to their work, either by the head
jarmer or his assistant, or, in their unavoidable absence, by the
monitor placed in chaise of them.
2. Their attention is to be drawn to stock of all kinds, and to
the particular points which denote them to be good, bad, indif-
ferent, hardy, delicate, good feeders, good milkers, Sx.
3. At the proper season of the year, the attention of the boys
ii to be directed to the making and repairing of fences, that they
18
)yGoo»^Ic
806 EinOPKAM AOBICDLTUBE.
may know both hov to make a new one, and, what is of great
adraatage, how to repair and make pennanent those of many
years' standing.*
4. The head farmer will deliver evening lectures to the pupils
on the theory and practice of agriculture, explaining his reasons
for adopting any crop, or any particular rotation of crops, as well
as the most suitable soil and the most approved modes of cultiva-
ting for each ; the proper management and treatment of working,
feeding, and dairy atocti ; the most approved breeds, and their
adaptation to diflerent soils. He will point out the best method
of reclaiming, draining, and improving land ; and will direct
sttoDtioa to the most recent inventions in agricultural imple-
ments, detailing the respectire merits of each.
5. Afier the boys have been taught to look at stock on a farm
with a farmer's eye, the committee propose that they should in
rotation attend the head fanner to fairs and markets, in order to
learn how to buy and sell stock. At the same time, the com*
mittee expect the head farmer will make his visits to lairs as
few as possible, as his attention to the pupils of the establish-
ment is always required, and he should therefore be as seldom as
possible absent from Templemoyle.
An aimual examination of the school is held before the com-
mittee and subscribers, and conducted by examiners totally
independent of the school. The examination is attended by the
leading gentlemen in the neighborhood, and many of these take
a part in the examination, by either asking or suggesting ques-
tions— a practice which is deserving of recommendation, as
adapted to give additional value and dignity to the exam-
ination.
Such are some of the principal regulations of the school,
which I have copied, that its management might be fully
understood.
Pupils, in order to be admitted, must be nominated by an
annual subscriber, paying two pounds for the first pupil, and one
• This, of cmuse, applica principally to live Tenceo, or hedges. It could at
present have httle pertineDcy to the Uiuted States, where ceriainly there ia very
little mysteiy in making the fcncee, and as little labor expended in keeiung them
)yGoo»^Ic
lOUCDLTUftU. EDDCATION. 207
for each additional pupil. The school was established under
the auspices of a society in 1827, and the whole number
educated, since its foundation, is four hundred and ninety-
seven.
The tenns for hoarding, lodging, tuition, and washing, are
ten pounds, or fifty dollars, a year, payable quarterly, in advance.
It may be interesting to see the dietary of the school, which I
subjoin : —
Bbcaktast. Eleven onnces of oatmeal, made into stirabout ;
one pint of sweet milk.
DiHNEB. Sunday. Three quarters of a pound of beef stewed
with pepper and onions, or one half pound corned beef, with
cabbage, and three and one half pounds potatoes.
Monday. One half pound pickled beef, three and one half
pounds potatoes, and one pint of buttermilk.
T^ueaday. Broth made of one half pound of beef, with
leeks, cabbage, and parsley, and three and a half pounds of
potatoes.
Wednesday. Two ounces of butter, eight ounces of oatmeal
made itUo bread, three and a half pounds of potatoes, and one
pint of sweet milk.
Thursday, Half a pound of pickled beef, with cabbage or
turnips, and three and a half pounds of potatoes.
Friday. Two ounces of butter, eight ounces of wheatmeal
made into bread, and one pint of sweet milk or fresh buttermilk ;
three and a half pounds of potatoes.
Saturday. Two ounces of butter, one pound of potatoes
mashed, eight ounces of wheatmeal made into bread, two and a
half pounds of potatoes, one pint of buttemiilk.
SoppBB. In summer, fiummery made of one pound of oatmeal,
and one pint of sweet milk. In winter, three and a half pounds
of potatoes, and one pint of buttermilk or sweet milk.
In lodging, the same system is strictly followed ; the beds,
bed-clothing, and all other necessary articles, being simple,
though clean, and therefore within the reach of any industrious
peasant. A proper degree of exercise is provided for by the
distribution of hours into field and home occupation, so that
each pupil is, in fine weather, half the day in the open air, as
explained by the following table : —
)yGoo»^Ic
Wo BOBOPBAK ACmCCLTUBE.
"Work and School Table, from the 20rA March to the 23d
September,
Boys divided into two equal divisions, A and B.
Hmrt. M W»rk. M SelutL
Bi. All rise.
6—8 A B.
8—9. Breakiast.
9—1 A R
1 — 2. Dinner and jJay.
2—6 B, A.
fr— 7. Play.
7—9. Prepare lessons for next day.
9. To bed.
" On Tuesday, B commences with work in the mOTnii^, and
A with school, and so on, 'shifting upon alternate days."
The eatsblishment was purchased for a term of years, and the
buildings erected by jaivate subscription, of one hundred and
thirty-two shares, at £25 each, and by the liberal donations of
several useful societies and associations. The yearly expen-
diture is nearly met by the pay of the pupils, and the |«DduGe of
the farm, beyond what goes to the support of the pupils. The
annual rent paid for the farm is put down at £80, which would
be less than ten shillings per acre for the land, and, as in the
case of the school at Glasnevin, no chaise is made for interest
on the stock invested.
The copy of the accounts of the establishment, for 1841 to
1842, was given me by the superintendent, — some items from
which will, I think, afford gratihcaUon to my readers.
HODSE, d&G.
Salaries and Servants' Wages.
£. s. d
£.
s. i.
Head master,. .
. 60 0 0
Matron, . .
. . 20
0 0
Second master, .
. 20 12 0
Gardener, . .
. . IT
0 0
Head farmer,. .
. 81 16 0
Servants, . .
. . \r
e 0
„Gooi^lc
AaKIOCLTCBAL EDUCATION.
£. s. d.
Groceries, ... 0 17 10
Beef, 122 4 llj
Candles and soap, 16 10 11^
Potatoes, ... 46 4 6
£. 8. d.
Fish, 6 17 11
Salt, 0 17 6i
Wine and beer for
examination, ..476
The reason for the salary of the fanner being so much larger
than that of the masters, is because, 1 presume, he provides for
himself, whereas they live with the pupils. The chaige for
groceries is remarkable for its small amount. With us, the ex-
pense of tea, coffee, sugar, &c., is considerable, even in the hum-
blest families. I begruc^e no man any of the comforts of life ;
but it is obvious thai these must be classed among luxuries,
contributing nothing to our strength and subsistence. In this
case, it seems well worthy of reflection, how much is to be
gained by a rigid economy, and bow wise is the exiunple of self-
denial, when, by cutting off the superfluities of mere personal
indulgence, we secure the enduring and inestimable treastues of
the mind.
The farm and garden seemed very well managed, and in good
order. Various experiments were being made, in the vicinity of
each other, upon different manures ; but the results are not yet so
fully obtained as to afford grounds for confident practice. Th^
nitrates of soda and of potash upon grass, at the rate of about
one hundred weight to an English acre, gave a considerable in-
crease of grass over land which was not manured, but not suffi-
cient to pay the expense of the application. Whether the effects
of the application will last more than a year, remains to be de-
termined. The second crop showed no benefit.
Fifty-two different varieties of wheat hare been experimented
upon by the pupils, besides several varieties of barley ani oats.
Specimens of the various products, prepared in a form to be pai^
tially compared with each other, were exhibited at the annual
examination. These are certainly most usefal lessons for the
pupils. The practice of thorough-draining and subsoiling has
been fully tested upon the farm ; and it is stated that, on the
land thus treated, the crops have been augmented full one third,
besides the increased facility given to the cultivation of the land
and the harvesting of the crops.
18 •
>,Goo»^Ic
210 BD&opKAiT AjaaicjjLinms.
The frugality and ezx:Gllent economy maoiiest in all the ai^
rangements at Templemoyle, are much to be commended.
" They discourage the admission to the school of lads from Eng-
land, RBpecially because the diet has not been usually found as
well adapted to English as to Irish habits." In my opinion, it is
much to the credit of the Irish to be satisfied and contented vriih
a meagre diet. To a large portioa of the Irish peasantry, it
must be a paradise to get even a sufficiency of food to keep
their waistbands irom a most melancholy collapse.
This institution has already done much good. In 1843, about
sixteen years aAer its commencement, it was ascertained that
most of the young men who had received its benefits were settled
in respectable and useful conditions of life. But, according
to the present course of studies, the food for the mind is almost
as simple and restricted as that for the body. The studies
pursued should be greatly extended ; and as the principaT
expenses are already incumd, and the fixtures, both for the
school and the iaim, are to a great degree complete, the ad-
ditional cost for providing instruction, more especially in various
branches of natural science, would not be large.
3. BROOKFIELD AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL.
, This establishment, about twelve miles from Belfast, which I
had also the pleasure of visiting, is an eleemosynary establish-
ment, supported by the voluntary subscriptions of the religious
society of Friends. It seems that many of this society, in
Ireland, from one cause or another, had fallen into poverty and
habits of neglect ; and their children, many of whom bad
become orphans, were growing up without the advantage of
rehgious habits, and without that kind superintendence which
this remarkable society is accustomed to exercise over those who
are connected with it. They took pity upon these stray sheep,
which w%re wandering as it were at large and unprovided for ;
and, with a spirit of chanty, guided by the soundest judgment
and wisdom, they determined to gather as many of them to-
gether as their means would enable them to support, and,
besides giving them a substantial and useful undertabing, to
train them in habits of honest and useful labor, intending to
make the products of that labor, as far as practicable, conducive
)yGoo»^Ic
AOBICULTCRIL SDUCATION. 811
to their support They Bccordingly purchased the lease of a
fiimi of twenty-^oor acrra ; and haring erected and fitted up the
necessary huildiugs, they prepared for fifty children; and the
number of forty was soon found. The age at which children
are admitted is between eleven and thirteen. On account of the
condition of the funds, some have been admitted at an earlier
age, for whom the friends who placed them there were wUIing
to pay the full cost. In sex they are about equally divided.
The establishment is under the diiection of a man and his wife,
who act as master and matron, and one schoolmaster, with a
female assistant, who manage the literary department The
branches tai^ht are "reading, writing, arithmetic, English
giammar, geogragbj, the catechism, and Scripture history."
The oldest boys are taught likewise geometry and surveying.
The children, with the exception of one ploughman, perform all
the work on the farm and in the house ; and the great object is
to qualify them for useful labor and domestic service by a
thorough knowledge of hosbandry and house-work. Ad ad-
dition, since the first purchase, has been made to the land, so
that the whole is now nearly fifty acres. "The boys have
levelled about three hundred and forty-two perches of old
ditches, which intersected the Iimd, and have thus thrown
nearly the whole of the farm into one field, portioned out into
suitable sections for a regular four-course rotation of crops.
They have also completed four hundred and e^hty-eight
perches of underground drain filled with stones. The drains
are at the distance of &om six to eight yards apart, according
to circumstances ; and in this way it is proposed to go gradually
over the farm, as time and opportunity permit."
The average cost of supporting a child at this institution is as
under: —
£. 8. d.
Provisions, 6 19 IJ
Caothing, 0 18 63
Salaries, 100
Other expenses, • 14 2
£9 1 10
Deducting the profits on the farm, leaves
the average cost of a pupil at . . £6 6 9
)yGoo»^Ic
Sl2 KUaOPEAH AOKlCDLTtmC.
The expenditure for the year ia the family I shall give below,
as it may be useful to compare it with some similar establish-
ments ia the United States.
Expenditare of the Bbooefield Aoricdltubai. School, for the
Year ending Slat of Third Month, 1844.
£. 8. d.
Butcher's meat, (purcha^,) .... 15 8 0
Potatoes, meat, groceries, &c., (pur-
chased,) 66 7 9
81 15 9
Milk, 10,227 quarts,(8upplied by farm,) 63 18 4^
Potatoes, 1,160 bushel^ .do. . . 42 10 0
Vegetables do. ..600
Fowls and eggs, ... do. . . 2 18 3
Oatmeal, do. . . 31 13 0
Wheatmeal, do. . . 9 13 8
Pigs, &Ai do. . . 23 10
180 4 Oi
Fuel, 13 17 2
Clothing, 40 17 7
Salaries 4400
Medicine, 619
Furniture, for wear and tear, . . . 10 19 0
Stationery and printing, 16 1 10
Contingencies, 7 3 8
£400 0 9i
I add likewise the Farm Accomit, for the year ending 31st
March, 1844, with which the superintendent was kind enough
to favor me. The result is encouraging, and the good done is
certain. The present superintendents and teachers are father
and mother, son and daughter, of the same family ; and their
subsistence is included in the chafes against ths school.
)yGoo»^Ic
AaUCOLTCKAL rODClTIOIT. 213
"Farm Account for one Year, cTiding 31*( of Third Month, 1844
D»- £. 8. d.
To stock, 3ist of 3d Month, 1843, 131 2 3
" rent and taxes, 5026
" cattle, 46 4 10
" seeds for sowing 809
" smith's work and repairs, 8 7 6
" utensils, 11 19 0
'* form contingencies, 24 2 6
" profit on farm, 121 2 4}
£401 1 8i
Ch. ^^^=^=
Bf [voduce sold, viz. —
" wheat, 15 cwt. 0 qr. 24 lbs. . . . 7 9 7
" tmnips, &^ 18 0
" fowls and eggs, 12 2
" potatoes, 0 11 8
"■»"'• '^'^ ° 24 9 5
By produce supplied to hotue : —
" wheat, 25 cwt. 0 qn. 4 lbs. . . . 12 10 2
" oata, 6 tons, 11 cwt 43 5 6
" potatoes, 1,250 bushels, .... 62 10 0
" pork, 20 11 3
" Tegetablea, 6 0 0
" fowls and eggs, 2 18 3
" milk, 10,227 quarts, at IJd. . . . 63 18 4}
— ' ■ ■ ' '■ — ' 211 lo oj
By stock : —
" hay and straw, 8 0 0
" oats, £6 : 3: 6j potatoes, £1:8. . 7 11 6
" mantu^, 2000
« cattle, 84 0 0
" utenaiU, 30 7 0
" seed in the ground 9 6 3
" turnips, 4 10 0
« fowls, 1 * 0 ,„, ,„ „
£401 1 8i
Talue of boys' labor on the farm, £36."
)yGoo»^Ic
214 innoFEui AamicavBmt.
The £Eimiing vaa plain and cieditable, the ciops good and
improTii^. The strictest economy, as it should be, was studied
in every department. The cattle were all soiled — that is, fed in
the stalls, as the limits of the iarm did not admit of grazing.
■ Aa an exact account was kept of the milk obtained from the
cows, I was curious to ascertain the average amount yielded
by each cow. Many circumstances, in Bucb cases, which it is
difficult to estimate, ought to be taken into the account ; such as
ttie pcecise number of cows in milk through the year, the length
of time any of them may have gone dry, and the number of
calves raised. Leaving these matters entirely out of the calcula^
tion, the yield was equal to five quarts of milk per day to a cow,
for the three hundred and sixty-five days of the year. This is
more than an average yield. What is called the Irish cow, the
native cow of the country, is a very valuable dairy animal, and
of a good character for grazing, but is, I am sorry to say, fast
disappearing under the introduction of what are deemed im-
proved breeds, but which may not be better adapted to the wants
and condition of the coontry.
There is no charge in these accounts for what the superin-
tendent at QLasnevin pleasantly calls a " blow-out " at harvest-
home and other festivals; and no £4 7b. 7d. for "wine and
beer " at the examination, as at Templemoyle, — an omission, in
a place of education, which will be looked upon with indulgence
by at least one man in Ireland, who bears an infinitely higher title
than " very reverend," — I mean the very excellent Father Mat-
thew. I am certain I should be doing a great injustice if my
allusions, in this case, implied any immoral excess either in the
teachers or pupils of these institutions. There is no ground,
within my knowledge, for any such inferences ; but the influ-
ences of every kind, which bear upon the minds and habits of
the young in places of education, are of the highest mconent in
T^ard to their welfftre. The vinous " blow-outs " which occa-
sionally occur at the anniversaries of some of our own literary
institutions might, I think, be very safely dispensed with. But I
leave the subject with wiser heads, and with men whose deep
interest in the welfare of the young, and in the cause of good
morals in the community, cannot be doubted, whatever may
be their opinions of the doctrine of total abstinence. Few
can have failed to observe that, if a person, who attempts
)yGoo»^Ic
AawjcuLfrvaut tBucaiott. 215
blindfolded to make his way across a room to a particular point,
at Jirst setting out turns his feet but very slightly from the direct
line, he finds himself, quite unconsciously, brought up at a very
different craner from that at which he aimed. In a distance not
great, I have seen persona, in this way, without their knowing
it, completely turned roimd, and pursuing an opposite direction
from thax which they intended. I hope my readers will pardon
this homely illustration of a point of infinite moment to the
young ; I mean, that of setting out right — what the French call
"taking the first step." A misdiiectiou, a slight aberration in
the beginning, an indulgence in itself wholly venial, may carry
them on blindfolded, and consequently without a consciousness
(^ their error, and so without the disposition to correct their
mistakes, until they find themselves at a result wholly unde-
ngned, and as deeply aa possible to be deplored.
I thought extremely well of this Brookfield School as a chari-
table institution. The course of literary education was indeed
very limited ; but how valuable was the training of these chil-
dren to habits of industry ! I think they might add to this in-
stitution, with great advantage, some of the useful mechanical
trades, — such as tailoring, shoemakii^, carpentering, and black-
snithing ; and, for the girls, spinning and weaving ; knitting and
plain sewing they are of course taught. The mere giving of
money to the poor is the cheapest of all charities, and in its
expediency always the most doubtful. But to give these poor,
neglected outcasts a useful education ; to put into their hands,
beyond the power of its being wrested from them, the means of
getting an honest livelihood, and of being useful to the commu-
nity ; to give them, during the exposed period of childhood and
youth, a comfortable home, and make them know that they
have friends who feel the deepest interest in their character and
good conduct ; is a benefaction of the highest order, — aa credit-
able to those who bestow as it is useful to those who receive it.
" To seek and to save those who were lost " and perishing, was
a mission of the divine mercy, which angels came from their
celestial spheres to celebrate. How highly is man honored
when he is permitted, in his humble measure, to imitate the
beneficence of Heaven ! When one looks here, daily and
hourly, upon the thousands and millions, in Ireland, England,
and Scotland, of unjvotected, uncared-for, squalid, neglected,
)yGoo»^Ic
316 simorEAB Aaxicci.TDBx.
half-clad, half-fod, reckless, miserable, suffKiog children and
young persona, groving up in ibia country of established
churches and institutions called Christian, of arts the most pol-
ished, of learning the most cultivated, and of a wealth and lux-
ury transcending even the wildest dreams of avarice ; and reads
in the ever-turning page their certain history, their sure [trogrest
from the cradle to the street, ftom th« street to crimes so enor-
mous, so extraordinary, as to make one's bead grow dizzy at the
recital, and one's hair stand on end with fright; and from tbesa
crimes to the prison, and from the ptiaon to the transport-ship or
to the gallows ; the benevolent heart is ready to burst with
grateful joy to see any green spot in the desert, to perceive even
one brand plucked from the burning, even one unconacioua ot
strugglii^ victim rescued from the descending and overwhelming
current.
4. LARNE SCHOOL.
My next ezcursioD was to the Agricultural School at Lame,
where I bad the pleasure of witnessing the ezamiostion of a
class of boys in agricultural chemistry and in fsactical agrjcol-
ture. This is not, properly speakii^, an agricultural school, but
a national school, where the common branches of education aise
taught ; and there is connected with it a department or class of
^ricultmal study, and a small piece of laud, which the boys
cidtivate, and on which, in the way of experiment, the prin-
ciples of agriculture, and its general practice, ate, within a very
limited extent, illustrated and tested. The examination was
eminently successful, and creditable alike to the teacher and the
pupils. It was from this establishment that a detachment of
five pupils was sent for examination to the great meeting of
the Agricultural Society of Scotland the last autnmn, where
their attainments created a great sensation, and [Koduced an
impression, on the subject of the importance of agricultural
education, which is likely to lead to the adoption of some uni-
rersal system on the subject.
I shall transcribe the account given of the occasion : " Fire
boys from the school at Lame were introduced to the meetii^,
headed by their teacher. They seemed to belong to the better
class of peasantry, bein^ clad in homely garbs ; and they f^peared -
)yGoo»^Ic
loaicuLTinui. kduoathw. 217
to be ilrom twelre to fifteen yean of age. They were examined,
in the first instance, by the inspector of schools, in grammu,
geography, and arithmetic ; and scarcely a single question did
they fail to answer correctly. They were then examined, by an
agricultural profeasor, in the scientific branches, and by two
l^actical fanners in the practical departments of agriculture.
Their acquaintance with these was alike delightful and astouish-
ing. They detailed the chemical constitution of the soil and the
effect of manures, the land best fitted for green crops, the
different kinds of grain, the dairy, and the system of rotation of
crops. Many of these answers required considerable exercise of
reflection ; and as prerions concert between themselTes and the
gentlemen who examined them was out of the question, their
acquirements seemed to take the meetii^ by surprise ; at the
same time they afforded it the utmost satisfaction, as evincing
bow much could be done by a proper system of training."
I confess the establishment at Laioe afforded me, in this
respect, very high gratification. The agricultural studies are
not made compulsory, but voluntary ; and one hour per day is
devoted to agricultural labor. The Board of Education in
belaod have now under their control three thousand teachers ;
and it is proposed, wherever it may be deemed useful, to make
tf^ultuie a standard branch of common-school education.
Tbey already have seven ^ricultural training establishments;
and it is in contemplation to have twenty-five, with which it is
proposed shall be connected small model farms, so that every
where, besides furnishing this most valuable instruction to the
papiis of ^e schools, the farmers in the vicinity may be e»;ited
and instructed to improve their cultivation. Thus diffusive it
the nature of all beneficence. A good deed, like a stone thrown
into the w^er, is sure to agitate the whole mass. Its strongest
eSects will be felt where the blow is given ; but the concentric
circles are seen extending themselves on every side, and reach
much farther than the eye can follow them. In the moral as
well as physical world, the condition of mutual attraction
and dependence is universal and indissoluble. We have reason
to hope that no good seed is ever sown in vain, but will sooner
or later germinate and yield its proper fruits.
These establishments do certainly the highest honor and
endit to the intelligence and philanthropy of Ireland, and their
19
)yGoo»^Ic
818
beoeficent effects must pieaeoUy be seen in alleviating the
indeacribable amount of Tretchedness under which this beau-
tiful country and fine-spirited people have been ao long cnisiied
to the eaith — a wietchedneaa which, to be understood, must
be seen.
6. BCBOOI. AT EALING.
An establishment of a aomowhat similar character exists in
Ekigland, perhaps many more than one, which I regret that
accident merely haa prevented my visiting. I refer to the school
At Baling, near London, and I believe there are others, supported
by a noble woman, full of benevolence, Lady Noel Byron. At
this school, three hours a day are devoted to labor on the fium ;
and in addition to instruction in cultivating the soil, the boys
are taught to perform all the other operations necessary upon it,
auch as carpenter work, Inricklaying, glazing, &,c. Each of the
boys has a small plot of ground for his own cultivation, fzota
which he derives a certain pco&t ; and some of them had a pound
ot two in the Savings Bank at the end of the year. Such is the
success of this institution, that there are now fifiy apfdicants
wishing to be received on the farm as boardera.
The [^ncipal objection si^gested against the devotion of a
portion of the day to agricultural labor at a |dace of education,
ia, that it would inteifere with the progress of their studies. It
is extraordinary to find inteUigent minds overlooking the inti-
mate relation between physical and intellectual health. There
can be no doubt that a man will perform more intellectu^ labw,
who devtrfes a portion, and not a amali portion, of every day to
healthful jAysical exertion, than the man who, neglecting snch
Bzerlton, abbndons himadf in his study exclusirely to his books.
I am quite aware that many occupations, of a mechanic^ or a
commercial ntfure, may bo exclusively occupy the mind as to
unfit it for scientific pursuits ; but agricnltural labors, quiet in
their nature, and carried on in the open air, when pursued with
moderation, so far from fatiguing, refresh and invigorate the
mind, and pnpara it for the more auecessful application to
pursuits exclusively intelleetual. The laboratory of nature, open
always to the laboring fiirmer, is itself a school of j^iloaophy to
tlM intelligent, reflectiDg, and inquiring mind, aad {oesents otm-
)yGoo»^Ic
AtaiouLTDKU. wmatxiaa. 319
tiauatly toiocs of the most healthfu], useful, and elevating
character.
a AGRICULTUBAL COLLEGE AT CIRENCESTER.
In Ei^laad, it is now proposed to establish a seminary ezclu-
sively agricultural in its character. The preliminary steps have
been taken, and the foundation laid for an agricultuial college.
A considerable sum of money has been subscribed, a farm of
about five hundred acres has been taken, and the accommoda-
tions for about two hundred pupils are in a course of preparation.
It has been felt as a serious want that, while every other pro-
fession — law, physic, and divinity — has its exclusive means and
iBStitutionB for education, and the army and the navy have their
schools, — agriculture, the most importuit and extensive of all the
arts, and without which it woold be difficult to say where would
be the sinews of war or the meaos of commerce, or what use
Aun would be either for law, physic, or theology, should have
DO place for the teaching of thc»e arts and sciences, and for the
making of those experiments, on which its success so mainly
depends. The plans ere not fully matured, nor the course of
instruction prescribed ; bnt the scientific qualifications of some,
tod the practical character of others of the gentlemen concerned
in its establishment, and standing as its sponsors, warrant the
best efibrts for its success. The fann is taken at a moderate
rent, throogh the liberality of its noble projvietor; and it is
hoped that, aided by the resources of the farm, the expense of a
pnpil for boarding and tuition may not exceed twenty-five or
thirty pounds a year — that is, one hundred and twenty-five, or
one hundred and fifty dollars. Twenty thousand pounds, or one
hundred thousand dollars, were deemed the necessary capital
with which to begin the establishment ; and, to the great honor
of England, there are few objects of determined public utility,
for which, firom its abundant resonrces and public spirit, amfde
fimds may not be obtained. This is a sort of joint stook com-
pany, in shares of twenty-five, or thirty pounds each, in which
the subscribers will have, as is right, the preference in reeom-
f pujMls to the fonndatioa.
)yGoo»^Ic
.XraOFKAK iAUOOLTUaB.
XXTI. — GENERAL VIEWS OF AGRICULTURAL
EDUCATION.
- These details must all be useful to my own countrymen,
among whom the subject of agricultural schools has been much
discussed, and where a distinct proposition is already before the
public for the establishment of an institution of this nature.
Under these circumstances, I shall be excused if I extend my
renuurks on this subject. I shall do this with unfeigned diffi-
dence, and especially from my ignorance of the various estab-
li^ments for agricultural education upon the Continent. These
are often referred to as examples of success, and some of them
I hope to have an opportunity of inspecting.
It is quite certain that the course of education pursued at
most colleges and unireisitiea is quite unsuited to qualify men
for the common business and pursuits of life. Indeed, it would
seem, in many cases, to operate as a positive disqualification;
uid men who may have distinguished themselves at our univer-
sities for their classical and scholastic attainments, are often
thrown upon society as helpless and as incompetent to fffovide
for themselves, or to serve the community, as children. We have
small encouragement at present, I confess, to look for any thing
better. The system of education at our colleges and universities
has undergone little substantial alteration for a century; and
what ia called classical teaming, and the subtleties and puerilities
of scholastic divinity, occupy as much attention as formerly,
and bold a place in these ancient seats of learning so high in the
estimation of those to whom the management of these places
ia intrusted, that there is little hope of dislodging them. I am
no enemy to classical acquirements, as a matter of el^ant oma-
ment and taste, as a source of dehghtful recreation, and as an
essential element in a complete education. But to give them a
preference in any way to learning more useful, substantial, and
practical, is not to estimate things according to their real im-
ptnlance. The time and expense devoted to them might be
given to studies infiiutely more valuable. As to the time occo-
{Hed in studying what is called divinity, I am not far from the
opinion that the world would be no loser if every commentary
)yGoo»^Ic
AaUCtrLTOBAI. KDDCATIOir. SSI
iq>OD the Scriptures, and every treatise upon the coutrorenial
subjects of religion, since the days of the apostles, were eztin-
guisbed forever, and men were sent to the New Testament, and
to the simple teachings of the Divine Master, only, to learn their
duty, and the only elements of true happiness and moral improre-
meat. A college, therefore, of the practical arts, and of those
sciences which directly bear upon jvactke, most be greatly
desired by that portion of the community vhoee ednctiion
most be to them a means of subeistence, and who have Uttle
time to cultivate the arts but with a view to apply them at once
to the pnrpoees of {H-aetical life.
It must be admitted, likewise, that many of these arts and
sciences are, properly speaking, the creations of modem times,
and could not be expected to find their place in schemes of edu-
eatioD formed in a remote period. Chmiistry, mioeralt^, geol-
flgy, and electricity, are all of modem date. There are those
living, who may be said to have assisted at their bkth, and have
rocked the cradle of their infancy. All these are intimately
cottDected with the practical arts, and especially with the ad-
vancement of the great art of agriculture ; and we may coofi-
deatly look for the most important benefits to apiculture ttoca
tfte study and application of these seieooes. Botany, likewies,
and the natme, habits, and uses of plants ; comparative anatomy
and physiology, the study of which may prove so useful in the
imprerement of the breeds ofdomestic animals, and in the treat-
ment of the diseases and injuries to which they are liable ; the
art of measmii^ superficies and solids, an ait so constantly in
demand in ptactical ^^ricultun; mechanics, and the constmc-
tion of farming implements and btiildingB ; hydraolics, a scienoa
so important in dndning, irrigation, and the general management
of water, and the uses of steam, that wonderfiil agent, which
seems destined to exert a more powerful influence over the
a&irs and common business of the world than any or than all
other agents besides ; the principles of engineering, in the con-
structioQ of roads and eml»nkments ; — all these are matters to
be learned and studied, as furnishing direct nses and aid in the
practice of agriculture, and bearing immediately upon its ad-
vancement. These considerations demonstrate the impcMtaooe
of an institution, where such branches may be taught under the
19*
)yGoo»^Ic
BDBOrSAn AOBJCCLTOBE.
adranlages of competent teachers, and means and apparatus
adapted to their illustration.
A competent knowledge of these branches should be consid-
ered as almost indispensable in those persons who would unde^'
tabe the culliration of a farm, or the management of large
landed estates, either for themselves or others. It may be said
that the style of farming in the United States is so wholly
different from that in Great Britain, that, from the necessities
of the one, we can make no inferences as to the wants of the
other. I know that we have no class of land stewards, or
persona employed for the matiagement of the estates of other
men ; that our farms are comparatively small ; and that a class
of tenant-farmers is scarcely known among us. It appears to
me, however, that it is quite as important that a man should be
able himself to manage his own &rm well, as that another mao
should be qualified to manage it for him ; and that farms of a
moderate size, where the farmers depend upon their returns fee
their support, have need of the greater appliances to render them
productive, and ftunish, upon the whole, a better opportunity foe
a successful agriculture, and for ao agriculture of a highly
experimental and improved character, than farms of a very large
size, where the attention must be greatly divided, and the
management — the mere daily routine of operations — requires
the most incessant and absorbing care.
But there are considerations, of a more general character,
which deserve attention. No one will pretend that agriculture,
even in the more improved form in which it is any where to be
found, has as yet approximated the perfection of the art. The
perfection of the art of agriculture is that in which the laigest
amount of product is obtained at the least expense of labor and
manure, and with the least exhaustion to the laud. Indeed,
there is reason to hope that we may presently reach a system of
cultivation in which, though the crops may be large, the land
itself shall not only not be exhausted, but be in a course of con-
tinual amelioration. I know well there must be a limit ; but that
limit no one can yet define. We know already that crops with
lai^ leaves, and therefore large powers of absorption, are com-
monly improving crops ; and we know equally well that the
growdi of a forest upon land, so far from exhausting, is, in &ct,
)yGoo»^Ic
mrLnENCK or kmowleikik crirn agbicdlture. 223
an imt«orer of the soil. There is every reason to hope, there-
fore, that such a system of husbandry may presently be found,
when, without any extraneous aid, and from the resources of the
&rm itself, the lai^est crops may be obtained, and the powers
of production extended. The system of nature every where, if
man performs his duty, is a system of amelioration, and not of
deterioration ; it is every where a system of recuperative com-
pensations, if man does not controvert or pervert its laws.
That cor crops, for example, are not what they might be, is
universally admitted. Within the last few years, crops of many
kinds have increased immensely. A few years since, fifty
bushels of Indian corn, to an acre, was deemed a large croix
One hundred have been frequently produced. Thirty bushels
of wheat has heretofore been deemed more than an ordinary
yield. Fifty is now not uncommon. I have known sixty, and
Beariy seventy, to have been grown, and, over a laiga farm, the
crop to have avenged fifty-six boshels. Thirty tons of carrots
per acre is the ordinary crop of a farmer within my knowledge ;
and I have on my table before me the anthenticated statement
of eighty-eight tons of mangel-wurzel to the acre. I am
wiUii^ to admit that these are rare instances. Some of them
may be considered as single instances ; but it is obvious that one
well-established case is as good as a thousand in demonstrating
the practicability of that which is claimed to be done.
XXVn. — INFLUENCE OP KNOWLEDGE UPON
AGRICULTURE.
Here, then, there is an opportunity for the highest degree of
intellu^nce, as applicable to the improvement of agricidtuie ;
for who can doubt that these extraordinary results are the conse-
quence of that intelligence and enlightened skill, which are
equally the instruments of success in every other art. But it
seems idle to argue ^is point. AU the improvements which
have been made in agriculture aie as much the result of the
application of mind and of knowledge to the subject, as any of
)yGoo»^Ic
EUKOPKAN AaRICnLTDaB.
the improTements made ia manufactures or the mechanic aits.
Accident has produced nothing. The dull, plodding laborer
originates nothing, any more than the beast which he drives.
Ttie present advanced state of agriculture as a {Nractical art, all
the improvements which have been effected in it, are due to the
highly-intelligent minds, the men of science, of learning, of
obserratioD, of skill, who have appUed their attention, and have
devoted tbeii time, talents, and fortunes, to it
The pioneer in the improved agriculture of the United States
was Jared Eliot, of Connecticut — an educated cleigyman, whose
essays have a permanent value, and may be read with advant^e
even at the present day. The author of the New England
Farmer's Dictionary, a most valuable book, published half a
century since, and which has rendered an immeDse service to
agriculture, was the Rev. Samuel Deane, of Maine. John
Lowell, who contributed far more than any other individtnt to
the improvement of agriculture in the United StMes, was an
accompll^ed lawyer, a man of science and of taste, and as much
distinguished for his intellectual rank and attunments as he was
eminent for the highest virtues which could adorn his character
as a man. Aaron Dexter, the beloved physician, an eminent
chemist in the very imperfect state of the science, a man vhoss
name was a synonyme for kindness, and to whose memory I shall
be pardoned for here recording the humble tribute of my most
grateful affection and respect, was an eminent ixieod and pro-
moter of agricultural improvement. Feseenden, Buel, and Gay-
lord, were all men of highly-cultivated minds, stored with
scientific lore, distinguished for their zeal in the cause of an
enlightened agriculture, and honored with the power, which
they used with so much zeal and efficiency, o{ conferring
immense benefits upon the agricultural community. While
even this Report ia in progress, the grave has closed over the
remfdns of a devoted friend to agricultural improvement in Uas-
Bachusetts — a man of the highest order of intellect, of a mind
rich in various knowledge, and of profound legal attainments ;
and for bis personal worth, his public spirit, and private virtues,
surpassed by none in his claims upon the affection and respect
of his friends and fellow-citizens.* On the Englidi nde of tbe
• imfiua Preeoott, Esq., 11^ D.
)yGoo»^Ic
SCmfOBS XO BE lADOBV. 2St
Atlantic, TuU, the aathot of the unproved husbandry ; Toung,
tile eminent agiicultuiist, vho kindled so great a zeal, and dif-
fused so great a mass of information, among his countrymen ;
and Sinclair, aa great a benefactor to improved agriculture as
Ei^land has Imown, — were all men of liberal education and
distingoi^Led scientific attainments. Ton Thaer, on the Conti-
nent, himself a host in agricultural skill and science, was bred to
a learned profession. If I were at liberty to violate a rule vhich
I have made absolute, I might refer to many living examples, on
both sides of the water, of men of the finest genius, the most
accomplished education, and rare scientific attainments, who
have rendered, and are daily rendering, the highest benefits to
practical agriculture, and which without their aid and enterprise
would never be realized. It is, then, with agriculture as with
every other valuable art ; — its success and improvement must
depend mainly upon the educ^on of those who pursue it, and
all hope of its progress must rest upon the science, in the most
extended sense of that term, which is brot^ht to bear upon it.
XXVm. — SCIENCES TO BE TAUGHT.
The Agricultural College at Cirencester proposes a specific
education in agriculture, and the cultivation of those sciences
which bear directly upon it. Botany, not as a mere catali^ue
of names and classes of vegetable productions, but as embracing
the whole subject of vegetable i^ysiology and the artificial
imivovement of plants, must of coin-se be h^hly useful to a
&rmer. The cultivation of fruit and forest trees is necessarily
included in it. The science of mechanics, so useful in the con-
gtructioQ and im{KOvement of agricultural implements, must be
of constant and valuable application in the management of
s fann.
)yGoo»^Ic
■CROPBUI MniCULTinUC.
XXIX. — CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
But what seems mainly to be relied on, in this ease, is chem-
ical knowledge ; and the high value of this knowledge it is at
least safe to presume. Confideat, however, as some persons
seem to be in the discoveries already made, still it must be
acknowledged that the apphcation of these discoveries to j»ac-
tical agriculture has been hitherto so limited, imperfect, and
doubtful, that we are compelled to consider ourselves as yet
only in the infancy of the science. I do not mean in the
smallest measure to undervalue the science ; sor to disparage
what has already been done ; nor to discourage the sanguiQe
hopes which some entertain for the Aiture ; but in the presant
state of agricultural chemistry, the extreme confidence of scnoe
persons may be at least pronounced premature. The ap[JicatioQ
of sulphuric acid to bones seems as yet to be the only well-
established case of the application of chemical science to the
improvement of practical agriculture upon scientific princijdea ;
and this certainly affords strong grounds to hope for much more.
The operations of gypsum are still an insoluble mystery, and the
explanations which have been given of its effects do not appear
to be confirmed by facts. The application of lime to the soil,
and its particul^ advantages and uses, are still among the vexed
questions of agriculture. Its beneficial raechanictd effects are often
obvious, but its chemical operation is not so well defined. A
farmer as eminent as Scotland produces, who has for a long
series of years used lime most bountifully upon bis farm, told
me he remamed entirely at a loss to determine whether it was
of any service or not. The same uncertainty of explanation is
^plicable to various manures, in regaid to their mode of opera-
tion and their [vecise chemical effects. I do not hold this as a
reason for rejectii^ the aid of chemistry, but only as a ground
for moderating a too sanguine confidence in its power. As it
offers certainly the most probable means of solving many of th«
secrets of nature's operations, and as in many of the mechanical
arts its triumphs are complete, there are the strongest reasons
fbl jnessing our inquiries by means of it, and for the best hopes
)yGoo»^Ic
OBliaCAL SCIEMCB. 23T
of as much succeaa as, in the present condition of the hanum
mind, we have any right to expect.
The great ralne of chemical science is deemed to consist in
its facility and power of analysis ; but in this respect it seems to
hare advanced but little farther, excepting in changing the
tatiDS, than the ancient doctrine that all matter was resolvable
into four elements — earth, air, fire, and water. The composi-
tioa of albumen, fibrin, caseine, and gluten, and of each of them,
is re{«esented, by chemical analysis, as precisely the same in the
nature and quantity of their original elements ; as, for example, ,
they consist of carbon, 48 ; hydrogen, 36 ; nitrc^n, 6 ; oxygen,
15 ; — but to our senses, and in their uses, they are obriously
altc^tfaer difiwent. Now, ch«nistry exjdains the difficulty, — if
•xplaoatioa it can be called, — by stating that the difference in
tfame substances arises firom a different mechanicat arrangement
a£ the atoms or particles of which they are composed ; but until
chemistry can explain how this arrangement differs in the respec-
tire cases — until it can take the original elements, and compound
or arrange them at its pleasure, so as to produce their different
fmms or substances — the explanation is certainly very fax firom
c<nnplete. It is, indeed, not certain that even these four great
principles — the existence of which is so well established and
defined — are thempelves ultimate elem«itB ; but admitting the
fiict, their precise nature is wholly imexplained, in the present
state of huBMi Imowledge. Newton, in reTealiug the operation
^ a principls of gravitation, and in exidaining its wonder&J
laws, has yet tIm>WQ no tight npoa the nature of the force
ilaelf ; and, in dissecting the beaatiful compositioa of light into
its seven pDmBty elements, has yet tut advanced one hair's
breadth in defining what li^^t itoelf is. I know it is now the
habit to beheve that every thing in oalure may be resolved into
chemical or electrical agency, the laws of which are determined
and ex^licaUe, and to discvd all notions of what is termed the
▼ital f^ncy. I cannot myself doubt that every thing in nature
is governed by determinate and general laws ; laws, in re^ct to
whose existence and operation science has already made very
gnat advances, and, for aught that can be foreseen, may prea-
'Mitly completely understand them ; but as yet the goal is &m
ftom being reached ; and human reason, with all its illumination.
)yGoo»^Ic
Wo E CROP E AN i.ajaCUJ.TVKE.
and in the hour of its loftiest pride, must abase itself in the dost^
in the presence of that Omniscience before which all hnmaii
wisdom seems little more than ignorance and folly.
Until Science will explain to me by what force I move my
muscles at my pleasure, what mind is, what matter is, what
knowledge itself is, and what are the records of memory, — or evea
afford me some means of conjectute, — I may be permitted to
demur to her loud notes of triumph, and to feel that there an
^11 many depths which the tine of our philosophy has not yet
reached, and innumerable simple processes in nature, of daily
occurrence, which are utterly beyond our explanation. That
there is at work, in all animal and vegetable life, a vital agency,
who can entertain a doubt ? I do not know that it is not resolv-
able into the principles of chemical solution and affinity, or into
electrical or ^vanic agency ; but the assumption, in the preaeot
state of science, would be, I think, premature, without stroller
grounds on which to rest it.
XXX. — ANALYSIS OF SOIIA
In the chemical analysis of soils, likewise, upon which so
much stress is laid, there are difficulties, in the t»actical applica-
tion of our knowledge, sufficiently discouraging. The complaint
has been constantly and very emjAiatically made, that tbs
analyses of former chemists, such as Davy, Chaptal, and othen,
were all too general, and therefore of little or no practical value.
It may be said of modem analyses, that they startle <me by their
precision and minuteness.
I shall be excused, I hope, if I endeavor to lessen somewlist
the dryness and dulness of these discussions, to my readers, by a
matter of fact, certainly not without its interest to me, and which
may bear some analogy to the case before us. Some years
since, when suffering under a severe illness for several months,
I was sometimes amused, as far as it was possible for me, under
such circumstances, to be amused, by the great, and I had almost
)yGoo»^Ic
ANALTBIS or SOILS, VaV
sud, endless variety of articles which entered into the prescrip-
tions of my medical advisers in the customary form of grains,
■cniptes, drams, and mlxtuies. So much of this article was for
this specific purpose, and so much of that for another. This
waa to qualify that; that was to qualify this. This was to
pnrent such an article doing too much, and that was to prevent
its doing too little. One was to operate upon the bile, another
upon the blood ; one upon the respiration, and another upon the
digestion. And all this was to be going on, and to be accom-
plished, at the same time. I confess I was often in the situation,
in respect to my physician, of the wondering pupils of Gold-
smith's village schoolmaster, and marvelled "that one small
head could carry all he kuew." I bad, at least, the consolation
in the case of feeling that, as the surgeons often pteaaanth/ term
it, when amputating a limb, oi operating for the extraction of the
stone, I was furnishing at least a beauHfiil experiment in the
way of medical science ; and it must be said to the credit of my
pbysician, whose kindness amidst all this I never can forget,
that, although his philosophy and his scientific ardor carried him
to the most exbeme tests, and he might be said to have sus-
pended me over a [secipice by a twine string, confident that, if
I dropped, it would at least prove that common twine waa not
strong enough in such cases, — a most important fact to be
ascertained, — I was not quite used up, but was, after a while,
enabled to show myself erect again, a perfect monument of the
triumph of bis skill.
Let us now open at random upon some of the analyses given
tis in the work of the most distinguished chemist of the day, and
inqnire who has skill to jxescribe for cases so complicated in
their nature, or in any event what prescription would suit the
case, but one as multiform and mixed as those of my own
physician.
BOILS OF HEATHS.
" 1. Soil of a heath converted into arable land in the vicinity
of Brunswick. It is naturally sterile, but produces good cropi
when manured with lime, marl, cow-dung, or the ashes of the
heaths which grow upon it." [It would be diSicult, I think, to
)yGoo»^Ic
230 ECBOPXAN AQtaCOLTOEX.
find many aoilB, where the climate did not forbid it, which wraU
not produce good crops under such treatment.]
" Silica, and coarae ailicious aand, 71.604
Alumina, 0.180
Protoxide, and peroxide of iron, principally com-
bined with humus, 0.420
Peroxide of maaganese, idem, 0.2^
Lime, idem, 0.134
Magnesia, idem, 0.038
Potash and soda, jvincipally as silicates, .... 0.058
Phosphoric acid, priscipally aa phosphate of iron, . 0.115
Sulphuric acid, (in gypsum,) 0.018
Chl<tfine, (in common salt,) 0.014
Humus soluble in alkalies, 9.820
Humus with vegetable remains, 14.975
Resinous manen, 1.910
100.000
« Aahes of Aa soil of dM heath before being conTerted into
arable land: —
" Silica, wi^ ailicious sand, 9S.641
Alumina, 1.352
Oxides of iron and maogansaa, 2.324
Lime in combination with aulidiuhc and pho^ptuHic
acids, 0.929
Magnesia ctffiibined with sulj^uric acid, .... 0.283
Potash and soda, (principally as sulphates and
phostduites,) 0.564
Pho8|dioric acid, combined with lime, .... 0.250
Sulphuric acid, with potash, soda, and lime, . . . 1.690
Chlorine in common salt, 0.037
100.000
" 2. Sor&ce sod of a fine-grained loam, from the vicmity (^
Brunswick, it is ramarkable from the circumstanee that not a
•ingle year paases in which com [wheat] plants are cuhiTSMd
i^xm it, without the atem of tiia plants h«ii^ attacked by mat
)yGoo»^Ic
AWil^nU OF ■DILI. 231
Erea tbe grain is covered, irith a yellow nut, and ia much
■faniak. One hnndied parU of the soil contain —
" Silica and fine silieioua sand, 87.8S9
Alumina, 2.662
Peroxide of iron, with a la^ proportion of |«ot-
oxide 5.132
Protoxide and peroxide of manganese, .... 0.840
Lime, [ariacipBlly combined with silica, .... 1.4S9
Magnesia, idem, 0.380
Potash and aoda, «(j«m, 0.090
Phosphoric acid in combination with iron, . . . 0.50S
Sulphuric acid in combination with lime, . . . 0.068
Chlorine in common salt, 0.006
Humna, 1.109
100.000."
This analysia must sorely be snfficiently clow and Borere to
Mtisfy even the most ftstidioua ; for here even six hundred
tboQsandth parta of a particular ingredient in the soil, that is, of
cblwine in common salt, were ascertained.
"This soil," it is remarked, " does not suffer £rom want of drain-
age; it is well exposed to the sun ; it is in an elevated sitnation,
and in a good state of cultiyation. In order to ascertain whether
tbe rust was due to the constituents at the soil, (phosjiiuUe of
iron?) or to certain fortoitous circumstances unconnected with
their operation, a portion of the land was removed to another
locality, and made into an artificial soil of fifteen inches in
depth. Then this barley and wheat were sown; but it was
found, as in the former case, that the plants were attacked by
rust, whilst barley growing on the land surrounding this soil
Was not at all afiected by the disease. From this experiment it
follows that certain constituents in the soil favor the develojy-
mant of rust."
But this inference does not appear to me to follow of course.
We cannot deny that the rust may have been, in this case, the
result of some noxious ingredients in the soil ; this appears
highly probable. But nut is often the result of influences
mainly atmospheric. The fact that the barley grown on soil id
die neighborhood of the removed soil was miaffected by rust,
)yGoo»^Ic
3B8SS EUBOPKAir ^awcuLTnitB.
while that on the removed soil waa affected, is oot conclunTO.
It is believed that plants are subject to rust only in particular
stages of their growth. Now, on the suppOBition that the rust
in this case waa the effect of atmospheric influences, it is im-
portant to know whether the barley (for the wheat is not com-
pared with any other wheat) growing on the removed soil, and
that growing in its vicinity, were precisely contemporaneous in
their growth, or in the degree of ripeness, or approach to ripe-
ness, which they had attained. Further, it appears that the
learned analyst was not himself able to say to what particular
ingredient in the soil the rust was owing, nor what manure, if
any, was used ; and manure always seriously affects the plant to
which it is applied.
" 3. Soil of a heath which had been brought into cultivatioQ
in the vicinity of Brunswick. The analysis was made before
any crops had been grown upon it. Com plants [wheat] were
first reued upon the new soil', hut were found to be attacked by
rust, even tm those parts which had been manured respectively
with lime, marl, potash, wood-ashes, bone-dust, ashes of the headi
plant, conunoQ salt, and ammonia. One hundred psits contain —
" Silica with coarse sihcious sand, S1.337
Alumina, 0.628
Protoxide and peroxide of iron, in combination with
phosjdioric and humic acids 0.398
I^toxide and peroxide of manganese, 0.006
Lime in combination with humus, 0.230
Magnesia, idem, 0.040
Potash and soda, 0.010
Phosphoric acid, 0.066
Sulphuric acid, 0.022
Chlorine, 0.014
Humus soluble in alkalies, 13.210
Resinoiu matters, 2.040
Coal of humus and water, 32.100
100. OOO."
Here it will be seen we come again to fractions as minute aa
hundred thousandths.
"The Dext analysis re{aesenls this soil after being burnt
)yGoo»^Ic
ARALTUfl or lOIU. 883
One hundrad puts by ireight of the soil left, aAei igniUoa, tmly
fifty parts. One handiod parts of these aahes consisted of —
Silica and ailicious aand, 95.204
Almnina, 1.6M
Peroxide of iron, 1.344
Peroxide of mai^aiiese, 0.060
Limo in combination trith sulphuric acid, . . . 0.544
Magnesia combined vith silicm, 0.465
Potash and soda, 0.053
Phosphoric acid, ([siacipally as ^oqihate of iron,) 0.330
Solphoric acid 0.322
Chtorine, 0.019
100.000
" By compoiiog this analysis with the one vhich has preceded
it, an increase in certain of the constituents is obserred, partic-
otarty irith reelect to the sulphuric acid, potash, soda, magnesia,
oxide of iron, manganese, and alumina. From this it follows,
that the humus, qt, in othex voids, the vegetable remains, must
have contained a quantity of these substances confined within it
in sach a manner that they were not exhibited by analysis."
Here it seems, then, admitted, that the most minute chemical
analysifl, even to hundred thousandths, failed to detect all the
latent elements of which the soil was composed.
" Oats and barley were sown on this land the second year
after beii^; reclaimed, and both suffered much from rust, although
different parts of the soil were manured with mart, lime, and
peat-adiea, whilst other portions were left without manure. In
the first year, all the difiereut parts of the field produced pota-
toes ; but they succeeded best in those parts which had been
maonred with peat-ashes, lime, and marl. In the second year,
oats, mixed wiUi a little barley, were sown upon the soil ; and
the straw was Hound to be strongest on the parts treated with
peat-ashes, lime, and maiL" [1 have never known this to fail to
be the case on any soil.} " Red clover was sown in the third
year ; and it appeared in best condition on those portions of the
soil manured with marl and lime. Upon the divisions of the
field which had been left without manure, as well as on those
)yGoo»^Ic
834
manured with bone-dnst, potash, ammoDia, and common salt, the
clover scarcely appeared above ground." [Here, though so
much stress is laid upon the infinitesimidly minute divisions of
the soil, we are left entirely at a loss as to the quantities or forms
in which these appUcatiops were made.] "The divisions of
the field, which had been manured in the jBrst year with peat-
ashes, ammonia, and ashes of wood, were sown with buck-wheat
after the removal of the first crop of clover. The buck-wheat
succeeded very well on all the. divisions, yet a marked diffraence
was perceptible in favor of the portion treated with ammonia.
These ezperimeats show us, that a dressing of lime did not com-
pletely remove from the soil its tendency to impart rust to the
plants grown upon it." [But if the lime partiaUy corrected the
evil, is there not reason to infer that the error was in not putting
lime enough upon it, aad that more would have compleUly re-
moved it ?] " Nevertheless," the writer adds, " it is highly prob-
able that, as soon as the protoxide of iron became converted into
the peroxide by exposure to the atmosphere, lime would possess
more power in decomposing the phosphate of iron."
I shall cite only one more example in this case.
" 4. Subsod of a loamy soil in the vicinity of Brunswick. It
is remarkable that sainfoin camiot be cultivated upon it more
than two or three years in successioa. The portion analyzed
was taken from a depth of five feet One hundred parts cour
tained — ■
" Silica, with very fine siUcioos sand, .... 90.035
Alumina, 1.976
Peroxide of iron, 4.700
Protoxide of iron, 1,116
Protoxide and peroxide of manganese, 0.240
Lime, 0.023
Magnesia, 0. 116
Potash and soda, 0.300
Phosphoric acid combined with iron, 0.096
Sulphuric acid, (the greatest part in combination
with protoxide of iron,) 1.399
Chlorine, a trace.
100.000
)yGoo»^Ic
JUIALTSIB or MILS.
" Nov, the results of the aoalysis give a sufficient account <tf
the failure of the sainfoin." [But it seems it can be cultivated
upon it tvo Of three years in succession.] " The soil contains
one pel cent, of sulphate of the js/itozide of iron, (gieen vitriol
of commerce,) a salt which exerts a poisonous action upon plants.
Lime is not present in quantity sufficient to decompose this salt.
Hence it is that sainfoin will not thrive in Uiis soil, nor indeed
Ittcem, or any- -other of tbs plants with deep roots. The evil
cannot be obviated by any method sufficiently economical fra
the &imer, because the soil cannot be mixed with lime at a
depth of five or six feet." [It requires some courage for a man
even to think of such a thing.] " For many years, experiments
have been made in vain, in order to adopt this soil for sainfoin
and tucem, and much expense incuned, which would all have
been saved, had the soil been previously analyzed. This ex-
ample affords a most convincii^ proof of the importance of
chemical knowledge to an agriculturist" *
Now, I think the strong impression which will be upon every
practical man's mind, in looking at these analyses, will be, the
utter impossibihty of meeting the cases, and of adapting the cul-
tivation and manuring with any very exact reference to the
chemical condition of the soil ; that is, of prescribing for the
patient. 1 admit that the apphcatioD of chemical analyses ot
tests to the soil may be of very great importance in detecting
the existence of any substance, as in the latter case for example,
which is poisonous to vegetation ; though even here, the exist-
ence of the evil itself, and the remedy, are left somewhat in
uncertainty. I believe it may be of great utility in determining
the general and predominant characteristics of a soil ; but with
great respect for science, and for the labors of those men who,
by their distinguished attamments, have conferred the highest
benefits upon the ciHnmunity, I can come to no other conclusion
than that any expectation of adapting our cultivation, upon any
extended scale, to these minute diversities of soil, is illusory ;
and that the most illustrious chemist living may be challenged
in vain to prescribe any practicable culture adapted to meet, with
* These example* of uialyBea of soila are by Spffingel, and tikea from Liebig^
Agncoltnnl Chemisby, ftaat the chapter on the Chemical Constitiients of Soib,
pk 906, 3d AnMdcaa Bdteian.
)yGoo»^Ic
KSO EUROFXAK AOBICULTCSE.
any degree of exactness, the cEtaes given, or to recognize in his
spfdications or prescriptions, with any peculiar success, the
minate diversities of composition which are here presented.
But suppose the application made, and even in the simplest
form ; what sagacity is acute enough to follow it in all its opera-
tions upon the elements, either simple or compounded, with
which it comes in contact? or what skill can command the
external circumstances of heat or cold, of drought or moisture,
which must at the time affect its operation ? No human skill
has as yet been able to compound a soil, and say, This shall be
more fruitful than any other. The habits and nature of different
plants require different conditions both of soil and of culture.
The Royal Agricultural Society of England has recently
made a liberal grant to aid in the chemical analysis of the dif-
ferent vegetable productions, under the direction of one of the
most able chemists of tiie age ; and a good deal of valnalde
information will undoubtedly be derived from this sonrce. The
chemical analysis of different manures has been carried on with
eminent zeal and intelligence, and is constantly going on, to the
great benefit, without question, of agricultural science ; but the
extraordinary confidence which some persons indulge in the
results of chemical science, in respect to agricnlture, seems to me
a little too sanguine, and the practical application of this knowl-
edge by no means so easy as has been supposed.
I am quite aware that this may appear like a digression ; but,
in considering the subject of ^ricultural education, it was natural
to adrert to that which seems now to be more prominent in the
minds of agriculturists than almost anything else — the advan-
tages which agriculture is to derive from chemical science, and
the consequent importance of making it the prominent subject
of instruction. Our expectations in this matter should be in
some degree moderated by a remark of Liebig's : in speaking of
the analysis of soils, and after having given several exam|rfefl,
"It is unnecessary," he says, "to describe the modus operandi
used in the analysis of these soils ; for this kind of research will
never be made by farmers, who must apply to the professional
chemists, if they wish for information in r^atd to the composi-
tion of their soils." The science of chemistry has indeed now
become of that enlaced character, and is occupied in such pro-
found and difficult investigations and discoveries, that excellence
)yGoo»^Ic
MATDKAL SCIBMOE.
io it can scarcely be looked for but with those persons who, to
emiaent talents of research, and an extraordinary enthusiasm in
the pursuit, devote their time ahuost exclusirely to this object.
A general knowledge of its principles and discoreries, and a
lacihty in making some experiments in it, are all, perhaps, that
can be expected to be given in the education at an agricultural
collie ; but it is desirable and most requisite, even for this
object, that the institution, in a competent instructor, and all
the necessary apparatus, should furnish the means of accom-
{dishing it in the best manner, and to the greatest advantage.
This undoubtedly will be done.
XXXI. — NATURAL SCIENCE.
Every possible fociUty should be provided for the study of er-
ery branch of natural history, for every branch of natural history
may be made subservient to agricultural improvement. There
is, in my opinion, nothing which so invigorates and strengthens
the mind as earnest and deep inquiries into nature, the study of
natural fJEicts, the observation of natural phenomena. There ia no
knowledge, especially to persons residing in the country, which
affords so many practicable uses and such varied and important
apidication. The man who studies books exclusively is always
li^Ie to be the slave of other men's opinions ; and his mind,
losing by such restraints its native elasticity, never travels out of
its prescribed limits. The man who goes himself to the original
sources of knowla^e, and draws water out of the very wells of
life, acquires a force of inquiry, maintains a healthful freshnesa
of mind, which grow strong continually by what they feed
upon, multiply for themselves the sources of knowledge, torn
every object and occurrence which they meet with into an in-
strument of instruction, and find the world and nature no longer
a dull, desolate, inanimate chamber, but its walls all over radiant
with lessons of wisdom, and every object with which it is
crowded vocal with the teachings of a divine spirit.
)yGoo»^Ic
tSS BDBOPClir AOBICULTUBB.
I do not overrate the valae of natural science to the agricul-
toiist, the lesident in the country. Pot him it ia the jumper
study for use, for ability, for recreation, and for ornament
There is yet much to he done in agriculture. I believe that
the qnantity of the products of the earth from the same extent
of surface may in most cases be quadrupled, and that the number
of its productions for the sustenance of man and beast may be
multiplied far beyond any present calculation. If ve may argue
from what has been done to what may be done, the perfection
of agriculture is yet recy distant, and vast imptoTements remaiD
to be made. But this can ooly be effected by bringing vigorous
and enlightened minds to bear upon the subject ; and the natural
sciences are those which of all others best prepare and strengthen
the mind for such investigations. The best educaticui which
can be given to any man is not that which merely communi-
cates knowledge, but that which enables and induces a man to
acquire knowledge for himself. This is what the study of the
natural sciences particularly prompt and compel a man to do.
These studies, pursued especially in the country, where Nature
in such a variety of aspects is continually offering hereelf for ex-
amination, give a vigor and activity of mind which particularly
qualify men for practical objects and pursuits.
We are to look, then, to educated men, to men of active and
cultivated minds, to men accustomed to study, inquiry, reflection,
observation, and experiment, for any great improvement yet to
be made in agriculture. These are the men who have always
been the pioneers in human progress, and these men are still to
lead the onward march, A sdbool, therefore, which trains such
minds, not for literary leisure, but for the active and business
pursuits of life, must be regarded as one of the most valuable in-
stitutions in the community. No branch of art or business will
be found to afford greater scope for the appUcation of such an
education than agriculture.
)yGoo»^Ic
XXZn. — MODEL FARM.
To the departments wbich may be called litaiarT' and seieatific,
the Agricultunl College at Cireoeeatei proposes to add tboaa
wlueli am strictly |«actical, by comtecting with the institution a
fivm of five hundred Bcrea. Practical experience is of the high-
eat importance in ereiy practical lut. If it be true, that no man
can be a thorough saUor who haa not aerred befcwe the mast, and
who is not familiar with e7ery rope in the diip, it may be as
tnily said, that no one should considev himself fully competent
to the management of a iann, who is not thcnmighly acquainted
with every operation to be performed on a &rm ; and, though
he may not always be able to execute it himself, he should know
how it is to be done, and be able to determine when it is properly
executed.
A model farm is intended to illustrate, as far as the nature of
the foil and climate admit, the best pnetkes in husbandry ; to
show the manageaUBt of a farm in tbe details and in the whole ;
to teach the arts of ploughing, sowing, hairowii^, cultivatii^;,
reaping, harvesting, Btaoking, tfareshing, and preparing ^e
ffoiuctB for market ; to explain the management and treatment
of aU live stock on the place, whetiier designed foe food or labor,
lot fatteniog or vwking, for beef, mutton, pork, wool, or dairy
{KOduce ; to teach the whole duty of a Bhejdiwd or grazier, and
the whole mani^mient of the stall aad the dairy, Theae are
the objects proposed ; and ^ is mtended Uiat Uie labor of the farm
shall be performed by the pupils, and its products go towards
the 8iq)pait of the institutiiHi, so as to reduce the expenses of
•ducation. All this ia well, aad may -be made eminently useful
to the {upils.
)yGoo»^Ic
XXXm. — EXPERIMENTAL FARM.
It ia further intended, besides presenting a model farm, that it
ahall likewise, in a measure, serve the purpose of an experi-
mental fann. Besides presenting an example of the best man-
agement, and the performance of all the custonuuy operations of
a farm in the best and most ap[HY)7ed manner, it is designed to
afford an opportunity of experimenting in various forms upcn
manures, seeds, plants, cultiration, and the feeding and fattening
of animals, and upon every feasible subject, where jvactical
information and exact results are important to be ascertained.
ZXXIT. — ECONOMICAL ARRANGEMENTS AT THE
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.
Such, as I understand, are the outlines of the plan for agri-
cultural education designed to be pursued at the College at
Cirencester. Its objects are not to teach its pupils bow to labor,
but to qualify a class of persons for the management of their
own, or the estates of others. The farmers here are not, as with
us, workers on their own estates ; they are the managers or
superintendents of the work ; but it is obviously of the highest
importance that they should understand how every branch of
husbandry should be conducted. For the common laborer here,
in the present anangements of society, I see no hope of his ever
rising above that condition in which he ia born. There are
some extraordinary exceptions ; but they are very tare. Besides
the impediments which lie in the way from his entire poverty,
and the extreme difficulty of his ever acquiring more than six
feet of the soil, and that six feet below the surface, imd after all
power of active improvement of it has ceased, any attempt to
alter his condition in this respect, it is to be feared, as I think I
have already shown, would be discouraged, eertaiuly not aided,
)yGoo»^Ic
KCONOMCAL AHK&NOEMENTa AT AOBICULTUBAL COLLEOE. 241
by those above him. I do not know that it is necessary fot me
to discuss the question whether such a condition of society is
f^erable to one in which the laborer is fint to be served from
the produce of his own toil ; in which every man, by honest
industry, may become the sovereign owner of the acres which
be tills, and while he labors he may proudly feel that he is
laboring for himself, and not for another. I shall leave all this
to the dispassionate judgment of my reader, content even that it
obonld be ascribed to the misfortune of birth, or the perverse
prejudices of education, that I immeasuiably prefer a condition
of society, where the rights of all men are, as far as possible,
held equal ; where no monopoly of wealth, or education, or tank,
or power, limits or impedes the progress even of the humblest
members of the community; and where, in a fiee and equal
competition, without injury to his neighbor, every man, for him-
self and those dependent upon him, becomes the creator of his
own fortunes.
No human institution is perfect. Every effort will doubtless
be made to adapt the institution at Cirencester to its proper and
valuable ends. It is obvious that some practical difficulties will
present themselves, which it will require great skill to overcome.
The distinctions of rank, which prevail in England, and form a
part of its constitution, are as rigorously observed at places of
edtication as in any other departments of society, and are marked
there by differences of dress and of privilege. Will these dis-
tinctions prevail here i If tbey jsevail here, will they not proW
inconvenient in respect to the labors of the farm? or is the
institution in no respect intended for the education of persons of
rank? I am curious to know how this is to be arranged.
Many noblemen in E!hgland, of the highest rank, are among the
most intelligent practical agriculturists in the kingdom. Will
they not desire all the advantages of the institution for their sons ?
and will they consent to forego all the distinctions and priv-
ileges of their rank for the sake of the education ? After all,
the difficulty may be purely imaginary ; for I confess, in my
simplicity, educated as I had been in the plain democratic or
republican habits of New England, nothing surprised me mem
than the perfect readiness, with which, in every case, the claims
of rank are acknowledged, and in most cases even the i»'ide and
pleasure with which tiiis deference is pcud, and their rights
21
,bvGoo»^Ic
SAS SCBOrKAN ASMCULTURB.
admitted, on the part of the inferior claaaes. So far from
looking upon this as most of my countrymen are disposed to
regard it, and as I should r^aid it in my own coontry, aa a
mark of extreme servility, in a country where such distinctions
are established by law, and make a part of the govemmmt, it
seems to me as much to the credit of their good sense, as it is
conducive to their good manners, to conform to them. In any
institution of this kind, in my own country, no such difficulties
can arise ; and it might seem idle for me to allude to them, were
it not that an occasional, and I hope not unseasonable, illustra-
tion of the manoera of England will interest the curiosity of a
large portion of my readers.
In the next place, it seems to be designed, and certainly it is
very desirable, that the farm shall be managed by the labor <^
the pupils; and it is proposed that the proceeds of the fann
should go towards the payment of the rent, and the reduction
of other expenses of the establishment. This is, in my opinion,
as it should be ; and, with the exception of one oi two more
experienced laborers, who, in their particular departments of
ploughing, &Ai., should be competent to act as instructors of the
pupils, and with a few servants, (and they should be very few,
for aervanis, in almost all places of education, are commonly a
great evil, and the best of all training for (he youi^ is that
which compels them, in a great degree, for all personal services
at least, to depend upon themselves,) the whole labor of the
fimn should be performed by the pupils. This would be, of ail
others, the most effectual way of making them acquainted widi
the subject, and the only way, indeed, in which they can
become thoroughly acquainted with many of the operations on a
iarm. I am curious to know how this labor is 'to be had ;
whether it is to be voluntary or by compulsion ; and how,
among two hundred pupils, it is to be apportioned and equalized.
If made voluntary, it certainly will not be equally rendered :
some will not wonk at all j and preferences for some kinds of
work, and distaste for others, which of course must be expected
to exist, will be GiHind inconvenient. If the labor is made com-
pulsory, the enforcing of it will not be easy ; and it would be
difficult to find the young men, likely to resort to such a place
of education, disposed to submit to any arbitrary exactions of
this nature. How far it is practicable to make it mercenary, and
)yGoo»^Ic
ECONOKICAI. ARBAMeEKCim AT A8RlCCI.TnEJLL COLLEQe. 843
to reward it by wages, or by a share of the products of such
labor, is a subject which will require much consideration ; but
this mode seems to present the only altematiTe.
The lai^ number of students — two hundred — to be pro-
Tided tar, seems to me to present another aerious difficulty in the
case. If any thing like a military discipline could be introduced
among them, two thousand might be managed as easily as two
hundred. As tar as concerns their literary or scholastic imiHX>Te-
ment, the number presents no impediment in the way of their
instruction by lectures or recitations ; but when with this is to
be combined the management of the farm by the personal labor
of the pupils, a number so large, or indeed half that number,
must be found exceedingly difficult of management. At the
Glasnevin school, the boys are regular apprentices to the farmer,
and their work for certain hours of the day is compulsory. The
■chflol masters, who come to the farm for instruction, come
merely as spectators, and put their hands to the work, or not,
as they please. The whole establishment, if indeed it were four
tBoes as Isige as it is, would not, under these circumstances, be
beyond the penooal superintendence of a single efficient man-
ager. At Temj^emoyle, the number is limited to seventy, the
Hum is much more extensiTe than at Olaanevin, and the labor
fn haif the day is compulsory. As the pupils are almost
entirely drawn from the poorest classes, and are persons who
must depend for their success in life wholly upon their own
efforts, they require no other stimulus to exertion. At Ciren-
cester, the pupils may be divided into two classes — those who
work, and are allowed in some form a compensation for their
labor ; and those who are not required or expected to labor, and
pay an extra price for the exemption. Such an arrangement
would have many disadvantages, and would be ill adapted to the
condition of society in the United States. The number of two
hundred seems to me quite too large, and unmanageable with
any view to the advantageous application of their labor, if that
labor is to be voluntary.
In Scotland, the practical part of farming is learned by youi^
men g;oing to reside one or two years, or for a suitable length of
time, with an intelligent and experienced farmer. In such case,
the See paid is about one hundred pounds, or five hundred dollars,
a year ; and for this the apprentice is received into the family,
>, Goo»^Ic
344 nntOPEAN ^QRICULTUSE.
and provided for at the fanner's table, and every operation on
the fann is witnessed by him, and explained to him by the
fanner. In such cases, labor with the pupil is wholly optional.
Where the farmer is well-skilled and commimicative, and the
pupil capable end interested in the pursuit, few arrangemenls
are to be [sefened — this upon the supposition, however, that
in other respects, and previously to his commencing bis appren-
ticeship, he is well grounded in practical science.
The three things of which I have spoken ought to be viewed
separately ; but I fear, from the manner in which 1 have treated
Uiem, they may appear somewhat confused to my reader's
XXKV. — PLAN OP AN AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTION.
First, then, in every system of agricultural education, theio
should be an institution for the thorough indoctrination of the
pupil in natural science, and in mechanical philosophy, so far
as it can be made to bear upon agriculture. I have already
treated fully of what, on this topic, should be taught in an insti-
tution of this nature.
Secondly, there should be a model lann, which should be
accessible to the pupils, and where they might see an example
of the best management, and the best practices in husbandry.
It is obvious, however, that a single farm can present, excepting
on a small scale, only a single kind of farming ; and that it
would be hardly possible to find a single locality presenting any
considerable, or very instmctive specimen of the different kinds
of farmii^, such as arable, grazit^, stock-breeding, stall-feeding,
sheep-raising, EUid dairying. But the particular and caiefal
observation even of one kind of well-conducted forming would
qualify a pupil for understanding and receiving information on
every other, whenever it came in. his way, or wherever it m^ht
be attainable. Stall-feeding is intimately connected and often
associated with arable farming, and dairying with grazing. The
management of live stock, whether for work, for fatting, or for
dairying, might, in a small degree, be exemplified on every well-
)yGoo»^Ic
FLAN or UK AQBICULTUHAL IKBTITUTIOM. 24ff
managed farm. Such an appendage aa this to a school of |»rac>
tical instruction, where the pupils might see and have explained
to them the very best modes of husbandry, must he of the
highest benefit To these should be added an experimental
farm. This need not be ezteDsire, and it might be connected
vith the model farm ; indeed, the model farm might itself be, to
a degree, an experimental farm. It may be said that the pre-
miums offered by agricultural societies, for various experiments
in husbandry, are sufficient to meet the public wants in this
case. I admit that they hare in this way rendered JmioeDas
benefits to the public ; but there are still wanted variouB triab
and tests of soils, manures, grasses, plants, implements, modes of
cultivation, modes of feeding, breeding, dairying, — and on the
effects of temperature, moisture, heat, frost, light, and electricity,
— which common fanners can scarcely be expected to undertake,
ot, if undertaken, to follow out wi^ that exactness which is
most desirable, in order to render the results of such experiments
worthy of confidence, and lessons for general application.
Connected wUh the whole should be most extensive gardens,
— first, for purposes of botanical instruction, giving the pupils
an opportunity of becoming acquainted with all the principal
ptants, grasses, forest-trees, firuit-trees, and weeds, which enter
into their cultivation, to the advanti^ or injury of the farmer ;
and next, for making them thoroughly acquainted (a knowl-
edge highly important to them) with the cultivation of all the
varieties of vegetables and fruits which may be required for
use, [sofit, or luxury.
Snah is the basis on which I should be glad to see an institu-
tion for agricultural education rising up in every one of the
United States, where the condition of society renders it expe-
dient, and the population ia dense enough to sustain it. The
expensive plan on which it is jsoposed here to establish and
oooduct such institutions, would be quite unsnited to the state
of manners and the condition of things in the United States.
In their economical arrangements, Ireland has set us an excellent
example. With us, they might be made in a great measure
self-snpportmg. The ^lan proposed for such an institution,
•mne few years since, by the late lamented Judge Buel, who
had the subject much at heart, involved an expenditure of one
21*
)yGoo»^Ic
246 KUBOFEAR lORtCULTORE.
hundred thousand dollars, and might be said to have twen
crashed by its owd weight.
Let us suppose that it were proposed to establish such an
ioslitutioa in the western part of New York. Certainly no
location could, ia respect to the external circumstances of soil,
climate, access, society, and markets, be more faTorable. A
&rm of five himdred acres might be taken, on favorable terms, on
a long lease. I would under so circimistances suffer the
number of pupils to exceed one hundred, and perhaps it might
be expedient to restrict die number much more. Some good-
sized hall or building would be requisite for public meetings,
lectures, or recitation-rooms, and for a museum, library, and
chemical laboratory ; but I would erect no college building for
the residence of the pupils. They should either lodge in the
neighboi^iood, with such farmers as would be willing to receive
them, or other persons who might be disposed to jvovide for
them ; or otherwise, I would erect several form-houses on the
jdace, sufficient to supply the needful accommodations ; but in
no case should more than fifteen or twenty be lodged in one
[4ace ; and, whether on the farm or not, the lodging-houses for
the pupils should be under the constant inspection or regulation
of the governors or instructors of the institution. One or two
instructors should be employed constantly for teaching the main
branches of education, and a competent farmer should be em-
ployed to manage the agricultural department, and to give the
necessary practical instraction. Beyond this, no resident instruct-
ors would be required, — but regular and full courses of lectures
and experiments in geology, mineralogy, botany, comparative
anatomy, the veterinary art, and chemistry, by competent pro-
fessors of these sciences, who might be employed for these
objects annually, without the necessity and expense of constant
residence, — as is now frequently done at our medical schools.
In this way, the best talents in the community might be com-
manded, and at a reasonable expense.
I would require, in the next place, that the pupils ^ould be
placed in a condition of perfect equality, and that a certain
amount of labor should be made compulsory on all, at such a
rate of wa^es as should be deemed just, according to the ability
of the pupil, and the nature of the work done. An account
)yGoo»^Ic
FLAN OT AN AOaiCnLTURAI. INSTITUTION. 247
riiould be kept for every pupil, and another by every pupil, of
the labor performed by him, which should be passed to his
credit. The farm account should be kept with foithful exact-
ness, and be always open to the inspection of the pupils ; and
after the deduction of the rent, and the necessary burdens aud
expenses, and some small amount kept as a reserve or accumulat-
ing fund for the benefit of the inBtitution, the remainder should
be divided among the pupils according to the labor performed.
Their board aud lodging should be settled for by themselves,
without any interference on the part of the directors of the insti-
tution, beyond keeping the charges within a stipulated price ;
and the keepers of the boarding-houses should be required to
purchase, at reasonable rates, from the &nn, whatevci supplies
they m^ht require, which the farm would yield. A tax should
be levied upon the students for the payment of all the instructors
and lecturers, and the use of the library, and chemical and phil-
osophical apparatus ; and likewise to meet any extraordinary
experiments made upon the farm, with a view to the instructioa
of the school. Whether it would be advisable for every pupil
to have an allotment for himself, either for the purpose of
experiment, or for the profit, and in aid of his subsistence, would
be worth considering ; remembering always how important it is
to give to every man an immediate interest in the result of his
labors.
Such, in my opinion, is a plan for agricultural education
which demands no great advance, and involves no risk. But
the project is even much more feasible than I have already
stated. Why, for example, should not such an institution be
connected with the college at Williamstown, or Amherst, in
Massachusetts, or with Dartmouth College in New Hampshire,
or Burlington College in Vermont, or the college at Hartford in
Connecticut, or Geneva in New York, where all the facilities for
scientific instruction are at hand, residences for the students
attainable, and suitable farms to be had, either on purchase, or
lease, at very reasonable rates? I throw out these hints to my
countrymen, not with a view of dictating to their superior judg-
ment, but to show that an institution for a practical and scientific
education in ^riculture may, without any hazardous expend-
itiue, or any la^e investment, be made almost immediately
attainable, and under every practicable advantage.
)yGoo»^Ic
M8 BUROrEAM AaUCDLTDBE.
A piofessorahip in agriculture ia attached to the utiireisity in
GdiDburgh, and the chair filled by an eminent professor, Hi.
Lov, vho haa rendered the moat useful public aerrices, in the
publication of hit treatise on agriculture, which is said to
contain the substance of his lectures at this institution. He has
UJiewise estdbliahed an eztensiTe agricultural museum, contain-
ing specimens of agricultural productions, and models of the
various implements used in improved husbaudry. The term
required to complete such a course of education, might be matter
of after consideration ; but I Tould advise, in every case, that
the residence should be absolute, the rules exact and stringent,
and the annual or occasional examinations as severe as at the
military school at West Point, so that an equal proficiency might
be secured.
XXXVL — ELEVATION OF AGRICULTURE AS A
PURSUIT AND A PROFESSION.
Where it is practicable, I would make the education of a high
and extended character ; and, besides the art of measuring, and
surveying, and mapping land, I would have the arts of sketching,
and drawing, and landscape gardetiing, taught in the institation.
The pursuit of agriculture is almost universally considered as
merely a profession of commerce or trade, the farmer looking
wholly to its pecuniary results. In a trading community,
pecimiary considerations are always liable to control the jut^-
meut, and predominate over every other consideiBtiotL. Where
the means are limited, and the farm must be cultivated as the
only source of subsistence, pecuniary returns must, of course, he
the main object. Where, as in England, the cultivator is not
the owner of the soil, but an "n"""! rent must be paid, and he
is liable, as in most cases, to be compelled to quit his occupatMiy
at the pleasure or the caprice of his landlord, farming must he
conducted merely as matter of business, and there is no induce-
ment to pursue (be profession as matter of taste or sentiment.
In many casw in my own country, it most, of necessity, be
)yGoo»^Ic
KLET^TIOH or AGBICDLTDRB U A FOKSITIT. 249
followed wholly as a means of support and of profit, and in some
cases as a struggle for life.
But there are innumerable other cases, in which mea have the
power, under the most favorable circumstances, and I am most
anxious they should have likewise the disposition, to devote
themselves to it as an elegant and liberal profession, worthy of
a mind gifted even with the finest taste, and enriched by the
highest cultivation. The United States present not many
examines of very great wealth, at least when estimated by the
standard of wealth which prevails in Ekigland, w^here, indeed, are
to be found individual accumulations which distance all the
dieams of Oriental magnificence. But, on the other hand, no
country upon the globe, and no condition of things since the
establishment of society, ever presented more favorable oppor-
tunities than the United States for any one, by active and
wholesome industry, and a )Hoper frugality, to acquire a com-
petence, and tha^ respectable independence, in Vhich, with a full
supjdy for the necessities of life, and an abundant provision iat
its comforts, there will be found within reach as many of the
elegances, and ornaments, and luxuries of life, as a well-discH
plioed and healthful state of mind can require. I have seen too
frequently such beautiful examples in our country villages, and
scattered over several parts of a land in many respects favored
by Heaven above every other, not to be deeply impressed with
a condition of life which, where its blessings are properly and
gratefully appreciated, seems to leave little more on earth for a
rational and reflecting, a benevolent and truly religious mind to
ask. Happy is it where its waters are not poisoned by an
insatiate avarice, nor disturbed and thrown into confusion by
ambition of political office or distinction, or a feverish thirst for
Qotoriety and excitement ; but in a quiet, yet not stagnant repose,
they refiect every where the tokens of that divine goodness,
which seems in such examples to have poured out its richest
earthly treasures. Nov, I am anxious that agriculture should
occupy that place among the liberal professions, to which it can
be raised, and to which, from its importance, it is entitled. But
this can only be done by improving the education of farmers aa
a class, — by multiplying, through the means of a most liberal and
extended education, the charms of the country, and the. subjects
of interest which would be constantly more and more developed
)yGoo»^Ic
BUBOriAIf AaWCULTDHI.
to a cultivated and inquisitiTe mind ; and by Bbowing Uiat itt
successful pursuit, either as matter of business or recreation,
vhere a moderate fortune is possessed or a moderate profes-
Ronal income is secured, is not incompatible with the highest
improvement of taste, and evea a vigorous and successful pursuit
of learning; and that, There so pursued, under favorable circum-
stances, it aSbids ae fair a chaiic« of rational enjoyment and
quiet usefulness as any situation which the most lucrative trade,
or the most successful political ambition, or even the highest ^m-
fessional eminence, can command.
But I fear, how much soever I may satisfy the sober and
reflecting minds on this point, my opinions and persuasions will
scarcely be heard, and far less heeded, in that rush for wealth,
for office, and for notoriety, which, like a torrent sweeping oven
die country, carries every movable object in its course. It
mems, howerer, not less my duty to record my strong convic-
tions, which the experience of a life not Aort has served only
to confirm. I see in my own country every where proffered to
an honest itidustry, a wise fmgality, and a wholesome self-
goVMnment, the most smjAa rewards : I see a wide extent of
rieh and beautiful territory waiting the improving hand of skill
and labor, to be had in many cases almost for asking, with every
man &ee to choose where he will pitch his tent, not only with-
out injury, but to the advantage of hia neighbor : I see the
means of education, of competence, and of substantial inde-
pendence, held out to all who will avail themselves of them.
In the midst of all this, I see thousands and thousands of young
men, blest with education and fortunes adequate to supply all
reasonable wants in the country, rushing into cities, exhausting
their small means in the extravagances and dissipations of fiisb*
ionable life ; crowding all the jffofessions to repletion ; pressing
on, with vexation and disappointment heaped upon vexation and
disappointment, into all the avenues of political office and dis-
tinction, and into all the bitter strifes of political controversy ;
forcing their way into the pursuits of trade without talents for
their prosecution, and almost sure to involve themselves in bank-
ruptcy and ruin ; and, in one form and another, dragging on
through life without satisfaction to themselves and without
usefulness to others, and too often a ruinous burden upon those
whom it is now their turn to succor and relieve. I cannot,
)yGoo»^Ic
BUKAL MAXVKMM Df UMLAim. Sfil
thei«fote, help wishing that the purauits of agriculture might be
made attractive to sach persons ; and that, with educatiou, and
that moderate fortone which would give them the command of
the best adrantagea of luial life, they might find in it, as far as
rational happiness and humble usefulness are concerned, that
philosophu's stone which in other places they are ahnost sure to
search for in vain.
XXXTH. — RURAL MANNERS IN ENGLAND.
England presents many such examples. The true English
gentlemBn, living, remote from the din of cities, and abstracted
from the tunnoil of political life, upon his own acres ; managing
his own estate ; seeking the beM means for its improvement, and
soperiiUetiding, under his own personal inspection, their applic»-
lim ; doing what good he can to all asound him ; nuUiing those
dsyeitdMit upoa him comfortable aad contented ; giving labor,
counsel, encouragement, and all oeedfnl aid, to bis poor neigh-
bors, and causing them, and their wives, and their children, to
look up to him as a friend and a parent, to whose kindness their
good conduct is always a certain claim ; whom when the eye
sees, it sparkles with grateful joy, and when the ear hears his
footsteps, Uie sounds go like melody to the heart ; who is in his
neighborhood the avowed imd unostentatious supporter of good
morals, temperance, education, peace, and religion ; and in whose
beuee yoo- find an open-hearted hospitality, and ^undcmt re-
sources for innocent gnitificati(m, and for the improvement of
the mind, widl a perfect gentleness of maimers, and unaffected
piety presiding over the whole; — I say, such a man — and it
kaa been my hapless to find many examples — need envy no
ens save the possessor of more power, and a wider sphere, of
domg good ; and need not covet the brightest triumphs of
political ambition, nor the splendors and luxuries of royal
eowts.
Whatever contributes, then, in any way, to elevate the agri-
eallural profession, to raise it, from a mere servile or mercenary
tabor, to the dignity of a liberal profession, and to commeud it
)yGoo»^Ic
252 EuaopCAir AOiiicnLTUBE.
not merely for its profit and usefulness, but as a delightful
resource and recreation for a cultivated mind, will certainly find
fiivor with those who foim rational views of life, who wish well
to the cause of good morale, and would multiply and strengthen
the safeguards of hiunan virtue.
The class of individuals whom I have described — and I
assure my readers I have drawn from real life, and deal in no
fictions — find often their own efforts seconded and aided by
those whose encouragement and sympathy always give new life
and vigor to their exertions, and new pleasure to their pleasures,
— I mean their own wives fuid children; and the fanning
operations, in all their history and details, and all their expe-
diency and fitness, are as mnch matter of fiuniliar and interested
discussion at the fireside, as, in many other circles, the most
tecent novel, the change in fashion, or the latest triumph of
party. Indeed, I have seen, in many cases, the wives and the
daughters — and these, too, often persons of the highest rank
and refinement — as well acquainted with every field and crop,
their management and their yield, and with every implement
and animal on the place, as the farmer himself ; and I always pot
it down to the credit of their good sense.
TYTVTTT _ A PENCIL SKETCH.
I must claim the indulgence of my readers, if I give theJD an
account of a visit in the country so instructive, so br^ht, ao
cheerful, that nothing but the absolute breaking-np of the mind
can ever obliterate its record, or dispel the bright vision firom my
imagination. I know my fair readers — for with some such I
am assured my humble Reports are kindly honored — will feel
an interest in it ; and if I have any unfair readers, I beg them at
once to turn over the page. But mind, I shall utter no name,
and point to no place ; and if I did not know that the example
was not altogether singular, and therefore would not be detected,
I should not relate it. I know very well, as soon as I return to
my native land, if Heaven has that happiness yet in store for
)yGoo»^Ic
Be, a dozen of mr ehanaing friend?, — God \A*» them I — with
tluir bright eyes, and their geoUe entreaties, vill be presuog me
for a. diflcloaaie ; but I tell them beforehaod, I am panojdied io a
tfem j^iiom>\iby, and shell remain immovable.
I had no sooner, then, entered the house, where my risit had
been expected, (Stan I wse met vith wi unaffected cordiality
irbich at once made me at home. In the midst of gilded halla
and boets of liTcried ecsrvants, of dazzling lamps, and glittering
miiTOfs, ledoubliog the highest triiuni^ of art and taste ; in thf
midst of books, and statues, and pictures, and all the elegattcei
■od refinements of luxury ; in the midst of titles, and dignities
and fanks, allied to regal grandeur, — there was one object which
Hanacended and eclipsed them all, and showed bow much tb^
nobility of character surpassed the nobility of rank, the beauty
of refined and simple manners all the adornments of art, and
the scintillations of tbe soul, beaming from the eyes, the puie^
gems that ever glittered in a ivincely diadem. In penon, in
edocation and improvement, in quickness of perception, in faciUtj
and ekgance of extueesioD, in aocomplishments and taste, in a
fiaokoess and gentleness of manners tempered by a modesty
wbich courted confidence and inspired respect, and in a high
moral tone and sentiment, which, like a bright halo, seemed to
OKircie the whole person, — I confess the ficticms of poetry
became substantial, and the freou idial of my youthful imagina-
tion was realised.
But who was ^e pwson I have described ? A mere statue, to
adorn a gallery of sculpture ? a bird of paradise, to be kept in a
^aas case ? a mere doll, with painted cheeks, to be dressed and
undressed with childish fondness? a mere human toy, to lan-
^ish over a romance, or to figure in a quadrille ? Far othei^
wise: she was a woman in all the noble attributes which. should
dignify that name ; a wife, a mother, a housekeeper, a farmer, a
gardener, a dairy-woman, a kind neighbor, a benefactor to the
■^oor, a Christian woman, " full of good works, and alms-deeds
."which rile did."
In the momiog, I first met her at prayers ; for, to the honor
•tf England, there is scarcely a family, among the hundreds
-whose hospitality I have shared, where the duties of the day at*
Bot jnreceded by the services of family worship; and the master
sod the servant, the parent and the child, tbe teacher and the
)yGoo»^Ic
261 CUBOPCUr IfiUCITLTUBB.
taught, the friend and the stranger, come together to recognize
and strengthen the sense of their common equality in the
presence of their common Father, and to acknowledge their
equal dependence npon his caie and mercy. She was then kind
enough to tell me, after hei morning arrangements, she claimed
me for the day. She first showed me her children, whom, like
the Roman mother, she deemed her brightest jewels, and
arranged their studies and occupations for the day. She then
took me two or three miles on foot to visit a sick neighbor, and,
while performing this act of kindness, left me to visit some of
the cottages upon the estate, whose inmates I found loud in the
praises of her kindness and benefactions. Our next excursion
was to see some of the finest, and largest, and most aged trees in
the park, the size of which was truly magnificent ; and I sym-
pathized in the veneration which she expressed for them, which
was like that with which one recalls the illustrious memory of a
remote progenitor. Our next visit was to the greenhouses and
the gardens ; and she explained to me the mode adopted there of
managing the most delicate plants, and of cultivating, in the
most economical and successful manner, the fruits of a warmer
region. From the garden we proceeded to the cultivated fields;
and she informed me of the system of husbandry pursued on the
estate, the rotation of crops, the management and application of
manures, the amount of seed sown, the ordinary yield, and the
appropriation of the produce, with a perspicuous detail of the
expenses and results. She then undertook to show me the
yards and offices, the byres, the feeding-stalls, the plans for
saving, and increasing, and managing, the manure, the cattle for
feeding, for breeding, for raising, the milking stock, the piggery,
the poultry-yard, the stables, the harness-rooms, the implement-
rooms,- the dairy. - She explained to me the process of making
the difi'erent kinds of cheese, and the general management of the
milk, and the mode of feeding the stock ; and then, conducting
me into the bailifTs house, she exhibited to me the Farm Jour-
nal, and the whole systematic mode of keeping the accounts and
making the returns, with which she seemed as familiar as if they
were the accounts of her own wardrobe. This did not finish
our grand tour ; for, on my return, she admitted me into her
boudoir, and showed me the secrets of her own admirable house-
vifery, in the exact accounts which she kept of every thing
)yGoo»^Ic
A FBHCIL 8KKTCH. 255
connected wilh the dairy and the maiket, the table, the drawing-
room, and the servants' hall. All this was done with a sim-
]dicity and a frankness which showed an absence of all con-
■ciousness of any extraordinary merit in her owa deportment,
and which evidently sprang solely from a kind desire to gratify
a curiosity on my part, which, I hope, under such circumstances,
was not unreasonable. A short hour after this broi^ht us into
another relation ; for the dinner-bell summoned us, and this same
lady was found presiding over a brilliant circle of the highest
rank and fashion, with an ease, elegance, wit, intelligence, and
good-humor, with a kind attention to every one's wants, and an
aoafilected concern for every one's comfort, which would lead
one to suppose that this was hei only and her peculiar sphere.
Now, I will not say how many mud-puddles we had waded
through, and how many dung-heaps we had crossed, and what
places we explored, and how every farming topic was discussed ;
but I will say, that she pursued her object without any of that
fiutidiousness and affected delicacy which pass with some
pnsoDS for refinement, but which in many cases indicate a
weak if not a corrupt mind. The mind which is occupied with
concerns and subjects that are worthy to occupy it, thinks very
Kltle of accessories which are of no importance. I will say, to
Uie cred^ of Englishwomen, -— I speak, of course, of the upper
classes, — that it seems impossible that there should exist a more
delicate sense of propriety than is found universally among
them -, and yet you will perceive at once that their good sense
teaches them that true delicacy is much more an element of the
mind, in the person who speaks or observes, than an attribute of
the subject which is spoken about or observed. A friend told
me that Canova assured him that, in modelling the wonderful
statue of the Three Graces, from real life, he was never at any
time conscious of an improper emotion or thought ; and if any
man can look at this splendid production, this affecting imbodi-
ment of a genius almost creative and divine, with any other
emotion than that of the most profound and respectful admira-
tion, he may well tremble for the utter corruption, within him,
of that moral nature which God designed should elevate him
above the brute creation.
Now, I do not say that the lady to whom I hare referred was
berself the manager of the farm ; thai rested entirely with her
)yGoo»^Ic
866 EtntorcAH AauciiLTintB.
hosband ; bat I hare intended simply to show how grateM and
gratifying to him must have been the lively interest and synv-
pathy which she took iii concerns which necessarily so much
engaged his time and attention ; wid how the conntry couM be
divested of that dulness and ennui, so often complained of aa
inseparable from it, when a cordial and practical interest is taken
in the concerns which necessarily belong to rural life. I meant
also to show — as this and many other examples which have
come imder my observation emphatically do show — that an
interest in, and a familiarity with, even the most humUe occii-
pationa of agricultural life, are not inconsistent with the highest
refinements of taste, the most improved cultivation of the mind,
the practice of the polite accomplishments, and a grace, and
elegance, and dignity of maimers, unsurpassed in the highest
circles of society.
XXm. — UFB m THE GOOWTRY.
To live in the country, and enjoy all its pleasutes, we shoaM
love the country. To love the cotmtry is to take an interest Bt
all that belongs to the country — its occupations, its sports, its
culture, and its improvements, its fields and its forests, its treef
and rocks, its valleys and hills, its lakes and rivers ; to gather
the docks around as, and feed them from our own hands ; to
make the birds our friends, and call them all by their names ; to
wear a chaplet of roses as if it were a princely diadem ; to rove
over the verdant fields with a higher j^eajsure than we should
tread the carpeted halls c^ regal courts ; to inhale the fnsb air
of the morning as if it were the sweet breath of infancy ; to
bmsh the dew firom the glittering fields as if our path were
strewed with diamonds ; to hold converse with the trees of tha
forest, in their youth and in their decay, as if they conld tell tv
the history of their own times, uid as if the gnarled berk of the
aged among them were all written over with the record of by
gone days, of those who {Janted them, and those who eariy
gathered theii fruits ; to find hope uid joy bursting like a flood
upon our hearts, as the darting rays of light gently Ineak nptm
)yGoo»^Ic
TETESIMAXX 001.LB0E. 3£7
the eastern hoiizoii ; to see the desceodil^ sun robing himself in
tnimished clouds, as if these veie the gathering glories of the
divine throne ; to find in the clear evening of winter our
chamber studded with countless gems of Uving light; to feel
that " we ate never less alone thas when alone ; " to make even
^e stilluess and solitude of the country eloquent ; and above all,
in the beauty of every object which presents itself to oui senses,
and in the unbought provision which sustains,, and comforts, and
fills with joy, the countless multitudes of living existences which
people the laud, the water, the air, erery where to rejJetion, to
see the radiant tokens of an infinite and inexhaustible benefi-
cence, as they roll by us and around us in one ceaseless flood ;
and in a clear and bright day of summer, to stand out in the
Dudst of this resplendent creation, circled by an horizon which
continually retreats irom our advances, holding its distance
undiminished, and with the broad and deep blue arches of
heaven over us, whose depths no human imagination can fathom ;
to perceive this glorious temple all instinct with the presence of
the Divinity, and to feel, amidst all this, the brain growing dizzy
with wonder, and the heart swellii^ with an adoration and a
holy joy, absolutely incapable of utterance ; — this it is to love
the country, and to make it, not the home of the person only, but
of the soul.
XL. — VETERINARY COLLEGE.
I must not quit the subject of agricultural education without
adverting to some other institutions of great importance. The
first of these is the Veterinary College, near London. I believe
there is one of a simitar character near Edinburgh ; but that I
have not visited.
The object of this institution was to qualify pereons, by the
study of comparative anatomy and physiology, and by oppor-
tunities for witnessing hospital practice and investigating the
symptoms and phenomena of disease in the lower animals, to
practise veterinary surgery and medicine ; and to do what can
be done, by ddll and science, for the relief of the sufieringa and
)yGoo»^Ic
tSie cnn of the mdsdies of qnadrupedt of alt kiads — honet, cattle,
dieep, dc^s, &c. For Uiia purpose, a number of gsntlsmea
associated, and, by a subocription for life of twenty guineas each,
or an annual payment of two guineas, laid the foundation of this
excellent and humane establirtimeot. An extensive plot of
(round, about thiee milea from the oentre of London, waa
obtained, and the necessary buildingB— consisting of stables and
loose boxes; long piazzas for the purpose of giving the patieutt
exercise in bad weather under corer ; a room for lectures and
dissections, and for a moseam of analnnical preparations ; and
specimens of diseased o^anization, and a fo^e for shoei^,
together with apartments for the resident professor, and for the
accommodation of the serraots of the estabUshment — have been
erected ; and already nearly or quite a thousand pupils have
received diplomas or certificates of their qualifications for
practice, and have gone to the business ot Amr pnfessira iD
different parts of tfie kingdom, in the army, and in fmeigD
countries.
{Subscribers to the estaMishment have the privilege of seodiBg
their horses, or diseased animals, to the institutioi), without any
other expense than the actual cost of theii food ; but no aninsJ
can be admitted which is not the propwty of either an annual or a
permanent subscriber. The horses of subscribers are sontetinmi
prescribed for at their own stables, when it is inconvenient to
send them, provided the medicines are compounded at (he
college. In case the disease of an animal is jffonounced des-
perate, the owner, upon paying the expenses already incurred,
may surrender him to the college ; and if, by any treatment
which they may see fit to adopt, the aninud is recovered, the
owner may hare him again by payir^; the additional expenses
since his surrender, or he will be coasideTed the ixroperty of ttw
college. Horses likewise may he shod at the forge o( the
'college at the costomaiy changes. Subscribers likewise, at a
distance, hare tbe privilege of procuring any medioima or dn^s,
which may be required, compounded at tits oellege, and fur^
nished at the actual cest.
A principal and an a^nn«ft professor of Teterimny -science and
practice, men eminent for their knowledge and skill, preside over
the institution, and give regular courses of lectures and examitut-
tions ; and the number of patients in the iqfiimsry is gcaersUor
)yGoo»^Ic
aooh as (o affud tlie atudentA an opportunity of seeing a consid-
enble variety of [Htustice, especially among horses, to which
hitfaerto the practice has been mainly confined. Besides this,
through the libenlity of the professors of the Medical College,
libe students at the Veleriovy Institution hare an opportunity
oi attmdin; die medicai and aoatomical lectures gratuitously
at these institutions ; uid, to guard, as far as possible, against
%ttonnce and incompetency, no student can receive the diploma
or leoommeiiidatiou of the institution to practise, until he has
passed a regular and thorough examination, and has been found
qualified £« the duty.
Tfaia is a most excellent institution, In an economical view, .
it ja highly important ; for the amount of property iu live stock
is every vrheie very great ; and here, where, as in several esiab-
Uritments kept by a single individual, there are twenty and
tfiirty, and sometimes forty horses for hunting, and in other
cases as many man fw racing, — and where, as in several cases
within my knowledge, packs of dogs, of very great original cost,
are k^ at an eiqiense of from fifteen hundred to two thousand
pounds, or from seven tfaonsand to ten thousand dollars, a year,
and ki many caaes m(u» than that, — it is easy to see what a
Isiga amount of property is at stake, and to what care it is
SDtitldl I have been at one or two establishments where Uw
hMsea m the stables, exclusive of horses for farm work, amount-
ed to sixty or eighty. The large number of cavalry horses
helongii^ to the army render the services of a veterinary sur-
geon, in such estaUidmients, of indispensable importance.
Surgery, as ao art, has been carried to great perfection ; and ia
aome circonutancM hardly any thing more seems wanting than
actually to breathe into scone of the artificial anatomical prepara-
tions the PrometheEUi fire, and set the circulations in moti<aL
Jledieme, indeed, presents but few iofsllibte reioadios, but some-
;thiag has been done ; and if comparatively little has been aocom-
-pliahed'by physic, yet muoh has beoi dene by a curative tr«at-
jnant and r^imen. I am aware that it is quite cusdomary t«
say of many novel, and certainly rery gentle modes of treatmei^,
4ft recent date, that the patients are cured by the imagiQaiiou;;
' and this is as i^resable a mode of curs as bloodletting, or
powerful doflse of calomel and jalap, or the excitiog operation o£
^tmish 'flies. It is obvious, bowavet, that, until we toafe^
)yGoo»^Ic
»60 EDBorcur AeBiCDi.TuuE.
much further progress in phrenological Bcience, we can do little
by apj^icatiouB to the imaginations of horses or d<^. But,
whatever imperfection attaches itself to medical science, some-
thing at least may be gained from it ; and it certainly presents
the only practicable and [ffobable means of learning the nature
of disease, and combating its power. At any rate, medical
science, and a thorough medical education, seem to afford the
only substantial security agunst the evils of empiricism or
quackery ; and, to say nothing of experiments upon the human
organism, I hare myself seen, imder the pretence of remedy or
cure, such horrible cruelties practised upon dumb animals, as
. have filled me with indignation, and have made me indulge the
inhuman wish of changing places with the operator — of putting
him in the position of his unhappy patient, and of being allowed
to try some of his [descriptions upon himself. If they answered,
well ; but, in many cases, I think he would soon be past answer-
ii^ at all. The public have reason to congratulate themselves
that medical practice is now every where assuming the character
of prevention rather than of cure ; and that the truly respectable
part of the profession, dropping that profound air of mystery
with which they formerly were accustomed to wrap themselves
up, and which made one tremble in their presence almost as
much as in the presence of the original [ffofessor of the black art,
now prefer the more simple to the more artificial practice.
They seem to be fast learning that Nature, like others of the
sex, may be persuaded, but not forced ; may be kindly led, but
woe be to the man who attempts to drive faer; and that, in
truth, the great object of medicine is, not to give health, but to
remove disease ; to clean and adjust the machinery, and then it
will go right of itself, barring accidents, as long as it is intended
to go at alL
■ I have already spoken of the importance of the veterinary art
in an economical view. A frightful disease has for some time
prevailed among the cattle in England, Ireland, and the Con-
tinent I met with one farmer who assured me that be had lost
by it, in one season, ninety-seven cattle, and he feared his whole
herd might peri^ with it, for he could find no remedy. Now,
there is no hope of any remedy but from the investigations of -
medical skill and science. We want men, therefore, who by
education are ijnalified for, and willing to devote themselTes to, the
)yGoo»^Ic
viTBmiiuBT cotL—m. 3Slt
mqaiiy into the caosea and means of pnventioB (^ nich direful
calamitieB. Tbe epidemic still preraib in Gaghuid and on the
CoDtioeDt ; and i^plicatioQ has been made to the goremmcnt to
check the impoitatioii of foTe%n cattle, lest they rfwald aasial
in the s|wead of tiw diaeaee. Indeed, numbers of cattle &n
abnost ^very veek, as I have reason to beliere, biought to
9raithfidd in such a state of diaeaae as to be fit fi» no othes
purpoee — and for this they are actually bought — hot to make
aaosages for the poor Lond«wrsv I hardly daie say that this i»
not to be coffipUined of ; bat when one see* the extreme and
indescribable misery and destitution of many of these poor
vrctches, appasently irranediable and hopeless, one almoal
hesitates, in sad desperation, to lamml a mode (rf disposing
(rf* them after tbe Napoleon example of the trestmeitt of hia
sick pnsraen at Jafla, I almost trembie vhile I write upon
such a subject as this. It ia indispensable to see, in order to
belsBTe. I have bad the painfol, I hope not improper, cnrioaity
to penatnto many of these sobterranean hiding-fdacee and den*
of miaery ; and it is my sober conriction that the hnman imagi-
mtkm cannot exaggerate the physical aufiering, and, too com-
monly cooseqnent apon that, tbe moral degradation in which
many thoosands, in this glorious and prosperous country, drag
out tbmr wretched existence. But I advocate the establishment
of veterinary inatitutiMU, and tbe cuitivatitm of veterinaiy med-
icine, cm the broad gromMl of hnmanity ; and I hope many such
institiiticHas will grow np in America, and that speedily. It is
remarkable that, in the disease of one of our domestic aaimals,
medical science has discovered the only effectual preventive tot
one of the most dreadful Bcou^es which, in the form of diseaae,
ever aflicted mankind. 1 refer, of course, to vaccination.
But these animals have bones to ache, and nerves to feel, a>
mil as ourselres. They fumirii our support ; they perform oar
labors ; they promote our pleasures ; they are patient, enduring,
and indefatigable, in our service. Has not God cast them upon
onr care, and put them under our protection ? What a respon-
sibility I Shall it be said that those who have no voice to apeak
for themselves, shall find no one to speak for them ? What if
they have no moral nature ? Then they have not the vices of
ffiiin»J« of a superior class, who, dishonoring, perverting, and
onttagtng, that moral natue, degrade themselves iar below the
)yGoo»^Ic
)Bm BUBOrUH AGBICULTnBI.
class of beings guided only by instinctive impulses. It is said
of the great emperor, that his heart was never more touched, if
heart indeed he had, than on a certain occasion, whea, three
days after a sanguinary battle, when human victims were immo-
lated to his dreadful ambition by thousands, riding over a field
thickly strewed with the dying and the dead, he 'found a faithful
dog lying by the side and licking the bleeding wounds of his
dying master. The noble d(^ of St. Bernard, dragging the
perishing traveller from the snow-driA to the hospitable convent,
for warmth and comfort, and the poor spaniel dying with slow
starvation upon the grave of his master, and refusing to be led
away or to be comforted, are pictures of heroism and fidelity
worthy of a place at the side of that of B«guliis, deaf to the
entreaties of his ifomiJy, takir^ leave of the senate on his return
to fulfil his pledge, or that of the Qrecian daughter nourishing
her father in prison.
Humanity calls upon us to alleviate suffering, wherever suf-
fering exists. I wish that veterinary instruction was connected
with all our medical schools, and made an indispensable branch
of study. We try all kinds of experiments upon these helpless
animf^s for the benefit of science, and science should do some-
thing to repay the debt, by attempting, in every practicable form,
to alleviate the sufferings of the race. In the country, a medical
practitioner, who would add veterinary skill and practice to his
other services, would confer immense benefits. It is lamentable
that, by a &lse standard of moral duty, such an office should be
thoi^fat degrading. In many cases, it might subject him to
painful and thankless services ; but the life of every benevolent
physician is full of such services, and he has only to thank Ood
that he has the power of doing so much good, often at so little
cost So far firom such a practice being degrading, the physician
who would be willing to render such services would be worthy
of double honor ; for the more humble, the meaner, the more
fiiendless the sufferer, proportionately is the glory of the kindness
enhanced. There is no reason, however, why such services
should be gratuitous, and in many situations it would form a
profitable branch of practice.
)yGoo»^Ic
MUSEIFlf or XOOnOHIC OEOLOOr,
XLI. — MUSEUM OF ECONOHIG GEOLOGY.
This is a most valuable establishment, in the centre of Lon-
don. Its whole object is utility, and principally in rendering
geological discoveries subservient to the promotion of the usefid
and oroamental arts. It is a most singular, but a well-estab-
lished fact, that the mineral treasures dug from the mines, in the
islands of Great Britain, amount to the enonnous sum of twenty
million pouads sterling per year, or one hundred million of
dollars, — of which eight million pounds, or forty million of dol-
lars, are of iron, and nine million pounds, or forty-five million of
dollars, of coal. It is easy to see what a vast interest is at stake
in these matters. In another form, I hope to be able to give
some account of a visit which I made to oae of these immense
excavations, where I descended, by a ladder, seven hundred feet,
tad then groped my way through various crevices, and chambers,
and shafts, a distance of perhaps two miles under ground. I am
disposed to think it would be misplaced in an agricultural report,
where 1 am afraid my friends will already find too many things
oat of place. I can only, in this matter, throw myself upon the
indulgence of my readers, and remind them of the variety of
tastes and appetites which I am compelled to consult. If, in
^te of all this, a bill of indictment should be brought against
me for making my Reports too miscellaneous, I shall at once
allow a plea of guilty to be recorded, and throw myself upon the
mercy of the court. I am indeed, in this way, an old offender,
and I cannot express the gratitude which I feel for the mercy I
have so oflen experienced.
The Museum of Economic Geology, though not founded
principally for the benefit of agricultural science, is yet made
subsidiary to this object The geological structure of any por-
tion of the earth's surface seems intimately related to the nature
of the soil which rests upon it; so that, from knowing the
structure of the rocky substratum of a country, you can infer
strongly its fertility or its infertility, or the adaptation of its soil
to various crops. The general opinion is, that all soils are
formed from the crumbling or detrition of locks, mixed with
KUQe vegetable or organic matter. This is the received theory,
)yGoo»^Ic
bnt it is Dot vithout its difficulties. I have do disposition to
coQtroTeit it, for a man who battles with the stones is quite mue
to have the worst of it. The original form of the earth is
wrapped in impenetrable obscurity. Science is domg enry
thing she can to unfold the leaves of this wondeiiul book ; but
where they have been most successfully sepaiated and ex-
pounded, they are found so scratched, and torn, and blurred aU
over, that the letters are with extreme difficulty made legible.
We soon learn that it was a much earlier specimen of printing
Ulan has been generally supposed, and some of it in a language
that is lost. It does not appear to me more certain that the
locks were first formed, and then portions of them reduced to
such a fine state of comminalion as to form soils, than that the
earth was originally in a state of fine atoms, and then, by the
operation of fire, and water, and pressure from within and with-
out, amidst violent terrene convulsions, rocks were formed, end
the various strata arranged. It would seem not im]»obable
that, from the earliest period of the reduction of its tempeiatun
to a degree that vegetable life could exist upon it, vegetable life
.i^peared ; and by successive convulsions this vegetable life
itself became overwhelmed, and was transftvmed into those
immense beds of fossil deposits which occupy so large a portion
of the surface, or upper portion, of the globe. How afbrwarda
aucb vast deposits of earth took place over these beds of vege-
rtaitile remains, can be explained only by some immense and
ntterly inexplicable convulsion and disruption of portions of ihe
earth. It is admitted that the Character of the soil often bears a
.direct relation to the rocks which it overlays, and evidently a
considerable portion of it is formed from the detritus of these
subjacent rocks ; but the vast amount of drift or <liluvitmi scat-
tered over the earth's surface, and often at immense distances
^m places where, upon the common theory, it is supposed to
bare been formed, shows that the geologic^ indications above
referred to are not infallible.
The Museum of Economic Geology is intended to exhibit
specimens of varions soils from the different localities in the
country, wirti illustrations, as far as they can be obtained, of
their peculiar adaptation tn agricultural purposes ; and ctmnccted
with the museum is a chemical laboratory for the analysis of
■oils which may harve already been obtained, or which may be
)yGoo»^Ic
CHKUCAI. AOMIOOLnnUL ASMkCUXIOII IN SCOTLAMD. SA9
bioQght by farmen or land-owneia fot that ptnpoae. The
museum is opea to the gratuitous inspectioD of the public, and
is clearly the genu of an institution of great ntiagnitudo and
importance. The establishment is at |»e9ei;Lt under the man^e-
ment of Mr. Richard Phillips, F. R. S., a man desetrvodly emi-
nent for hia skill ia chemistry and natural scieace, to vhow
indefatigable kindness I should do great injustice to my oim
grateful feelings if I did not here record my deep sepse of obli-
gation.
XLIL — CHEBUCAL AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION IN
SCOTLAND.
The farmers in Scotland, certainly inferior to none in agri-
cultural enterprise^ intelligence, and skill, and demoastiating this
by a husbandry moat exact and productive, have associated
themaelres together for the eocouragemeat of the application of
chemistry to the improrement of agriculture. Proprietors oi
land pay a yearly subscription of one pound or upwards to the
association, and tenants tea shiUings. This sum entitles each
of them to two analyses a year at a certain fixed low rate. All
above that number are charged half more. The analyst ia
required to give only such analysis as will answer the desired
purpose. Agricultural societies, by a yearly payment of five
pounds to the association, are entitled to one lecture from the
agricultural professor ; for ten pounds, to two lectures, and so
on ; and the travelling expenses of the lecturer are likewise to
be paid by those who employ him.
The society, more than a year since, [voceeded to appoint, at
a liberal salary, Mi. F. W. S. Johnston, an agricultural lecturer
and chemist, to the office of chemist and lecturer to the associa-
tion ; and a chemical laboratory and depository are established
and in full operation at Ildinbui^h. Mr. Johnston is well known
to the agricultural community by his valuable works on agricul-
tural chemistry, some of which hare been reprinted in the United
States, and in both countries have hod a very extended circuli^
tion. The success of the association, it is reported, has been
)yGoo»^Ic
X66 BumoPKAH tancuVTum.
iuch as to satisfy the original subscribetB of its utility. It has
led, through the lectures of the professor, to the establishment
of Bereral agricultural periodicals, and has throughout Scotland
infused new spirit into the veins of the agricultuial body, and
quickened its pulse. One of the most substantial benefits as yet
resulting from it has been the analytical examination of ninety
different specimens of guano imported into Scotland ; and that
to secure Uie ianners from impositions, which, in cases before
this, have not been infrequent.
After the remarks which I have made in a former part of my
Report, it certainly is only just that I should subjoin the analysis
made at this place of two soils from Renfrewshire, with the
results of the appUcation prescribed for them.
I. IL
Pctc«bi. ttrtmn.
" O^anic matter, 12.05 . . 10.43
Salts soluble in water ; sulphates, . . 1.23 . . 0.76
Oiida of iron, 6.73 . . 10.78
Manganese, 0.19 . . 0.24
Alumina, 4.69 . . 2.87
Magnesia, trace. . . trace.
Phosphoric acids, trace. . . trace.
Silicious matter and clay 74.67 . . 73.21
" But a mere trace of magnesia and phosphoric acid was found
in either of these soils. It was ' therefore recommended to add
to both of them the magnesia in the state of sulphate, and the
phos[4)oric acid as bone-earth. The effect has been most won-
derful and striking." — The letter frith which I have been
iarored adds, "None of the analyses I have given are very
elaborate, but they are sufficiently so for practical purposes, and
they do not confuse or mystify the farmer with hard names."
I had the pleasure of visiting this institution, and there was
certainly no want of the indications of industry. I have only to
regret that my friend's account of his two patients above is so
short and imperfect I should be glad to have been able to
inform my readers what was the exact condition of the patients
before talcing the prescription, and their particular state of health
afkerit.
)yGoo»^Ic
CHEHCAb JLOUCULTOaU. UOTUaBS.
XLUL — CHEMICAL AGRICULTURAL LECTURES.
During the last winter, a course of ten lectures, illustrated by
nunaerous experiments, vas giren by Professor Brande, F. R. S.,
veil known in the scientific world, on the chemistry of agri-
culture, at the rooms of the Royal Institution, — which, through
his politeness, I had the pleasure of attending. They might be
considered aa almost wholly scientific, and were exceedingly
interesting and instructive. Mr. Brande spoke of himself aa
having been a pupil or associate of the distinguished Sir
Humphry Davy, who lectured on the same subjects ia this same
institution, and who may be said to have taken the first step in
the great movement, which is now so widely felt, of the applica-
tion of science, properly so called, to agriculture.
Professor Brande 's lectures were numerously attended, by
ladies as well as geatlemen. Several of the ladies were always
busy in taking notes of the lectures. I felt the highest respect
for them on this accotmt ; and if I had been, aa is said among
the cte^y, "a candidate for settlement," with my strong pred>
Uectiona for agricultural pursuits, I might iayo been tempted to
inquire about some of them, whose high and cs^ncious foreheads
gave a noble indication of what was within, whether they also
were in the transition state. Certainly here, as well aa any
where, I may claim for an American woman the honor of pre-
senting from her own pen an excellent translation, from the
Piench, of Chaptal's Agricultural Chemistry, to the American
public. Her name is modestly <trithheld from the title-page,
sad therefore I have no right to give it
I shall give below a syllabus of Professor Brande's lectures on
these occasions, because I so stror^ly wish the example should
be followed in my own country.
1st. Lecture. Thk Son.. — Its components ; whence derived.
— Inorganic Conatittunts of the Soil. Silica ; alumina ; lime ;
magnesia; oxide of iron; alkalies; phosphorus; sulf^ur; salts;
water ; decay of rocks ; sand ; clay ; marl ; chalk ; other simple
soils. — Organic Conatiiuenta. Hmnus or humic acid ; their
influences and uses. Absorptive power in regard to air, water,
)yGoo»^Ic
MS
and gaset. Radiating and receptive powan in respect to solar
mya. Various {Jiyaical conditiona of the soil.
II. The Athosfheu. — Its composition; invariable and va^
riable coostituents. Influence of the moiattue, carbonic acid,
and ammonia, of the atmosphere.
IIL Tee VeocTABLE. — Its Ultimate Ciuutitaentt, and tbeir
•ources ; carbon ; oxygen ; hydrogen ; nitrogen. The aourees
■nd importance of the so-called inorganic constitaents of the
vegetable; acids; alkalies; oxides; salts. — Proximate Cott-
ttituenit of the vegetable ; np ; wood ; stardi ; sugar ; gum.
Their metamorphoses; glalen; albumen; fibrine; caaeine;
legumine ; proteine ; resins ; oils ; acids ; alkalies ; feimenlation ;
eremacausis ; pntrefaction.
IV, Functions asd Okowth or Vkoetaslbs. — Oermioatiofi;
general organization of veget^laa ; roots ; tmnk ; twancfaee ;
leaves ; flowera ; buds ; functions of the roots and of the loaves.
V. Pbinciplbs op thk Impbovbhcnt or Soils. — Mechanical,
as influencing texture; chemical, as influencii^ eofi^MSf/Mii
manwea, of inorganic, organic, and mixed origin. Draining;
ploDghing ; burning ; iirigation ; green crops ; interchange cS
crops; fallows.
I make no apology for giving to my readers diis instiuctive
syllabus in full. It is said of Q,ueen Elizabeth that, bdug
arited by one of her maids of honor for a book to read, she gave
her an English dictionary. The lady presently retnmed it to
her majesty with many thanks, and stated " that she had been
mach interested in the perusal." There was mora wisdom in
this reply than at first appears. To say nothing of its cmve-
nience, yet I have often found a copious index, or a well-digested
table of contents, an interesting and ihstructive portion of a book.
XLIV. — EMPLOYMENT OF AGRICULTURISTS.
la the tedmical sense of the term, agriatitvrut means a
teacher of agriculture. Under tb« excellent management of
)yGoo»^Ic
EUPLOTHCNT Or AaBlCIIt.TOUSTS. 869
William Blacker, Esq., on the estate of Lord Oosford, in the
eountf of Armagh, Ireland, an experienced and intelligent man,
well skilled in communicating his ideas, is employed to visit the
tenants on the property, to advise them in regard lo the manage-
ment and cultivation of their small farms, and to encouiage them
by some small [vemiums, and by reporting their condition and
success to the principal manager. The occupations in these
cases are very small, often not en^eeding three, four, and six
acres. As I understood Mr. Blacker, he has the care of twenty*
five hundred tenants on the property of this nobleman. This
number, I confess, seems very extraordinary ; but the subdi-
visions on the place are quite small and numerous. I shall, on
another occasion, give a particular account of Mr. Blacker's
excellent management of small farms, because it is full of useful
instruction, and does the highest honor to his judgment, perse-
verance, and benevolence. At present, I speak only of the
employment of an agriculturist, which has been attended with
the best effects. This person lives on the estate, and has a
small amount of land in the neighborhood of his own house,
which he is expected to keep in the best possible order, accord-
ing to the system which he lays down for others, — so that he
is called upon to teach by example as well as precept.
The same arrai^ement has been made, at the suggestion of
Mr. Blacker, on the farm of Lady Bassett, near Camborne, in
Cornwall, which I had the pleasure to visit Here, too, it works
well. The farmers in Cornwall hold larger forms than in
Armagh, and therefore have a higher idea of their own impor-
tance. They were at first very jealous of the direct approaches
of the agriculturist to advise and instruct them. But by a little
address, and by especially-avoiding any thing like dc^imatism or
self-conceit, and by a frank manner convincing the fkimers that
he was disinterestedly seeking their good, his success is becom-
ing remarkable, and he is every day gainii^ upon their esteem
and confidence. A horse, loose in a pasture, can rarely be
caught if you approach him swinging the bridle, the emblem of
his subjugation, before his eyes ; but if you go to him shaking
only the measure of oats before him, and concealing the bridle
under yoor coat, yon can generally take him without difficulty.
I am no advocate for treachery under any form ; but where the
object aimed at is unexceptionable and excellent, I see no occa-
)yGoo»^Ic
S70 msorcui AamMctn.ru»M.
tion for nnnflcenarily alanning the prejudices of thoM wbom ve
wish to Berve, or for awakening resistance by cfHumaad, when
We can easily enforce acquiescence by persuasion.
That the plan is sure to work well where the class of teosnti,
as in Armagh, are very small tenants, and ignorant withal, is
quite jdain ; but farmers on a large scale would be likely to
reject any direct interference. Yet these men often need
inatnictioQ. The knowledge of improvementa, in some catei,
extends itself by slow degrees ; oral instruction, coupled with
familiar illustrations, is always more interesting than books ; and
the employment of an agricultural missionary, of unobtnisire
- and kind manners, and perfectly competent to impart instroctitn),
to visit a district of country, that he might point out errors and
defects of cultivation, and exjriain the best modes of busbandrf
adapted to the climate and locality, would prove a most power-
ful means of awakening attention to the subject, of refonning
enors, and introducing desirable and substantial improvements.
XLV. — GUANO.
Having now completed what I designed to say upon the pro-
vision for agricultural education in Great Britain, I shall beg the
indulgence of my readers in reverting to a topic of a diffeieot
character, and which, in a more methodical arrangement, would
have had a {dace in a different part of my work. A stroi^ and
impatient desire has been expressed -that I ^ould give wbat
infonmUion I possess on the subject of the recently-introduced
and most extraordinary manure called guano ; and I thereibre
apeak of it in this place.
i do not deem it necessary to go into the history of a sub-
stance which has been made so ^miliar by the public discDS-
siona which have takeu place in relation to it That it is an
animal deposit, is well established. It is the excrement of sea-
birds accustomed to frequent certain islands in the Pacific Ocean
and other places in the tropical latitudes. Its use as a manure
is not new in those countries where it has been found. In Peru,
)yGoo»^Ic
GUANO. Sn
the birds vho caused the deposit were protected by severe laws,
and the value of the manure waa fully underatood. The amount
of the accumulations, considering the nature of the deposit, is
immense, being represented, by travellers, as from three to sevea
hundred feet in depth. The number of birds is stated to bo
almost beyond calculation ; and any person who will take the
bvuble to read, in that delightful book, Wilson's Ornithology,
the accounts of the roosting-pJaces of the passenger-pigeon in
some of the Western States of America, will readily confide in
irell-authenticated accounts of the number of these birds, which
would otherwise be deemed egregiotts exaggerations. To the
gentlemen in Ei^land who are food of what is termed a battue,
a voyage to the Pacific to shoot the guano birds would afford
excellent sport ; and if in such case they would bring back loads
of this valuable manure, it might not prove an un^vofitable enter-
prise, and they would perform a double work of conciliation to
the formers. Their accounts of one or two days' shooting, or
knocking down the birds with the butt-ends of their guns,
would be read here with the greatest avidity, and eclipse all
their former exf^oits of killing hmidreds of game in a single day
where the beaters were employed to drive them directly under
the muzzles of their guns, and where occasionally they are
obliged to knock down a poacher instead of a penguin.
These deposits are made in a climate where, for a considerable
part of the year, little rain falls, and where the intense heat of
the sun fonns such a crust over the deposit, that it becomes
almost insolnble. Supposing a deposit to be made of two inches
a year, for three thousand years, this would give a depth of five
hundred feet; and therefore the report of the depth of these
deposits, though surprising, is by no means intrinsically incred-
ible. The extraordinary effect of this manure is another remark-
able circumstance. The dung of the domestic pigeon or fowl is
among the strongest used, but it is not so powerful as guano.
In the excrements of birds, the solid and liquid portions are
combined. 'Hiis is one secret of their strength. In the case of
the gnano birds, their food is wholly fish, and not, as with our
domestic birds, mainly farinaceous ; and therefore it abounds in
nitrogen, uid in bony substances, or phosphates.
The secret of the extraordinary success of (his mantue is not
yet solved, however nearly a solution may have been approz-
)yGoo»^Ic
273 suBOPSAs
imaled. Thia u evident finmi the fact that, after the most exact
and minnlfl analysis of this manure, conducted with aU the skill
and science which can be brought to bear upon it, no ooe has
been able to fonn an aitificial piano with any degree ot its
efficacy. Chemistry determines with wonderful accuracy itt
inoi^anic properties ; but fifty per cenL of it is organic matter,
and this being dissipated or lost in the process of analysis, noth-
ing is known of it but its absolute quantity. Every common
ftnner knows that horse manure, cow manure, hog manure,
dieep manure, are all specifically different, and their effects and
uses are different ; and I believe this depends not more upon m.
difference in their inorganic elements, than uptm scnne specific
effects of their organic elements ; and though bones, and cows,
and ^eep, should be fed upon precisely the same food, their
excrementitious nutter would be specifically different, and the
effects upon vegetation different. I {Ketend not to say in what
this difference consists ; this, chemistry has not yet reached,
though I can but hope the goal will j»esently be attained. I
am not therefore entirely satisfied with any account whk^
chemistry has given of guano, so fu as its operation is concerned.
It has done much, and is clearly able to determine the different
qiecific values of different samples. This is of great importance
to the fanner, and not less so to the honest dealer. But Ibe
speciSc qualities of this extraordinary manure, as proved by its
effects, are, 1 presume to believe, with all possible respect for
science, yet to be discovered. I know the consequences of ques-
tioning the infallibility of the pope, but I am no Catholic.
One, indeed, may well speak of its effects as extraordinary,
fiom what I myself have seen. In Scotland, last autumn, two
shrubs were shown to me, sweet-briers, growing in front of a
two-etory house, and trained upon its sides ; one at one, the
other at the other end. The soil in which they grew, the
aspect, and other circumstances, were the same. One, in the
season, had grown six or seven feet ; the other, nearly thirty
feet ! It had actually climbed to the roof of the house, and
turned and hung down, reaching half the distance down from
the roof to the ground. I judged this could not have been less
than thirty feet. This had been repeatedly watered with liquid
guano, by the hands of its fair cultivator ; for this was another
experiment by a lady, (which I hope my American friends will
)yGoo»^Ic
bear m mind.) The other had received no special can or
manuring. This cbanning vooiao, surrouiided by her lovely
children, was equally engf^ed in teaching the young idea as the
sn^eet-brier how to shoot, and they, too showed the beuitifiil
resottfl of devoted uul asstdaous culture.
I have seen the extraordinary effects of the application of
gtiano all over the ooontry, and I have met with very few
instances of disappomtment. I have been favored with a great
many reports of its apfJication ; bat my readers will, I think, be
better s^isfied with general results than with a long list of par-
ticular examples.
When I spe^ of its extraordinary effects, I yet do not c<ni*
sidex them as so surprising as the effects of gypsum in many
parts of the United States, whose operation, I venture to say,
remains wholly QDezplained. I do not, of course, mean to
imj^y that one can be sabstituted for the other. The effects of
half a bushel of &iely-powdered gypeum, scattered over an aci;6
of luid, in some places, in increasing the crop of grass, and in
respect to some other crops, is amazing ; yet in all England, I
have not been aide to find a single well-attested exam^e of its
being applied with any benefit whatever. The application of
guano ha& been made, in England and Scotland, to all kinds of
plants, and in some instances with great success ; indeed with
rarely a failnre.
It has been used for turnips, barley, wheat, oats, grass, garden
vegetables, onions, asparagus, potatoes, flowers, and trees. I
have seen its application in all ^ese cases, excepting asparagus
and trees ; bat the testimony which certifies its success in these
cases is imquestionable. Comparisons made between guano and
oihei manures, are not quite satisfactory in respect to quantities,
because it is obviously very difficult to institute any Instructive
cunparisoQ between so many pounds of guano, and so many
loads of manure ; manure is so varioiu in its nature, quality,
bulk, Ac. ; but it will be quite easy to compare the two in
respect to the ease or difficulty of their transportation, and tyt
titaii appUcBtion to the plant or soil. Comparisons, likewise, in
respect to the cost of different applications, as made here, would
be of tittle use in the United States, as prices of manure and of
labor are toiilly different ; and the one can afford no rule for the
)yGoo»^Ic
274 BDSOniN AOUCCLTITBE.
other. In this nutter, the &aasn of the United States must
judge for themselves.
The quantity vhich it is deemed best to apply varies front
two hundred weight to four hundred weight, or five hundred
weight. Frequent cases have occurred of the appliciUion of five
hundred weight and eight hundred weight, to a statute acre, with
great advantage. Cases are on record of twenty-nine snd thirty
hundred we^ht being applied to grass-land with a great, but not,
most certainly, a remunerating iociease of crop, I met one farm-
er in Lincolnshire, who thought more than one hundred weight
applied to turoipB was unnecessary; but the almost universal
testimony is in favor of three hundred weight. A bushel of
sifted guano weighs from fifty-two to fifty-four pounds.
In regard to the mode of ap[dic8tion, it is well settled that it
should seldom be applied alone. To garden vegetables, or
greenhouse plants, it may be applied in a state of solution in
water. In field cultivation, it may be applied by being mixed
with four or six times its quantity of dry earth or mould. In
this way, it may be sown broadcast over the field, and then
lightly harrowed or turned in ; or it may be sown first in the
same drill where the seed is to be dropped ; great care must be
taken, however, that it does not come in contact with the seed,
or it will destroy its vegetative powers. It is desirable that it
should be covered as soon as may be after being sown. The
best farmers give a caution against mixing it with lime, or
bones, or wood-ashes, as these substances, coming in contact
with it, will drive off its ammonia.
Wliere a portion of bam manure has been applied in conjunc-
tion with guano, the mixture has been found much more efficar
ciouB than the manure when applied alone. lu an application
which I saw, guano gave seven tons of turnips increase to an
acre over an artificial manure which had been much praised, and
was applied at the same time.
A good mode of preparing it for application is to mix it with
fine earth, on the headlands of the field where it is to be used,
forming it, with the earth, into alternate layers, in the proportion
of earth to the guano of three to one ; and after it has remained
two or three days, thoroughly incorporating them blether by
turning over the heap. ,
)yGoo»^Ic
•Duro. 270
With potatoes, it should be placed in the drill or hole, bat not
in coDtact with the set or seed ; and for Indian com — a case in
which i have had no ezperieoce — it would seem advisable to
adopt a simitar method.
The ezperimeDts of Mr. John Dudgeon hare been giren to
the public at large. As I had the pleasure of visiting his farm,
one of the best-managed in the kingdom, and saw some of the
experiments going on, I feel at liberty to give them, and it may
be interesting to my readers to have them in his own words.
" The following results, communicated by John Dudgeon,
Esq., of Spylaw, to the Highland and Agricultural Society, in
April, 1843, show, first, the relative produce of turnips from
guatio applied at the rate of three hundred weight, four hundred
weight, and five hundred weight, per acre, in competition with
the jwoduce from the farm-yard manure, applied at the mte of
eighteen yards per acre ; secondly, the trial of bone-dust with
crad-asfaes against guano alona, and guano mixed with a portion
of miphate of soda; thirdly, the trial of guano alone against
hone-duat alone.
" ' The first experiment was in a field lying upon a dope,
with a southern exposure, the soil consisting of a good loam
upon a retentive sub-soil ; the upper part of the field, for about a
fourth of its lei^th, gradually becoming shallower in soil, and
resting upon a hard muirland pan, so that the value of the lower
portion of the field, as compared with the upper, may be esti-
mated as three to one. This field has been but imperfectly
drained. It was dunged in the usual way, immediately before
sowing, with well-prepared farm-yard manure, at the rate of
about eighteen cubic yards to the acre, with the exception of
that portion to which guano was applied. Two ordinary drills
for the latter were selected at random, and the guano distributed
in them by the hand, without any mixture, at the rate of three
hundred weight per acre. Leaving an interval of three drills,
which were manured like the rest of the field, two other drills
were treated with guano, at the rate of four hundred weight per
acre ; and finally, with a similar space intervening, two drills
with guano at the rate of fully more than five hundred weight
per acre. No difierence appeared in the turnips (which were the
variety named Dale's hybrid) previous to singling or thinning
the [danta with the hoe ; after that, however, the superiority of
)yGo6»^Ic
S76 KCBOPEAM MB«Ctn.TinK.
the drills with the guano became mamfest, and eootiBoed to
increase with the growth of the turnips, particularly in those
drills which received the greatest quantity, till the whole wete
carted off in October, when the produce (topped and rooted) of
the whole six drills were weighed, each two as di&ring iu the
quantity of guano applied, compared with two drills immediately
atUoining, on whioh the farm-yatd manote had been used. The
following was the raeult ; —
Kindr
tf
JVMsn.
Freita f^ Jtr«.
Two drills with
ouaho, .
. 6 cwt. per
acre,
. 2e cwt. 5 St.
;: ::
I
dung, .
aUAMO, .
duDg, .
. 18 yds. "
. d cwt "
. 18 yd.. «
„
. 18 " 7 "
. 22 « 6 "
. 19 « 7 "
" "
"
OUAFO, .
. 3 cwt "
"
. 20 " 6 "
" "
"
dung, .
. 18 ydn "
"
. 19 " 2 "
" ' In the second experiment, a canparative trial was made
between guano and bone-duat mixed vitK eoal-aahea. The
ashes were sifted, and intimately mixed with the bones, seme
days before being applied, in the proportion of sixteen bushels <tf
bones and eight of ashes, per acre. The quantity of guano
a|iplied was at the rate of three hundred weight per acre npon
four drills, two and two together, at an -interval of eight drills
manured with bones and ashes. Then, at a similar intuval,
followed two drills, operated npon with guano together with
nUphate. of soda, (Glauber salts,) at the rate of four hundred
weight per acre — being the only instance, in the course of these
experiments, in which any foreign substance was used with the
guano. The turnips were drawn about the end of November ;■
and on a comparison of the we^ht of the crop on two of the
four drills done with guano atone, with the produce of the
average of four drills, nearly immediately adjoining, manured
with ixme-duat and ashes, the result stood thus (the plants beii^
topped and rooted) : —
JVnttrw. ProdaM f€r Art.
Guano, alone, 23 cwL 2 st.
Guano and suI[Aate of soda, 23 " 0 "
Bone-dust, 19 " 2 "
)yGoo»^Ic
eoAMo. 377
" ' In the third exporimeat, guano wu tued i^aimt bone-diut
ahat, applied, as is usual in that diatiict, at the late of sixteui
bnsbels per acre. The guano was used at the nUe of two hun-
dred weight mlf per acre. The drills manured with the latter
showed a very early superiority, and were ready for the hoe
fuUy eight days earlier than the rest of the field. This more
TigoToua growth they maintaiaed tfaroi^hout; and when the
tnmipB (the white stone globe variety) were weighed, on the
22d March, aAer standing throughout the winter, the result was
as follows (the roots and tops being in this instance retained) : —
"' Two drills guano, 31 cwt. 4 st.
Two " bone-dust, 24 cwt. 7 st.' "
"The following table, extracted from the Scotsman, is the
result of an experiment on a field which had, till the present
crop, been in grass from time immemorial. The soil was a dry,
friable loam. The turnips were sown on the 20th of May, and
lifted and weighed on the 27th of November, 1S43.
£trtST?2;J
aS^
TV
OVABO, 5 owti
Farm dung, 13 cuti, . .
Bone*, 361 baihrii, ' '
£ •.
X 16
3 12
a 3
3- 0
T. C. lb.
9» 17 13
2S 7 8
35 131 13
as lei 33
T. C. lb.
6 ISl 11
6 15 6
5 1| 14
S 8 0
T. C. lb.
1 13 17
3 13 13
0 14 23
a H 6
T. C. lb.
sa St IS
34 14 37
31 8} 30
30 17i 0."
Ouaoo has been applied to winter wheat, both in drills and
iHoadcast, and with signal success. It has been applied, like-
wise, with great success, to grass and pasture land, as the follow-
ing statement will show : ~
" On an eight-acre field, sown with three hundred weight of
goano, and three bushels of Italian rye-grasa per acre, on the
29th of April, cut on the 3d of August, the produce weighed,
when cut, eighteen tons, and when dry and ready for stack, four
tons, per acre. Much of this crop was upwands of fire feet long.
So rapid was the growth, that, fifty hours after cattiug, it had
again sprung up to the height of three and one eighth inchra.
With such grass, and such manuie, so easily convertible into
liquid, I see no reason to doubt that the cottier, with hia five
roods of land, could supply his house with vegetables, and cow
with winter and summer food, thereby providing for his family
an almost entire subsistence."
21
)yGoo»^Ic
278 nmopsAM asbicdltdbk.
It has been questioned Thether its effects will be peniument.
I can only answer, that I hare seen its obrioudy beneficial
effects three years after its application upon grass. How mndi
longei its efficacy may be expected -to continue, experience only
can determine.
Several kinds of goano have been brought into Great Britain ;
but the great distinction ia between that frcxn the Island of
Ichaboe, on the coast of Africa, and that trom the islands in the
Pacific. The former seems entirely deficient in uric acid, and
consequently lacks what is deemed a valuable element in vege-
tation. The comparative value of the two in public estimation,
and in the opinion of a distinguished chemist, is supposed to be
as four to five. The supply from Ichaboe is said to be ex-
hausted, the enormous quantity of five to six hundred thousand
tons having been taken, as is stated, from that single island.
I should do wrong to say that guano is always successful.
There were many complaints this year of its failure, attributed
to the excessive droughts which prevailed at the beginning of
the season. A burner likewise, in Cambridgeshire, conununi'
cates to the Royal Agricultural Society, in their last journal, his
&ilure in two successive applications of it to crops of barley. In
neither instance does any advantage appear to have been gained.
He attributes this to something in the nature or character of the
soil ; but this, without further trials, must be set down as wholly
conjectural.
It is quite proper, likewise, that I should u^ upon the fiinn-
ers of the United States, that, however auspicious and brilliant
may be the promises which guano holds out to them, they must
not overlook the resources for enriching their own lands within
their own reach. The following statement will strengthen this
advice.
Philip Pusey, Esq., H. P., than whom, I believe, wherever his
character for intelligent, accurate, and philosophical observation
is known, it will be universally admitted, there is no higher
agricultural authority .in England, informed me that, the last
season, he carted to the headlands of one of his fields a quantity
of loam, mixed with coal-ashes and rubbish, and, having formed
it into a bed, heaped upon it a quantity of barn manure, from
the drippings of which the loam, &c., became comfdetely satu-
rated. Upon the application of this to the land for a crop of
)yGoo»^Ic
oDAiia 979
tumipB, by the side of the same crop manured with three hun-
dred ve^ht of gOfino, the advantage was very greatly in fkvoi
at the former.
Hr. Jamea Smith, of Deanster, states that a friend of his ma-
mtred three acres ; the first with fifteen tons of stable-dung, cost
£4 ; the second acre with three hundred weight of guano, cost
£1, Ga. ; the third acre with eight tons of liquid manure, cost
£t, 6». ; and the crop on the last was fai the best. Dr. Playfiur
was kind enough to conununiczite to me this statement.
In an admirable lecture, delivered by the last-named active
and intelligent friend of an improved agriculture, at the meeting
of the Royal Agricultural Society, that gentleman saw fit to
■tate that one pound of urine contained materials for producing
one pound of wheat ; and that the effete matter which runs into
the Thames, annually, from the city of London, amounts to
1,095,000,000 pounds in one year,
and contains nitrogen sufficient to [ffoduce
1,600,000,000 pounds of wheat,
1,800,000,000 pounds of barley,;
and, calculating this waste at a moderate value, for agricultn-
nl purposes, London suffers a loss of £1,000,000 sterling, or
6,000,000 dollars per year.
These curious statistics will, I know, give no offence to any
sensible person ; and they may suggest considerations of Uie
very h%hest moment to the rising cities of the United States,
where the sanatary and economical arrangements are not com-
I^eted, and in many cases not begun. They especially enforce
upon every individual farmer the duty of examining and hus-
banding, with a miserly frugality, all the resources of his own
&rm, even the most inconsiderable and humble. They have, I
may be allowed to say, a far higher use by leading the reflecting
and serions mind to admire and adore the never-ending circles
of the divine beneficence ; the mixed and wonderful compensa-
tions and mutual subserviences which pervade the whole system
of nature ; and, above all, that constant miracle of miracles, going
.on continually in the vegetable world, by which the most worth-
less and the most offensive substances are returned again to bless
the animal creation, in those substantial products by which life
is sustained, and comfort every where diffused, in fruits most
delicious to the senses, and in plants, and flowers, which, in
)yGoo»^Ic
S80 BUBorEAjr Aomtcmj-nmrn.
tbeii variety, and beauty, and wonderful glory and splendor,
infinitely surpass the highest triumphs of human art and luxury.
I think pioper here to subjoin several analyses of guano with
vhich I have been favored by a most accurate chemist, Hr.
E. F. Teschemacher, to whose unremitted kindness, in variote
forms, I am most deeply obliged. Indeed, when I think of the
debts which I have incurred, in this way, and which have been
forced upon me, on this side of the water, I fear nothing is left
for me but to take advantage of the act of general bankruptcy,
with the mortification of feeling, from the number of my cred-
itors, how very small a dividend can be made.
" Dear Sir :
"I have taken the first moment I had to spare, to fulfil
my promise of giving you some details relative to guanoes- — espe-
cially the analyses of the various kinds imported within the last
eighteen months into this country, which have come under my
cognizance. The analyses were performed by me during the
course of my business, and are so arranged that a comparison may
be easily made between them. Upon comparing these analyses
with those of ot)xtit analysts, I find them geneially to agree in all
their essential characters.
" No. 1. Peruvian.
" 100 parts cotisist of 9 parts
of ammonia, combined with
jAosphoric, carbonic, uric,
and o^ianic acids, form-
< ing, of
Ammoniacal salts, ... 40
Animal oiganic matter, 6i
Sulphate and muriate of
potash and soda, . . . 11)
Phosphate of lime and
magnesia, 29}
Sand, .1
Water, .^i
100
" The Peruvian contains
11} parts of uric acid.
" Ifo. 2. Bolivian.
" 100 parts contain 10} parts '
ammonia, combined as in No:
1, formii^, of
Ammoniacal salts, ... 36
Animal organic matter, . 6
Sulphate and muriate of
potash and soda, . . . 15}
Phosphate of lime and
magnesia, 27}
Sand, li
Water, _14
100 •
"The Bolivian contains 3
per cent of uric acid.
)yGoo»^Ic
" The uric acid ia considered to ftiniish the crops with addititnut
ammonia, irhicb, after application, ia given out by degrees.
"No. 3. Chilian.
" 100 parts containing 3 .parts
ammonia, combined with
phoai^oric, oxalic, carbonic,
humic, and organic scida,
forming, of
Ammoniacal salts, . . . 12}
Animal oi^anic matter, . 2|
Sul[4iate and muriate of
potash and soda, . . . 7i
Phosphate of lime and m^-
nesia, and oxalate lime, . 63
Sand, 2
Water gat
100
"This guano contains no
one acid.
"No. 4. Ickaboe Ovano,
" too parts containing 7} parts
ammonia, combined with
phosphoric,* oxalic, carbonic,
and humic acids, forming, of
Ammoniac^ salts, . . . 26|
Animal o^anic matter, 7}
Sulphate and muriate of
potash, and phosfAiate
potash, 10
Phosfdiate lime, and mag-
nesia, and oxalate lime, 30
Sand, I
Water, _25
100
" Contains no uric acid.
"No. S. Angra de Pequena.
" 100 parts contain 6 parts am-
. monia, combined as in No. i,
forming, of
ADuooniacal salts, ... 20
Animal oi^janic matter, . . 6
Sulphate and muriate of
potash, and phosphate
potash, 11
Phosphate of lime and mag-
nesia, and oxalate lime, . 32
Sand, 2
Water, _30
100
" No uric acid.
"No. 6. PotaeaaioH Taland.
" Very like that from Angra
de Pequeoa, but rery lumpy.
" No uric acid.
*'No. 7. Pedestal Point.
" lOOpartscontain 4} parts am:>
monia, combined as in No.
4, forming, of
Ammoniacal salts, ... 14
Animal organic matter, . 6
Sulj^ate and muriate of
potash, and phosphate
potash 6i.
f^ospbate of lime and mag-
nesia, and oxalate lime, 37
Sand, 7
Water, 29}
100
"No uric acid.
)yGoo»^Ic
mi BOBOPBAH AflBICULTOBB.
"No. 8. Bird Islands; Aigoa Bof.
" 100 porta contain 2} parts ammonia, combined as in No. 4,
forming, of
Anunoniacal salts, 10}
Animal organic matter, 8}
Sulfate and muriate of potash, 2i
Phosphate of lime and magneBia, (no oxalate lime,} ... 62
Sand, 1}
Water, ._!«
100
"No. 8 ccntains no uric acid.
"No. 1 to 3 are South American guanoes.
"No. 4 to 8 are African guuioes.
" I have examined guano from other localities, bat as I do not
knov those localities, I have omitted them in the list.
"Chtano Testing.
" 1. A small portion, aboat 100 grains, mixed and rubbed with
10 parts of ch^k to 1 part of quick-lime, should gire out a
strong smell of ammonia ; and on holding over the mixture a
glass rod moistened with muriatic acid, a dense white vapor
should be giren off. If this effect does not take place, the
guano will contain very little ammoniac^l salts.
" 2. 100 grains guano, heated to redness in a Hessian crucible,
should leave a white ash. This white ash should be nearly
soluble in dilute muriatic acid. The residue should not exceed
10 grains ; in good guano, the residue would be only 1 or 3
grains.
" The quantity of white ash will vary from 30 to 60 per cent.,
according to the nature of the guano.
"Tours truly,
"R F. Tescbuuchbb.
"No. 9 Pmrk Tfrrou, HiOHanr,
)yGoo»^Ic
I add to these some analyses forwarded to me &om the Edia-
bui^h Agricaltaral Chemical Association, by my esteemed frieod,
Hr. John P. Norton.
" Two Ouanoes from Ichaboe.
No. L No. II.
Water, 20.46 . .18 00
Organic matter and ammoniacal salts, . 4496 . . 62.60
Suli^te of soda and potash, with } i.q aoq
common salt, ) ' '
Phosphates of lime and magnesia, . . 27.31 . . 19.22
Carbonate of lime, 0.07 )
Silicious matter, 2.16) * '
3 per cent, free ammonia in No. L . . 99.44 . . 99.54
" These are fair samples of the Ichaboe guanoes. Their only
deiect is too much water.
" 7Vo South American Owinoei.
Water and free anmkonia,
Organic matter and ammoniacal salts,
Sul[4iBte and qturiate of soda, . . . .
Riosphate of lime, and a little |Ao8- }
j^te of magnesia, >
Carbonates of lime and magnesia, . .
Insoluble silicious matter,
fMtniMi.
BoliTiu.
3.14 .
. 6.34
63.su .
. 68.00
6.02 .
. 6.37
22.20 .
. 25.27
4.96 .
. 3.96
1.16 .
. 1.07
100.00
100.00.
" These are both most excellent guanoes. The sm^l proportion
of water is remarkable, and the large quantity of organic matter
and ammoniacal salts. This first, and then the phosphates, are
the criteria of value. Carbonate of lime, sulphate and muriate
of soda, &G., are valuable manures, bat may be boi^ht lower
than £6 or £8 per ton.
)yGoo»^Ic
SUBOPEAH AGBICDLTUBX.
"Artificial Ovano, (Potter's.)
Water, 14.66
Oi^anic matter, 17.32
Salts soluble in water, consisting of common salt and
gypsum, vith a small quantity of pota^ and am-
moniacal salts, 40.43
Phosphate and carbonate of lime, 11.61
Coarse sand, with bits of gypsum, ■ 16.06
99.97
" This, therefore, contains 30 per cent, of water and sand. One
by the same maker, previously examined, had abont 30 per cent,
of sand alone."
The following ia £nm, a chemist of the highest scientific
character. Dr. Ure: —
" Reserving, for the present, the more particular analyses, the
following may be offered as the aven^ result of those I hare
made of genuine guano, in reference to its agricultural value ; —
" Azotized organic matter, including urate of ammonia,
and capable of affording from 8 to 17 per cent, of
ammonia by slow decomposition in the soil, . . . 60.0
Water, 1 1.0
Phosphate of lime, 26.0
Ammonia, phosphate of magnesia, phosphate of ammo-
nia, and oxalate of anmionia, containing from 4 to
9 per cent, of ammonia, 13.0
Siliciotis matter from the crops of the birds, . ^^ . . 1.0
100.0."
)yGoo»^Ic
„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE.
rOTJKTH REPOBT.
XLVI.— GENERAL CONSmERATIONS.
Thx great incentiTe to all agricultural improvement is profit.
The man who is satisfied with a ttare subsistence will do little
towaids making his condition better. It is one of the prominent
hlessJDgs of civilization, that it multiplies human wants and
desires to such a degree as to call out all the powers of the body
and mind to supply them. In iH-oportion as civilization is
advanced, human wants increase. From necessities we proceed
to indulgences, from indulgences to luxuries ; until what were
at first indulgences and luxuries become themselves transformed
into necessities. Out of these spring other indulgences and
other luxuries, which go on by a sort of reduplication or spon-
taneous generation, to which as yet no limits have been reached,
and we have reason to think that none are very near. When
one class or species fails, or passes away, others come into its
place, like sprouts springing from the living stump of a tree
which has been cut down ; or like the countless plants which
come up where a single plant has been sufiered to ripen and tc
shed its seed.
Besides this, effect of use or indulgence in increasing, and in
giving an insatiableness to, human wants, there is an original and
native element of the human mind, which the phrenologists
designate as acquisitiveness, or a desire to obtain. This, when
joined with secretiveness, becomes a desire to keep or to accmnu-
)yGoo»^Ic
286 EOROFEAK AORICULTDRE.
late as well as to obtain, which, though liable to abuse, yet, like
all other oiigiual tendencies of our nature, is designed for good.
This operates as a continual stimulus to exertion, and rouses
enemies, and awakens an ambition, and strengthens and {hx>-
duces a perseverance and tenacity of purpose, which, in the
creation and accumulation of wealth, lie at the foundation of
most of the great improvements of society, and a^ain in its turn
creates a power or instrument of influence, which itself com-
mands thousands of minds, and thousands of hands, to unite with
an energy similar to its own in the accomplishment of its own
objects.
All this does good ; prevents the waters of society from be-
coming stagnant and unwholesome, and keeps them in a state
of continued and healthful agitation. If human wants, having
a sort of polypus vitality, are constantly increased by being sup-
plied, it is no less true that the powers of the human mind and
body are always increased and strengthened by being properly
ezerted. As the mind becomes enlightened and expanded, it is
tempted to extend its dominion over matter and over other
minds. In the spirit of an ambition never knowing enough, it
goes out "conquering and to conquer." It invades other
dominions of nature, and makes every where the elements of
the material world subservient to its purposes.
It is said that an Indian, when, on a certain occasion, he was
brought from the solitude and destitution of his forest-home into
a busy manufacturing town, and saw windmills with their sails
inflated by the air, and water-wheels driven by the running
stream, and steam-engines impelled by an agent of which before
he had scarcely conceived, and the furnaces where, by the appli-
cations of fire, the iron-stones were made to flow in liquid
streams, and to take the forms which the workman's pleasure
dictated, exclaimed, in his amazement, that the white man made
every thing work for him — the fire, the air, the water. Nothing
could have been more natural than his surprise. Thus it is that
human genius devotes itself to science ; and every step in science
imparts a disposition and capacity to advance farther. It invents
language and signs, that it may transfix, and hold fast, thoughts,
and facts, and discoveries, for further use. It employs the powers
of nature to increase, and multiply, and strengthen, other powers,
and thus is constantly extending its sovereignty over mind and
)yGoo»^Ic
OBNZKII. CONSIDCRITIORS. S87
matter, and assuming more and more to itself, in its humble
capacities, the character of a creator. Thus it is that the fruitful
powers of nature are called forth j the means of animal life and
■ubsisteoce extended ; the productions of the earth increased, di-
versified, and improved. Under an improved cultivation, ten men
fiod ample and luxurioos support, vhere, before, one would have
starved. New vegetables and aew fruits are brought into
existence and use, or others rendered more abundant ; and with
the increase of vegetable, the increase of animal life is immeas-
mably extended. Thus it is that new forms of comfort, luxury,
and ornament appear vith coire^ndii^ wants on the part of
those who are to enjoy them ; new means of subsistence are
supplied ; new forms of habitation are demanded ; new articlea
of clothing are provided. All the wonders of art spring up ; the
multiplied embellishmonts of refined life [resent themselves;
and the {sogiess of society is in all respects advaiiced and con-
tinually advancing.
AM this grows out of that original element of the human mind
to which I early alluded, — acquisitiveness, the desire of gain, or
advance, or betterment, or profit, — ' which thus stimulates men to
the continual improvement of their condition. But all this, we
are told by some men, SfHrings from selfi^mess, and they de-
nounce it aa criminal. Their denunciations are without reason,
and they make no just discrimination between the difierent con-
ditions of a principle which in its original nature is wholesome
and useful, and becomes wrong and pernicious only by its ex-
travagance and abuse.
What would man be without any regard to his own interest ?
It is an instinctive impulse which prompts nS to take care of
our lives. Self-preservation is the first law of our nature. But
the same law implies the most diligent care of our health, and
all that varied and extended provision for health and comfort,
necessary to the continuance of life, and to its continuance under
circumstances most favorable to its activity, usefulness, and
reasonable enjoyment. But who is to take care of us, if we do
not take care of ourselves 7 If every man, instead of providing
for his own wants, gave himself up to the care of bis neighbor,
it is not easy to see that any advantage would be gained by it
Every one would find that, besides multiplied inconveniences,
the provision for himself would be far less complete and satis-
)yGoo»^Ic
288 EDROPXAK AGKICULTDSZ.
factory than when uudei his own immediate superintendence
and contool. The evils of selfishness do not lie in a man's
appropriating to himself that to which he has a juat claim, and
which he may enjoy without injmy to his neighbor, but in the
apfffopriation of that to which he has no fair title, and which be
caniiot so appropriate without injury to his neighbor, and with-
out an inyasion of the just rights of other men. That meanness
of selfishness, which some men exhibit, and which seeks the
exclusive enjoyment of whatever it can accumulate, irrespective
of the comfort, and at the expense of the toil, of others, — that dog-
io-the-maoger selfishiieas, which acctunulates without imparting,
and seems to experience its highest zest in contrasting its own
fulness with the destitution and misery of others, — is as odious as
it is criminal. On the other hand, that rational regard to one's
own interest which prompts a man continually to take the best
possible care of his body and mind ; to secure his health, that his
physical activity and vigor may be increased, and to cultivate
and improve his mind, that it may resemble, in its fruitfnlness, a
well-tilled and enriched field ; to increase likewise his estate, and
embellish and adorn it ; and to accumulate wealth that he may
multiply the sources of good to others, stimulate others to exer^
tion, and lead to those generous improvements which wealth is
capable of producing, and to which it may be beneficially
^plied, — this is a sentiment, which, so far from being to be con-
demned, is to be commended and cheri^ed aa the great instru-
ment and spring, as much of social and public, as of personal
and individual good.
Improvement of every kind lies in action. The liappiness
which never satiates or wearies is to be found in the conscious
ness of progress. Who that has experienced a dead calm at sea,
— not a breath of wind to ruffle the waves, the vessel tossing from
one side to the other like a cork upon the water, the rigging
shaking, the sails flapping, the crew idle and listless, no progress
reported, and the whole company wearied, impatient, despond-
ing, ill-hmnored, — and compares this with a brisk gale blowing,
— every rope straightened, every sail spread and filled, the planks
of the ship creaking as it were with intense exertion, the masts
bending almost to breaking under their burden, the crew awake,
the passengers all animated with hope and delighted with the
certainty of progress, and the noble ship, with her priceless cargo
)yGoo»^Ic
OENEKAL CONBIDBaiTIOirS. « 289
of human life and fortune, moving iiko a thing of life over the
billows, and, as she ploughs hei proud path through, as it were, a
flood of liquid silver, throwing the glittering and brilliant tresses
of jewels from her neck, — who has had this experience, and will
not feel bow little to be desired, either for the body ot the mind,
for health or enjoyment, for the animal or the moral man, is a
state of inanity and sluggish repose ?
The poets — those ethereal beings, who deal in fiction, and
whose imagination becomes a sort of ignis faiuus, a " Will-of-the-
wisp," leading them they know not where — love to descant upon
the Golden Ages or the Paradisiacal state, when men, without
care for food or clothing, had nothing to do, but, under a calm
sky and a soft air, to lie down on banks of fragrant flowers, by
the side of gurgling Btreams, under the shade of spreading aro-
matic trees, and let the richest fruits iall into their laps, and
listen to the ^olian strains of the winds whispering among the
branches, and the melodious songs of birds of the gayest plu-
mage fluttering around them, and abandon themselves to the
charms of a purely animal and sensual existence. But what
reflecting man would desire such a life as this for himself, and
would not feel an intolerable restlessness, and especially a morti-
fying consciousness that it falls, one may almost say, infinitely
below the capacities of his nattue and the purposes of bis being ?
I cannot look out of my window, where I am now writing, in
Trafalgar Square at Charing Cross, without seeing a worid of in-
descrilmble life, and bustle, and activity. The night in Londtm
is seldom longer than from half past two o'clock until four o'clock
in the morning, when the flood-^tes begin gently to open, and
gradually the rushing ttorent of life pours through in a turbid
and boisterous flood. After the waters begin to move with force^
there is perhaps not a minate in the day when more than a thou-
sand, or rather thousands, of people cannot be counted firom my
window. Here are carriages without number, from the splendid
chariot with its noble horses, its gorgeous equipage, its liveried
servants, and its precious bargo of figured porcelain, down to the
humble gig, the dray-horse, the wheelbarrow, and the donkey-cart
with its precious load of garbage or of dog's-meat. Here are
shops without number, replete with all the most exquisite produc-
tions of science, genius, art, and mechanical contrivance, and full
of buyers and sellers. Here are crowds of men, women, and chil-
25
)yGoo»^Ic
890 , BCBOTBAK AQBICULTCRB.
dnn, passing aod repaasing, sauotering, waking, nuuiit^, aod
jostling each other, waiting upon and being waited upon, enter-
taiaing and being entertained, carrying and being carried, labors
ing and ei^oying. Here are caiaTausafies for the Iravellers,
bankg for merchanta, monuments to heroes and princes, schools
of science, galleries of art, and temples to God, adorned with
tile finest embelli^mients of architectural skill, and lifting their
beautiful spires to the skies, as if, from the glittering TBne
upon the top, they would emulate the brilliancy of a fixed star,
' and as if, like the star which stood over the sacred spot of a
divine lutivity, they would {^esent Heaven's brilliant ^nblem of
mercy to encourage man's faith and piety. Here, too, are foun-
tains of water throwing up theix liquid treasures over their heads,
and comii^ domi in constant showers of brilliants. Here an
men, and the busy and exciting concerns of men, under all the
Tarying aspects of human life and activity. Here are the mag-
nificent triumphs of human ut and skill ; here are the fiuits of
eeatuhea of toil and labor ; aod here is one continued intensity
of action, as if it were the very heart of the great world beating
with violent emotion. But none of this, properly speaking, is
mechanical ; it is all intellectual i it is all under the dominicn of
mind to excite, to u^e, to direct, to control it. There is a &i
mightier power at work within than appears without If yoa
could take off the roof of some of these moving tabernacles ; if
you could see what is there lying beneath the burning thoughts,
the anxious desires, the resolute purposes, the beating affections,
and the fiery passions, which are there at work, and as it were
mingling in one common flame, you would indeed see objects
more curious and wonderful, an exhibition far more extraordinary,
than any thing ever before presented to your senses, or even to
your imagination. But what is the secret spring, the great
power-wheel which sets all these things in motion, which excites
and quickens all this activity ? It is acquisition, the desire to
acquire subsistence, pleasure, profit, wealth, or power.
Would it be better that sdl this f^ould cease, and society
become a mere stagnant pool ? Would it be better that all the
necessity of labcv should be taken away, and men should hare
no other destiny ^han to repose in quiet, with all their wants
supplied, and all their sertses gratified ; and that down couches
diould be spread round these guidiing fountains, and instead of
)yGoo»^Ic
ewtaaM. coMsiDBRAnoin. S91
vater they should aend forth the delicious juices of the gnpe, —
though perhaps, to suit the English taste, it should be gin or
beer, or what is vulgarly called " half and half," for that is th«
Englishman's nectar, — and that men should haye only to drink it
in at pleasure, or, in common parlance, to enjoy themaelres? I
think not. I believe Heaven could send no greater curse than
to exempt mankind from all necessity of labor.
If we look at the condition of the inhabitants of tropical coun-
tries, where the richest &uits of the earth grow spontaneously,
where clothing and shelter are scarcely required, and where men
are exempted from the necessity of labor, we shall find them
sunk in sensuality, abandoned to animal indulgences, and in
intellectual and moral condition at the lowest scale. If we com-
pare them with the inhabitants of temperate regions, the dia*
parity will be seen to be great, but vastly in favor of the latter.
The intellect is sharpened, as well as the muscular vigor in-
ereaaed, in proportion to the difficulties with which it has to
sln^gle, and the labor by which it is taxed, provided that la-
bor is not excessive and unnatural. Though there may be a
severity of toil wholly discouraging, and difficulties which are
perfectly hopeless and insormoantable, — ■ which cases we must of
course except, — yet, in point of actual enjoyment, there cannot he
a doubt on which side the advantage lies ; and that the neces-
sity of exertion, and every wholesome stimulus to useful and
honest labor, is a blessing from Heaven.
The condition of the Irish peasantry likewise strongly illu»-
trates and confirms these truths. Nothing can exceed the
destitution and wretchedness in which millions of these people
live. I have been into many of their cabins, and have seen
the habitations of thousands and thousands of these miserable
peoi^e ; and, in regard to external accommodations, I can scarcely
think that there is upon earth a lower condition of human
existence. Certainly the wigwam of an American savage may
often be regarded with envy for its comforts, compared with
many an Irish cabin. I have been into those which were mere
holes dug into the side of a peat bog, and have put my hand
upon the wet and velvety walls, that 1 m^ht be certain my
senses did not deceive me. In these caves, covered with sticks,
and straw, and sods ; without chimney, window, or floor ; with a
fire of turf slowly burning upon the ground and filling the |dace
)yGoo»^Ic
292 kuxofxan AOBictii.Tciic.
with smoke ; without bed, table, chair, or plate, or knife, or fork ;
with, indeed, no article of fuimture save a kettle in which to boil
their potatoes, and a basket in which to take them up ; with no
other seat but a bit of dried turf or peat, and no bed to lie down
upon but a flock of straw, which was frequently shared in
common by the children and the pig, — I have found a crowded
family, with raga for clothing that scarcely hid their nakedness,
livii^ from one year's end to the other upon potatoes and water,
and never more than once a year tasting either bread or meat.
This is not the place for me to enter into the political con-
siderations connected with this conditioa of things in a country
which, in respect to its climate and soil, and resources for usefiti
industry, and means not only of comfortable subsistence to a
population quadruple of that which exists there, but in means of
abundance and wealth, is eminently favored of Heaven. But I
refer to the example of Ireland to show that where persons can
remain satisfied under privation and extreme penury ; where
they are content to live upon the meanest fare, and to occupy
habitations scarcely fit for the shelter of the lowest of the brute
creation ; where, with only a mud-cabin and a potato patch,
without even money enongh to pay the wedding-fee, (for this is
made out by the contributions of friends on the occasion,) they
are willing to take upon themselves the responsibiUties of
marriage, and become the founders of families to be bom only to
inherit a similar destitution and wretchedness, it is difficult
to find motives to rouse them to exertion and industry. Uotil
a revolution can be effected in their feelings, and a set of wants
created within them, any strong hopes of the improvement of
their condition seem idle.
The wants of men, then, are the great incentives to exertion ;
and the stimulus of profit, the desire of gain and of accmnulatioo,
is that which induces enterprise and effort, which excites inquiry
and leads to knowledge, which prompts to labor, and thus urges
men on to new acqiusitions and continual progress. We may
appeal to higher motives than self-interest, where there are
minds capable of appreciating a higher class of motives ; but it
is absurd to consider inferior motives as wrong, where better
cannot be had ; and self-interest and the desire of gain are not
only innocent, but commendable, where we do not seek gain or
pursue our own interests to the injury and loss of othera
)yGoo»^Ic
OKMBHAL CORSIDBE&TIONt. 293
I fear I may be thought to hare gone out of my way by such
a preface as this ; yet I hope I may have the indulgence of my
leaders for an honest endeavor to enliven a subject of dry details
with matter which, though it may seem distant from, is certainly
not irrelevant to my purpose. I have not always found it a
hinderance, though it may appear lika an interruption, in making
a tour of business, sometimes to dismount, and, throwing the
reins over the neck of my horse, that he too m^ht regale himself
by the roadside, lie down on a green bank, imder a quiet shade,
by some sparkling stream, and abandon myself for a while to the
charming thoughts which then come fluttering round the mind,
like fireflies upon a meadow in a quiet evening of summer ; or
at other times to leap the fence, and rush into the fields or the
neighboring forest, and return with a handful of golden grain, or
a bouquet of wild flowers gathered fresh from the bosom of
nature, and showing the exuberant bounty of Heaven, or the
triumphs of artificial culture. I could then mount my horse,
refreshed by the indulgence, and pursue my journey with new
speed, with senses more alive to the beauties of the country
through which I was passing, and with a more grateful sense of
the goodness of the great Author of nature, who, by this varied
mixture, by alternations of light and shade, of labor and rest, of
toil and indulgence, and by an endless succession and diversity
of objects, makes life, which would be otherwise deplorably
monotonous and tedious, not merely agreeable, but delightful.
I should be happy, in my humble way, in any degree to ac-
complish so deEind>Ie a purpose in respect to my kind readers,
and render the journey which we have undertaken to travel^
together as pleasant as I could wish to make it useful and
instructive.
Some men, very much addicted to great refinements in
casuistry, and especially in respect to the motives of human
actions, would condemn every motive, but such as are purely
disinterested, as criminal. I agree with them that the highest
of human actions must have Its origin in the highest and
purest of all motives ; but I cannot deny the irmocence, and,
more than that, the positive virtue and worth of many actions
and pursuits, that are prompted by motives which some persons
would designate as inferior, but which, nevertheless, have their
origin in our own nature and constitution. Self-interest, profit,
)yGoo»^Ic
%9i EtJItOFEAir AaHICUI.TnBX.
accumulatioD, are all of Uiem reasonable and commendable
objects, when they do not lead us to invade or iniimge upon the
rights of others, and whea our accumulations are used for
useful ends.
I am anxious to vindicate the profession of agriculture from
every aspersion which may be cast upon it, and to contribute
my mite to place it in that rank, in the scale of human pursuits,
which it may justly claim for itself. I may say, with Baccm,
"that it has the divine sanction," for in the beginning God
placed man upon the earth to cultivate and make it ihutful. I
may claim for it, further, that it is an innocent pursuit ; that it
can do no injury to any one ; and that it invades no man's just
rights, and prejudices no man's safety, health, peace, oi reason-
able enjoyment. I will add to this, that it is a beneficent
employment. Whoever cultivates the earth, and covers it with
rich and golden crops, renders it more beautiful ; whoever causes
the earth to yield its iruits, increases the means of human com-
fort and subsistence ; and in proportion as this cultivation is
improved and skilful, and by such improvement, and such skill,
the products of the earth are many times increased, so the means
of htmian subsistence aud'comfort, and of subsistence and com-
fort to a very la^e portion of the brute creation, are correspond-
ingly extended.
I will make no invidious comparisons between agriculture and
other professions and pursuits of life ; but certainly none is more
innocent, more honest, more useful, or more rational. That
happens, in respect to agriculture, which does not equally appear
in many professions, that its improvements cannot be monopo-
lized ; Uiey are of necessity exposed. Emulation or compe-
tition, so often productive of the worst results in many pursuits
of life, in the imjNroTement of agriculture can produce nothing
but good.
XLVn. — AGRICULTURE AS A COMMERCIAL PURSUIT.
Men, then, may lawfully pursue agricultiue under the stimulus
of profit In many cases, the gains of one man are made at the
expense or loss of another. The celebrated Madame Roland
)yGoo»^Ic
AORlCULTDItE AS A COMMERCIAL
naed to say " she was always sorry to bear that a man had made
a good bargain, because she knew, in that case, that some person
must hare made a poor one." It is not so in agriculture. The
more a man increases his wealth by increasing the products of
the earth by a skilful cultivation, so much the more is the whole
community benefited, excepting only where human laws inter-
pose to intercept the widest possible diffusion of the bounties of
Hearen.
Agriculture, in order to excellence, requires as much the
stimulus of profit as any other pursuit in life. In England and
Scotland, it has had that stimulus. It has had goTemmenial
protection and indulgence, the propriety and justice of which are
questionable with many men of distinguished wisdom, observa-
tion, and patriotism, and the expediency of which is capricious,
being dependent upon circumstances ever liable to fluctuation
and change. The protection which it has received has been in
laws tffohibiting, under heavy duties, the importation of agricul-
tural produce from foreign countries, and affording relief from
various forms of specific taxation, to which other professions or
conditions are subjected. The horses, dogs, servants, and
carriages, of all other classes of the community here are taxed ;
but those of the fanner are exempted from taxiition. In the tax
upon income, the farmer's income is fairly assumed from the rent
which he pays ; but in levying the assessment, only half his rent
is reckoned, so that a farmer paying in fact £400 rent, would
be considered, for the purpose of taxation, as payii^ only £200.
In some respects, it must be confessed that what is called " pro-
tection " is of a suicidal character. A duty is laid, for example,
upon imported clover-seed, whereas the amount jaroduced in the
country, or likely to be produced under all the encouragement
which its cultivation receives, bears a very small proportion to
the amount used by the farmers, and used in fact by no pther
persons ; so that the duty paid upon this article is a heavy tax
upon the many farmers, for the exclusive benefit of the few.
Great complaint is likewise made, by the farmers, of ^e intro-
duction of fat cattle from abroad, which come into injurious com-
petition with their own stock, and of the admission of foreign
salted provisions. At the same time, the very provision upon
which these cattle might, if imported lean, be fatted at home, is
prohibited. The Indian com from the United States can be
)yGoo»^Ic
296 BDIOFSAN AQRICULTUaE.
admitted only by the payment of a duty which is almost yno-
hibitory. It cannot be grown in England, though, under some
extraordinary circumstances in accidental localities, it has occa^
sionally ripened. If, instead of importing fat cattle from the
Continent, to supply their markets, they would import lean cattle,
and at the same time import Indian com under a low or nominal
duty, to fatten them with, (and it would be difficult to find a
substance which, in proportion to its cost, is more nutritious,) it is
obvious that, besides the [vofit upon the labor of fattening these
cattle, they would have the great advantages of their manure —
certainly a most serious consideration.*
Agriculture in England appears altogether as a commercial
pursuit. Where heavy amounts of rent are to be periodically
and punctually paid, men are compelled to look carefully at
their expenditures, purchases, and contracts, and their pecuniary
results. It is by no means so with us in the United States,
where most farmers are their own landlords and the owners of
the estates on which they live, and where, if their sales from
their farms are sufficient to meet the expenses of labor, the Light
taxes of the government, and those supfdies for their families
which the farm itself does not yield, tlwy feel themselves at
least secure, if they are not satisfied. I design [»esently to give
some example of the manner in which farm accounts are kept
here by the most careful fanners, and which show all the exact-
ness of mercantile transactions. Indeed, it must be so, or they
would become involved in inextricable confusion, which would
surely terminate in bankruptcy and ruin. I know farmers here
who pay their two hundred, fotu hundred, six hundred, and one
thousand pounds' rent ; I have been credibly informed of a
farmer in Scotland, or on the borders of Scotland and England,
* The iltendon of the tuill| ftUoiriiig the adnuasion of fkt cattlo, utd fbragn
cbeeM, &e., under a induced du^, does not appew, tX preeeiit, to have fnditctd
■0 great reanlta as ww expected, whatever may be the caae hereafter.
The report mode to PaHiameDt this present sesaion, (1845,) retuma, aa imported
into the coantiy ftom abroad the last jeai, of cattle, S^4t, (which, if we eaffMne
them to average BOO pounds per head, would give only aboot three fourths of a
poond of meat to each indiiidaal ;) of elieep, IflISS, ((riiich, at 80 poouda per
Itead, — a large aTerage, — would give half an ounce of mutton to each iDdividual ;)
of cheese, 11,000 tons, (iriiich would give about one pound per individuaL)
At the same time, the minister in Parliainent states that, during the laat jear, the
popolatian of the kingdom has increaeed by 380,000 ! !
)yGoo»^Ic
lUBKXTS. CATTLE HABKBTS. 297
whose annual rent, at one time, was sevea thooaaud pounds, or
thirty-fire thousand dollars ; and it is quite obvious how disas-
trous must be the consequeucea, if such properties are managed
otherwise than with the most scrupulous commercial exactness.
It Cfuinot be denied that our habits in this respect are alto-
gether different from what they should be ; that perhaps a
majority of our farmers keep no accounts whatever, and many
who keep accounts exhibit only imperfect and slovenly examples.
It is said, — ' and it is certainly much to his honor, — that a distin-
guished individual here, possessing immense estates, but who
had become somewhat perplexed, not to say embarrassed, in his
pecuniary afiitirs, and whose education had not been, in this
matter, of a character to enable him to manage his afiairs to
advantage, employed an accurate accountant in his house for
Bome time, for the sole purpose of learning from him the science
of book-keeping by double entry. With a natural love of order,
and a firm resolution, having acquired this knowledge, he was
soon enabled to bring order out of confusion, and rescue himself
ftoax embarrassment, and its attendant and inevitable mortifica-
tions. Such an example as this is certainly worth recording.
Many farmers, more systematic than others, keep not only an
account of cost and expenditure, and the amount of sales and
l^ofits, in the form of a cash account, bat likewise a regular
account with every field and every crop, and I had almost said
with every animal, taking, as every careful trader or merchant
will do, a yearly account of stock at a fair valuation. Every
thing is accounted for ; not so much as a quart of milk is used
in the family, but it is charged at the current price. I should be
doing great injustice not to say that I know many examples of
such carefulness in my own country. Besides the great satisfac-
tion springing from this exactness, the sense of security and in-
tegrity, which it brings with it, ia invaluable.
XLVin. — BJARKETS. CATTLE MARKETS.
The English farmers have great advantages in their markets
and exchanges ;• and in this matter, to a certain extent, we ought
)yGoo»^Ic
298 EimoFiiH A6Bicm.TmtE.
to follow them. I do not say tbese markets are an immixed
good ; but the benefits arising from them, I am convinced,
gieatly ]»-epondeiate over the evils ; and, taking advBntage of the
long experieaco of others, some of these evils we may either
remedy or avoid. It would prove highly beneficial to our
farmers if they could have certain established markets for the
sale of their produce when it is ready for sale ; if prices could be
fitirly adjusted and equalized j and especially if the markets
could be for cash ; and that credit, in all cases excepting for
very short periods, could be abolished. It would be equally
useful to them to know where they cotdd bay as well as where
they could sell ; for they often want lean or store stock for fatten-
ing, a change of seed for sowing, horses for farm service, youi^
stock for grazing, and cows for dairy use.
With the exception of three or four of our large towns, — as
Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, — we have no established
cattle market in the country ; and markets such as Brighton near
Boston, and the Bull's Head near New York, are almost exclu-
sively for the sale of fat cattle, sheep, and swine. Our formers
sell, as they can, to agents or purchasers travelling through the
country, and t)uy as they can, and where, by chance, after taking,
in many cases, long and expensive journeys, they may find the
stock which they need. In frequent cases, stock, both cattle
and swine, are driven through the country and sold to those who
wish to purchase, as accident may direct. A wool fair or
market, is not, within my knowledge, held in the country ; nor
a com or grain market.* In the purchase of wool, agents scour
the country, and in general the fanners are quite at their mercy.
In respect to grain, the farmer carries his wheat, or other grain,
to the miller or the trader, and mast make the best bargain that
he can. In such case, in the first place, there is no competition ;
and no possibility of calculating the quantities on hand for sale ;
and no mode of fixing any general or equal price ; and, indeed, no
■ Howud Street, in Baltinwre, ftffbrde the ontjr place in the United Statei
resembling sn ezcliuive market for the aaJe of grain or flour; and thia is onlj
attended hj individual purchaaera, and is not ft meeting of fanner^ grain^ealen,
and millen, coming together on particular days in the week, and at a particular
hoar in the daj, to exhibit aamplea, to collect and impart jnfbnnation respecting
the grain prospecta of the jear, to discuss prices, and to afford to all parties the
advantages of comptriaon and competition. *
)yGoo»^Ic
rAIiKlBK TftTST. 899
certainty to the farmer of findii^ any market at all. These
evils might be remedied, and a change effected, to the great
advantage of buyers and Bellers, by the adoption of the system
of weekly or periodical maikots, which prevails throughout
l-lnglnnd and Scotland. Here are wool fairs, for the sale of
wool, of which samples ate exhibited; and corn and grain
maricets, where wheat, barley, oats, rye, beans, and peas, sam-
ples of which are exhibited, are sold ; and markets for the sale
of fat cattle, and markets for the sale of lean cattle, and markets
for the sale of horses, and markets for the sale of sheep and
lambs, and markets for the sale of cheese and butter; these
markets sometimes uniting several objects, or otherwise limited
to some single object
I have attmded several of these markets, and some general
account of them may have an interest with my readers.
XIIX. — FALKIRK TRYST.
The largest cattle market in the kingdom, uniting sheep and
cattle, takes place three times a year, — on the secoud Tuesday in
August, September, and October, — at Falkirk in Scotland, about
equidistant from Edinburgh and Glasgow. This is called the
Falkirk Tryst, and is held on an extensive plain about three or
four miles from the town. Here are congregated a vast number
of horses, cattle, and sheep, and of buyers and sellers. It was
estimated, when I was there, that the number of cattle then on
the ground exceeded Mty thousand head, and of sheep seventy
thousand ; and the banker informed me that the money em-
ployed in the negotiation wotild exceed £300,000, or one
million and a half of dollars. The cattle and sheep exhibited
at this tryst are almost altogether of the Scotch breeds, and
many come from the remote Highlands. They are purchased
to be distributed, in the neighborhood and the southern provinces,
for wintering, or for fatting for the winter and spring markets.
Besides cattle and sheep, a large number of horses are brought
for sale at the stvne time ; as many as three thousand horses are
)yGoo»^Ic
300 EUKOTIAXt 1ABIC0I.TCKX.
sometimes offered for sale, and the field pieseots the appearance
of a grand military display ; indeed, I have seldom seen a sight
more imposing. For a week or more before the tryst, the
roads leading to Falkirk will be fotmd crowded with successive
droves of cattle and sheep, [Kiiceeding to this central point ; ab^
it is extremely curious, on the field, to see with what skill and
care the differont parties and herds are kept together by them-
selres. la this matter, the shepherds are greatly assisted by
their dogs, who appear endowed with a sagacity almost human,
and almost to know every individual belonging to their chaige.
They are sm^, with an indexible pertinacity, to follow and bring
back a deserter to the flock. Purchasers come tn great numbers
from various parts of the kingdom. Some cattle are bought to
be re-sold at other and smaller markets. The laiger number
are bought in order to be fed or fatted on the arable farms at the
south. Cattle which hare thus been driven from the extreme
north are afterwards to be found even in Cornwall, at the
Land's Bnd.
The sales in these cases are, of course, for cash. Bankers ai«
always present, or near at hand, to facilitate the transactions.
Here, at a distance Uttle less than four hundred miles &om Loo-
don, bankers go down from London, carrying their funds with
them, and occupying, during the tune of the market, (which con-
tinues at least four days,) a temporary stand or office in the field.
L. — THE BALUNASLOE FAIR.
At Ballinasloe, in Ireland, a similar fair is held ; though here
the fair is usually confined to the sale of sheep, and they some-
times number as many as eighty thousand sheep. A very large
fair is held in the ^uthem portions of Scotland, for the sale of
lambs, where the collection is immense.
)yGoo»^Ic
TBK auAia I
LI. — THE GAL WAY FAIR.
A very large fair is held at Galway, Ireland, in the county of
Galway, called the Fair of Rose Mount, at which I Tas |«:esent.
This was chieSy for the sale of ponies, or horses of a small breed,
with some few cattle. On this occasion, the collection of peo[^e
was surprisingly great ; and I could then well understand what
was intended by the public meetings in Ireland, called " monster
meetings," in respect to which, until I saw this coUectitHi of
' people, I had always supposed the account of the nimiben
assembled had been much exaggerated. There were here, on
this occasion, some cattle and sheep ; but there were, alao, fonr
thousand ponies, the catching of which, for examination or sale,
as they had, in general, neither bridle noi halter, was sufficiently
amusing, and I was abont to add, sufficiently Irish. The fair
was held on the sea-shore, where the receding tide left a large
bed of mud. The ponies, when required to be caught, were
surrounded and driven into this mud ; and here, in a very ignoble
way, they were secured, though it was not always without some
difficulty they were extracted after being caught.
1. Tehpeharce ht Ibeland. — There were two circum<
stances connected with this fair at Rose Mount, a reference ta
which, though not having an immediate ctamectiou with the
principal object of my Reports, yet having a direct bearing uprnt
rural maimers and customs, may not be considered wholly out of
place. Here, as well as at the fair at Donnybrook, where im-
mense nombeTB of peopJe were congregated, I could observe most
distinctly the beneficent effects of that powerful ieformat(Hy
movement, which, under the ministry of a good man, worthy of
the name of an apostle, has effected a glorious moral triumph
throughout Ireland, such as the pages of history scarcely record.
I cannot say that at either place there was no drinking and no
quarrelling ; but there was comparatively little ; and knowing,
from report and from the natural excitableness of the Irish tem-
per, what had been usual on such occasions, I could not but fee)
how much had been accomplished, when a foreigner might truly
say, of such vast and mixed assemblages, they were quiet, orderly,
and kind ; and a well-behaved man, disposed to keep his elbows
)yGoo»^Ic
30» EUBOPEAK AOBICUI.TI7BE.
to his own sides, might feel an ahnost equal seciuity as he would
feel in church.
2. The Galwat Wohbh. — There was aaothet circumstance,
perfectly unique ia its character, to which I shall be paidoued
for alluding. There was another species of live stock exhibited
at the lair, which I cannot say is nerer seen at such places, but
which does not always present itself under the same frank cir-
cumstances. The kind nobleman who accompanied me, and
who, like many others, noble and simple, whom it has been my
good fortune to meet with on this side of the water, left no effort
unessayed for my gratification, after looking at the various
objects of the fair, asked me, at last, " if I would like to see
the girls." I confess my natural diffidence at once took the
alarm ; and my imagination cast a few furtive glances over the
sea at some precious objects I had left behind. Howevet, upon a
voyage of curiosity, why should I not see what was to be seen ?
and, confident that my good triend could have no sinister design,
I gave him an affirmative re{^y. Upon inquirii:^ of one of the
trustees, or masters of the fair, " if the girls had come," we
were informed they would be there at twelve o'clock. At twelve
o'clock we went, as directed, to a part of the ground higher than
the rest of the field, where we found irom sixty to a hundred
young women, well dressed, with good looks and good manners,
and presenting a spectacle quite worth any civil man's looking
at, and in which, I can assure my readers, there was nothing to
offend any civil or modest man's feelings. These were the
marriageable giils of the country, who had come to show them-
selves, on the occasion, to the yoimg men and others who
wanted wives; and this was the plain and simple custom of
the fiiir. I am free to say that I saw in the custom no very
great impropriety. It certainly did not imply that, though they
were ready to be had, any body could have them. It was not a
Circassian slave-market, where the richest purchaser could make
his selection. They were in no sense of the term on sale ; nor
did they abandon their own right of choice ; but that which is
done constantly in more refined society, under various covers
and pretences, — at theatres, balls, and public exhibitions ; I will
say nothing about churches, — was done by these humble and
unpretending people in this straightforward manner. Between
)yGoo»^Ic
THE aU.WAT 1
the noble duchess, vrho presents a long train of daughters, rus-
tling in silk, and glittering vith diamonds, at the queen's draw-
ii^<room, oi the ladies of rank and fashion, who appear at public
places with all the beauty and splendor of dress and ornament
which wealth, and taste, and art, and skill, can supply, meaning
nothing else but " Admire me 1 " and these honest Galway nymphs
with their fair complexions and their bright eyes, with their
white frilled caps, and their red cloaks and petticoats, — for this is
the picturesque costume of that part of the country, — all willing
to endow some good man with the richest of all the gifts of
Heaven, a good and faithful wife, I can see no essentia dif-
ference.
" Let not smbidoa mock their nseful toil,
Thnr homely joys, uid deetiiiy obBcure."
I hope I shall be excused, if I say something more of these
Galway women. I never saw a more handsome race of people.
I have always been a great admirer of beauty — natural beauty,
personal beauty, mental beauty, moral beauty. For what did
the Creator make things so beautiful as they are made, but to
be admired ? For what has he endowed man with an exquisite
sense of beauty, but that he may cultivate it, and find in it a
source of pleasure and delight? As I have grown older, this
sense of beauty — and I deem it a great blessing from Heaven —
has become more acute ; and every day of my life, the world and
nature, nature and art, the animal, the vegetable, and the mineral
creation, the heavens and the earth, the fields and dowers, men,
women, and children, wit, genius, learning, moral purity and
moral loveliness, deeds of humanity, fortitude, patience, heroism,
disinterestedness, have seemed to me continually more and more
beautiful, as, at the setting of the sun, man looks out upon a
world made richer and more glorious by his lingering radiance,
and skies lit up with an nnwfinted gorgeousness and splendor.
But the human coimtenance seems in many cases to concentrate
all of physical, of intellectual, and of moral beauty, which can
be combined in one bright point. Why should i^not, therefore,
be admired ? In the commingled beams of kindness and good-
humor brightening up the whole lace, like beat-lightning in
summer on the western sky ; or in the flashes of genius sparkling
in the eyes with a splendor which the fires of no diamond can
rival ; or in the whole soul of intelligence, and Qoble thoughts,
)yGoo»^Ic
304 EUaOFSAH AQBICULnnz.
and heroic resolution, and strong and lofty passion glowii^ in
the oounteoaoce, — there ia a manifestation of creative power, of
divine akiU, unrivalled in aaj spot or portion of the works
of God.
The extraordinary personal beauty of these Gidway womeo
was not mere imi^inatJon on my part, nor the result of any
undue susceptibility. I said to the coachman, as we passed
through this part of the country, that I never saw a handsomer
people. " That," said he, " travellers always remark ; " and
when I left the country, in casting my eye over a recent book
of Travels in Ireland, I found the author's im|»essions corre-
sponded with my own. Tradition says that a colony of
Milesians formerly settled in this part of the country, and that
the remains of this race, or the offsi^ing of the intermixture of
them with the native tribes, present these results. This is a
remarkable fact, and not without its bearing upon one great
branch of agricultural improvement.
Ln.— 8MITHFIELD, LONDON.
The great market for cattle, in England, perhaps the greatest
in the world, is at Smitbfield, in London. This market is prin-
cipally for fat cattle and sheep, and for cows. It is held weekly,
in the centre, and in one of the most crowded parts, of this great
metropolis. Monday is the day of general sale for fat cattle and
sheep ; Tuesday for hay and straw ; Thursday is again a day of
sale for hay and straw ; and Friday for cattle, sheep, swine, and
particularly for the sale of milch cows, and at 2 o'clock for scrub
horses and asses. This day is not so lai^e a market as Monday,
and embraces the cattle that were left over on the Monday's
market
The TDarket opens at daylight, at all seasons of the year, and
closes at 3 o'clock in the afternoon, at which time every tiling,
sold or unsold, must be removed. The sheep and swine are
enclosed in pens, railed in with wood, and containing seldom
more than fifteen sheep in a pen. The cattle, as iar as the
)yGoo»^Ic
SMITHriELS, LONDON. 305
accommodations will admit, are tied, by the horns or neck, to
long railings, which extend on the outside of the market-place,
and likewise down the centre of the area. Between the rows
of animals tied to these rails and facing each other, there is a
passage-way ; and there are, likewise, open spaces behind them
and between them, bo as to enable the purchasers to see the
stock. In respect to the supernumerary animals, or those for
which, for want of room, no tying-place is to be had, they are
oAea driven into small circles, and, by a great deal of severity
and cruelty, they are made, after being dreadfully beaten over
the head and eyes, to stand with their heads turned in towards
the centre of the circle. The poor animals, finding themselves
in so novel a situation, stunned with a din and noise which no
language can describe, and exhausted by fatigue and terror, are
often glad to be let alone, and to remain quiet in situations, into
which they may be forced, which would otherwise be scarcely
endurable. Man is almost sure to be a tyrant, when possessed
with absolute power ; and there is good reason to believe that he
will hare a heavy account to settle hereafter with the brute
animals which he has most cruelly abused.*
It is obvious that it would be difficult to make any exact
assortment, or classification, of the animals in the case, according
to their different breeds. The sheep are placed in one part of
the market. The cattle occupy another. The cows, and calves,
and swine, occupy other separate positions. But no classification
of the beasts into the different breeds of Short-Horns, Herefords,
Devons, or West Highlanders, or Scots, is attempted, although,
from the fact that individual farmers generally limit themselves
to one species of stock, the contributions of different individuals,
stfuiding by themselves, present a sort of classification ; and so
give a better opportunity to an intelligent observer to compare
the different breeds with each other.
* It ia «ud that roach of the cruelty, which iras fbnnerly practiaed in these cum,
ia noir prevented by the influence of the Animal's Friend Society, an associatioD
quite nucnemus, whose excluaiva object ia to prevent cruelty to dumb beoals, and
thus to protect those who are unable to protect themselvea. They have nuzneroua
■genta, and prosecute, witboat fear or favor, every case of inhnmanity, — for it ia a
great misDoroer to call such cues brutality, — which comea under their notice, de-
aervJDg censure or punishment. It is, undoubtedly, greatly owing to their eser-
tjona, that the odious practices of cock-fig'hting and dog-lighting are now not prac-
tised ; or, if practised, conducted in the most secret manner.
D,0,:,7edbvGoO»^Ic
306 XDaOPXAB IflBlCOLTOBE.
1. Forms or BusmEss in Smithtielo It is not beie, as it ia
with us, that a diover goes through the country coUectiug, ou hia
route, cattle from the different fanners, as he may chance to find
them ; but usually the tarmer himself sends them to Smithfield,
-where they are put for sale into the hands of an accredited agent,
whose conun^on for sale is established and imderslood. This
commission is not s percentage upon the amount of sale, but so
much per bead, These, of course, are persons well known, and
whose shrewdness and skill are undoubted. In the most extensira
transactions of bajring and selling, no paper is passed ; but the
price of the stock on sale being inquired, if the bargain is struck,
the buyer and seller merely touch each other's hand, and there is
no retraction. It is highly creditable to the conmiercial charac-
ter of the country, and to the general integrity which prevails
among the persons concerned in this great market, that, as I am
informed by an iodividual familiar for years with the most ex-
tensire transactions in this place, a feiluie to fulfil these en^ge-
ments, though no paper ia passed between the parties, is of very
rare occurrence.
In the sale of sheep and cattle, the business is always trans-
acted through an accredited and established salesman, who has
his regular commissions upon every animal sold. The sales aro
always for cash, unless the salesman himself chooses to assume
the responsibility of giving credit, and there are always banking
bouses in the vicinity to render the usual facilities for business.
The customary commission for the sale of an ox of any value
is four shillings, or about ninety-six cents ; of a sheep eight
pence or sixteen cents. The city receives a toll, upon every
beast exposed to sale in Smithfield, of one penny per bead, and
upon sheep at the rate of one shilling or twenty-four cents per
score.
The value of the services of an intelligent, experienced, and
honest salesman, is very great to the farmer, and much beytmd
the compensation ordinarily demanded. He is familiar with the
state of the market, with the supply to be expected, with the
prices generally taken, and with thC characters of the persons
with whom he has to deal, who know him as well. The
farmer, going into the market to sell his cattle for himself, is
liable to various impositions, of the extraordinary ingenuity and
coolness of which, many experiments will not be necessary to
)yGoo»^Ic
nfiTHrm.9, LtaixtoH. 30T
conrince him. It might happeo, that, instead of returning home
vith bank notes and sorereigas in his pocket, he might, like
Hoses in the Vicar of Wakefield,, bring back only a quantity of
green spectacles.
The state of the market, the curreDt demand, the supply to
be expected, together vith the state of the dead-meat market,
and what supplies of meat already killed are to be expected, are
all matters to be taken into calculation. These are all inquired
into, and well known to a thoroughly intelligent and expe-
rienced salesman, but are very imperfectly understood by any
other peiw>ns than those who make it their constant business to
become acqqainted with them. The division of labor is carried
to a great extent in all the business pursuits of this great country,
and, while it seems unfriendly to that general tact with which
persona among us apply themselves to a great variety and
diversity ol pursuits, must obviously contribute to a high degree
' of skill or improvement in the particutai art or profession where
it is ai^>lied.
2. Weiobts Ain> MBisnucs. — Animals in Smithfield are almost
always sold on the hoof; yet an estimate is formed of their
weight, and the price given is calculated upon the number of
poimds the animal is computed to yield after being slai^htered.
The gross hundred weight of aae hundred and twelve pounds is
still wed in England ; but the calculations are generally made in
stones of eight poimds. By an act of Parliament, the stone of
fourteen pounds is required to be adopted in the reckoning in the
market ; but custom in this, as in many other cases, defies the
authority of the government, and eight pounds continue to be
reckoned as the Smithfield stone.
The different measures and weights used in difieient parts ot
the kingdom are extremely inconvenient, and sadly perplexing
to a stranger. The English, the Scotch, and the Iri^ acre aie
each different irom each other. Gmin is, in different places, sold
by the bushel, by the quarter, by the comb, by the boll, and by
the load ; and a load is in some places four, in others three
bushels. A Scotch pint is two English quarts. In Covent
(Sarden market, two pottles of stmwberries, containing little
more than a pint each, are called a gallon. Potatoes are some-
times sold by weight, and sometimea by the barrel ; in some
)yGoo»^Ic
308 KUXOPSAN liQUCULmBB.
places by the stone of fourteen pounds, in some by the stone of
sixteen pounds. A dozen of eggs is in some places fifteen. I
may perhaps be asked, if this is not in Ireland ; but I shall not
say, excepting to add, as far as my experience goes, fiAe^i to a
dozen would bo a yery proper index of Irish hospitality and
kindness. In one maiket, in Yorkshire, a pound of butter is
twenty ounces avoirdupois ; in Staffordshire, eighteen ounces.
lu Norwich, butter is sold by the pint ; in Cambridge, it is
literally sold by the yard, being made into rolls of a certain size,
and measured off in feet and inches. In one of our hot days in
July, with the glass at 95°, our market-men, at this rate, would
have little difficulty in giving full measure. I have already
alluded to the force of custom. It has many advantages, but
why should it stand in the way of improvement ? The preva-
lence of an unmeaning or a useless custom has nothing to
recommend it. Yet I believe I shall be doing no injustice to the
English, — the last thing certainly which I should wish to do to a *
peo^e whom I so highly respect and love, — if I were to say,
many of them greatly prefer antiquity to utility, and will hold on
to an ancient custom with the pertinacity of a drowning man,
thoogh ita meaning has entirely ceased, and its observance is on
every account inconvenient and burdensome. With such persons,
all aigmnent on the subject of improvement is idle ; the concep-
tion has never yet dawned upon them.
Such a varyii^ standard of weight, or measure, or value,
renders many statements quite unintelligible to a stranger or
one ignorant of local customs, and comparisons and calculations
all but impossible.
3. WetGBT or Animals, Mode of ascebtainiiio. — The
ve^ht of an animal in Smithfield is reckoned by the weight
of the four quarters. The hide, rough tallow, and offal, are not
taken into the account. There are rules given by which to
determine the weight of animaJs, when slaughtered, by external
measurement of them when alive. The salesmen in Smithfield
do not rely upon these rules, but estimate the weight of cattle
by the eye ; and mere judgment, founded upon loi^ practice,
evinces most extraordinary approaches to exactness, seldom vary-
ing but few pounds. The rules, however, to which I refer, have
a value to persons who are not accustomed to estimate by the
)yGoo»^Ic
aye ; and a seriea of tables have been constrocted upon thesa
rules, which, if they could be leUed upon, would be of cousid-
wable use iu prirate practice.* The girth of the oz (for it does
Dot apply to cows as well as to oxen, as their abspe is much less
legular) is to be taken directly behind the sbouldei, and the
length is to be measured from the front of the shoulder-booe to
the end of the bone on the lump, where a line dropping down at
right angles with the line on the back would just clear the
diigb, or buttock. Then, according to a rule given me by Lord
Spencer, " Reduce the feet into inches ; multiply the girth by
the length, and that product by the iraction .001944, which
will give the weight in pounds ; " or, in another form, as the rule
is quoted by Mr. Hillyard, " Estimating the weight of a cubic
inch of meat at 171 grains, then girth 7 feet 6 inches, and
Length 5 feet 4 inches, gives 41,235^ cubic inches, which,
multiplied by 171, gives 7,051,328 grains, equal to 125 stones,
' 7 pounds, of 8 pounds to the stone." Another mode of estimat-
ing the weight of cattle is to ascertain their live weight upon a
platform balance, common enough in the United States. Then,
according to some authorities, every 112 pounds Uve weight
will produce 72 pounds of beef ; but a coarse, la^e-boned oz
will not produce so much. Another way is to deduct one third
of the live weight, which is commonly deemed a fair allowance ;
and also, if the beast is not quite fat, from 2} to d per cent, in
addition. Another able authority states, " that the proportion
which the dead weight bears to the live weight of animals was
reckoned at one half the Uve weight ; but subsequent experi-
ments in the more improved breed of animals show that this is
much too small a [ffoportion, it being more correctly represented
by the fractional quantity .605, the weight of the animal being
assumed aa 1. This would be about three fifths for the dead
we^ht. The gross weight of the animal being then multiplied
by .605, will give the result in the same denomination in which
the gross weight is given." It is obvious, however, that such
rules can be little more than an approximation to exactness,
since the circumstances under which the animal is weighed,
* These tables are to be found at large in Mr. HillfaTcTa nsefiil uid senBib1«
book, enUlled ** Practical I^nning uid Grasng," a. fooith edition of which ap.
paarod in Lcndon in 18M.
)yGoo»^Ic
310 EUBOFUN Aaatcuvroa*.
whether npoa a fall or an empty stomach, must essentially afiect
the result. It will be interestii^, I am persuaded, to many of my
readers, if I giye an account of the we^bts of some of the most
remarkable animals which, within a few years past, hare been
exhibited at the show of the Smithfield Club, which takes place
annually in December ; and the account, besides giving the
we^ht of the animals, will show, at the same time, how nearly
the we^ht calculated by rule, and the weight estimated by the
judgment of experienced men, corresponded with the actual
weight, ascertained upon the animals' being slaughtered.
rxn*.
XH.
^,
,T«
OIOFIO
> BlflHT
rOCMM
O-V-M
B.tdbr't
n.
In.
FL
In.
wiww.
*F<V4L
If^fU.
Lord Spencer'i Durham ox, . . .
1838
9.
2
a
0
211
210
810
The Scotch heifer,
1830
7.
8
a
7
138
140
138
Mr. Townsend'B Duriiam heifer,
1833
a
3
5.
9
164
175
17CJ
Mr. ftiker'B DuAamox,
1833
B.
9i
6.
0
195
205
306)
Mr. Bocblej'B Heiefoid ox, . . .
1833
7.
11
5.
5
143
ISO
144
Lord Spencei'B Durtum ox, . . .
1834
9.
a
1
23S
240
236
Lord OxSxi'a Hereford ox,. . .
1834
9.
a 10
214
222
Mr.HilljMd'. do. heifer, .
1834
B.
a
7
175
184
193
LordBrownlow'B do. do. . .
1834
8.
a
9
155
16*
Huqou of Exeter's do. do. ..
1835
7.
11
a
0
134
138
1431
Lord Spencei'. do. do. . .
1835
7.
8
a
3
130
138
Lord Spencer'B Duriiam ox, . . .
1835
9.
2
a
0
211
216
210
Lord Spencer's do. doL . . .
1836
9.
2
a
1
215
222
218
Maiquis of TavktocteB do. do.
1836
8. 10
a
8
187
196
Lord Leiceater'B Devon ox, , . .
1837
8.
1
5.
S
143
145
153
Mr. Giblert one year old Devon,
1837
8.
4
a
5
158
163
16&4
Mr. Baker-B heifer,
1837
7.
11
a
6
148
152
1S2.3
Mr. Hiliyard'B Devon ox,
1838
a
1
5.
2
142
143
139;6
Manjuk of Exeter's Durham ox,
1841
a
9
a
9
185
1^
185
Duke of Bedford's Hereford ox.
1841
a
9
a
9
185
185
180
The practice at Brighton, Massachusetts, is to sell the animal
at a certain rate per pound, or per hundred pounds. The animal
is then slaughtered, and the return of his weight made to the
owner or drover. The owner or drover does not see his animal
killed or weighed. The market takes place on Monday, but he
is commonly detained until Thursday, before the weight of the
animal is ascertained, and he receives his pay. This, besides its
expense, is on every account a serious evil. It cannot be denied,
likewise, that the temptations to a fraudulent return of the
)yGoo»^Ic
SiaTBnXLD, LOMDOIT. 311
weight me very strong, and that much dissatisfaction, very
often without question gioundless, frequently arises. It is
surprising how new to exactness the judgment of an intelligent
and experienced man iq>proacbe8 ; but as this method is liable to
the objection of a man's being judge in his own case, it would
seem very desirable that some less exceptionable method should
be adopted. I can think of no one more eligible than that of
ascertaining the live weight on a platform balance, and then
adopting acme general rule as to the allowance to be made for
the difference between the hve and the dead weight. A rate of
discount or allowance, founded upon repeated and exact experi-
ments, would be equally fair for both parties. The adoption of
such a rule would be of the greatest service in enabling the
droTer or owner to close his business in one day, and would, in
general, be much more satisfactory to the farmer, who sends his
cattle to market, and is not always without his suspicions of an
imperfect return. I offer these suggestions with great diffidence,
especially when I read, in a letter addressed to me by a practical
man, "that there is no mathematical rule upon which he places
any reliance ; that he has often been invited to test the correct-
ness of measuring beasts, and also to determine their dead, from
ascertaining their live weight, but has found that no confidence
can be placed upon such rules." He adds, " that after handling
beasts to ascertain their fatness, the mind, by practice, is in-
tuitively impressed with about the weight of the four quarters,
exclusive of any offal ; and that experienced men can tell the
weight of beasts, on an averse, within three stone of eight
pounds, and of sheep within two pounds." I believe all this ;
and it presents a beautiful example of what the mind is capable
of, and of what it may be brought to under careful training and
long practice. We certainly know that the mind is a very good
clock, and measures the time with wonderful exactness, both
sleeping and waking. I have been often struck with the extrar
ordinary precision with which the poor blind horses, which move
the ferry-boat between Troy and the Albany side of the river,
measure the distance which they have come, and after making a
pause just before they touch the opposite shore, seem to know
exactly how many more strokes or turns to give to the paddles,
in order to reach it. I hope I shall not offend the pride of any
of my readers, by this comparison of the brute with the human
)yGoo»^Ic
312 EDKOPEAIT AGBICUI.TUBE.
mind. Man is very apt to think himself the only knoving
animal upon the earth ; and I have no doubt that some of the
lower animals have the same self-conceit. It is interesting to
see reason and moral sentiment, the noblest gift of Heaven, any
where diffused, and even in the most humble forms. Such indi-
cations strengthen the claims which all sentient beings have
upon our kindness and respect ; and several of the lower animals
•:— if any being is to be considered inferitHr who accomplishes the
true purposes of his creation ■ — read many striking moral lessons
to mankind.
The character of a salesman in Smithfield Market, for judg-
ment and integrity, is of immense importance to him. He ia
forbidden by law to pmx:hase on hia own account ; and it is
clearly most important that his private interest should not con-
flict with that of his employer. But it is easy to see the futility
of all laws to make men honest, where evasions in a variety of
forms are so practicable. Personal character, and a healthful
state of public opinion, form, in such cases, the great secmity.
4. Ahooht 01- Bnsnnss. — The amotmt of business trmsacted
in Smithfield is enormous. It is estimated at not less than
£ 100,000, or half a million of dollars, every week. The Smith-
field Market is certainly one of the great sights of Londf»i.
The returns of the market on the Christmas week of 1844,
when I was present, gave 6000 beasts and 47,000 sheep. This
was considered the largest market ever remembered ; and the
extraordinary quantity of stock was doubtless, in some measure,
to be attributed to the severe dronght of the preceding summer,
and the consequent scarcity of fodder, which compelled the
farmers to lessen their stock. The largest return of stock
ascertained for any year, between the years 1821 and 1842, was
in the year 1838, and was,
OfcatUe, 183,362
Of sheep, 1,403,400
In the year 1830, there were sold in Smithfield,
Beasts, 169,907
Sheep, . 1,387,071
Pigs, 264,672
Calves, 82,600
)yGoo»^Ic
SMITHriKLD, LOKDOlf. 313
IQ the year 18^
Of catUe, 176,347
Of sheep, 1,468,960
The supplies since that have not diminished. But this hy no
means comprehends the whole supply of prorisioD to London,
as immense amounts of slaughtered meat are brought constantly
to the dead market, from distant parts of the kingdom, by the
innumerable steam conveyances, which have so much increased
the facilities of access to the metropolis. We need scarcely be
surprised at any distance from which it may be brought, since I
have aeen Leicester or Southdown mutton, killed and dressed in
England, for sale in the market at Boston. In spite of the
doctrines of restricted or free trade, the benevolent mind cannot
help rejoicing in a facility of intercourse, which renders the
mutual interchange of the respective advantages and blessings
of different countries and climates so convenient, and thus does
away forever with all that fear of want or famine which, in
former times, so oAen followed any extraordinary contingency
of the seasons. The quantity of meat, and that principally
mutton, brought from six different ports in Scotland to London,
was ascertained, in one case, to be abont 2364 tons in six months ;
besides a very large amount of live stock. It has {orobably
greatly increased with the opening of every new means of
conveyance.
The friend to whom I am indebted for much of the above
infortnation, in regard to Smithfield, states the average weekly
sale of beasts in Smithfield at about 3000, and of sheep, about
30,000 ; of calves, about 300 ; of pigs, about 500. At the dead
market, about 3000 sheep are sold weekly. Of the live stock, the
beasts average from £15 to £18 per head, and sheep 30 shillings.
A pound in this case may be most conveniently reckoned at five
dollars, and a shilling, therefore, at a quarter of a dollar. The
average age of beasts sold in Smithfield is &om two to three
years, and of sheep from fifteen months to two years. It is
not to be supposed that these returns by any means embrace all
the beasts slaughtered, or the meat consumed in the metropolis
and its vicinity ; for great numbers are sold before they reach
the market, and are therefore not reported. Vast amounts, like-
wise, are imported from Inland ; and the cotters of this fertOe
27
)yGoo»^Ic
314 XOBOFBUr AflBIOULXDBZ.
' but wretched country, where a large portion of the inhabitants
are, for a considerably part of the year, upon the borders of
starralion, are obliged to see their only pig — the companion and
pet of their children — and theti only calf or steer, sent off to
other markets to fill other mouths. Smithfietd, though much
the largest, is only one of the markets of the country ; but the
immense aipphes which ate here furnished must give some
idea of the improvement and degree of perfection of the agricul-
ture of a country from which they are drawn.
The poultry markets, and the markets for game, are also most
extensive. The fish markets in Loudon seem to me unflu>
passed for their excellence, and certainly embrace a great
variety of the very best kinds. These, of course, furnish their
fill! proportion of the supplies of Jjondon.
6. Chabactkk afd Q,cai.itt or Stock. ' — The quahty of the
cattle exhibited in Smithfield market, of sheep in particular, is
eztraoidmary for its fatness. The show of the Smithfield Club,
which is held in December, under the patronage of some of the
first noblemen in the kingdom, may very properly be denom-
inated a show of monstrosities in the way of fatness. They are
tnOTii^ elephantine masses of flesh, and if, as according to
modem chemical i^osophy, all fot is the result of disease, they
are far from being attractive to any but the grossest epicure.
No advantage can come from rearing animals to such an inor-
dinate d^ree of fatness, save in the matter of showiiq; what the
art of man can accomplish in respect to the animal economy,
and also that of testing the nutritious and itUtening qualities of
different kinds of food.
In respect to the weight of the nnimalii in Smithfield, an indi-
vidual fiuniliar with the subject, and in whom 1 have great con-
fidence, states that the beasts from two to three years old will
average from 85 to 100 stone of 6 pounds, or from 680 to 600
pounds, when dressed — that is, the four qtiarters. Others place
it not higher than 82 stone, or 606 pounds ; of calves, 150
pounds ; of pigs, 100 pounds ; of sheep, 90 pounds. Calves are
seldom sent to market under six or eight weeks old ; and large
hogs are never seen in the market. If we may rely upon ancient
authorities, within a century past the weight of animals in
Smithfield Market has nearly doubled; pertiaps more than
)yGoo»^Ic
HUTBriBLD, UWDOH. 316
doubled. It is said that, in 1710, the average veight of beaab
was 370 pounds ; of calves, 60 poonds ; of sheep and Iambs, 38
pounds. This increase of size is jvobably attributable in the
main to two gieat causes, which deserve serious consideration.
The &8t is, the improvement of the breeds of cattle. A person
has only to go into Smithfield Market to remark the perfection
to which the art of breeding has been carried, and the distinct-
ness of the lines by which the different breeds are separated
from each other. Three great points seem to have been gained.
The first is, great size and weight have been attained ; the
second IS, the tendency to fatten, and to keep in fat condition,
has been greatly cultivated ; the third is, that the animal arrives
early at maturity. All these are most important points ; the last
certainly not least ; for if an animal can be brought to the same
size and we^ht, without doubling the expense, at eighteen
months old, that he could formerly be made to reach not sooner
than at three years of age, the quick returns, so essential in all
commercial transactions, are secured, and as the expenses ara
lessened, the profits are greatly increased. Nothing strikes one
with more surprise than to see what, in the improvement of the
^pearance and constitution of the stock, intelligence, skill, and
perseverance can effect. I may here with propriety quote what
my friend, before referred to, says in relation to the quality of
the stock in Smithfield. " I fear many of oar breeds of beasts
and sheep are becoming worse than they were, from an exces-
sive attention to neatness and symmetry of form, so that bulk
and quantity of good flesh have been too much overlooked.
Our Hereford beasts are much inferior to what they were ; also
other breeds of beasts ; and particularly some breeds of sheep.
Some persons are so very particular about purity of blood, that
they often ran into great error ; their stock losing fiesh, constitu-
tion, and size. This is particularly observable in Leicester
sheep. So wedded are some persons to this breed, and to what
they call purity of blood, that their sheep keep dwindling into
very insignificant stock. I am satiafied' that we cannot go on
breeding in and in, without losing size, quality, and worth." I
give these opinions of a very jsactical man, as familiar with the
Smithfield Market as any man in England, without endorsing
them, and leave them to speak fot themselves.
The second great cause of the improvement of the stock in
)yGoo»^Ic
316 Kcmairmui leaacuLTVwiM.
Bmilhfield Maiket is, the improTemeDt of the husbandry of the
country, particularly by the introductioii of what is called the
alternate husbandry, and the culliration of green crops. The
eulliratioD of turnips and swedes is comperatirely modem ; and
perhaps no single circumstance has effected so great an improye-
ment in the agricultuial condition of the coimtry. Formerly,
cattle were fatted, if &tted at all, upon grass and hay, and these
of inferior kinds ; the store stock were wintered upon straw, and
came to the spring in such a condition that the greater part of
the summer was required, in order to recover what they had
lost in the winter. Now, the introduction of the artificial
grasses, clover, and rye-grass, the growing of vetches, rape,
turnips, swedes, carrots, and mangel-wurzel, and the use of
oil-cake, have multiplied in an extraordinary manner the re-
sources of the farmer ; and the practice of folding his sheep, and
stall-feeding his fatting beasts, give him a command of feed, and,
if I may so say, such a control over the season, that the results
are most remarkable in the supply of the market, at all times of
the year, with animals of the finest description.
I may be inquired of, what I think of the English meats.
The iatness of the beef and mutton is most remarkable. I have
seen single beasts in the United States as fat as any I have seen
here ; but these are comparatively rare exceptions ; and here the
general character of the beasts and sheep is, in this respect, most
striking. It would, however, I fear, be hopeless to attempt to
persuade an Englishman of that which is my honest conviction —
that our meats are sweeter to the taste than those which I have
eaten here. Our poultry is incomparably better. An English-
man will be likely to set this down as mere prejudice, which
possibly it nmy be, for who can escape such prejudices, or be
fully conscious of them when they exist ? — but I believe it is not
prejudice, but Indian com, (the grain upon which our animals are
&tted,) which gives to their meat a peculiar sweetness, which is
not produced by other feed. Our beef animals are not killed
until from five to seven years old, and our sheep seldom until
three years old. Here sheep are killed at about fifteen months,
and beasts at two years and upwards. The flesh of these young
animals is wanting in that consistency which mora age would
give, though an extreme on the other side, and the hard-working
o( our oxen until e^ht and ten years old, is liable to give a
)yGoo»^Ic
fllDTBTIELD, lANDOM. 317
toughness to the meat, which vould not be found if fatted at an
eaiiier, though not a rery early, period. If price is to be takea
as a correct index of quality, then it will be found that the beef
of the small West Highland cattle, and the mutton of the Welsh
sheep, are decidedly superior to any other, the prices which they
command being always higher than others. The smaller size,
and the better intermixture of lean and fat meat which they
present, render them more convenient for family dishes, and
more attractire than those immense rumps of beef, and saddles
and legs of mutton, covered with an inordinate thickness of fat,
which, by their grossness, repel any but the mo^ iaveterate
epicure — the animal who seems to lire only to eat.
My coariction is, that there is no agricultural improvenient in
England so great and striking as that which has been effected
in their live stock : I refer particularly to its size, aptitude to
&tten, early maturity, symmetry, and beauty. Of the milking
and dairy properties of their stock, I shall speak hereafter. I
must include, likewise, in my commendation, their horses — work-
ing, carriage, pleasure, and race horses. It could scarcely be
expected to be otherwise. The highest degree of skill has been
concentrated upon these objects ; and this skill has been stim-
ulated by premiums of the most honorable and liberal character,
and by expenditures absolutely enormous. The splendid and
magnificent |aemiumfl of gold and silver plate for successful
competition, which one sees on the tables and sideboards of the
fortunate winners all over the cotmtry, and which are exhibited
with an honest pride, while they display the highest triumphs
of artifltical skill and taste, serve only to fan the flame which
they enkindle, and to quicken an ambition, which never can be
quiet while a more distant point remains to be attained. Hov
happy would it be for the world, if human ambition were always
directed to objects so innocent and commendable ; to purposes
which benefit, instead of those which curse, the world ; to the
triumphs of genius, industry, and science, over the elements of
nature, instead of the bloody conquests of power, avarice, and
despotism, over human comfort, liberty, and life !
6. SmmriELD bt Nidht. — Smithfield by night, and in a
dark night, presents a most extraordinary scene, which, thot^h I
have witnessed it, it would be very difficult for me adequately
27*
)yGoo»^Ic
318 EDBOPEAM xaaicnvrvBi.
to describe. A large [KoportioD of the stock arrire id the
neighborhood of London either on Saturday oi early on Sunday,
where they aie fed in the fields, or the ezteusive lairs prepared
for their reception. These lairs, especially Laycock's at Isling-
ton, are well worth a visit, being composed of open yards and
most extensive sheds, covering fourteen acres of ground, fur-
nished with watering troughs and mangers, and divided into
different compartments. Here the farmer or drover is supplied
with bay or straw for his stock, not by the day or night, but by
the truss, the hay which is sold in London being always put up
and tied in bundles of 66 pounds each — certainly an excellent
arrangement, which, while it [^events all temptations to waste,
requires a purchaser to pay only for that which he has. The
cattle here get a little rest and relrestuuent in these stalls after
their long journeys ; and here they are visited by the salesmen
preparatory to their appearance in the market on Monday. It
would not be surprising, likewise, and not altogether imlike
some occurrences on the other side of the water, if some pur-
chasers, with an acq^uisitiveness not disturbed by religious
scruples, should occasionally make their way there and an-
ticipate the bugaios of the ensuing day.* About midnight the
different detachments, almost treading upon the heels of each
other, begin to make their way to the place of rendezvous
Uirough the winding streets of this wilderness of houses, and
enter the great market-place by different and opposite avenues,
and, like hostile parties, often meet each other in the very centre.
Then comes the conflict : the driving of so many thousand of
sheep into their several pens ; the assorting and tying up, or arran-
ging, so many thousand of cattle, driven into a state of terror and
frenzy by the men and dogs ; the struggles of the different owners
or drovers to keep their own and prevent their intermingling
with others ; the occasional leaping the barriers, and the escape
of some straggler, who is to be brought back by violence ; the
sounds of the heavy blows over the heads, and horns, and sides,
of the poor crazed animals ; the shrieks of the men ; the yelling
and barking of hundreds of dogs, who look after the sheep and
* 1 will gay, however, by the way, tnd u &ii act of aimple justice, that Londoo,
■■ well u every other put of Engluid which I bne TUnted, ia reiDukable for te
■ober and decorooa otMemnce of the Lord's Day.
)yGoo»^Ic
naTRriBLD, [.oNBOif. 319
cattle with a ferocity perfectly terrific, and a sagacity almost
human; the bellowing of the cattle, and the bleating of the
calves ; forming, if the expression is allowable, a concert of dis-
cordant sounds utterly indescribable and hideous ; and in the
midst of all this confusiou, the darting about of hundreds of
torches, carried in the hand by men looking for their cattle and
sheep, and seeking to identify their marks, — all together present
an exhibition for which it certainly would be difficult to find a
parallel, and sufficiently gratifying to the lorers of the pic-
turesque in human affairs. The calves and p^ enter the
market in a more aristocratic style, in carriages and vans, with
the regular attendance of out-riders and footmen ; but in spite of
this luxiuT', after the example of some of their betters, these
indulgences do not appear to lessen or quiet all their complaints,
and they add their portion to the general harmony. Their
owners are quite wise to carry, instead of attempting to drive,
them ; for I think no human power would be sufficient to drive
and assort a herd of pigs, coming into a scene of this description.
When the day dawns, however, every thing is found in order ;
all the different parties at their respective posts; and the
immense business is transacted with a despatch, an efficiency,
and precision, which are quite remarkable.
7. Attempted Removal or the Market from the Citt. —
It certainly is not a little surprising that a market of this descrip-
tion should be held in the midst of such a city as this. Its name
implies that, in former times, it was held in the outskirts of the
town ; but that time must have long since passed away, and the
" field," so called, is now surrounded with miles of houses in every
direction, and in the very centre of a most densely-packed popu-
lation. It would seem, at first sight, that the obvious and innu-
merable discomforts of such an arrangement, and the danger to
human person and life from driving so many beasts through the
crowded streets, were sufficient reasons for transferring the whole
business to a more retired and convenient situation in the neigh-
borhood of London. A wealthy individual by the name of
Perkins, under the influence of the best of motives, made an
attempt to do this, and erected an establishment for a market at
Islington, about two miles from the centre of London, which is
well worth looking at for the completeness and excellence of its
)yGoo»^Ic
320 XUBOFEiJI AaBtCDLTUSZ.
airangements. The cost of the eBtahlishment is said to have
been £100,000, or half a million of dollars. It fonuB a hollow
square, and embraces a space of more than twenty acres, com-
pletely enclosed by high brick walls, which form the backs of
deep sheds, slated, and open in front, furnished with mangers and
with water troughs supplied from two very large tanks in the
centre of the yard, which are kept constantly filled by machinery
from wells sunk in the neighborhood. The sheds are capable of
accommodating 4000 beasts ; and beie they inight remain £rom
day to day until sold, without inconvenience. In the centre of
this immense quadrangle are four extensive squares, all neatly
paved with flat stones, and divided into sevetal compartments,
railed in with neat iron railings, and capable of accommodating
40,000 sheep. Other pens are constructed for calves, pigs, and
other animals usually brought to market ; and all are arranged in
the most simple and convenient method, with ample passages
furnishing easy access to every part of the enclosure. Besides
these, there are convenient and ample offices for all the various
clerks, salesmen, bankers, &«., connected with the business ; and
it was designed to erect commodious hotels for the acommodf^
tion of persons attending the market, and extensive slaughter-
houses for the killing of the cattle, directly in the neighborhood.
The whole space is entered under a handsome archway ; and for
its particular purposes, it would be difficult to conceive of any
thing more commodious or better arranged.
In spite of all these obvious advantages, the market could not
be removed from Smithfleld. The persons in the neighborhood
of the old market whose business and profits were intimately
connected with it, opposed its removal. There was fear of a
rival market being got up on the other side of the city. The
city would lose the tolls, which are now received at Smithfield,
and which, in the course of the year, make up no inconsiderable
revenue. The meat, if the animals were slaughtered out of the
town, would, of necessity, have to be conveyed to the city in
carts, whereas, now, much of it is killed directly in the neigh-
borhood of the market. These and many other reasons were
urged, but, perhaps, would not have availed, excepting for the
{act that Smithfield was discovered to be a chartered market, for
the sale of cattle ; and the twelve judges of the high courts
decided, upon consultation, that this charter could not be
)yGoo»^Ic,
SHITHrUIJ), LONIK>IT. d»l
abrc^led ; and even in spite of an act of Parliament, which
was obtained in the case, this great public nuisance must be
continued.
8. Chartehbd Riqbts. — When the rast amounts of property,
vhich are here locked up, by the disposal of generations long
since departed, for the most frivolous, useless, and obsolete pur-
poses, and under the most absurd tenures, Eire considered, and
that even public and acknowledged nuisances cannot be abated,
while maintained under the plea of chartered rights, it is quite
well worth considering whether this doctrine does not admit of
some qualifications, which would render its operation less bur-
densome and offensive. Many cases, which are constantly
occurring, would do much towards reconciling one to an occa-
sional and general revolution, under which, freed from the rusty
fetters of ancient prejudices, superstitions, follies, and crimes,
society might take a new start, and avail itself of the improved
experience and enlightenment of modem times. The right of a
man to dispose of property, after his death, other than that which
is the direct fruit of his own skill and industry, is, in my mind,
quite questionable on moral and economical, however well estab-
lished it may be upon legal grounds ; and I hope I shall not give
offence by an opioion, however erroneous, yet very honestly held,
that no man, under any circumstances, has a right to appropriate
property to any object which the state may not annul when that
object becomes either pernicious or useless ; above all, that no
man, under any circumstances, has any right in the soil, which
is not entirely at the disposal of the state, always premising that
the stale m^e adequate compensation for individual cases of
hardship or injury, and for any substantial improvement, which
may have been effected in the property by the labor or skill, or
at the personal expense, of the occupier. Let us suppose, for
example, that Smithfield had been, by some ancient charter,
appropriated exclusively for public executions, — as it was indeed
the melancholy site of the martyrdom of Rogers, and other
heroic victims to bigotry, — and that the government determined
that executions should cease to be public, or should take place in
the ptison-yard ; or, what is infinitely to be desired, that, under
the mild influences of Christianity, the punishment of death
should be abolished ; must this field therefore forever remain
)yGoo»^Ic
3!»
nselen and unoccupied? The English, as I hare before had
occasion to remark, — and I do it certainly as fu as possible
removed from any spirit of censoriousness or ill-humor, — ate
excessively conservative. Their judges still swelter under their
full-bottomed wigs ; and theii courtiers and civilians, in the midst
of crowds of gentle ladies, wear swords on state occasions, when
there is reason to think that some of them, if called upon to
draw and defend themselves, would scarcely know which end to
seize upon. I am not for indiscriminate changes ; but I go for
universal improvement, wherever the improvement to be made is
obvious, decided, practicable, and remuoerative. If otherwise,
what is the value of experience and of education ? and how idle
it is to talk of the progress of society I Even in this matter of
chartered rights, the government, with an inconsistency not un-
common, does not hesitate' to take private property for public
uses, and to invade the property even of charitable trusts for the
passage of railroads, which, whatever may be said of their public
uses, can scarcely be considered in any other light than as
private corporations. I should be glad to know what business
has a dead man with the affairs of the living ; and what has a
man to do with the earth after he has left it ? He has had itia
day, and is of no further use in it, excepting in the good example
which he may have left behind him. Indeed, aa Goldsmith
remarks, he takes care to rob it of what little he might return
for its benefit, by ordering himself to be buried six feet below
the surface. The earth belongs exclusively to those who
occupy it. It seems to me to behoove us much more to take
care for the good of those who are to come after us, and may be
essentially affected by what we do, than for the wills of those
who have gone before us -^ whom what- we do, or are, cannot
affect at all ; and who themselves, if they were now living,
would see, in a change of circumstances, the absurdity, or use-
lessness, or inconvenience, or hardship, of the arrangements
which they propose, and be among the foremost to condenm
and alter them. If public faith requires that the wills of those
who have departed should be observed, it should- take care that
the objects for which those wills provide should be in them-
selves juet, reasonable, and useful, as long as that provision may
continue ; but the locking up of land «n perpetuum, for [nivate
or public uses, seems of very questionable right and expediency.
)yGoo»^Ic
It is quite obvioas that I am no lavyer ; and I gire my opinioni
with the more freedom, 'knowing that they will not be quoted aa
authority.*
Besides Smithfield, markets for the sale of lire stock, botn
lean and fatted, are held in various parts of the country. These
being held in determined places, and at established and well-
known times, the farmers and others have always an opportunity
of disposing of cattle, for which they wiA to find purchasers,
and of obtaining such as they require for keep or fattening.
Lm. — GRAIN MARKETS.
Next to the cattle markets, in England, the grain markets
deserve attention. They perhaps should have a higher place, as
the value of the grain crop of the country must very much
exceed that of its Ure stock. The amount of grain produced in
* I migfat get npon fbrbiddeo gtoaaA if I ventimd to apetk of chutered opiii-
ions, and of the vinet7 of utificial ukd Btringeiit contriwieea to regolite what
BWD Bbftll think in ill time* to come. 1 have inj own DotioM on these eubjecta,
with which I ahall not trouble my reftdeis, fiutber than to ray thit I hold mental
■IsTeiy aa the moat igncnDinioua of all kinds of bondage, and thank God, eveiy
day of my lif^that attempta to inthrtl the mind aie, in the end, ae idle ta to
attampt to chain the wind, convinced aa 1 am that all hopea of human improve-
ment, and the mon] advancement of society, must depend upon the utterly free,
anreetricted, and independent inquiries of the human mind after what is good,
and uaefiil, and true. \
I tnnt I aiiall ba pardoned theee teSeetioos, which otherwise mi^ seem iiiop-
portane, when it ie considered that, in eome reapecta, Smithfield is claseical and
eoiwecmtsd ground. I think it was one of the Oxford marQm, who laid to his
heroic companion at the stake, that " they ahould kindle auch a fire that day in
England, as ha trusted in Ood would never be extinguished." Such were the
firea kindled in Smithfield, wliicb, aa they were reflected from the BUrroonding
objects, showed the grim, and hideous, and bloody features of bigotry and intol-
erance, in all their deformi^ and hatefulness, and atill aend up their light to
Heaven, as the signal of that libei^ of judgment, opinion, and conscience, which
constitutes the glory of the human mind, and which eveiy true man should claim,
■t any and every peril, as his independent and inalienable birthri^L
)yGoo»^Ic
324 EiTsopiiir AaucDLTnsr.
England ia immenae, as is quite evident firom the great popula-
tion which is fed.
Kinds or Bread. Maize, or Ihdiah Corh. — In Scotland,
a considerable portion of the bread is made of oatmeal. In
Ireland, a large portion of the poorer classes lire upon potatoes ,*
and many scarcely taste bread from one year's end to another.
In some parts of the country, meal from pease, and barley meal,
are mixed with a portion of wheat meal, and used for bread.
But the vast majority of the people use wheat bread exclusively.
There is very little or no rye consumed for bread. Indeed, I
have not known it used in a single instance. The poor are ex-
tremely tenacious of the kind of bread which they eat ; and I have
seen, in more instances than a few, where the fanner was under an
obligation to supply his laborers with wheat at a certain rale, and
was using wheat of an inferior quality for his own table, and
sending the best to market, the laborer insisted upon that of the
best quality, though he might have had an inferior quality at less
than the stipulated price. I certainly do not deny their right to
do this ; and I begrudge the poor none of their small round of
comforts and luxuries. I wish they whose toil, under the
blessing of Heaven, produces the bread, may never want an
ample supply, and that of the Unest kind. As a general rule,
likewise, I believe it sound economy to use the best of every
thing. But I refer to this tact, as showing to a degree, in my
opinion, the hopelessness of introducing our Indian corn as bread
for the English poor — a scheme which many persons have advo-
cated on both sides of the water, as reciprocally advantageous to
both countries. They will not eat it. If the rich should adopt
it as a luxury, (and, if they understood its proper use, they would
with reason deem it so,) their example or estimation of it m^ht
have its usual effect ; but to commend it to the exclusive use of
the poorer classes as a cheap kind of bread, acknowle^ed
inferior, though it were as sweet as the ancient manna, would be
met with that pride of resentment, which any thing short of
absolute starvation would scarcely be able to overcome. With
Arthur Young, I deem Indian com, or maize, as among the best
and most useful crops ever yielded by the earth. Nothing
within my knowledge is grown at so litde comparative expense.
)yGoo»^Ic
OBUN KAIUCKTS OUT Or LOKDON. 32o
Nothiog furnishes by the acre more nutritious food for mau or
beast Nothing, as grain or grass, is capable of more varied and
useful application. No plant cultivated returns more to the land,
in manure, by way of compensation for what it takes from it.
The dampness of the English climate, the deficiency of sunshine,
and in general the coldness and heaviness of the English soil,
forbid its production here.* If it were introduced here without
duty, with a view to fatting swine and cattle, there would be, in
my beUef, a clear gain, on the part of the farmers, of the manure.
I am not conscious of any interested, views to bias my judgment
in this matter ; for, besides an absence of all commercial interests,
from which my pursuits in life are entirely foreign, I think there
is reason to believe that, if its admission into England were free,
the supplies of (his article &om the shores of the Mediterranean
vould nearly preclude the competition of the United States.
UV. — GRAIN MARKETS OUT OF LONDON.
Grain markets are established in all the principal towns of the
country, and are generally held weekly. In almost every town
where a regular market is held, there is held a com market,
' In aome few easea, where the locslitf and the seaaoa have been pecaliarijr
&Tonble, the earliest kinds have ripened; but it cannot be depended on, and
May attempt to cultivate it on an extensive scale would doabtlees prove a failure.
I am not certain that it itiaj not succeed ea a gieen cTop for Ibdder. If eo, it
would be found that no crop would jield more, or more nutritious feed for stock ;
w make more milk, beef, or mnlton ; or fiimleh a better fefed for lioi>ea. It is
confidentlj staled, npoa atttboritr which I cannot doubt, that it has yielded, in
New England, at the rate of thir^-niue lone of green feed to an acre ; and scane
penons have assumed ihat double this quantity can be grown. A distinguished
agricultural friend here is now making the experiment of growing it for green
feed. We must wait for the result I imported the seed for him; but the various
wcpeDsee attending it akoost tbibid a repetition. The unfortunate man, wbo has
to run the gantlet through salesmen, and freighting agents, and commission
■gents, and wharf agents, and carriers, and above all custom-houBes, finds himself,
at the end, mncb in the situatiou of the man who went down from Jerusalem to
Jericho ; but without even a kind Samaritan to pity his destitution, or assuage
bis wounds.
)yGoo»^Ic
3iS6 EDROPEAM AOMCCLTDHi:.
although the grain market is always distinct from the general
market, sometimes in the same place but at a different hour, but,
in most cases, on the same day but in a different place. All
grain here goes under the general denomination of com. In a
great many towns, large and elegant halls are erected for what is
called the Corn Exchange, where the farmers, millers, corn-
factors, and grain-merchants, assemble for this particular object
exclusively. In some cases, these buildings hare considerable
pretensions to architectural elegance ; and many of them lai^er
pretensions to utility and convenience, as there are connected
with them extensive rooms and chambers for the storage of
grain.
1. Forms of Business. — The general standard of measure is
a quarter, which consists of eight imperial bushels, though still,
in some markets, the reckoning is by loads of three bushels.
The markets are of two kinds, one by sample — the grain to be
delivered on a future day ; the others are in some parts of the
country called pilch markets, where the grain is brought into
the market, and sold and delivered at the same time. In these
market-houses, the factors, or sellers of grain, have their respec-
tive stands, with the necessary appurtenances of counting desk
and writing implements, and with the various samples of grain
exhibited in boxes or bags before them. In some markets, I
have found many of the factors and farmers bringing their sam-
ples of grain, in small bags, in their hands and pockets. In most
cases, the markets are opened and closed at fixed hours, and this
is notified by the ringing of a bell, to which there is universal
submission. Such habits of punctuality, in the transaction of
business, are of the highest importance ; and should there be
occasion, I beg leave strongly to commend them to my own
countrymen. The rules of commercial transactions cannot, in
my opinion, be too stringent and absolute ; yet certainly nothing
is more loose and slovenly than the ordinary modes of transacting
business in my own counrry; and the necessary consequence is,
a great want of punctuality, and that dreadful curse of the com*
munity, angry and interminable litigation. A fixed time to
begin and to close the market quickens both buyer and seller;
but how often have I seen, especially in the country, men wast-
ing the whole day, and chaffering, hour after hour, with ail the
)yGoo»^Ic
ORAIN lUBKBTB OUT OF LONDOK. 327
necessary amount of trickery and prevEiricatioii, about that which
might be much better determined in fifteen minutes !
2. Adtantaoes and Coitvemeiice or these Mahkets in tbc
United States. — The convenience of these markets, scattered
ail over the country, is very great. They would be very useful
with us, and I think cannot be too soon established, especially
in our grain-growing districts, such, for example, as Western New
York. The farmers in this part of the country would certainly
derive great advantages from regular and quick sales, and from
the extended competition to which such established markets
would 'Certainly lead. Once a week, however, in the same
district, would be too oAen, as they would be likely to take the
farmers too much from home ; and at the breaking up of the
winter, when the state of the roads renders travelling difficult,
or during the busiest season of summer, it might be advisable to
suspend them. In any event, the hour of opening and of closing
them should be fixed and absolute. Mutual agreement might
determine this ; and the custom, once established, would be as
imperative as any laws on the subject. If it should be asked
bow these markets might be established, I think (he agricultund
societies in the different counties could easily arrange the matter ;
and that it wotdd be a very useful object of their attention. I
would advise, further, that a grain market, and a cattle market,
should be always a cash market ; and that all giving or taking
credit in such cases should be considered disgraceful both to
buyer and seller, and entirely out of the question. If bread
should not be paid for in cash, what should be } I am afraid
my advice may be deemed a work of supererogation, but it is
well intended; and whoever contributes in any way to limit (I
am sensible the abolition is hopeless) that system of private
credit and long accounts, which prevails to so great an extent all
over the country, does a public benefaction. With honest men
who mean to pay their debts, nothing, in the end, is ever gained
by it ; and the frequency with which a man's own integrity is
midermined by it is not the least of its evils. I am strongly of
the opinion that it would be better for the community if there
were no laws for the recovery of debts, excepting cases involving
fraud either in the act or the representation ; and all such in-
stances should be punished as other crimes. The value of
)yGoo»^Ic
3X9 KCBOPIAS AQEICDI.TCKK.
integrity would then be better f^[«eciated ; ecooomy in the
modes of living would prevail much more ; aad industry and
frugality would be greatly stimulated.
3. Modes or Selliho. — The sale by sample seems, on many
accounts, more el^ible than by bringing the whole quantity at
once to the market. The sample, in such cases, is divided
between buyer and seller, for there should be a guarantee of
fair dealing on both sides, as, in case of a fall in price, the
purchaser might substitute a better sample than that which he
had received, and in this way evade his eng^ement. In all
cases, the selling by sample is hable, however, to objections of
this kind, and more especially as the seller himself is likely to
separate from a small sample what might injure its appearance ;
and a small sample is always likely to be cleaner, and appear
better, than a laj^e quantity. One cannot say of wheat what
the shopkeepers say of their silks imd calicoes, "Tliey appear
better in the piece than the pattern." While it is very desirable,
in alt commercial transactions, to avoid, as much as possible,
occasions of misunderstanding, much must, after all, be left to
personal integrity, and that sense of honor and right which
commercial men would find it for their interest to guard with as
much tenacity as they would their lives. But alas I if com-
mercial transactions were so exact and explicit as to be incapable
of misconstruction or evasion, and men were always under the
influence of a strict principle of integrity and justice, what would
become of the lawyers, the paid moral police and the strict
guardians of jtistice always on one side? Many of them would
make very good farmers, — a transmutation from which, in some
cases, the community might suffer no inconvenience.
Where grain is sold in quantity, or by the load, and delivered
at the time of sale, these occasions of misunderstanding are
avoided, and the whole business is concluded at once. The
farmer leaves his corn and takes home his money ; and any
anxiety respecting the rise or fall of the market, wad the fulfil-
ment of the engagement, coupled as it may be with the usual
contingencies of the future, is prevented. But the farmer or
seller is placed somewhat at the mercy of the buyer, when, as
the close of the market approaches, he finds himself with a load
of grain, which he must either sell, or carry back, or store, if it
)yGoo»^Ic
d&UN MAItXKTS ODT OT LONDON. 329
be practicable, at considerable trouble and expense. In large
markets, howevet, where the sellers are numerous, and compe-
tition is in proportion, the prices become soon settled by common
consent; and the seller may calculate, if be does not, through
timidity or greediness, overstay his time, upon getting the current
price, if the quality of his grain justifies it. " The tide, if taken
at the flood," to borrow the simile of a great authority, " leads
onto fortune;" but with those who neglect the opportunity,
the ebbing tide often leaves the vessel stranded, high and dry
upon the shore.
4. MiTLTrpLrcATroN or Markets in England. — TThere are
circumstances of difference, in the condition of things here, and
in the United States, which it may not be uninteresting to
remark upon, as a special reason why the grain markets prevail
all over the country. Here there is an immense population to
be fed, scattered every where ; and there are mstny more, in pro~
portion to the whole number, who are buyers of bread than with
us. The manufacturing villages are crowded with a population
"Who are to be fed by other hands than their own. The villages
and small towns are full of tradespeople, mechanics, and profes-
sional men, who are to be suppli^ with bread. The laboring
agricultural population, too, are buyers of bread. With us, every
farmer raises his own bread, and feeds his laborers in his own
house. With us, there are comparatively few married laborers
employed at all, and of those, there are scarcely any who have
not small farms of their own, on which they raise their own
bread, and commonly much more. Here the laboring popula-
tion, excepting in the case of some small allotments, grow no
bread for themselves ; and the expense of fuel is so great, like-
wise, that they depend upon public bakers, rather than bake
their own bread. In consequence of this, markets are held at all
the principal towns, where the millers and bakers supply them-
selves. Purchases are made, likewise, in these markets, for the
supply of London, where the facility of carriage allows its
being sent.
)yGoo»^Ic
nmopcur AaBicuLTUBC.
LV.— THE CORN EXCHANGE IN MARK LANE, LONDON.
The supply of London itaelf is an immense affair. The or-
dinary population of this mammoth city is estimated at about
1,800,000; and during the session of Parliament, in what is
technically called " the season," when the legishiture may be said
to be in full blast, all the places of public amusement opened,
and the court in the plenitude of its luxuries, it is supposed tim
the population of London does not fall much short of 2,500,000.
Nothing impresses a reflecting mind with more force, than the
consideration how such vast numbers of people, all of whom are
consumers, are to be fed. Yet they aie fed, and the cases of
want and starvation do not arise from any deficiency in the
supply of bread, of which there seems always enough and to
spare.
" The total importation of com and grain of all kinds into
London averages, at the present time, about 28,000,000 bushels
annitally, besides about 50,000 tons of flour and meal — the
weight being at least 530,000 tons." The Corn Exchange, in
Mark Lane, is the great place of trade in corn and flour, and in
all kinds of grain and pulse. There are two spacioos buildi:^
adjoining each other for the transaction of business and the
exhibition of samples, and the market is holden three times a
week, — on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, — Monday being
the principal market-day. The business done here is immense in
homegrown and in foreign grain.
LVI. — CORN DUTIES.
Grain is not admitted into England from foreign ports, Canada
excepted, free of duty, excepting when the price reaches its
maximum. The highest duty, of 20 shillings per quarter, is
paid when the price is 50 shillings per quarter, and the scale of
duties is a descending scale, iii certain deterpiinate proportions,
)yGoo»^Ic
COBH DDXICB. 331
until the ^ic6 reaches 80 shillings- per quarter, when it is ad-
mitted iiee of duty. In consequence of these regulations, lai^e
amounts of foreign grain are stored in warehouses, waiting for
admission, when, by the variations of the market, the duties are
at the lowest. The amount of duty payable on the introduction
of foreign wheat being regulated by the current price of wheat,
it becomes obviously of the highest consequence to determiue
what is the current price of wheat, since this price has no
refereace to the cost of the wheat, and, as is plain, the price may
vary in different parts of the kingdom. With a view to deler-
mine this, returns are received weekly, at one of the government
offices in London, from the different counties in England and
Wales, comprising reports of the sales in two hundred and
ninety-two market-towns, designated by law, upon which the
{Kice is averaged, and by this the duty is regulated for six weeks
at a time j the current price, with the duty payable, being an-
nounced ij) the public papers, by authority of the government.
This variation of the duties is called the "sliding scale," and
has been the cause of much warm political controversy.
The whole subject of restrictive duties is now constantly
before the public mind; and while it will not be denied that
there are interested partisans on both sides, who have only gome
private and personal ends in view, it can as little be doubted that
there is a fair proportion, on both sides, of men of intelligence,
honor, and integrity, who, in the measures which they advocate,
are governed wholly by their convictions of what is due to great
and valuable interests, concerned in the question, and of what
they deem best for the country. I know how difficult it is to
acknowledge this ; how easy it is to impute corrupt motives to
even the purest minds ; and how our own views may be affected
by circumstances, of whose influence we are not aware, hut
which are certain seriously to bias our judgment. Men who
think that the com laws should be abrogated, and those who
think that they should be maintained, may be equally honest and
equally patriotic ; but nothing can be more disgraceful and un-
worthy of an intelligent and honorable mind than that bigotry and
intolerance, which would stifle inquiry on any subject of public
interest ; which would prevent the free utterance of an honest
judgment, and impute sinister intentions or interests for any
difference of opinion. It is to be regretted that examples of this
)yGoo»^Ic
332 SUBOPKAN AGBICCLTUBE.
iatolerance, both in respect to politics and religion, are cot vanting
on both sides of the water. One is almost discouraged to per-
ceive, in many cases, that the only advance made upon the intol-
erant and ferocious spirit of the dark ages, is the immunity from
personal violence and suffering. Men are not now, for their
religious or political convictions, burned at the stake ; but to a
sensitive mind, a penalty scarcely less bitter is often adminis-
tered, in the opprobrium which follows the profession of unpop-
ular opinions. The tiger, though muzzled, still growls, and
beats the bars of his cage with his tail, showii^ what he would
do if he could. It is a singular and instructive fact, that formerly
it was the great aim of the municipal and the national govern-
ment to keep down the price of bread, but that the present
policy of the government is to keep it up. Two centuries and
a half ago, the city itself provided large stores of grain, imported
from the Continent, and even established and maintained several
public ovens, in order to prevent a scarcity of wheat, and to save
the poor firotn suffering by a high price, consequent upon a defi-
cient supply. The several livery companies of London were
required by law to have several thousand quarters of grain always
on hand, for the same object It contrasts strongly with such
provisions, that, a few years ago, two thousand quartei^ of wheat,
that is, sixteen thousand bushels, were thrown into the river,
because the owners would not pay the duties or keep it longer,
subject to expenses of storage and port charges. Whether the
.policy of the present day is an improvement upon the wisdom
and good government of former times, I shall leave to the calm
judgment of my readers ; but such a fact as that detailed above,
occurring where so many thousands are constantly suffering, and
many dying by slow degrees, from a deficiency of food, can
hardly fail to bring a cold chill over a man of common sensibility,
though he be cased in the triple brass of the most orthodox
«chool of political economy, and seems such a resentment and
defiance of the goodness of Heaven, that one can scarcely trust
himself to speak of U.
1. ABounRTS roR Pboi-ection. — The protectionists, who
are opposed to the introduction of foreign grain, maintain that a
free competition in their own market by supplies from abroad
would so reduce the price of grain as to render its cultivation not
)yGoo»^Ic
COSH DDTUS. 333
merely- [ffofitless, but rumous ; md that the lesult would be to
tbxovr much land out of cultivation, and consequently deprive
the laborer of his present lesouices ; and though the price of
bread were reduced, yet such would be the scarcity of employ-
meat, and the reduction of faia vages, that he wouM be without
the means of paying even a reduced price.
2. AaaoMENTs aoainst Protection. — The opponents of
restrictions in the introduction of foreign grain maiDtain, on the
other hand, that, irom the necessities of the case, the land will
continue to be cultivated ; that the introduction of foreign grain
will induce the farmer to cultivate more land, to introduce im-
provements in cultivation, to bring into a productive condition
much land which is now waste and profitless, and thus increas-
ing the amount of his crops by a more skilful cultivation, this
excess will be very much more than an equivalent for any
diminution of price. The saving of the expenses of transporta-
tion, incident to the importation of grain from abroad, must be
considered, in its very nature, as virtually a considerable protec-
tion to the English farmer.
I do not deem it necessary further to discuss this great ques-
tion. It does not appear probable to me that, even if the ports
were thrown open, much larger amounts would come in than
what are now brought ; and one effect is certain — that of increas-
ing the' price of wheat in the exporting coimtiies. If more
wheat is cultivated in foreign countries for exportation, then it
must be obtained from territories more distant than those from
which it is now brought, and the expense of transportation
would be proportionately increased. The production of wheat
would be in no case, as many persons seem to imagine, without
limit. The United States have vast mariiets growing up among
themselves for the consumption of their surplus products ; and in
a free trade, the wheat from the United States must come into
severe competition with the continental wheats. Every one
must see that the financial bearings of the question are quite
complicated ; and under such a change in the policy of the
country as the abrogation of all duties or restrictions, many new
circumstances would spring up to affect the results, little thought
of by even the shrewdest calculators. How limited is human
jwescieace ! and what countless and complex influences are con-
)yGoo»^Ic
334 KUBOFBAM AaUCUI,TDItE.
tinuaJly iDtermingUag themselres in the aSsita of natioDS, aa
veil as of individuals, which defy equally maa's sagacity to
imderstaod, and his povei to control !
3. Moral Views or thk Q,u£STioif, — Having stated, with
what impartiality I am able, the principal commercial and
financial aiguments in the case, on both sides, I feel that there
are views of this subject, of a moral character, to which I may
without impropriety refer. The question is considered by many
as a great question of humanity, which I shall endeavor to look
at in the light of a calm philosophy, if I may make any jHrelen-
sions — and I am certain they must be of the most humble chac-
acter — to such a lofty gift. I hope my readers, even among the
parties most deeply interested, will approach it in the same spirit.
I believe, from my personal knowledge of many of them, that
there is as ample a share of real benevolence for the poor, among
the advocates of the com laws, as among their opponents ; and
men of this high character will listen with patience and with
eagerness to any discussions of the subject which may serve to
correct wrong impressions, if wrong impressions exist, or to make
the path of duty more plain, if at present it is in any degree mis-
understood or overshadowed.
4. Patbiotisv AST) PhiljUtthbopt. — It may be supposed
that, as the citizen of a comparatively young and growing
country, anxious to extend its profitable conmiercial relations
in all directions, and spurred on with an eager and breathless
avarice, — stimulated, by an euteiprise every where left free to be
exerted, and by natural and social advantages of an extraordinary
character, to enrich itself by the wide disposal of the products of
its industry and its vii^in soil, — I should be most anxious for the
admission of these products into England under the most favor-
able circumstances, and should be the strenuous advocate of
firee trade, certainly on the English side of the water, which is
about as far as any inan's impartiality may be expected to go.
I plead guilty to a strong attachment to my own country, and a
most ardent desire for her prosperity ; neither of which senti-
ments has suffered the slighfest abatement by my protracted
absence, and my familiarity with other countries and other
institutions. But I am not conscious of any interested views
)yGoo»^Ic
CORN DUTIBS. 336
which should imduljr biaa my jadgment in this case ; aad I will
assert, in all the strength of the mc^t heartfelt conriction, that 1
regard patriotism aa a very mean virtue compared with philan-
thropy, and that the mere interests of trade are to be trampled
under foot with scorn and disdain whenever they conflict with
the interests of humanity. I know very well that they are
oftentimes coincident. Some time ^o, in the United States, at
a public celebration, where I am aware that sentiments occa-
sionally get a little colored by the wine iu which they are
drank, a distinguished public character gave, as a toast, "Our
country ! " which would have been very well had he stopped
there, and I should have had no objection to emptying my glass,
if that had been necessary to sanction it ; but when he added,
" Our country, right or wrong ! " I regarded the sentiment with
inexpressible detestation, to which the wine, if I had drank it,
would only have added intensity. Some apology may be made
for him aa a military man ; for what has a military man to do
with right or wrong ? His duty is only to obey orders ; and, aa
a facetious divine said in another case, be has neither the trouble
nor expense of keeping a conscience.
B. PaoPCB Ends of Nationu. Polict. — When, under the
blessing of Heaven, will mankind cease to estimate the pros-
perity of individuals or nations by a mere pecuniary standard ?
When will they learn that the true glory of a nation is the glory
of justice and humanity, and that the only legitimate and
worthy objects of a good government are, — not the mere accu-
mulation of wealth, the triumphs of military ambition, the ezten-
aion of terricory, the multiplication of pageants and of luxuries
the intrenching of power aheady too arbitrary and despotic in
its exactions, the higher elevation of ranks already too high for
sympathy with the wants, and sufferings, and privations, of the
depressed and low, — but the far nobler purposes of giving to all
the opportunity and the means of exerting an honest industry,
and an ample share, and a perfect security in the enjoyment, of the
fruits of that industry ; allowing no individual to be above the
reach of that law which inflicts its penalties upon the most
humble and down-trodden, and suffering no person to pine in-
ot^cority, uncared for and unpitied ; but, in the exercise of an
exact and impartial justice, seeking to protect the defenceless, to
)yGoo»^Ic"
336 EDROPXAK AGBIC[II.TnitE.
succor the oppressed, to raise the fallen ; by a wise education,
and a ptdenial care, to inspire even the lowliest with the enno-
bling consciouaoesa of his own moral and immortal natuie ; and,
in the spirit of true Christianity, to regard all men as one family,
and to seek to impart to every man, without stint or abatement,
his full share of all the advantages and all the goods which God,
when he made men for each other, and endowed them with
human sympathies, designed that they should find in the social
slaie ? — When, indeed, aie these celestial visions of philan-
thropy to be realized ? when is the bleeding victim to be plucked
£rom the jaws of an unrelenting avarice ? when is the imprisoned
bird to be let fiee to breathe the clear air of heaven, and pour
out his songs of ecstasy upon the floating breeze? when is hu-
manity— in too many cases oppressed, degraded, plundered — to
be allowed to stand erect in the conscious dignity of freedom and
of manhood 1
6. Bread BCOijtDBD uf a rzctiLUB Light. — ' In civilized
states, bread has always been considered in a different light from
almost any thing else, and has been the subject of special r^ii-
lations. For many years, speculators in grain were looked upon
with peculiar suspicion and odium, and were the subjects of par-
ticular legal restrictions. They were considered as the creators
of scarcity, by their hoarding up large stores of com ; whereas, in
fact, it was through their providence that these times of suffering
were anticipated and mitigated, or avoided. They are not disin-
terested, but are as useful and important as any class of persons,
employed as agents in any branch of trade. They are most use-
ful in enablii^ the grower of grain to dispose of it to the best ad-
vantage ; and it would be difficult to say how a large community
could be aup[died without them ; as if, for example, London
itself were left to the [feeaiious supply of individual fanners.
They perform, indeed, a moat essential and important service, and
are entitled to a fair remuneration. The indispensable impor-
tance of a character for fair dealing, and the competition to which
they are exposed, are securities against that compensation being
excessive. As speculators in grain were regarded with peculiar
vigilance, so were bakers, and so are they still, held to a strict
responsibility, and the we^ht of their loaves subjected to an
assize. In Turkey, a baker giving light weight is nailed by the
)yGoo»^Ic
COBR DUTIBS. 337
ear to hia shop ioat — a most awkward position, certainly, to be
jdacad in, and sufficiently admonitory.
The com laws are legaided by stime persona with a sentiment
of similar distrust or dislike. They are considered as a tax
upon the bread of the poor, or a reduction of the size of their
loaf, to which they ought not to be subjected. The effect of
the duty upon corn is obviously to inciease the price of bread,
as the abrogation of the duty would be to lessen its price, or
otherwise it would be of no importance whaterer. In two
respects, bread differs from other articles which man wants or
desires. In the first place, its supply is indispensable to humaa
subsistence ; in the second place, though to a degree the product
of human industry, its production is not controllable at humaa
pleasure. Of other articles, in regard to which man's only
province is to work up the raw materials, he may manufacture a
lai^ or small quantity, at his will. In respect to bread, man
can only sow the seed, and then wait with humble hope for
that blessing, " which shall give the increase." These circum-
stances hare undoubtedly had their influence on the exertions
which hare been made every where to prevent a monopoly of
bread, and to keep it, aa far as- possible, within the reach of the
most destitute.
7. PccoLiut CoNDrrmH or tbb ENeusH libobiko Popdla-
TtoN. — But there are circumstances, connected with the condi-
tion of English society, which give peculiar severity to these
laws. A large portion of the laboring population depend ^rtiolly
upon their labor from day to day, for a supply. If wages were
paid in kind, the price of bread would not so much affect the
laborer. If wages rose or fell with the price of bread, the case
would be different from what it is. But this is not the case ;
labor ia superabundant ; the competition for employment is
severe ; and constant employment difficult to be procured.
Lend, for the purpose of growing bread for themselves, is a
matter wholly beyond the reach of the greater part of the labor-
ing population. They might as well think of getting posses*
sioQB in the moon. The soil ia locked up in comparatively few
hands. It is stated confidently that, from the year 1776 to the
year 1615, the number of landed proprietors in England was
reduced from 240,000 to 30,000, and that the process of absorp-
29
)bvGo(.>^Ic
ECBOPBUr AOUCDI.TnKE.
tioa has beea continually going od from that to the present time.
Labor here, then, is wholly dependeat upon capitaL Emigra-
tion, from the insular character of the country, is extremely dif-
ficult, and not as in the United States, where a man has only to
take his axe upon his shoulder, and find for himGelf a home.
Though the price of bread, therefore, should increase, the rate of
wages would not be affected ; the laborer would get no more ;
ani^ from the advance in the price of that which is indispen-
sable 10 his subsistence, his wages would virtually become of
less value, though the nominal amount remained the same. Add
to this, that the increase of the population of Great Britain is
going on at a rapid rate, the increase for the last year, as
stated upon the highest authority, being no less than 380,000.
These considerations, as connected with this subject, cannot fail
to have their weight upon reflecting and benevolent minds.
Whether any restraint, therefore, should be put upon the supply
of food to the people, is a matter which I submit to the opinion
of those whom it concerns.
If " property has its rights, it has also its duties," and those
of a most responsible character. The condition of the laborer
is sufficiently striking. His labor creates the product, but this
product passes immediately into other hands; sometimes into
the hands of those whose skill, and care, and enterprise, com-
bined with his labor, did their full share in the creation of this
product, but often into the hands of persons who [woduce
nothing, and live only to consume and to enjoy. He must be
satisfied if a very small portion of it is returned to him by way
of compensation for his toil ; but it would seem at first bliish a
hard cose, if even a portion of this must be abstracted in its
progress to him, or otherwise he will not be allowed the oppor-
tunity of laboring at all. Our horses and oxen are well fed
and cared for, in proportion to the labor which they are com-
pelled to perform. What should we say of the man who refused
them this ? But alas for the poor men ! I have seen hundreds
and hundreds of the laborers, who, after a most scanty breakfast,
in the midst of their labors, sometimes severe and always unre-
mitting, had nothing for their dinner but a bit of dry bread and
a dranght of water, and who would return at night, when the
toil of the day was over, to a supper as scanty. Even the in-
ferior butter is not suffered to reach them, but is mixed with tai
)yGoo»^Ic
COBlr DDTIKl. 339
at tbe ciutom-house, that it may be destroyed as hiiman food.
What an extraordinary fact this is I In ooe of the great brew-
eries in London, where, 1 think, forty of the magnificent London
horses are kepi, they are worked but siz years, and are then sent
into the country to enjoy rest and comfort the remainder of
their lives. What an enviable condition ia this compared with
that of many of the human laborers, in a country enriched by
their toil, and flooded with a wealth unknown before in the
history of the world. I should do the greatest wrong if I did
not say, however, that there are many bright examples of a
justice and humanity towards those by whose toil they live, of
the noblest character — a conduct which is sure to be followed
by its appropriate reward ; and that the evils are deplored by
many more, who have not the sagacity to discern, nor the power
to apply, a remedy. But the coodition which I have described
is but too coounoD, and must afford a most instructive lesson to
the laboring portion of the people of the United States.
8. Excess or Populatioit. — The constant complaint here
is, that there are too many people. This is an extraordinary
complaint, while there are sevend millions of acres of productive
lands lying waste and uncultivated. But what is " the preven-
tive check " ? Poverty and hunger are not found effectual. It is
an extraordinary remedy adopted at Manchester, where, accord-
ing to the returns, seventy-six out of every hundred of the
children born die before thp usual age of weaning, a la^e pro-
portion of whom are dosed out of existerwe by the excessive use
of opiates. Such a mode of disposing of a surplus population is
certainly as little to be commended aa Defoe's Short Method with
the Dissenters, advising to hang them all ! A valued friend
of mine, a celibate, and so likely to continue, whose great
passion is stiitistical science, very gravely asserts, that if men
and wom.en would not marry until they were twenty-seven
years old, there would be no surplus population. The only
reply to be made to such practical theories, is in the words of
the old proverb, " When the sky falls, we shall catch larks ; " and
it would not be surtsising to find such a man as gravely recom-
mending the old method of catching birds, by putting salt upon
their tails. I was one day, in London, importuned for charity, by
a healthy-looking woman with a young infont upon her arms ;
)yGoo»^Ic
840 SCKOPBAK AeaieWTUMX.
and it is not at aU uncommon to find them vith tvo, often, no
doubt, hired for the occasion. " Why," said I, " do you beg ?
Why do yoo not work?" "Because," said she, "I can get
no employment." " But," said I, " if you have no means of sup-
porting them, why do you have children 1 " " Sir," said she,
with a simplicity which was irresistible, "Providence sends
them." It would have been much more true had she said,
improTidence ; but it was evident she was no adept in the
Malthusiao school. Children, then, will be bom into the world.
The improvement of the lower classes by education, the general
elevation of the standard of living, the increase of what may be
termed the artificial wants of life, and the influence of the higher
class of religious and moral considerations, giving a deeper con-
viction of responsibility, and rendering the domestic affections
more elevated, and the social interests and the parental relations
more sacred, as far as they can be brought to bear upon the
mind, are among the only certain remedies for this improvi-
dence. These considerations, however, can only be expected to
have their proper influence where the mind is in some measure
jvepared for them by a rational and virtuous education. But it
is in no case a sufficient reason for subjecting the poorer classes
to any new hardship or privation, to say that there are too many
people ; because there are other questions, which inevitably arise
in the case, to which a reply might not be very easy ; — namely,
Who is here who has no right to be here ? and. Whose duty is it
to retire ? or, Who should be put out ? I do not say that society
is bound to support gratuitously any man, other than such as by
the providence of Ood are made incapable of providing for them-
selves. Here the obligation is imper^ive. I hold the obliga-
tion on society to be equally imperative to afford to every man,
as far as possible, the opportunity, by his own honest labor, of
providing for himself and those whom the divine Providence
has cast upon his care. Now, wherever the appropriation of the
soil, or the institutions of society, are such as to deprive a man
of this power, or to prevent him the opportunity of its exertion
where otherwise he would use it, it would seem, without the
most cogent reasons, a measure of great severity to live upon hia
labor, and to take even from the small pittance which enables
him to render that labor ; to see him reduced to the borders of
starvation, and then to depiand a piece of his last crust, I do
)yGoo»^Ic
MODE or ADJOSTIMO I.1B0& AKD WAGES. 311
not speak of motires in this case at all, but only of what seems
to some minds to be the tendency or character of certain meas-
ures. I do not believe there is any prevalent want of compassion
among the strongest advocates of restriction, or any disposition
to drive the laborers to the wall. Indeed, 1 shall utter only my
honest conviction, founded upon the closest personal observation,
that the laborers of England have no warmer friend than in the
public-spirited nobleman * who has taken the lead in the pro-
tection societies ; and this likewise applies, as I well know, to
many associated with him. No man in England is surrounded
with more contented and attached laborers. But we cannot all
see the same subject in the same light ; and while nothing is
easier or more congenial to a mean temper, nothing is more
foreign from a generous and honorable mind, than the imputa-
tion of mean or unworthy motives to those whose opinions or
measiues differ from our own.
I have spoken thus at large, and given, as welt aa I am able,
the opinions prevalent with different persons on the great subject
of the corn laws — first, because it is intimately connected with
the agricultural condition of England ; and next, because I
know the strong interest which is taken in the subject in the
United States. It certainly is not for us .to complain of the
restrictive laws of England. I give no opinion as to the policy
or impolicy of such restrictions on either side ; but, while we
barricade our own doors, we cannot, with a very good grace,
require of others to leave theirs open.
LVn. — MODE OP ADJUSTING LABOR. AND WAGES.
Every circumstance, which tends to widen the distinction or
separation between the rich and the poor, the employer and the
employed, and to create opposing interests between them, is
alike unfriendly to both parties. The rich and the poor, the
employer and the employed, are equally essential to each other.
* The Duke of Richnioiid, president of the Agricultunl Protection Socie^.
29*
)yGoo»^Ic
342 EUBOPUN AGBICULTtntK.
Formerly, the laborer lived in the family of the employer, and
sat at the same table. This custom is nov almost entirely doae
away with ; and laborers, instead ot being members of the aamo
family, live wholly by themselves. It used to be much more
the custom than now to pay the laborers in kiad ; and then the
laborer had a special interest in the crop, and high prices were
quite as much for his advantage as for that of his master. This
practice still prevails to a degree in Scotland, but nowhere, that t
have found, in EIngland. Under present arrangements, however,
where wages are paid in money, the two interestB, as in all
other cases of commercial trading, become distinct, and, I may
add, opposed to each other. What one receives, lessens, of
course, the gains of the other. The employer gives as little as
possible j and where labor is abundant, and competition severe,
it is obvious he has the laborer very much at his mercy. The
laborer, on the other hand, will not be likely to retuni any more
than the strictest interpretation of his obligation requires. This
may be the occasion of a matter to which I have before alluded
— that, in my opinion, an English laborer does not accomidish
nearly so much in the same time as an American laborer. I
speak of cases in which the American is working for himself,
the Englishman for another. In cases where work is taken by
the piece or job, as in harvest for example, there seems to be no
want of application or success, on the part of the ISng^isb
laborer.
Philanthropic minds are now every where anxiously at work
devising means or schemes for the benefit of the laborers, and
to mitigate the evils of their condition, which otherwise are
likely to be increased raUier than diminished, as the population
increases. In Austrian Poland, where the peasants are them-
sdvea occupiers of land, the landlord or proprietor of the soil
claims from tbem a certain number of days' work, each week,
exclusively for himself; but no such arrangement would be pos-
sible in England ; nor would it obviate the difficulty to which I
have referred.
1. ExPEBiMENT iR Germ^nv. — A German baron, with whom
I have the [Measure of a irieudly acquaintance, has given me an
outline of his arrangement with his laborers, which, as far as it
is practicable, deserves much consideration, as, according to his
,vGoo»^Ic
MODE or Ai>/trBTiite labob and wages. 343
own account, it secures their industry, fidelity, and contentment.
Mo human arrangements are perfect, and no human lavs can be
framed which the ingenuity of men wit) not contrive to evade ;
but as there appears in this plan every motive to good faith, good
faith on both sides would seem to be all that is necessary to its
successful operation.
First, from the products of the place, the customary rent is
paid, and the wages of the labor employed. The surplus
remaining is then divided into five equal parts. Two of these
parts are claimed by the proprietor for his skill, intelligence, and
care, in the superintendence and management of the property ;
one part is retained as an insurance upon that part of the property
which is liable to loss or destruction ; one part is devoted to
actual improvements upon the place ; and one is divided among
the laborers themselves, according to the rate of wages which
they receive for their work. Whether these proportions are
^perly adjusted or not, I shall leave to the judgment of my
readers. It ia obvious that any others might be adopted which
Aould be deemed more just. It is certainly an approach to an
equitable arrai^ement ; and my friend assures me that it works
well. He says, he leaves his estate at any time with a perfect
confidence that his interests will be cared for and protected, and
that there will be no waste of time, and no squandering of
IHY)perty, and no neglect of duty. Success is, in proportion, as
much the interest of the laborers as of the proprietor.
2. Claims or Labor, and Doties of Wealth. — This has al-
ways impressed my mind as only an equitable adjustment, and
must be equally as soothing to a good man's conscience as to a
poor man's stomach. Contradicted, as I have often, and severely
reproached, as I haVe sometimes, been for the assertion, I never-
theless maintain as my sober conviction, that in all business
where success depends on labor, — whether it be in the case of
manufacturing industry, in agricultural labor, or in the toils and
hardships of a seafaring life, — the person who does the work,
who endures the hardships, who encounters the exposures, has
the first claim upon the proceeds, and should come in for an
equitable share of the profits. I admit that there is much labor
and anxiety in mental application, and in the active enterprise
and care on the part of-the manager of such concerns, which are
)yGoo»^Ic
344 XUBOPEAN AOKICDLTCKE.
often as serere as any bodily toil, and which deserve to be fully
compensated. In general, (his eaterprise is perfectly competent,
however, to take care of its own interests, and seldom tails to
provide for itself. But It is said, these people take no risks ;
they are sure, in any event, of their stipulated wages ; they have
no right to any more. I know they have no legal right. But I
do not understand that they take no risks. There is always a
risk of losing their wages, which is something ; but in all em-
ployments there is a risk of health, and in many a constant
exposure to disease, to accidents of various kinds, to loss of
sight, or loss of limbs, or loss of life. There are many trades
and professions where health is almost certain to be impaired,
and life to be prematurely cut off. There are peculiar dangers
in mines, among complicated machinery, in unhealthy climates,
on the open seas, and on the ice-bound and rock-bound shores,
bristled with pointed cliffs and ruffled with foaming waves.
I know very well the great rules of trade, as they are called' —
" Buy as cheaply as you can ; sell as dearly as you can ; get your
labor perfotmed for the least possible wages ; and accumulate,
actumulatu, accumulate, as your great end and aim." This men
call Christianity ; I think, to give it such a name is a libel upon
a religion which teaches us to do justly and to love mercy,
and which enjoins it upon us, as the highest law of social duty,
to do to others as we would that others should do to us. I
admit that, if men could enter into a perfectly free and equal
competition, unmixed self-interest, though an inferior, might yet
not be so objectionable a rule as in other circumstances ; but
how seldom is the competition equal between capital and labor,
wealth and poverty, skill and ignorance ; and especially in a
country like England, where wealth is enormous ; labor supera-
bundant ; the professions, and trades, and occupations crowded
to repletion ; the lower classes extremely ignorant and dependent ,■
and the population increasing with a rapidity perfectly astound-
ing. I complain of no man's wealth, if that wealth be the fruit
of honest industry and enterprise. I envy no man's power, if
that power be justly acquired. But I do envy — with no desire,
however, to pluck a single jewel from his crown — that man's
honor and felicity, and equally his wisdom and goodness, who,
in the possession of ample power, whether of wealth, or learning,
or talents, finds his highest honor in being just, and his purest
)yGoo»^Ic
MODE or ADtUSTIIlS LABOB AND WAGES, 345
happiness in using this pover in doing good ; in snccoring those
who need succor ; in helping those who aie trying to help
themselTes; in encoui^ing and stimulating self-respect, and a
virtuous ambition to make their condition better, even in the
most humble ; in proving himself the friend of the friendless ;
in protecting and rewarding industry, sobriety, and frugality, not
in a niggardly, but a generous manner j in sharing some liberal
measure of his abundance with those by whose labor, under the
blessing of Heaven, this abundance has been created ; and in
sending light, and comfort, and plenty, into the cottages and
hearts of those who have sowed his fields, and brought on their
toil-wom shoulders the fruits of their cultivation to his stores.
The golden harvests of such a man in every wave reflect
Heaven's purest sunshine ; his dew-bespangled fields gUtter
with a radiance brighter than ever shone in a regal diadem ;
and the happiness and joy, which he sends into the homes and
hearts of others, return in gushing streams to flood his own-home
and his own heart.
I know my poor words will find a warm response in many a
kind boeom, and, by Heaven's blessing, may throw a spark itito
that smoking flax, which too much of what is called prosperity
may not yet have quenched. There are many such hearts ; but
in general we see "who gets the lion's share." To reason
with avarice, is well nigh desperate. If it were an iceberg, we
might hope that, under the rays of a clear sun, it might be made
to trickle ; but it is a mass of granite, which, like the monu-
mental column in Trafalgar Square, stands wholly unmoved by
the forlorn and pitiable objects of destitution and wretchedness,
whom I have often seen, in a winter's day, sunning themselves
at its base ; and remains alike impervious to heat or cold, to calm
or storm, to summer's fires or winter's frosts.
3. Results ot the .Qekmah Experiment. — The friend, to
whom I have referred, has three hundred laborers in his employ-
ment. He says, the system works well ; anA that every year's
experience gives him stronger confidence in its justice and
advantages. First, his work is done ; secondly, it is done in
the best manner in which his laborers are able to execute it,
because it is the interest of all that it should be done, and well
done. The laborers have a system of rules and fines among
)yGoo»^Ic
346 KUBOFSAIT laSlCUlTUBX.
themselres, always Bubject to his approbation, and, after once
approred, always rigidly enforced. They inquire, of their own
accord, into the best methods of doing what is to be done; they
point out mistakes which have been committed, and improve-
ments which may be made, subject always to his judgDient. If
men are found unskilful oi incompetent in the particular branch
of duty assigned them, he is advised of it, and persons more
suitable are selected by their judgment who best understand the
capacities of their fellow-laborers for the work. They are held
jointly responsible for any injury to the property, unless the
offending person is found. An individual guilty of any neglect
of duty, or any improper conduct, or any violation of the estab-
lished rules, is mulcted in a pecuniary fine. The names of the
offenders are always announced at the close of the year ; and
these fines go towards a general entertainment and festivity.
The profHietor himself hears all complaints, and a laborer, whose
bad habits are judged incorrigible, is discharged.
I have been somewhat amused by his telling me that the
great evil which he has to contend with is the use of tobacco.
Sdioking upon his premises he absolutely forbids, for three good
reasons — first, the danger of fire ; secondly, for the time which
it occupies, and the lazy habits which^ it induces ; and thirdly,
because he deems its effects upon the stomach extremely per-
nicious to health, and incapacitating men in a degree for latx>r.
In other words, he views it as a pouon. So do I. I wish it
was as quick and fatal in its operation as arsenic, or prussic acid,
always premising, however, that those who now use it in any
form should be fully and reasonably forewarned.
4. Scotch Costohs — a Diobession. — My readers will, I
hope, be indulgent to my infirmity, which has been, even in
this country, sometimes pnt to a severe test. In Scotland, for
example, they take snuff with a spoon. A small silver spoon, or
one made of bone, is filled from the horn, and then thrust up the
nose. To complete the refinement, there is also a small brush to
clean the upper Up, and edges of the nostrils. The reader may
judge of my sensations when the spoon and the horn were both
actually offered to me in church. There may, however, in this
case be some claims to indulgence, for in one of the Scotch
meetings which I attended, the extempore prayer was actually
)yGoo»^Ic
THX I)EAI>-IIEAT lUKKZTI. 347
one hour, and the BermoQ which followed, two hours in length ;
both, I admit, excellent in their way.' But then, although the
argument and the doctrine were sufficiently stimulating to a
stranger, yet veterans accustomed to such engagements might
get to sleep, from pure exhaustion, under the discharges even of
musketry and cannon, and might require extraordinary appU-
cations to keep theii sensibility alive. I will say, however, in
justice to the Scotch, that I never witnessed more decorum, and
more wakeful attention, in time of service, than in the Scotch
meetings ; and they bore these infiictions or penances, as less
serious minds would consider them, with a philosophic submis-
sion, worthy of the pillar saints in the dark ages.
While speaking of the nuumers of the rural population, I
may allude to another practice prevailing in some of the rural
districts in Scotland, which some persons in the rural districts
in the United States may feel an interest in knowing. I
attended worship, in Scotland, in a most quiet and delightful
district of cotmtry, and among green holds cultivated with the
highest skill, and loaded with the richest crops, where, when
the first regular service was through, and all done, after an
interval of about ten minutes, during which the minister never
left his pnlpit, nor the congregation their seats, the minister
b^an and went through another whole service, and gave a
second sermon on a different subject, as long as the former.
This finished for the day, and, as I was informed, was so
arranged that the farmers, and farmers' wives and daughters,
who lived at some distance, might get home in season to milk
their cows, and tend their cattle. I had likewise a slight
impression come over my mind, that they meant to have their
money's worth of instruction, and did not choose to let their
spiritual laborer off with half a day's work for full wages. It
required, however, a healthy intellectual digestion to dispose of
two fi]ll meals at once.
LVra. — THE DEAD-MEAT MARKETS.
Besides the cattle and grain markets, there are other markets,
to which I have already alluded, connected with agriculture,
byGoo»^Ic
348 KUEOPEIM AOBICDLTDMJE.
which are sometimes called by the startling designation, tJu
dead markets, by which is only intended markets for the sale of
slaughtered animals, beef, mutton, pork, Iamb, veal, &c. &c.,
and which in London are quite worth a visit. The largest of
these, ill (his great metropolis, are Newgate and Leadenhall
Markets ; and it is a curious fact, that the former occupies a
building (the magnificent entrance of which still remains, with
its high and ornamented archway, and its aisles, with the old
columns, form the meat-stalls) which was formerly a literary
institution, or college. Instead of food for the mind, it now
furuishes food for the body ; and instead of the purveyors of intel-
lectual provisions, — poetry, philosophy, eloq^uence, and science, —
here stand the purveyors of mutton, pork, and beef — a very ig-
noble office, and a very humiliating descent, as soioe refined
and sensitive persons would deem it : but alas ! what would
become of science, philosophy, eloquence, or even poetry itself,
without mutton, pork, and beef? The philosophical Edward
Search, in his most admirable work, " The Light of Nature,"
says, " that he has found a draught of Daffy's Elixir, on getting wp
in the moraitig, a powerful means of grace, dispelling doubts
and despondencies, and strengthening and brightening his faith ; "
and though, through a foolish pride, we may be disposed to deny
or not to recognize our relations in humble life, as citizens some-
times "cut" their country cousins when they meet them in
town, yet the stomach and understanding are near neighbors,
and the one absolutely dependent on the other. Wb^ nature
hath joined no man can put asunder.
The markets in London display their meats to considerable
advantage ; and besides the great markets, meat shops prevail
all over the town, and are found in some of the best streets
intermingled with other kinds of shops of the most splendid
description. Even Bond Street, the very emporium of fashion,
elegance, and taste, has its meat shops, where whole carcasses of
mutton are suspended before the doors in long rows, as, under
the bloody code of former years, prisoners at the close of the
sessions used to be suspended at the Old Bailey, — except in this
case in an inverse order, the heads of the sheep beiifg down-
wards, as mutton-heads are apt to get inverted. A fine lady, in
passing from one milliner's or jeweller's shop to another, must
take very good care, lest, instead of encountering a fine beau, to
)yGoo»^Ic
THC DXID-XEAT lUKKETS. 3'19
which she might not object, she encounters a fine quarter ot
beef, or a fine sheep, which certainly, if taste only were con-
sulted, she would prefer to meet in another form and place.
The incongruity is at first offensive to a stranger, and seems in
very had taste ; but an amateur finds some compensation in the
beauty of the objects thus exhibited. I do not mean the ladies,
of whom possibly I may speak in another place, but the meats.
Mutton is always the prevailing meat, for this seems to be the
iavorite dish on English tables. It is a remarkable fact, that
mutton ip the prevalent dish at the public schools and colleges.
At the Blue Coat School in London, for example, it is the sole
meat for the eight hundred boys, four or fire days out of seven.
The same is the case, I am told, at Eton ; and this not, as I sup-
posed, from its comparative cheapness, but from experience, and
the opinion of medical men, that it is the most wholesome diet, and
least likely to interfere with intellectual application and health.
The Southdown and the Leicester sheep are generally pre-
ferred, tboagh the small Welsh mutton, for its exquisite flavor, is
most esteemed ; and t he fatness of the beef, and mutton, and lamb,
is every where most striking. Indeed, in the Elnglish markets,
lean meat is hardly to be seen. If it is sold, it is certainly
seldom displayed. The meat-shops are eminently clean; this,
indeed, is the universal characteristic of the English people above
the lowest classes, who in London are eminently dirty. The
salesmen, however, with their blue woollen frocks and aprons, in
tidyness of appearance would hardly bear a comparison with the
salesmen and women in the Philadelphia markets, with their white
linen frocks and aprons. Indeed, in this respect, Philadelphia,
as far as my observation goes, stands preeminent. Cleanliness,
it is often said, and with a good deal of reason, is next to godli-
ness. I confess to this creed. I think it should be inculcated
ss a religious duty, and for its useful moral influences. The
sect of Friends regard it as such ; and it is doubtless much owing
to their influence and example, that Philadelphia is so prover-
bially neat. Many of the English butchers and salesmen ate
distinguished for their intelligence, and the great extent of their
concerns.
1. SLAtTOHTER-HoDSES iH LoNDoiT. — I have already said that
a great deal of the meat which is exposed for sale in London is
)yGoo»^Ic
OOO BIIKOPBAN AOBICULTCkE.
killed IB the country^ and at some aeasons of the year brought
even lioin remote parts of Scotland. But I shall perhaps surjo'ise
•ome of my readers by infonoing them that London is full of
slaughtering-houses. The police of Xx)ndon is so exemplary,
and many of these places are kept wiih such perfect neatness,
that even the nearest neighbors are not apprized of their exist'
ence.* This fact may be recommended to the attention of the
buicbera in the vicinity of Boston, and some other of our large
towns. Their neighbors certainly will join in this recommenda-
tion, for most of these slaughtering establishments are, an intol-
erable nuisance. In some of the best streets in London, where
the meat-shops are found, will be found behind these shops the
slaughterhouses, where this meat is killed. You will some-
times see cattle and sheep brought in by the front doot of very
respectable looking houses, [for the yards of the houses are oth-
erwise inaccessible,) like acquaintances of the family. Back
of these shops, I have been introduced into elegantly furnished
drawing-rooms, and did not discover that the slaughtering estab-
lishment was immediately adjoining, until I looked out of the
window. There is not the slightest odor perceptible, to offend the
sensee. The animals come out in a very different form from what
they go in. The blood goes at once into the common aewets,
and the i^al is carefully removed. In the ne^hborhood of the
* One great meana or the extraOTdinuy cleanlinisg of London is, thit oo awine
are ever allowed to be kept in it The lower claaa of Irish, who migrate to Lon-
don in vast numbeia, (for wliere, indeed, do not Ihese laborioua cieatuie« mignte ?]
are thita obliged to abandon the tender familiaritieE of their mtJj yean, which
have "grown with their growth, and strengthened with their atreogtb." Ae the
ruling passion, however, is ajwaya strong, and the Irish heart, even in the faum-
hlest condition, is distinguished by warm affections, they contrive, as some of the
gentlemen of the health commisaion have informed me, many times in a very
•droit manner to evade the law, and the pig and the donkey era often regnlarly
inatalled lodgers in their rooms, and free sharers at their humble board. It is
•aid that when the terror of the Asiatic cholera prevailed, and a health com-
mittee visited the premises of the poorer classes in Edinbur^ with a view to
remove the incitements of disease, they fomid in one of the upper chambers of one
of the very high-atoried houses of that city, inhabited by an Irish family, a large
hog among the children. Upon inquiry bow he could have been got up tbeie^
the owner replied with genuine Hibernian simplicity, " Plsie yer honor, he woe
never got up here at all at all ; but he was bam here." I do not know why an
Irishman should not be attached to his pig, as well as a nobleman to his dog. In
substantial asefiilness, the pig would not suffer by the comparison. I cannot say
as muoh cf his morsl developments.
)yGoo»^Ic
3Sl
great markets, however, the slaughter-houBes axe inceUais udder
ground, aod are not managed 'with equal neatness. It requires
some courage to enter these places. In the extensive market at
White Chapel, the slaughtering establishments are above ground
in the rear of the stalls, and the gutters of the streets literally
flow with blood.
2. Customs of the Jews. — The market at White Chapel is
in the immediate neighborhood of the quarter of the city where
most of the Jews reside. The Jews will never eat or buy any
meat, which is not killed by some one of their comniumty
deputed or appointed for that express purpose. He comes at
the time fixed and kills the animal ; and afWr the meat is dressed,
if he finds upon it the slightest blemish or indication of disease,
the meat is condemned, and no Jew will buy it, though the
Christians betray no scruples of this sort.* If the meat is found
perfectly sound and healthy, a clasp or token is put upon the
leg, and the Jews are at liberty to purchase it.
Any person who has the curiosity to go into the Jews' quarter,
and see how they live, behold the filth of their streets, the
wretchedness of their habitations, remark a squaliduess which
no description can exaggerate, and inhale the odors of which
the place is redolent, which seem to be the very compound of
* The mbjiNDed note u of a natnn scucely to be read b; any penon of a
very seuaitive and delicate mind. I advise such person, thererore, bj all meaiM
to pui it over. I give it in self-defence, and to abov tibat I do not intend to
make atatementa without authority.
In my Third Repoit, page 361, 1 said that " numberB of cattle are alinaet evevy
week, as I have reason to belisre, brought to Smitbfield in such a state of diseasa
aa to be St for no other puifose — and foi this they aie actually bought — tmt to
make sausages for the poor Londonem." Thia statement a kind and intelligent
friend complained of as anwananlable, and not well fbnnded. The fecm of ex-
pnaaion mi^t, I admit, have been bettei chosen ; but the retwan / had to Mwm
the (act, waa the direct assertion of some respectable salesmen in SmithfieU
Uaitot, who spoke of the practice as ondoubted. This was pBitkulariy appli-
cable to the time when an epidemic prevailed among the cattle. 1 do not believe
any city officer would permit or connive at it, if known ; but cases of a strongly
snapicious chamcter ore yet established with so much difficulty by what would Iw
deemed legal evidence, that parties ootoiioiisly criminal often escape with im'
punity.
But the following statement, eiven nnder oath to I>r. Playfair and Sir Heny
de la Beche, of the Health of Towns Commissioii, during their inquiry into the
)yGoo»^Ic
SBf£ SDBOPKIK AaBICtn.TCBE.
corruption and pestilence, and of all that is odious and di^ust-
ing, will feel no little surprise at their particularity and fastidious-
ness in r^ard to their meats. But these are among the incoo-
sistencies and anomalies of human nature, which are to be found
among persons in almost every condition. The same inconsist-
ency is seen, for example, among the lower class of Irishwomen
in their own country, however humble in condition, with whom
it seems to be the ruling, and an indomitable passion, to hare a
clean and handsome cap, though in most other respects one
would be half inclined to think they were laboring under a
species of hydrophobia. You will see them, the head surmounted
with an elegant frilled^ cap, emulating the whiteness of the
drifted snow, while the lower parts of the person, in a state of
nudity, (for the drapery of the statue of an Irishwoman seldom
extends below the knee,) though, as pieces of sculpture, exhibiting
originally the highest artistical skill, are yet so rough, and torn,
and begrimed and stuccoed with mud and dirt, that you can
hardly believe that both ends belong to the same person, and
that the head has not by some awkward mistake got upon the
wrong shoulders.
3. MoDK OF sLAcoHTERiKG Animilb. — I h&ve felt it a duty
of htmianity to inquire into the mode of slaughtering animals,
Mate of Brutol, roa^ serve to clear up amae of toj iriend'a doubts on the mibjecL
R^oH on LtoKoMrt, p. 30.
■■ Have you raeided some time in this house ? " *■ Yea, for sereia] jeaia."
" What occupation does your neighbor puraue?" "He kilb pigs, which he
gets over from Ireland. Often the pigs, in coming over in the packet, die, and I
have Been aa many as thirty dead pigs at a time brought into the yard. They are
thrown into the shed there until there is time to cut fiiem up ; and by that time I
have seen the ma^ots fairly dropping out of them. Then they are cut up, and,
I believe, are made into salt bacon, or sold for sausages." • • • ■
■■ Have you not complained of Ihia nuisance?" " Yea, we have ; bntwewere
told it was of no use complaining, for doctors agreed that these smells were veiy
healthy. Besides, the owner of the yard is a very good neighbor, and tries to
keep things as clean aa he can ; bvt lua occupation beats him in that"
What can go beyond this ? Biit why, it may be asked, refer to such cases 7
Becanse, in mder to correct an abuse, and to guard against it, that abuse should
be exposed. Nor is it without a melancholy instruction, to see to what exbemea
avarice will buny its votaries ; nor without a moral use, to bold up the peipetn-
ton of such wickedness towards the yoot and ignorant to the e]tecrati<») wliidi
tbejdeMrT&
)yGoo»^Ic
THE DEAD-HEAT MAKKETt. 8o3
vitb a view to discover if there be any way of lessening the
suffering necessarily inflicted. When it is considered that from
thirty to forty thousand Euiimals, poultry and game not included,
are put to death weekly, for the supply of the city of London
alone, it becomes a grave question of humanity whether any,
and if any, what amount, of the physical suffering necessarily
incident to such operations, can be saved.
■■ Tbe poor beetle, that we tread npon,
In coipotal safi^raoce finda a pang a* great
Af wJien a giant diea."
The moral influences of the employment, in this caae, ue cer-
tainly deserving of consideration. The notions of former times
were such, that a butcher was not allowed to sit as juror in s
tri^ of life and death. I cannot sympathize in these prejudices ;
but any practice, which tends in any degree to render us indif-
ferent to the infliction of pain, even in the cose of a dumb
animal, — any practice bordering upon cruelty, — cannot be with-
out its pernicious effects upon the temper and character of persons
accustomed to it. It may eeera to some persons a ridiculous
squeamishness, but I confess that I never see cooked animals
brought upon table as near as possible in the form of life,
whether it be game or any thing else, without a painful disgust,
which I And it impossible to overcome. It is a mysterious law
of nature that animals should feed upon each other ; and cer-
tainly, as we cannot doubt, like all the laws of nature, a benefi-
cent law ; but it is the ferocity of a tiger, and not becoming a
man, which delights to regale itself with the warm blood of his
victim ; and though I am no Bramin, I wish always that the
food which I eat should be as far as possible separated from all
associations of life.
Sheep are slaughtered by thrusting a straight kaife through
the neck, between its bone and the windpipe, "severing the
carotid artery and jugular vein on both sides," by which they
bleed freely, and life soon becomes extinct. They are kept
fasting twenty-four hours before death, as it is said that, if killed
upon a full stomach, the meat is not so agreeable to the taste,
and sooner passes into a putrid stale. Sheep are placed here
upon a cradle or stool, to be killed, as with us. I am not very
well able to describe the mode of cutting up and dressing, fur-
ther than to say, that it exhibits a remarkable neatness ; tlut the
)yGoo»^Ic
354 BUBorEAir aohicdltcbk.
meat, as far as I can observe, is never blown ; and that the car-
cass is not, as with us, slit down by the back-bone, and so
divided into four quarters ; but a piece nearly square is cut from
the loins, termed here a saddle of mutton, which is esteemed a
more choice part for roasting than the leg, and is always a
favorite dish upon an elegant table. The butchers, or cooks,
have likewise a habit, not certainly general with us, but much
to be commended — that of separating the joints before the meat is
cooked, which greatly alleviates the difficulty of carving.
The mode of slaughtering cattle differs froni that of slaughter-
ing sheep. Some gentlemen, a few years ago, interested them-
selves much on this subject, on the sole groimd of humanity, and
expehmeuls were made of killing the animal, by driving a sharp
instrument directly into the spinal cord, back of .the horns ; but,
although the animal fell instantly, yet the convulsions continued
much longer than when he was killed by being stunned, by the
former method, and it was reasonably inferred that the sufifer-
ing, therefore, was much greater. This is said to be the mode
adopted in the great slaughtering establishments in the neighbor-
hood of Paris, " where a sharp-pointed chisel is driven, with a
smart stroke, between the second and third vertebrse of the spine ;
insensibility immediately ensues, and the blood is let out by
lining the blood-vessels of the neck." Besides the objection
made above to this mode of slai^htering, it is said the animal
does not bleed so freely and entirely as when stunned on the
forehead, as by the former method. The present mode of killing
is by bringing, by means of a ring on the floor and a rope passed
round the foot of the horns, the ox's head to the ground ; and
be is then struck on the forehead, not, as with us, by an axe with
a flat head, but with a similar instrument, with a ppinted end,
two or three inches long, of the size of the small finger, this
point being hollow, and with sharp edges, — and this is driven
directly into the upper forehead. The animal falls at once : this
point is immediately extracted, and a wooden pin, of about the same
diameter, is driven into the wound, and forced into the brain or
spinal marrow, and the animal dies at once. I am not certain,
that this is an improvement upon the mode of killing which pre-
vails with us ; though the killing of an ox, with us, requires great
adroitness and great strength ; otherwise, the blows require to be
repeated, and much suffering is inflicted, which, it would seem,
)yGoo»^Ic
VEGETABLE AND FBCIT HAKKETS. 355
might be aroided. The English method might be tried ; and if
it has any advantages to the sufferer or the executioner, I cannot
doubt it would he adopted.
Calves, as I have oleerred, ate not killed under six or eight
weeks old, and they are bled daily for a week before they are
slaughtered. I do not know that this is a very painful operation,
hut very little seems to be gained by it. They are killed, as with
OS, by cutting the throats across. The manner, however, in
which they are often conveyed through the streets, piled into a
cart, lengthwise, by dozens, with their heads hanging down aa
they are jolted over the pavements, is perfectly shocking to
humanity, and deserves the interference of the benevolent
society for the prevention of cruelty to animals. It is sufficiently
humiliating to<feel, that in nothing does man more need watch-
ing and restraint, than in his treatment of the helpless and
defenceless.
It is a subject certainly worthy of concern. It is no affecta-
tion of sensibility, though by some it may be deemed a morbid
sensibility, to say, that the subject is a painful one. The pas-
sioD which one sometimes sees excited in the killing of animals,
and the utter callousness and indifference with which some
persons go about it, to whom the work is familiar, are very far
from being agreeable features, either in temper or conduct. The
sight and smell of blood excite an instinctive horror even among
the inferior animals; and any min, who contributes, in anyway,
to alleviate pain and suffering, even among the lowest of sensi'
tive existences, and to prevent cruelty, more especially to the
dumb and defenceless, need not feel that he has lived wholly in
vain.
LIX.— VEGETABLE AND FRUIT MARKETS.
England may with reason boast of the fineness of her -fruits,
especially as, in this matter, she has to contend with the adverse
influences of temperature and climate. The country abounds in
greenhouses, hothouses, conservatories, and forcing-beds. All
the appliances of art, and the highest measure of horticultural
skill, arc exerted to counteract the unfavorable ciicimistaaces
)yGoo»^Ic
356 EUBOrElH iaiUCCI.TURE.
under which their cultivation is carried onj to protect plants
whose frail nature requires protection ; and by ereiy possible
means to stimulate aad bring to perfection those plants and
fruits which seem to demand the same assiduous and parental
care as the young of the animal creation.*
Few of the coimlry houses belonging to persons whose means
allow of such indulgences, are without forcing-beds, green-
houses, and conservatories. Many persons, whose means are
restricted, with a high refinement of taste, sacrificing the com-
mon pleasures of a frivolous and inferior character, prefer this
far higher class of enjoyments and luxuries. In these green-
houses and conservatories, the gayest flowers, the most precious
exotic plants, and the richest fiuits, are cultivated. Many of
these conservatories, filled with the choicest varieties of fiowerii^
* I wish we knew nKire of vegetable lif& Indeed, what bnnch of oeience ii
there, of which we have not reason to wiah we knew more ? The niicToscope,
under those modem improvemeDls which hare increased its power, and conee*
qnentlj extended the field of its ttiumphfr in b. moat aatoniohing degree, ia con-
■tantiy bringing new wooden to light; diecloaing the cnnous and complex
■tincture of the vegetable world ; and enabling ua to watch in stane pUnta, in
theit wonderfiil frame-work, the rapid circulation of the atieams of life. Ehich
diacoveriea almost make us feel that the man who would wantonly pluck a lily
tnxa its item, and scatter its leavee to the winds, or would trunple a H^tmbIt mga
upon the ground, offers an oKoce to conacious life, and casta an indignity apcai
Bome of the mo^t beautiful expressions of the divine skill and bsneficerwo.
I have recentlj had the pleasure of looking throu^ as poweiM on instmineiit,
of this kind, aa humao art has pethape as yet been able to produce. Leavee^
woods of different kinda, and di^rent insects, were presented upon the field of
vision, and exhibited a •troctuie so vanom, comphcated, and exquisitely finished,
that one seemed endued with a new sense, and almost born into a new woild.
I often heat it said that divine revelation is complete and full, and that we
must look tor nothing more. It may be so with a written word ; though I know
of no right wliich any human mind has to limit the dispensations of InfimtB
Wisdom ; and with the most reveteniial gratitude for wliat has been given, I
confess there are many more things, tlian have been revealed, which my impa-
tient curiori^ is thirsting to know. Bat the revelations of the natural world
•eem only just now b^un. The telescope and the micraecope are unfolding
many a book hitherto closed and sealed, and pouring a flood of light upon fielda
of wondeia which have not before been brought within the reach of hnman
vision, and disclosing objects, fonna, structures; contrivances, modes of being, rf
activity, of life, and of enjoyment, which force upon the mind a sense of the
CreatOT's skill, goodness, and power, absolutely oppressive, and awaken a feeling
of reverence and adoration wholly incapable of utterance. We may presently
come to underatand the organization, fbrrespiiationajid digestion, (rf* the vegetable
as we do of the animal world ; and one ia acaicely leas mysteriona than the other.
)yGoo»^Ic
TKQBTABLE AMD rRTHT UAKKKTB. 357
shnibs and plants, are at the side of, and immediately accessible
to, the drawing-rooms of the houses, furnishing, besides the most
beautiful objects of sight, an attractive recreation and delight to
the female members of the household, and a refreshing retreat
from the dissipations of society, or the harassing cares of do-
mestic life.*
The hothouse or greenhouse productions of England (such
as pine-apples and grapes, the natives of climates of a higher
temperature) are not surpassed by any which I have erer tasted.
The pines, or pine-apples, appear to me in size quite equal, and in
* In one of Hie jkM beautifii] parts of fingUnd, endeaied to me bf the hoepi-
tftlitiee of MeDda wbow kindness I cannot too hi^lf appreciate, I found even a
light reverend bishop, a man eminent for his inteUectual poirers and his lit-
eraty attainments, ehtering, with all the eDthosiaan of Bacon, into the coldvatiou
of bis garden, as ■■ one of ll>e purest of human debits." He was then considered
■s among the wannest patrons of a religious party, whose eminent pie^ do one
questions, who have, at least for a while, converted the Established Church into
the church militant, broken up the dead calm in which it had for jreais reposed,
and laahed its waves into a tempestuous foam. Wben I visited him, he was
anxious to show the friend wbo accompanied me, and myself, his rotary, aa he
termed it, where, in a separate and exteneiTe encloeore, he waa cultJTating a
great variety of roses, with something of the enthusiasm which is said to have
cbaractariied the cultivation of tulips some yean gone by. I could not resist the
inclination to tell him, without an; intentiona] discourtesj', that he had been for
■ome time tutpteUd of certain heresies, but I hardly supposed matters had gone
BO far with him that he would openly show his fiiends liis rotary. He was then
in tbe midst of a religious war, if it be not an abuse of language to call any sort
of war, or anj angryconlest whatever, "religious," and in the very heat of the Sght
I could not avoid thinking, at tbe same time, what a refreshment to the soul,
aa welt as to the body, must it be thus to retire from the field of theological
controveny, bristling with points of angry dispnte, like the bayonets of an
c^poaing column on afield of battle, to the charming quiet and delightful occupa-
tions of rural life. Soothing it must have been, to cease for a while a well-nigh
hopeless struggle for a perfect unity of opinion, form, and faith, to contemplate
tbe infinite and harmonious variety which pervades creation, and reflect, at the
saoie tune, what an abatement of utili^ and enjoyment it would have been, had
God comprefaeoded all this infinite diversity in one, and made all animula of one
fi>rm, all vegetablea of the same kind, and all flowers of tbe sane color and fia-
grance. Thon^ I was far from being willing to censure this venerable man for
anxiooaly and devontly tumitag to the east, wben he recited the articles of his
creed, if he deemed it important so to do, I could not help thinking that be must
aometinies torn liia face to the west, to ofibr his evening sacrifice, when, standing
npon the threshold of his door, he saw before him the wide-spread ocean glitter-
bg with matchless splendor, and the setting sun bathing in a flood of glory, and
throwing bis slanting beams over, a landscape as diversified and as beaotiflil ni^
witbiD my observation, the pencil of nature has delineated.
)yGoo»^Ic
308 EDKOPEAK AGBICULTDBE.
flaror superior, to any which I have seen brought directly from their
owu native legioQ, — for the reason, perhaps, that the latter, as is
understood, are gathered in a green state, and are left to ripen on
the passage, usually crowded in bulk in the hold oi a vesseL
The grapes are magnificent in size, and delicious in taste. I
cannot say that there are no native grapes, and none growing in
the open air ; but I do not recollect meeting with any. It seems
to me to be the humidity of the climate of England, rather than
its low temperature, which prevents the ripening of many fruits
and plants, which can be grown in an equally h^b latitude on
the western continent. It remains to be seen what will be the
result of that remarkable system of drainage, which is here pros-
ecuted in difierent parts of the country with great spirit and
resolution, and which bids fair, as soon as any such great opera-
tion can be expected to be effected, to become general, if not
universal. Its sanatary effects upon the human, as well as the
brute animal, are said to be already in some places determined.
The smaller fruits — such as strawberries, raspberries, gooseber-
ries, and currants — are cultivated with great success. Of a kind
of strawberries, called the Alpine Pine, and more properly the
Elton Fine, the size is most remarkable, ten of them, as I saw in
the market of Dundee, where they are cultivated in perfection,
actually weighing a pound avoirdupois. I saw others as lai^e at
the horticulturtd exhibitions, called by a different name ; but
those were forced in pots in greenhouses.
The gooseberries which I have seen on private tattles, and in
the markets, are of a very extraordinary size, the purple varieties
being preferred. I cannot leam that they are as much subject,
as in New England, to a species of mildew, or bluish mould,
which soon becomes black, and ruins the fruit. Here they are
always cultivated upon a single stem, in the form of a small tree,
kept trimmed high, and entirely clear of all rubbish or weeds at
the bottom. The disease, or blight, to which I refer, is not un-
known here, but it is not common ; and the fruit is grown in the
highest perfection. This disease may come from an unhealthy
condition of the soil, or the application of improper manure ; but
the general and most probable conclusion is, that it is atmos-
pherical. It has appeared to me, that the climate of England,
where they have far less sunshine, and much more dampness, than
in the Northern United States, does not produce mould in ths
)yGoo»^Ic
VEeSTABLE Aid) TWJTt lUKKXTS. 359
houses Qpon plate, furniture, and books, so soon as it does with
us, and [ffovisions, both mw and cooked, appear " to keep sweet "
loQgec. I do not uudertake to give any scientific reason for thisj
but it seems probable, that it arises from a more even tempera-
ture, and the absence of that intense heat which, with us, often
follows rain and dampness. The black currant is almost as much
cultivated as the red and white, and quite commonly eaten.
Raspberries are cultivated ; but I have seen none to be compered
vith the fine kinds common in the United States. Blackberries
I have not seen cultivated. I have met with them in the south-
ern paits of England, but ripening so late in the season that they
have no richness of flavor.*
Of plums there are several kinds : damsons are common ; the
Orleans plum, the lai^ ^g-plum, resembting what I think is
called, with us, Bolmar's Washington, are the most esteemed ;
but they are oot abundant, and I cannot say that those which I
have aeen are equal to those seen in the best markets of the
United States, and especially, of all other places, at Albany, in
New York, where this fruit is found in a degree of perfectiim
and abiutdance which I have seen -nowhere else. Cherries are
* T am quite (.ware of the old proverb, " tliat there should be no dispute aboot
matten of taste," aad that it is perhaps quite loo late in Ou wtaton vnlh na/trlf,
ftr me to dJKiin tbeae matten. I remember very well when a half-grown, green,
btrd, BOOT tppie, wm aa much nliabed b j ma aa now a delicioas MoKit grape ;
bat, ala« ! " the timei change, and we change with them." I will not contplaia
To complain would be ungrateliil. There are tastes for all ages, as there oie
ftuita and flowen for all aeasona. I thank God every day of my life for the beaii-
liflil world in which be has placed me ; but I would not widi to be always young,
any more than I wonid desire to be always old. I cannot say that I ever sighed
for a pespetnal summer ; for notuie every where abounds incompenratioas. I ex-
changed the bright, sunshiny days of my own country for the foggy and humid
climate, and the cloudy and weeping skies, of England, where sometimes I have
scarcely seen the moon and stars for a month, and where, when the sun shows
binflelf, one seems to recognise on acqotjntuice of former times. Bnt irtrnt of
that? Habit and use rectHicile us to various and ever-changing ciictuustancee.
I have become amphibioiB, like a trae Englishman, and take a good wetting
quite naturally. The moderate temperature of the climate has become agree-
able ; and even the cloudy ricias seem better for my eyes than the bright and
damling snows of New Ehtgland, in the clear days of winter. Age itself, if it
bas not the vivaci^ of youth, and ia sometimes opptesaed with the coosciouanass
of having not even half accomplished our duties aid desiieo, biings with it mamy
deliciotts treasmea of memory, irtuah,UK good wine, lose nothing of theur swee^
nesB by time ; and hopes, wliich we would not exchange for all the pleasures of
tb* whole of lift's brightest summer, are daily api^oumating their fruition.
)yGoo»^Ic
360 BDBOPEAN AGBlCDLTOltC.
plenty in the maiket, and in great perfection ; the Tartarian, the
higaireau, and the lai^e black-heart and mazard, predominate.
Peaches, nectarines, and apricots, are seen occasionally at pri-
vate tables ; and in great perfection, though in very nnall quan-
tities, at the great market, and at some of the splendid fruit shops
in London. Peaches are grown in favorable situations on open
vails, but in general under glass, and early in the season are
forced by an artificial climate. They are brought to great per-
fection in appearance, and command, when first they appear in
the market, two guineas, or about ten dollars and a half per
dozen, as pine-apples cultivated here, at some times of the year,
bring a guinea or thirty shillings sterling apiece, — that is, firom
five and a quarter to seven and a half dollars each [
One, in such cases, ceases to have any solicitude to know
where the peaches or the pines come from, but is curious to
learn where the guineas come from. To most of us, however,
unindoctrinated in the financial contrivances and complex labor-
saving machinery of society, this inquiry seems hopeless, and
generally ends in the conviction that wealth is very unequally
distributed in this world, without any possibility of devising any
practicable scheme for & more even and impartial adjustment.
Suppose we could at once level all the waves of the sea, and
produce a dead calm, and a perfectly even surface ; still it would
seem that, while the drops on the top are glittering and radiating
in the sunshine, a vast proportion of the drops must be underneath,
or near the bottom, sustaining those at the top. The only hope in
such case is that, in the continual fiuctuations of the whole mass,
amid the confiicts of under-currents and upper-currents, the spon-
taneous effervescence, and the turbulence of winds and storms, the
lowest may often be brought to the surface, and the uppermost de-
scend, and this continual change of place and position may give
to all, in the long run, an equal chance.* This analogy, perhaps,
* It is by no meuiB the cue, I un aware, that the low pontioii u alnya to be
commiBerated. The place of humble obscuri^ is, in general at leaat, the place
of e^fetf, and is quiet and peaceful, wbile the mirftce is swept and disturbed bj
the violence of every stonn. There is a measore of selfidhneM and nanowneM
in the conception of a chaiming poet, whkb is not to be apinoved, when, in tbe
tones of pitj' and comi^int, he Kya, —
" Fail minf a floirsr ii bon> to Unih aD>MD,
And waste id ■wgelnen on thi dcMit air ; "
u if the beaoties of nature were made mily fin man's eyes, and as if tbe hnm-
)yGoo»^Ic
TEQETABLE UtD rSUIT 1IXBUT9. 361
can scaicely be said to apply to a country, where the masses of
Wealth are the accumulatioDs of centuries, and are fortified and
hedged in by the strong iroii fences and the bristling chevaux~de-
Jrise of laws of entail and rights of primogeniture. It may
serve better to illustrate a cooditioD of society like that in the
United States, vhere the paths of competitioa in the various
departments of life are equally open to all — the condition of the
laws and the habits of the country favor the more equal distribu-
tijn of wealth, and seem to forbid any extraordinary perma-
neocy to any large accumulations. Which condition is to be
preferred, my reader must determine for himself
The luxury in which the higher and wealthier classes in Eng-
land live is, probably, unequalled in any country, and is, per-
haps, not surpassed in the history of Roman grandeur or Oiental
magnificence. They expend, whether willing or unwilling,
with a profusion which it is difficult for those of us brought up
in the school of restricted and humble me^ns to understand ; and
in respect to true liberality, there is probably the same diversity
of diqiosition and character to be found as among those, who,
instead of dispensing guiiteas, are obliged to keep their reckoning
in pence and farthings. I do not foi^et that excessive wealth, as
well as extreme penury, have each their peculiar moral dangers.
Bat the liberal expenditures of the rich, even upon many articles
of pure luxury, are a great public benefit. Certainly, no immoral
indulgence is ever to be justified or excused. I do not say that
it is the best appropriation of the money ; that point I shall not
now discuss ; but certainly the person, w lo gives his two guineas
for his doxen of peaches, encourages industry, rewards hoiticul-
toral skill, stimulates imjwovement, excites a wholesome cmnpe*
tition, and would, surely, be doing much worse with them if he
kept them parsimoniously and uselessly hoarded in his coffers.
The apples, in England, are in general inferior, excepting for
cooking purposes. The superiority of our Newton pippin is
every where admitted and proclaimed. Of other of our fine ap-
ples, — such as the golden russet, the Baldwin, the blue pearmain,
and many others, — I have seen none, though it is not to be coufi-
blest flower did bot perfbnn its proper part in poiifyiiig' the air, the gteat element
of life to kU HJiim&ted exiatence, and regale imnf a eeatieiit being bj ita f»-
panca, and fbed mpMa opon its learea, and yield to manf almay msect the
pteciooa baaej from ita expanded boeom.
31
)yGoo»^Ic
dently inferred, iiom that ciicimutance, that none are imported.
laige qoantitiea of apples are sent from the United States to
Eii^laud, and sold to advantage.*
The English hare not yet learaed the value of apples as food
ibr stock. Many of the fanners in the Uuited States, after
repeated triala, both for fatting swine, for neat stock, and even
for milch cows, rata them in value in the proportion of three
bushels of apples as equal to two of potatoes. There are many
parts of England, where apj^es might be cultivated to advantage
for this very purpose, where the finest kinds might not ripen,
but where the inferior sorts would be likely to yield abundantly.
There are many hedgerows where they would grow to advan-
tage; and they certainly might be substituted, without loss to
beauty, and with a clear gain to utility, for many thorn-trees,
ash-trees, and others, which now stand in the parks and open
grounds of the cotuitry.
Of pears I have seen several good kinds, but none comparable
to the Seckle or the Bartlett. This, however, may be mere
matter of personal taste. Melons are grown only under glass,
and by artificial heat. The English walnut grows abundantly,
and is used both dried and for pickling ; and chestnuts are plen-
tiful. The common shagbark, or hickory nut, I have not met
with, though it is sometimes imported. Filberts are cultivated
m the county of Kent for the market, on a gravelly soil, where
they are raised on small bushes, or trees with one stem, and suf-
fered to grow not more than five or six feet high. They grow
tt^ether on the same ground with hops, and pear or apple-trees ;
and the proportionate number of each to an acre, is slated at
800 hills of hops, 200 filberts, and 40 apple or pear-trees. " The
* 9nwU adventures sent in this waj, els presents fVom fKenda to Mends, are
often so badly packed B.t home, ruid so adroitl; unpacked on the pena^ and
withal, are taxed with sacb a vuietj of charges in the tnnsit, that one is cran-
pelled, from bitter experience, to give up a much greater pleasure than that of
eating the fine fruit — the pleasure of enabling one's friends to eat it The Chris-
tians, as we are called, have, at least many of them, vei; little honesty, and, one
would be half inclined to think, live upon a system of piracy, or privateering, at
reprisals, among themoelvee. The Turin have nMre ; for all travellers assert that
what is intrusted to their keejnng, under a pledge of fideli^, is sure to be held
•acred. The violator of such a trust, upon conviction, would be like); to find
himself a head shorter. But then the Chrietians have a great deal more, and a
truer, ftith ; .and after all, common honeetf ia a very homely virtue, which any
body can practise if he would.
)yGoo»^Ic
TK6KT1BLE US waJOtl MABKZTS. 363
hops are said to last twelve years, the filberts thirty, and aftet
that, the apples and pears requiia tho whole ground."
The vegetables grown for table use are many of them in
appearance of the finest kinds. The potatoes grown in England
are in general of a superior quality, though I think them inferior
to the potatoes grown in Nova Scotia. In Nova Scotia, they
have, not only the advantage of a climate as cool as that of
England, but likewise of a virgin soil, which cjrcumstiuices
seem particularly favorable both to the growth and the quality
of the potato ; and nothing of the kind, which I have ever eaten,
is equal to a fine Nova Scotia potato. In our old soils, sur-
charged with manure, the potatoes are always inferior in quality.
In Ireland, deemed of ail other countries the adopted home of
the potato, I was seldom able to find one that was even eatable.
This arose, however, not from the quality of the root, but from
the mode of cooking — the Irish always desiring, to use their own
expression, " to have a stone in the middle ; " so that the aim of
the cook was only to boil, or rather scald, the outside of the
potato, and leave the inside as hard as when it went into the
pot. The advantage of this, as gravely stated to me, was that
they were longer in digestion, and therefore gave more support.
This may be sound philosophy in Ireland, where the stomachs
of the poor find an equal difficulty in getting, as they do in
keeping what they get. It would be inhuman to treat the
extreme destitution of these poor wretches with any levity ; but
I found this mode of cooking prevailing also at the tables of the
rich and noble ; and after seeing such an abuse of one of the
most useful and nutritious plants which come out of the earth,
I was half inclined to advise them to try a few granite pebbles
of a size to pass through a McAdam ring, and see whether they
would not serve the digestive organs still longer. It was a
curiosity to me in London, likewise, to see them selling in the
market, by the quart, the small, not half-grown, not quarter-
grown potatoes, not even so large as cherries, and many not
larger than peas ; and these were boi^ht up as luxuries. I
should quite as soon think of sitting down to a dish of boiled
bullets, or duck-shot ; and I should suppose with almost equal
chance of nourishment. If it were such potatoes only, at which
Cobbett launched his anathemas, one would not be surprised at
his ind'gnatioD.
)yGoo»^Ic
3M nmopKAM AaMcm.-ni»E.
It i* a very great point to bring the eailiest potatoes into tbe
market, and I have seen tbem offered in Covent Garden MaAet
ai eaity as Marcb. Indeed, by a method which I will piesently
explain, there would be Utile difficolty in having them at ttw
coming in of the new year, la Penzance, in Cornwall, at the
very south of England, where there are some parcels of most
excellent soil, and great skill in its cultiration, where the winter
is open and the climate very mild, and where, for this purpose,
land is let at twenty pounds, or one hundred dollars per acre,
large supplies of early vegetables, potatoes especially, are raised
for the London markets. In this case, they are sprouted under
and upon warm horse-dung, or under glass ; and are planted as
early as February, and carefully attended, pains being taken to
sdect the earliest kinds. The mode of spronting them in this
case is similar to that adopted by the excellent and spirited cul-
tiralors at West Cambridge, near Boston, where the sets are
started, under a bed of fresh horse-dung, on the sunny and pro-
tected side of a hilL
I will here quote the directions of the celebrated Mr. Knight,
president of the Horticultural Society, for raising early potatoes ;
which, it is obvious, can be applicable only to our mild and south-
em latitudes, where the winters are open.
" Drills may be formed in a warm and sheltered situation, and
in the direction of north and south, during any of the winter
months, two feet apart, and seven or eight inches deep. Stable-
dung, half decomposed, should be laid in the driUs, and com-
bined with the earth four inches downwards, and covered with
some of the mould which had been thrown out in forming the
drills, by tbe rake, to within four inches of the surface. The
sets uncut are then to be placed, with the crown-eye uppermost,
in the centre of the furrow, four inches from each other, and to
be covered with only an inch of mould at first, and afterwards
with an occasional quantity of sifted ashes, until the plants sie
so vigorous and advanced as to require the usual earthing, of
which, however, very little is necessary." Mr. Knight also used
leaves as a lining at the side of the drills, in the early periods, to
preserve as much warmth as possible, and better to guard against
the effects of frost. The soil in this case should be light and
dry, and not tenacious of water. It is recommended by some
gudeneis, early in tbe season, to lay the sets upon a floor in a
)yGoo»^Ic
TEBETABLB AHD riWIT lUSXETS. iOS
warm room, and occasionally sprinkle them with water, which
will cause them to germinate. As soon as they have sprouted,
cover them with some finely-sifted mould ; and the sets will be
ready for transplanting at the earliest period.
Another mode of obtaining early potatoes, not new potatoes,
which is, I am told, sometimes practised, is to plant potatoes
only so early in the season, as th^ they shall be about half-
grown at the usual time of taking them up. These may be
taken up in the autumn, and replaced in earth ; and early in
the succeeding spring they may be sold as ne\^ potatoes. I
should be sorry, by any account of the deceptions and tricks
practised in this old country, to be in any degree inslnunental
in corrupting the simplicity and true-heartedness of any of my
own countrymen, who, good souls, may possibly never have
heard of any such thing as trick or deception ! but excepting
the lie in this case, the potatoes would be quite as good as the
half-grown, waxy, new potatoes usually brought to market.*
Potatoes are sold in the market by weight) fourteen pounds
constituting a stone weight ; in Ireland, a stone of potatoes
weighs sixteen pounds. In Ireland, the crop is measured by
barrels, and an acre of ground is stated to have yielded so many
barrels. Then the Irish acre differs very much from the English
statute acre, being, I think, the former compared with the latter,
as 196 to 121, or nearly 5 to 3. A barrel of potatoes in Ireland
may contiun five, or only three bushels, and the weight of the
bushel of potatoes is not determined, though customarily esti-
mated at 56 pounds. Few beans are cultivated for the table,
excepting the Windsor bean, which is a coarse vegetable ; and a
small bean, used like our string beans, and called the French
bean. Our Lima bean, and other rich pole-beans, I have not
met with. Peas are abundant in market, are brought in early,
and continued late, and are of several different kinds, the Charl-
ton pea (so called from the town where the earliest peas are
* Not, if they ehouM be tempted to pnctise any auch fraud, will I pi k> fkr u
to recommend them, by vay of encoungement or oonaolation, to read the chapt^
on Lying, in Peley's Moral PhiloBoi^y ; nor, above all, that celebrated treatiBe of
the Mine exqutait^ master in aaawtrf, that perfect uiodyne for weak conaciencea,
the Letter on Subscriptian, in which he ehawa, with admirable skill, in how many
dififerent ways an honest man may subscribe the thirty-nine articles of the church
without believing one of them.
31*
)yGoo»^Ic
366 SUHOPEAK AGXICIII.TUIW.
grown ) ^eulg preferred bs an early pea. In order to bring peas
to early maturity, or rather to a state for sale, a ridge of land or
high furrow is thrown up in a direction from east to west, and
the peas are planted on the south nde of this ridge at the bot-
tom of the furrow. In this way the young plants are [Htitected
from the cold winds on one side, and eiyoy the warm rays of the
BUn reflected on the other. This is a simple and excellent
arrangement, especially in a climate where we may say, with
some truth, that a handful of sunshine is worth much more than
its weight in gold.
Carrots and turnips are of the finest quality, and always sold
in bunches. The orai^ carrot seems [referred for the table ;
the Belgian white for stock. Onions are generally eaten small.
They are planted early in the autumn, and gathered in July and
August. Spinach, endive, cresses, lettuces, are always in the
market, either forced or grown in the open ground. Kood-
beets I have scarcely seen, either in the markets or on table,
unless pickled in vinegar. The fine egg-plant, so common in the
New York and Philadelphia markets, does not appear to be
koown here. That most luscious ^vegetable, the swoet potato,
of course cannot be grown. 1 have once seen some for sale at a
shop window, and, thinking 1 would indulge in a reminiscence
of home, I found, oo weighing, at the price asked, a single potato
would be Is. fid or 371 cents. Of course it ended in inquiry ;
and I was obliged to be satisfied with other forms of remem-
brance. Of squashes, they can scarcely be said to have any.
They have a very inferior kind, which they dignify with the
name of vegetable manow ; but of our fine crook^ieck and
Canada squashes, or our autumnal vegetable marrow, nothing
is seen, and their excellence cannot be appreciated without being
tasted. Of our delicious green Indian com, of course they have
none. Cucumbers are always in the market In the early part
of the season, they are forced ; in the latter part of the season,
they grow out of doors. Every possible pains is taken to
protect their plants, as may be seen by the hundreds of hand-
glass frames and bass mattings which brc to be found in every
extensive vegetable garden.
There are four species of plants, credible vegetables, in which,
it must l>e admitted, the English markets cannot be surpassed,
at least in the size of their products. They are asparagus,
)yGoo»^Ic
TEGZTABLX AND FKUIT MABSETS. 367
rhubarb, cauliflowers, and cabbages. Tbe aspaiagns and
rhubarb are gigantic, the rhubarb more especially, which ia
often brought to market three and four feet in length, and of the
me of a woman's arm — some women of course excepted. The
early asparagus is forced under glass ; the later is forced in the
open ground by all the appliances of manure. The qiuintity of
rhubarb consumed is enormoiu, for it comes not in baskets, but
piled up in four-horse wagons in bulk. The asparagus shows
the want of sun, and appears as if grown in a cellar, the mere
head of the early kinds being the only part eatable. I think
Cobbett somewhere says, that " the English do not know how
to eat asparagus, for they always begin at the white end." I
hare not myself observed among them any remarkable deficiency
of gastronomical science ; bat certainly, in this case, they hare
not fiir to go to find a white end. Sea-kale or Scotch kale is
very much eaten early in the season. It is blanched under cover,
and is a delicious vegetable, that is, for those wliose taste agrees
with mine. The Jerusalem artichoke seems a favorite vege-
table with most persons.*
One of the principal vegetables fonnd in the market, and this
at all seasons, is cauliflower ; and it is certainly grown here in
perfection. They are sown, for the next year's use, some time in
August, in hotbeds, and are transplanted into the open ground in
February. They, of course, before being transplanted, are cul-
tivated under glass, and for some time after they require protec-
tion. They are a frequent, and almost an invariable dish at
well-fiirnished tables. Cabbages likewise are brought into the
market with a profusion absolutely astounding, which itself
* la this cue I un in tlie minority. T have not studied under Hn. Brigf^ or
Dr. Kitchener, or 1 would iofbrm my readers how they are cooked. Under mod-
em refinements, meats, and vegetables, and tniits, come to table aa much dia-
gnised, as were men and women at the late fia/-ciMfum« of the queen, whun nothing
naarer than eitfogit or dUadiit knew each other, — and that, either by magnetic
dainoganu or previous armngement j and it ia aaid, (I do not vouch fbr its truth,)
aome nobleman addressed his valet as " my lord ; " and some gentlemen, like the
Smithfield drovers in petuiing their cattle at night, as I have described, had to
look carefully fbr some private mark, to be sure that they had got their own wive*
to cany home with them. I would not insinu^ that the English wives, eitem-
]dai7 as the^ are for their fidelity, were not as anxious to be found, as th^ fans-
banda were to find them. Sometimes I agree in a remark, often quoted by per-
sons who are not very ahstemioua in the use of strong language, that " Heaven
sends tis meats, but" 1 had rather not say who •■ sends as cooka,"
)yGoo»^Ic
368 EnsopEAN AaaicDuiuaM,
shows how much they are eaten, (toe would he disposed to
consider them as the favorite vegetable of the English. The
early ones of course are forced in hotbeds and transjdanted ;
and a constant succession is kept up. I have sometimes seen in
the market, at one time, very early in the morning, many large
four-horse wagon-loads of cabbages, lettuces, and rhubarb, all
distinct, and piled up in the most beautiful manner, with a pre-
cision which is admirable ; and when 1 have had the curiosity
to inquire how many heads of cabbage were on a single load,
the answer has been, two hundred and twenly-five dozen.
The celery brought into market is, like the rhubarb, gigantic.
The solid-stalked is greatly preferred. It is finely blanched. It
is not Bo agreeable for eating as a smaller-sized plant, hut it
shows the perfection of cultivation. The celery, like the
rhubarb and the lettuce, is brought into market in the neatest
manner. Nothing is tumbled into the carts, or thrown out upon
the ground topsy-turvy, or indiscriminately. Even the heads of
lettuce are every one of them tied with a string of bass matting ;
and when presented in the stalls, the various articles are arranged
with great care — I may add, with taste, and a view to effect.
In looking down Irom the high bridge, in Edinburgh, upon the
vegetable and fruit market below, and observing the arrangement
of the different articles in the stalls, the intermingling of the
white cauliflowers with the purple cabbages, the orange carrots,
the yellow turnips, and the red beets, and other articles of
various hues, like the colors in a Turkey carpet, the effect is
really picturesque and beautiful. I have gazed at them repeat-
edly with much pleasure. The same remarks apply to the
arrangements in the London markets. I know some will say.
What is the use of all this ? I have just given the answer. It
gave me, and it gives others, pleasure. That is reason enough,
if there were no other. I think in this respect we have a good
deal to learn. There is a natural concord or harmony among all
the senses, and the stomach seems better satisfied when that
which enters it gives pleasure to the eye. Suppose that our
fine rare-ripe peaches were a dingy black, instead of presenting,
as they now do, a sample of that most lovely and perfect inter-
mingling of colors to be found in nature — such as the soft blend-
ing of red and white in the leaf of the damask rose, or, in a still
more radiant form, on the cheek of virgin beauty and innocence.
)yGoo»^Ic
VEaCTABIiB Um TRDIT HAMCETa, 369
I think ia such case ve abould eat them -with a far inferior
relish.
Grapes of the very finest description are produced in England,
hut wholly, aa I have already remarked, by artificial culture.
This, of course, places them beyond the reach of the great mass
of the people ; but they are always found on the tables of the
wealthy and noble. In the stalls of Covent Garden Market, they
present themselres in such a rich and luscious display, as to
tempt a visitor to break at least one of the commandments ; and,
if it were not for the plat^ glass, which protects them, it might
be, another also. This interposition is certainly humane, as a
violation of the latter commandment referred to, imder the lynx-
eyed system of espionage necessarily practised here, might place
one in an awkward position. The violation of the command-
ment of not coveting what we caunot possess,- most be settled in
another court. I can only hope that human weakness will be
considered ; for, in passing from one part of London to the other,
and among the shops crowded with the splendid productions of
nature, refined and embellished by the highest art and skill, with
all the means of sensual gratification, with every thii^ to min-
ister to luxurious indulgence, to feed the animal appetite, and
the often more hungry intellect, and to delight and gratify the
ftetidious and cultivated taste, it requires a most rigid self-control,
so far as our desires are concerned, to keep the peace, from day
to day, with one's own conscience.
One of the best gardeners in England has given me some
inatmctions on the management of grapes, which some of my
readers may he glad to receive : — '
" With regard to the best way to manage the vine, when
fruiting, I invariably stop the shoot one eye above the bimch ;
and it is the jmictice of the best gardeners in England. I gen-
erally leave one shoot not stopped without fruit, and to fruit next
season, and cut the shoots out that have borne &uit this year.
On the short-spur system, every shoot is stopped an eye above
the bunch, except the top one, and then it must be managed like
the rest ; all the lateral shoots must he stopped one eye above
another, until they cease growing, as, the more leaves you get, the
fruit will swell larger."
I should add more on the cultivation of this delicious fruit,
bnt I know it ia very well understood in the United States,
)yGoo»^Ic
370 BUBOPEIN AOBICDLTCKE.
where the best grapes grown are not, within my koowledge,
snrpassed for size, abundance, and flavor. So, at least, I thongbt
them before I left home ; but in my long exile, in order to keep
down a dreadftd homeinckDess that sometimes makes sleep
almost as much a stranger to my pillow as though it was stuffed
with McAdam's angular stones, E try to think, like the fox in the
fable, that the American grapes are sour. But I cannot do it.
Afi'ections, which no time noi distance can quench or abate,
defy erery such idle effort ; and memory returns, with all its
sensibilities quickened, and all its delicious colorings heightened
and embellished, to triumph orer the impotence of the reso-
lution.
There is another article abounding in the markets here, wbicb,
though by no means unknown in the markets of the United
States, is not common ; and therefore, from the same intelligent
gardener, I ^ail give the best account I could obtain of the mode
of cultivating them. I mean, mushrooms. There are few exten-
sive gardens without a mushroom-bouse, which is a dark room
fitted up with shelves, and with the means of producing the
desired temperature.
" The cultivation of mushrooms in the winter months, in
order to have a daily supply, requires a house for the purpose.
The house at Welbeck ia divided into four tiers of shelves,
three shelves in each tier. The shelves are ten inches deep,
[that is, a sort of boxes, like the berths on board ship. — H. C]
" The first three shelves are generally filled about the begio-
ning of September, as the field mushrooms begin to go out then.
The material used to fill the shelves is pure horse-dimg drop-
pings, without any straw. It is suffered to ferment a little before
being put in, and beaten quite hard with a wooden mallet. As
soon as the heat decreases to 66° by the thermometer, or ascer-
tained by a piece of wood thrust in, to see that the biuning heat
is gone off, the bed may be spawned, by opening holes two
inches deep in the dung, and putting in bits of spawn about the
size of a walnut, nine inches each way, all over the bed. It is
then covered with two or three inches of good fresh loam from
a pasture field. If a little road-scrapings is added to the loam, it
helps to bind it, which is important, as a great deal of the success
of the crop depends on the soil and dung being incorporated into
one solid mass, not liable to crack, or get too dry. The soil
)yGoo»^Ic
vtoMTtaLS urn fboit iu&eets. 371
must be beaten with the mallet, like the dung, quite smooth and
hard all over. In eight days after spawning, the bed will be
covered with a whitish substance, which ^ows that the spawn
is running all through it, and that the heat is right.
" Mushrooms generally appear in six weeks after making the
bed, if the temperature of the house is kept from 65° to 60°.
They are very impatient of too much water; and water is
required to be put on them only with a fine watering-pot rose ;
and that when the bed gets dry; and it should be always of the
same temperature as the hf>use, or it chills all the young ones,
and the crop never lasts so long. If hot-water pipes are used to
heat the house, there is no occasion for watering. We generally
make fresh beds every mouth, to keep up a succession all
through the year, excepting the mouths they come naturally in
the open fields.
" Mushrooms may be grown in winter in a dark cellar, where
there is no artificial heat, by covering the top of the ridges, or
box, with good dry hay, at least ten inches thick. They will
not come in so quickly as in a house kept at a steady temper-
ature, but will keep in bearing a great deal longer, so that one
good bed will last all through. As a good deal of the success of
growing mushrooms depends on the goodness of the spawn, it is
necessary to get it from some respectable nurserymen, who gen-
erally sell it in the shape of bricks. Its quality may easily be
ascertained, if good, by breaking it, and seeing it full of white
threads, and the smell is exactly like a mushroom. If it smells
musty, it has lost its vegetative powers. It will keep good for a
year or two, if kept dry, and out of the power of frost. The
best is made in London about Battersea, where many cows and
horses are pastured in the fields. The old droppings are te^eu
from the surface where the natural mushrooms grow, and mixed
with fresh horse-dung, and cut into the shape of bricks. There
ia always good spawn in the old beds, which may be preserved
to put into new ones,"
I have gone thus fully into this, as it may appear to some,
unimportant subject, because, as a vegetable, this plant is es-
teemed a great delicacy ; and next, because of the great quan-
tities of ketchup which are used, and which may be manufac-
tured in the country, and of which mushrooms are the principal
material.
)yGoo»^Ic
372 EmtoFEAs Asucui/ruKE.
Pines, or pine-apples, are, as I have remarked, cultivated to a
lai^e exteDt, and witb the greatest success, in the hot-houses of
the affluent, where fire heat is employed ; but in Cambridge-
shire I found them cultivated, with great success, in common
hotbeds. The beds were formed in the usual way ; and in
order to keep up the heat, or renew it when it declined, addi-
tional supplies of fresh stable manure were applied, from time to
time, to the sides of the bed. The ]dauts were healthy, and
fruited well ; and 30 far as the quality of the fruit goes to ap-
prove the mode of growing, I will say, on my own knowledge,
better need not be desired.
I have one remark to make in regard to English vegetables
and fruits, that will not, I hope, be deemed ill4iumored, — which
is, that, though cultivated with extraordinary skill, with the
exceptions I have above named, they are tasteless, and without
that fine T«lish which one would like to find. I think it is
Yoltaire who says " that the only ripe thiit to be found in &Dg-
tand is a baked apple." I cannot accede to a censure so sweep-
ing ; but it is plain that their friiits and vegetables want ripeness
and flavor. This may arise partly from a deficiency of heat
from the sun, and partly from the excessive forcing of Uieir
vegetables, in the vicinity of large markets, by unlimited quan-
tities of manure. I know how difficult it must be to m^e an
Englishman believe this statement ; for under the national
peculiarity of a large endowment of self-esteem, which their
Anglo-Saxon descendants over the water seem to have inherited,
(and sometimes, I think, with a considerable enlargement o£ the
organ, from long cultivation,) a genuine Englishman thinks that
nothing out of his own country can possibly be so good as what
is to be found in it. Now, in intellectual fruits, and the [xxiducts
of art and science, I will not dispute their preeminence — only
hoping that, while they are reposing upou their laurels, a young
and ambitious rival, in a fair and generous competition, may be
up with them as soon as possible, and distance them, if he can.
Ebt climates and sunshine are not under hiunan control ; and
the fact which I have stated is in my mind established, and not
the result of mere prejudice, of which, on any subject, if I were
conscious of it, I should be ashamed.
)yGoo»^Ic
LZ. — MARKET GARDENS.
My remarks above hare chiefly referred to the supjdy of
vegetables in LomloQ. There are large markets in all the prin-
cii»l towns ; btit it ia difficult to conceive the amount required
for the supply of this mammoth city, with its two million hungry
mouths, not one of whom, scarcely, in any direct form, produces
a single mouthful for himself.
The extent of the vegetable gardens in the neighborhood of
this great city is enormous, and the moltipUed facilities of con-
veyance make even remote ^aces, now, in many articles the
supi^iers of Loudon. Fifty years ago, it was calculated that
there were two thousand acres cultivated by the spade, and
eight thousand by the spade and plough conjointly. The extent
of cultivation must, of course, be at present much greater. It is
•aid of one individual that he had eighty acres in asparagus, and
of another that he had sixty, and that the forming of the beds
was estimated at £100 per acre'. This undoubtedly was under
the old system of growing asparagus, when the soil was to be
taken out to a depth of some feet, and a bed of stones placed at
the bottom, and other expensive arrangements. Now, asparagus
is grown almost as easily as carrots or celery, it only requiring
to be first grown in a nursery or seed bed, and then transplanted
ID the bottom of deep furrows or trenches, made two feet dis-
tance from each other, well bedded with manure, and the bed
itself kept constantly clean, and annually covered with a loading
of manure in the autumn, which must be dug in with a fork in
the spring. This, in three years from the seed, gives as good
and abundant a plant as mider the old method of trenching and
bottomii:^ with stones, and laying a foot of manure on ihe stones.
The amount of vegetables sent by some individual salesmen
is enormous. The principal market-days are three times in a
veek, but Saturday is the principal day ; and it is confidently
stated — though in relating it I fear that some persons may think
the credulity of their too-confiding countryman has been prac-
tised upon — that a single grower has been known to send, in one
day, more than nineteen hundred bushels of peas in the pod, and
seven or eight loads of cabbages, averaging eighteen hundred
cabbages each ; and at another season, from the same farm, four-
)yGoo»^Ic
874 XUBOFEAN AOBICULTUBC.
teen or fifteen hundred baskets of sprouts will be sent in one
day, and in the course of the year from five to six thousand tons
of potatoes. In his account of the agriculture of Middlesex,
Middleton says, that in 1795, in the height of the &uit season,
each acre of the gardens cultivated in small fruits gave employ-
ment to thirty-five persons, among whom were many women,
who were employed in carrying the fruit to market on their
heads ; and that the gathering of a crop of peas required forty
persons for every ten acres. The account given of the sum of
money received ftom the produce of a single acre is quite
worthy of remark, it being the statement of a market^ardener.
Radishes, £10,- caulifiower, £60; cabbages, £30; celery, first
crop, £60 ; second crop, £40 ; endive, £30, — makii^ a total of
£220, or 1100 dollars, for the gross produce of an acre in twelve
months.*
Besides the market which London presents for the disposal of
the products of these immense gardens, it is to be remembered
that labor may be procured at an hour's notice, at any season and
for any term, and at a low rate of wages. The farmer or gai-
dener is therefore saved the burden of keeping up an expensive
estabhshment for any longer time than their services are needed ;
with this addition, that he makes no provision whatever, at any
time, tor housing or feeding them. Any person, who has had
the management of a large farm in the United States, knows
quite well, that the sum of all its difficulties is in the feeding
" What wmw penona ma.; deem the intrinaic in^nobabili^ of socli uxamtB,
will disappear, when one conaiders tluU:, in London, evesj thing, tnd ui;thiiig,)nak7
be sold, and may tod purchaaeis, eicepting only, I believe, children. These an
to be given away ; for it ia a saber truth, that in the streets of London I have been
repeatedly ofiered the [H^sent of children, and that fnnn the breast too, though
none the better for that, if I would take them. Whether it is, by asortof nstonl
jdirenok^cal akitl, the; discover my philoprogenitiveaeH to be large, or fitHo a
deatitudon, the bitterness of which extinguiahea the maternal aSecttans, or &isn
a profligacy even more bitter, and more deeply to be deplored, (in too many casea
the pitiable consequence of this destitution,} this ia not the place Ah me to ecm-
■ider. But it ia for my own connttymen to ctmsider, with the deepest religioiN
gratitude, the diSbreoce between a cooditiMi of tbinga in which cliildren ate fett
to be a burden, and almoBt a curae, and that in which a healthy and perfect child
may be looked npon always as a choice blessing &om Heaven ; and the mora
hnngry mouths, and apaiUlng eyes, gather round the well-fltled board of tba
Inimblest cottager, morning, noon, and night, ao much the more, in ftct, an tlie
meana of supply increased, and the parental heart filled to overflowing with joj
andkive
)yGoo»^Ic
mkMMxr OASDCiiB. 376
and managemeat of the human machinery. In the next place,
here there is no want of capital with persona who undertake
such occupations ; and it ia applied with liberality wherever
there is a chance of using it to profit. This ia a great consid-
eration, wherever capital may be safely and advantageously
applied to land. We often hear the counsel given to cultivate
a little land well, rather than a lai^ extent of land imperfectly.
In the main, thia is sound advice on the sccoe of pioAt. But in
agriculture, viewed as a commercial transaction, the [vofila 'will
correspond with the amount of capital invested or employed.
Ijo^ retorns are to be expected only from cnltivMii^ a lai^
extent of land ; or, in other words, pursuing agricolture as a man,
who wonld command success, pursoes any other branch of trade,
by devoting his time, talents, and zeal to it, and applying all the
means within his reach to its advancement While
•> litde boats ihonld keep near riwre,
VsMela ]Bige waj vetdme idi»&^
The man who, as above, can cultivate one acre of ground
with such eminent success, may cultivate one hnndrcd with
similar profit, provided he can give to it the same requisite
attention, provided a sufficiency of labor and manure are equally
attainable, and provided, likewise, the market is equally sure- and
fitvorable for the disposal of his products. Whether capital' «an
in any particular case be profitably applied to ^rieulture, must
depend upon a great variety of local and temporary circum"
staoces. It is ao with commerce, and with most other branches
of business. No human power or skill can control the vicissi-
tudes of the climate and the weather; but the contingencies on
which the success of Eigricultnre depends are perhaps not so
great as those on which the success of mercantile transactions
depends. It is idle to expect reward without labor, fruit with-
out seed, profit without risk, success without effort, — unless in
those games of mere chance, of which sober men will beware,
and in which there are always vastly more losers than winner^
and many more blanks than prizes. The great want with most
of our farmers is clearly want of capital, to apply to the land in
labor, or manure, or in the way of permanent improvements of
drainage and irrigation, which change at once the whole face of
a country. The main elements of success in apiculture are the
same as in any other profession, — skill, judgment, ap]Jication,
)yGoo»^Ic
376
indiutry, and capital, either ia the fonn of education, money, or
eiedit ; tbe li^ an not greater ; the road to a reanonable com-
petence, which is all to which a good mind should anzioualy
aspire, ia aa certaia as is common in human aibin ; extraordi-
nary nieceaa — which I do not say it is criminal to desire, but
eroi lawful to aim at — is not unftequently attainable: but, what
is better than all, the gains of agriculture, where tbe labor by
which thoee gains are sectired is honorably and justly provided
for, and its products disposed of without any betrayal of con-
science, are 00 imalloyed, lo untainted by eomipticm, bo clearly
in themselTes not tbe occasions of [Oration, but the very in-
siruments of good to others, that one reposes on them with
entire and grateful complacency, and their value to the winner is
more than quadrupled. My friends, I know, will pardon my en-
thusiasm, which, like a half-smoihered fire, is continually bursting
out in this way. If it scmetimes sheds a flickering light by its
blaze, it never bums to destroy ; and if, in respect to that noble
pursuit which Heaven first ordained for man, it awakens in any
pure and honest minds, not crazed with speculation nor hardened
and corrupted by the too common tricks of trade, any gentle
vibrations of sympathy, I idiall feel that my two mitea have
found their way into the great treasury of public good.
The eminent success of the market-gardeners near Loudon
depends on several circumstances in their management, which I
will point ouL In the first place, the land is thoroughly drained,
so as not only to cut off the springs which might render the
wetness of the land permanent, but likewise to carry off speedily
the rain which fiUls. In the next place, the land is completely
trenched, to the depth of from two to three feet, with the spade.
This serves two purposes ; first, to assist in the drainage by giving
a free passage into the principal conduits of the rain as it comes
down ; and next, to enable the roots of the plants freely to extend
themselves in search of food. In trenching, it is necessary to
keep the top soil at the top, and not to bring the lower stratum to
the surface, or to suffer a large portion of the cold earth to be
mingled with the rich mould. This requires some little calcula-
tion. The soil of the first trench made across the field must be
completely thrown out ; and so likewise the top soil of the
second trench. The bottom soil of the second trenching is then
to be thrown into the vacant space of the first, and the top soil
)yGoo»^Ic
MABEKT eASDKirs. 377
of the third line upon that. Things will then come rightly into
their places, the bottom soil being always thrown upon the bot-
tom, the top soil upon the top, while at the end of the piece
treocfaed, that which was first thrown out must be brought and
replaced. The third point particularly attended to, is ample
manuring. For this object they have always [dentiful stores on
band, to be applied as may be desired ; the old hotbeds, when
broken up, furnishing targe quantities in that decomposed state,
in which only is its application safe in respect to many kinds of
plants. Manure is sometimes applied in a solid and sometimes in
a liquid form. Sometimes, when the ground is dug, the manure is
dug in with it ; sometimes it is laid on the sturface ; sometimes it ia
used with every successive crop, at other times with the first crop
only : but all these are* matters directly dependent upon experi-
ence and practice, and which it would be impossible, in such a
report as this, particularly to define. Manure, in its coarsest state,
is seldom applied to garden v^etables ; and it is fonnd e^)ediGnt,
in respect to liquid manures, to apply them in a diluted and mixed
form. The next point aimed at, is to avoid the immediate repe-
tition of the same crop on Uie same ground ; for, though manure
may be had in abundance, yet the second and thi^ crops gradu-
ally become deteriorated. Chemistry has not yet determined with
precision how this evil, if so it is to be regarded, is to be counter-
acted. It is strongly hoped that this may be one of its first
achievements. Most of what it has yet given us in the case is
theory. What we want is practical and efficient rules by which
the health and strength of the declinit^ patient may be at once
and with certainty recovered. The next object is, to have a suc-
cession of crops, one crop oflen growing between the rowa of
another, and prepared to take its place as soon as it is removed,
so that there is no respite of the cuUivation, while the season
allows of it ; and near London, with the help of straw covering,
and mats, and glasses, some plants are on the ground all the year.
For this object, and to counteract the effect of the seasons, the
most extensive preparation is made ; articles are prepared of
brush, of matting and straw, and hand-glasses, or boxes with
glass tops, and, to guard against insects, boxes with coarse
gauze tops are prepared in the greatest abundance, and changes
of the temperature and weather are watched with the most
sedulous care. Hot and forcii^ beds, likewise, and conserva-
)yGoo»^Ic
378 , xoRorxAs isucultuse.
tories, and hothouses, are made ready in the most ext^uive
fonns, for the purpose of forwarding plants to be set out at proper
seasons, and for the growing of those plants which lequire
artificial heat. Lastly, irrigation is as much as practicable
attended to, and engines, and watering-pots, and other contri-
vances, are in constant requisition for these purposes, and as &r
as they can be applied. The science of gardening is here a
substantial science ; and young men are as carefully educated in
its various departments as in any of the learned professions, and
receive a patronage according to their skill and merit. Under
such circumstances, the market gardens near London are man-
aged with a skill and enterprise worthy of all praise, and sure of
lewaida much more substantial.
LXI. — COVENT GARDEN HABJEET.
The great market in England for vegetables, fruits, and flowers,
is the market of Cment Gardm, without question a corruption
for Convent, as this place is understood to have been formerly the
garden of the convent, and connected with the establishment of
Westminster Abbey. The whole square included in the market-
place is said to embtace five acres; but thb, I think, roust take in
the buildings, dweUing-houses, hotels, shops, &c., forming the
exterior boundary oC the square. Li the centre of this square is
the market-house, of which no verbal description can convey a
very exact idea to the reader. It combines open stalls and close
shops, sellers within and oa the outsides, with a long hall or
arcade, running through the centre, sixteen feet in width, and
fitted up with shops on each side, and with shelves projecting
into the passage, which are sjoead out with all the fruits and
flowers of the season.
1. Fimrrs um YEaETABLEs. — The outer stalls are for the
coarser vegetables, potatoes, cabbages, ice, and for the commcBl
fi»eign fruits. This is by no means the only vegetable and fruit
market in London, but it is the principal one ; and some of the
other markets, and many of the fruit-shops, scattered over Lon-
)yGoo»^Ic
COTBITT aABOXM lUBKKT. 379
don, receive their supplies from Covent Garden. Them is hardly
007 aeasoa of the year when every variety of fruit and vege-
tables, which can be forced, is not to be found in this market ;
and in the proper seasons a great variety is to be foimd, the
product of natural and artificial culture, in the highest perfection.
The sale of dried foreign fruits is here likewise immense. Eng-
land can scarcely be considered as a fruit country, and the high
prices chai^d for the finest fruits place them beyond the reach
of all but the most wealthy classes. Two shillings, or half a
dollar, for a single peach, — and at no season are they much less
than half that sum, and many other fruits in proportion, — render
them forbidden fiuit to the great multitude. In quantity, Coveat
Garden is limited compared with the city of London, which it is
intended to snj^y ; but it is high tide here on a market-day, at
daylight in the morning, when the wholesale market-men supply
the retailers, and the streams from this foimtain dow into and
permeate every part of the city and its neighborhood. The
market in Farringdon Street occupies as much ground as Cov-
ent Garden, but this embraces butchers' stalls as well ae fruits
and v^etablea.
Covent Garden presents an interesting spectacle on a great
market-day, at 4 o'clock in the morning, when the wholesale
businefls commences, and the retailers, seeking supplies for their
different stalls, and the occupants of stalls in other markets, and
tfte keepers of vegetable shops in the town, and the various
itinerant dealers, who paietrate all the by-places and streets in
different parts of the town and the vicinity, come to make their
purchases. This occupies two or three hours ; and a busier scene
is hardly to be witnessed. All the smaller articles — gooseberries,
currants, peas, beans, new potatoes, apples, &«. — are bcoi^ht in
baskets ; cabbages, lettuces, rhubarb, celery, dtc., in bulk, as I
have described. Peas, in Covent Garden Market, are shelled be-
fore they are sold, and after they come out of the bands of the
wholesale dealer. These come frequently in sacks. It is an inter-
esting sight to see the poor and sqaalid women and young girls,
who come to earn a few pence by shelling the peas, sitting about in
different squads, (and I have counted at one time as many as
eighty in one party,) all busily engaged in this occupation at
about one peimy, or two cents, per quart. Raspberries and straw-
beiries ore brought in small cone-shaped baskets, containii^ little
)yGoo»^Ic
380 EOBOFEAH AOUCDLTUBK.
more than a piut ; and these are uaually brooght long distaacea
on the heads of womeD. It is said that these women, who cany
such heavy loads upon their heads, are principally iiom Wales,
and that many of them, for example, come into market twice a
day firom Bientfoid, where great quantities of stiawbenies aie
raised, and return ; and this is a distance of more than seven
miles, making at least thirty miles in a day. To such endurance
may even a woman's frame be trained. Many of the milk-
women in London, who carry their milk in large tin cans slung
liom tbeii shoulders, and containing from six to eight gallons
each, travel long distances in the course of the day. But the
most remarkable instance of strength and endurance is p^ape
to be found in the fish-women of Edinbuigh, vho attend the
market from New Haven and Musselboro'. Their load, which ia
in two baskets, one over the other, containing different kinds of
fish, slung upon their backs, often weighs ISO lbs., and has been
known to weigh 200 lbs. The distance from New Haven to
Edinburgh is more than two miles, and in this distance they stop
to rest but once only ; and after their arrival they are to be found
crying their fii^ in all parts of the town. How many of the
Chestnut Street, or WastUngton Street, or Broadway belles would
it require to lift even one of these loads from the ground ? Tet
these market and milk-women, and the fish-women of Edinbu^h,
are perfect models of health and strength. The latter — with their
elephantine arms and legs, their bright, clean caps, and fair com-
plexions, their firm tread, and their stentorian lungs, with their
gay costume of various colors, and their fire petticoats, so
arranged in different lengths that a portion of each may be dis-
played— are among the most picturesque, and not unpleasii^,
objects of that beautiful city.
The advantj^ of bringing the finer fruits to the market in
this way is, that they come in the best possible condition.
The wholesale business being completed, the growers of the
produce return home, and the marketing goes at once into the
hands of the shopmen and retail dealers, who are, in general,
teeidente in the city.
2. Flowbbs. — Having said so much of the vegetables and
fruits, I must not omit another article in Covent Garden Market,
of which the sale is immense, — that is, flowers. In the winter
)yGoo»^Ic
CorCNT ai&DEH lURXBT. 381
they are sent here from the greenhouses ; at more genial seasons,
&om TBiiouB gaidens and conservatories in the neighborhood.
They are displayed in the greatest profusion and perfection, and are,
tmdoubtedly, a la^e source of income to the cultivators. The
Ei^lish appear to me to hare a strong passion for flowers, and
I commend their taste. A country house, without its plantation
of flowers and flowering shrubs, would be quite an anomaly;
and many of the humble and moss-grown cottages hare their
small gardens of flowers, their doors trellised with wood-
bines and honeysuckles, and their outer walls covered with a
thick mantling of ivy, and made gay with the sweetbrier and
the monthly rose. The dooi^yards of the English, in the coun-
try, their windows, their halls, their palaces, are all decorated
with flowers ; they are among the most beautiful ornaments at
their festivals ; and even the highest charms of female loveliness
are studiously augmented by these innocent and s|dendid adorn-
ments.
Looking out of my window a short time since, I saw that the
laborer wheeling his barrow before the door had his button-hole
decorated with a beautiful geranium. I went into the street, and the
driver of the omnibus, whom I first met, wore a handsome nosegay.
I met a bridal party, and, besides the white favors worn by all the
servants in attendance, each one had a bunch of flowers at his
breast. I met the crowd of magnificent equipages' hastening to
a drawing-room to pay their courtly homage to a sovereign queen,
whose virtues and most exemplary demeanor render her worthy
of the homage of true afiection and respect ; and every lady bears
in her hand a magnificent bouquet ; and the coachmen and the
footmen seem to emulate each other in the gayety and beauty of
the flowera which they all wear. At St. Paul's, at the opening
of the term of courts, the long procession of grave and learned
judges, who then go in state to church, appears, each one, with an
elegant nosegay in his hand. At the opera, upon the breathless
and successful competitors for public favor, in the midst of a tem-
pest of applause, descends a perfect shower of floral wreaths and
rich bouquets.
I sympathize heartily in this taste of the English for flowers,
which thus pervades all ranks, and, flowers being accessible to all,
and among the most innocent and the cheapest of all pleasures,
diffuses a vast amount of enjoyment. They are, indeed, among
)yGoo»^Ic
aaZ BIIBOPKAN AQBICDLTOIIE.
the richest adornments of God's beautiful creation, and every-
where, in the tangled forest, in the most secluded thicket, ou
the ocean prairies, and even upon the desolate heaths, are scat-
tered about in such an endless Tariety and profusion as caimot ful
to imivess a reflecting and devout mind with the most grateful
veneration and delight.
As for those persons who can see no good and no utility in
any thing beyond that which fills the belly, or covers the back,
or puts money into the pocket, they are of the earth, earthy.
Such grovelling selfishness and animalism I trample under foot
with inefl'able scorn. But the cultivation of flowers does mncb
for the benefit of the mind. A taste for objects so pure expels a
taste for others, which are unworthy. A passion for what is
beautiful and refined in nature often secures the mind from the
intrusion of passions low and hurtful. Every advance, which
is made in any direction for the improvement of the taste or the
refinement of manners, is so much done for the general comfort
of social life and for good morals.
LXn. — GENERAL MARKETS.
Besides the markets to which I have referred, there is a market
in Ijondon exclusively for the sale of raw hides and leather ; and
in various parts of the country markets are held, at fixed times
and places, for the sale of wool, and of butter and cheese. These
generally go under the name of fairs; and I do not think they
can be too soon established in the most populous districts of our
country. There may be evils, but there are great and overbal-
ancing advantE^es, attending them. The lai^e dealers attend in
numbers to make their purchases, and both sides have equal ben-
efits from an extended competition. Prices assume an equal and
a fair rate. The farmer may feel, ordinarily, quite sure of a
market for his produce at a fixed time, and to receive his money,
instead, as now, of depending almost upon accident for a pur-
chaser. Last, but not among the least of the benefits of the
markets in question, is the wholesome emulation which is
created by bringing different articles of [swluce into comparison
)yGoo»^Ic
aCNXKU. MARXXTS. 383
with each other. The producer of an iuferior article is stimulated
by the success of hia ne^hbor to produce a better ,- agricultural
information becomes generally diffused; and thus agricultural
improvement is esseutially advanced. Should auch markets be
established, the most stringent niles should be adopted for their
management ; but, above all things, all trickery and fraud should
be eschewed and denounced. A man guilty of it should be so
branded with infamy, that he should never presume to show
himself there a second time. Men, under such circumstances,
would be sure to discover that " honesty is the best policy."
In London, there are markets for the exclusive sale of poultry
and game, and in DubliD, I found one wholly devoted to the sale
of eggs. The amounts here collected and disposed of almost
surpass belief. The statement of a respectable" witness and cus-
tom-house agent, recently, before a parliamentary committee, is
quite remarkable. He said that there were five vessels annually
ei^aged in that trade between Normandy, on the coast of France,
and London, which brought about 3700 tons of eggs in the year.
Ten cases went to a ton, and from 1000 to 1200 were in each
case. This trade was between Cherbourg, Harfleur, Caen, and
Portsmouth. Forty millions of eggs were annually imported
through this channel alone. Some one asks very emphatically,
" Why should they not be produced at home ? "•
* "The Tvloe in looaey of one seemingly onimpoitant article, eggs, taken, in
the eonne of the yeu, &<Nn tteland to the ports of Liverpool and Kistol, amountfl
to at leut £100,000. The progresa of this trade afibrdi a curiom illnatration of
the advantage* of ccHmoerciBi facilitieB in Btimuladng production and equalizing
jMices. Before the establiBhinent of ateam-TeseelB, the market at Corli na most
irngolarly eupplied with eggs from the Buirounding diatrict ; at certain wasonB
Ihey were exceedingly abundant and cheapo but these seaaoiw were sure to be
followed by eeiaona of acatctty and high pricea ; and at timea, it ia aaid to have
been difficult to puichaae e^a in the maricet at any price. At the firat opening
of the improved channel for conveyance to England, the rendenta at Cork had to
eompbuD of the conatant high price of this and other articles of farm produce ;
bat aa a more eictenaive market waa now permanently open to them, the fiinneia
gave their atteotiou to the rearing and keeping of poultry ; and at the present
time, egga are procurable at all aeaaona in the market at Cork ; not, it is true,
at tlie extremely low rate at which they could, formerly, be sometimea bought,
but alill at much less than the average price of the year. A like result has fol-
lowed the introdnctiiHi of this great imfvovement in regard to the supply and coat
of variooa other articles of produce. lu the apparently unimportant article feathers,
it may be stated, on the respectable authont/ above quoted, that the yearly impor-
tation into F"g'""'i fVom Ireland, reaches the amount of £500,000 atmling." —
PoHa'i Progrtu ^f l&e Mdion, voL iiL 83L
)yGoo»^Ic
3S4 xcBOFUn AgjuouLTdu.
Markets of a geneial charaictei are held ones or twice a week
in all the principal towns ; and in those cases where the farms
are small, the ftirmeis' wives and daughters will be seen going
six or eight miles on foot, or in vans, (i e. lumber and freight
coaches or wagons, ) to sell the week's product of their dairy or their
ponltr^yard. In this caw, they are always found, with their neat
baskets upon their arms, in a particular part of the market as-
signed to them. Their neatness of dress and person commend
them to attention. It requires some couisge to elbow your -vmy
amoi^ them, if you do not design to be a purchaser ; and their
chaffering aiLd courteous solicitations to buy, with the emphatical
lecommendations of the articles for sale, together with the usual
chatter and gossip to be expected among such a collection of
gude wives and bonnie laasea, are sufficiently Mpiming.
)yGoo»^Ic
„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE.
FIFTH REPORT.
LXIL — GENERAL MARKETS. {C^ftimud.)
I, Mabkkt at Dubt. — Notbiro can be more misceUaueotu
than sn Sngliah country market ; and my readers may be grati-
fied with the partial accomit which I took of one of them as I
went through it. This may be considered as a fair sample of
others. Many of the goods are spread upon the groimd, or under
temporary stalls or booths erected for the purpose. Every seller
pays a certain tax to the town for permission to sell, or for the
load of goods brought intb market. This toll ia generally col-
lected at the entrance of the town, as it is to this day in him-
doQ, from every loaded vehicle which enters the city.
This market was held in the open square at Derby, and the
stalls were chiefly attended by women. 1. Nails and tacks.
2. Old iron, chains, &c 3. Cntlery of variotis sorts. 4. Shoes
and boots. 6. Hats and caps. 6. Hosiery. 7. Millinery.
8. Iron ware, 9. Tin and copper ware. 10. Various kinds
of female dress, caps, laces, &c. 11. Household furniture, old
and new. 12. Brushes, mops, &c. 13. Bread. 14. Bacon
and salted pork. 15. Muslins and caps in upturned umbrellas
on the ground. 16. Children's toys. 17. Combs and paste.
18. Flour. 19. Butter and cheese. 20. Fish of various kinds.
21. Baskets. 22. Old books. 23. Sofas, bureaus, and tables.
24. Crockery ware and glass ware of various kinds on the
ground — a great many sellers. 25. Glass ware in abundance.
)yGoo»^Ic
ODD EnBOPKAH AaBIC(n.TDBB.
26. Rabbits and game. 27. Poultr/. 38. Meats of Tarioiu
kinds. 39. Vegetables and fruits. 30. Straw bonnets. 31. Re-
freshments, gingerbiead and ginger beer. 32. Wool in large
packs. 33. Oranges, &.c, 34. Sieves, wire>baskets, and bird-
cages. 35. Bandboxes and trunks. 36. DolU. 37. New books
and stationery. 38. Lire birds. 39. Confectionary of various
kinds. 40. Shoes, combs, &,c. dtc. 41. Saddles, bridles, col-
lars, &c. 42. Rakes and agricultural tools. 43. Ginger pop, as
usual. 44. Garden seeds. 45. Patent medicines, and especially
worm lozenges, with about fifty bottles of worms preserved in
spirit to evince the efficacy of the medicine' — a terrific exhibi-
tion. 46. Meats of various kinds. This comprehends but a
small portion, and by no means all the varieties of stalls. The
whole are dispersed by 3 o'clock in the afternoon. The popula-
tion of Derby is about 37,000, and is chiefly a manufEicturing
population.
LXm. — GENERAL REMARKS AND DtVIStONS OF THE
SUBJECT OF ENGUSH FARMINa.
The agriculture of England presents itself under three great
divisions — that of arable farming ; breeding and grazing, or feed-
ing ; and dairying. I propose, in a great degree, to arrange my
observations conformably to these three parts.
There may be, with some of my readers, a misconception as to
my [dan, and, in consequence, expectations which will fail to
be met. I do not undertake to give a complete system of farm-
ing, and specific and exact directions in detail for the cultivation
of every crop, and for every department of farm management.
This would oblige me to execute a work vastly more extensive
than that which I have undertaken. With respect to many of
my readers, it could prove only a work of supererogation, for
much of these details must be as familiar to them as the roads
over their farms. I have always found, likewise, in respect to
such directions, with which many books are crowded, extending,
as they frequently do, to circumstances the most minute and in-
siguificant, that they are often inapplicable, from the infinite diver-
)yGoo»^Ic
OEITERIL BEHIHES AND DITISIOKT Or THE SUBJECT, 387
sity of circumstances which different cases present. Most men
hare their peculiar methods of accomplishing an object, which
are in truth the beet for them, because the most natural ; they
woold be hampered and embajrassed by other modes, less familiar,
which might be prescribed. Unless, therefore, there is some
striking originality, or some obvious and peculiar conrenjence, in
the method suggested, it is only necessary to say in general what
is to be done, and leave it to every man's own ingenuity to find
out the best method of effecting it.
My principal object is to point out, in European agriculture,
such circumstances of difference between it and our own as
may serve for the improvement of the agriculture of the United
States, and to give such an account of the modes of manage-'
ment which prevail abroad, and which have been sanctioned by
long practice and experience, as may facilitate thetr adoption, as
far as the circumstances existing among us would render their
adoption eligible. Every country, differing from other countries
ID its climate and temperature, in its soil, in its facility for pro-
caring mannies, in the character and supply of its labor, in its
commercial and political relations, must be expected to have an
agriculture in some respects peculiar to itself; and the practices
of another country can only be partially adapted to its own. At
the same tiioe, the general principles of agricultural practice are
every where the same ; and these, with the various modiflcattons,
which they may be expected to assume under different degrees
of civilization, or different degrees of improvement in science and
the arts, and their general and special application, cannot be too
fully discussed and illustrated. We may learn much from others,
who do things which we are never called to do ; who cultivate
crops which we never cultivate, and never can cultivate ; and we
may learn much from persons who do the same things which we
do, but in a different way from ourselves — who cultivate the same
crops, but by their own peculiar methods. We may learn much
from those who cultivate better, and from those who do not culti-
Tate 80 well as ourselves. There is little hope in any thing, so
far as any great improvement is concerned, for the man who im-
jjicitly follows any guide whatever. He must exercise his own
reason, experience, observation, and judgment, in the application
of rules which may be laid down for his direction.
The celebrated Bakewell, whose name occupies a distinguished
)yGoo»^Ic
388 antortis ioriculiTiisx.
place in the anaals of agricultural imiaoTenient, advised fanners,
vho would improve their cultivation and mao^emeDt, " to go
ahroad and see what other people were about." Every observing
man, who acts upon this advice, will find its advantages. I have
often heard it said, and, if I thought it of any value in the case, I
should say that my own experience confirmed it, that one of the
best modes of understanding a book written in a foreign language
is to read different versions or translations of it. The different
forms of expressing the same thought adopted by different per-
sons, or the different conceptions which different minds gather
from the same expressions, whether in themselves right or wrong,
may give us a clew to the true meaning, and correct many a mis-
construction, or reveal and make light many a hidden or obscure
passage. This analogy suggests the true mode in which an in-
quisitive mind may gather instruction and knowlei^e from the
practices of other men.
Three things seem to me absolutely essential to human jwog-
ress in any and every ait, in any and every science. The first
is a profound conviction of the imperfection of all human knowl-
edge ; the second, an entire distrust of all human infallibility ; the
third, a perfect docility of mind, and a readiness to receive light
and instruction from any and every quarter where it may be
gathered, or by which it may approach us. Self-esteem, which,
when combined with a good measure of benevolence and con-
scientiousness, and so leading men to admit and respect the just
claims of others, is a useful and harmless sentiment, and prompts
to many valuable enterprises, — when found excessive, and in &
great degree unqualified, becomes an almost hopeless impedi-
ment to improvement.
I was told, before I left the country, by some American friends,
that there was nothing in the way of agriculture to be learned in
England, and that American agriculture was as improved as
English agriculture. I had been but a short time in England
before I heard, from various quarters, that in no country on the
globe had agriculture reached that degree of improvement which
it had attained in England ; and really in some cases, at [ublic
dinners, when, in the language of modem agricultural chemistry,
the gases of the wine began to stimulate the brain, one would be
almost led to infer that agriculture itself was a recent invention
of British genius ; and England presented herself to the en-
)yGoo»^Ic
GKNEKUi RE1UXK8 AMD DITISIOM Or THE SUBJECT. 389
chooted imagination leauing upon the handles of a jdough, with
piles of scientific books spread open at her feet, weeping, like the
Macedonian hero, that she had no more worlds to conquer. A
Flemish gentleman informs me that the agriculture of the Low
Countries is altogether superior to that of any other part of the
world. The Chinaman puts forth his claims to superiority, and
shows pietty conclusively how much justice he has apon his
aide, when he points to the extraordinary and unquestionable
het, in his own country, of the largest amount of population sup-
ported upon the smallest extent of land. In the midst of all this
comes a Gennan, of wide possessions, of long practical experience,
and of much intelligence, and says to me, " The English are the
most arrogant and conceited people under the sun ; and, in respect
to agricultural improrement, they are hi inferior to the Germans."
Now, I do not feel it necessary to buckle on my armor and
defend my good friends the English against language which, it
must be admitted, is sufficiently peremptory and harsh. Nor do
I deem it necessary to enter the lists with either of these parties,
and endeavor to force him ftom his position. A diseased or in-
ordinate self-esteon brooks no argument, and, in contending with
national prejudices, the result can only be as it is, to use the
rather coarse metaphor of Dr. Franklin, with a man who spits
against the wind — that he spits in his own face. The first coa-
dusion to be drawn from these confident assumptions is, to dis-
trust them all ; and the second is, by looking calmly and impai^
tially at the improvements in which each claims a superiority, to
gather instruction from the results of each one's experience, and
new facilities and motives to enterprise, inquiry, and exertion.
L3CIV. — THE SOIL.
Agriculture rests, first of all things, upon the nature of
the soil which is to be cultivated. The soil is the basis on
which the [dant is to be supported, and the medium through
which it is to receive the food by which its life is to be sus-
tained, its growth promoted, and its progress advanced to matu-
)yGoo»^Ic
rity. Some scientific persons assert that the principal, if not the
only, use o! the soil is for the support of the plant, and that the
food of the plant is derired wholly from the atmosi^ere. In the
heat of their im^ioations, they hare even asserted that a man's
fields may be enriched, or rather his growing crops may be fed, by
the exhalations from his ne^hbor's manore-heap in an adjoining
field. This would he very much like a man's being fed by
standing over the grating of aiiotel, or a cook's shop kitchen, in
London, and inhaling the odors from the savory viands which
are there in the process of preparation. How mach flesh might
be gained, and how losg life might be sostained, in this way, we
shall know when the experiment is once successfully tested.
That {dants receive a large proportion of their noorishmeot from
the air, does not admit of a doubt But the calculations of the i^-
osopbica] chemists as to the amoimt of carbon which the ^mos-
phere, taking it at its estimated height of forty-five miles, is ca-
pable of supplying, (equal, according to some calculators, to the
sum of seven tons to an acre ;) and the discussion of the great
qnestion how the atmosphere was first supplied with this great
element in vegetable life ; and the apprehension which some
persons exprem, on sccotmt of the supposed actual diminution
of carbon, — though there appears to be enough, according to the
most rigid calculations, to last several thousand years longer, —
are, to say the least of them, sufficiently amusing ; but of what pne-
tical use they can be to the common farmer, is not so easy to de-
termine. If the animal creation is to be starved out some thoD-
sands of years hence, it need not give the present geneiatioo,
whose average of life does not much exceed thirty-five years,
any great personal concern. It will not be a harder fate than
that which certain of what are called the higher order of animals
seem disposed to anticipate for some of their fellow-beings now
living. But, whatever may be the part which the atmosj^em
performs in the food or nourishment of vegetables, it is beyond
human power to affect or control it, unless we can grow our crops
under bell^lasses or in greenhouses. The duke of Devonshire,
in his magnificent conservatory at Cbatsworth, three hundred
feet long, seventy-five feet wide, and sixty-four feet in height,
heated by seven miles of pipes, and covering, with its appurfe-
nances, a full acre of ground, might manage to charge the almoe-
phere in which his plants resfure with gases exactly suited to
)yGoo»^Ic
THE sonu 891
Umir wants, and of the most nutritious character ; but, beyond this
gigantic experiment, to which few can aspire, nothing certainly is
to be hoped for. Ths farmer's whole business, as far as cultiTa'
tioQ is concerned, lies with the soil ; and upon the soil, and the
skill and intelligence with which he manages it, must depend
entirely his success. The notion, that plants receiye a lai^e por-
tion of their nouri^meut through their leares, — although some
experiments, in my opinion not sufficiently decisive to determine
the question, seem to &vor it, — appears to me about as probable as
that animals receive a la^ portion of their nourishment through
their lungs. If they absorb carbon and discharge oxygen by day,
they reverse the process, and absorb the oxygen of the atmos-
phere, and dischai^e the carbon, by night ; and what portion of
the latter in this way is assimilated, and made to form a part of
the plant, (as far as I can understand the experiments which have
been made,) does not as yet seem to be determined. I know the
eonfideoce with which this is affirmed, and, as a philosophical
fact, I admit that it is of great interest and extremely worthy of
inqoiry. A friend, a few days since, said to me that he was con-
scious, when immersed in water, of absorbing considerable water
by means of the pores of the skin, and wished me to believe it.
With great respect both for his intelligence and honesty, I still
remain skeptic^. What may be the case after death, when de-
composition has commenced, is an entirely diSerent matter. At
present, I believe that the only way in which the food, by which
the body is nourished, is received, is by the mouth ; always except-
ing the case of the soldier at Washington, so fully reported in the
medical journals, who had a 'hole in his stomach, by which, in
order to watch the process of digestion, food was supplied, as a
servant puts away cold meat in a cupboard. The fact is un-
doubted that plants by day absorb carbonic acid and exhale oxy-
gen, and that by night the process is reversed, and they inhale
oxygen and expel caibonic acid ; but it does not seem so well
established that in this way they obtain the carbon which is
assimilated in their organism. At least, the supposition is so
little favored by analogy, that I hope it may be lawful still to
doubt
That the atmosphere contributes essentially to vegetation — that
jdants derive much of their nourishment and substance from the
air, as I have already remarked, does not admit of a question ;
)yGoo»^Ic
o9SS XUBOPEAS AaUCCLTURE.
but, 80 far as any practical use whatever is to be made of this
fact, we must consider this nourishment as received through the
roots, and consequently through the medium of the soil in which
these roots spread themselves, and the manures by which it is
em-iched. The soil therefore, as the basis of all vegetation, is the
great object of tho itumer's consideration.
LXV. — THEORIES OF THE OPERATION OF THE SOIL.
Soils may be considered in two points of view ; first, in ref-
erence to their intrinsic or absolute character, and next, in ref-
erence to the plants to the growth of which they are adapted.
In a preceding number, in speaking of the chemical analysis of
different soils, I think it appeared how little practical advantage
had as yet been derived from any experiments in this way
which had been made. The common properties of soil may be
distinguished by the eye or the feel with persons of experience
and practical observation ; but chemical examination may oflen
be of the highest importance in detecting the presence of some
mineral ingredient by which the cultivation of particular crops
may be hindered or wholly prevented. A friend, eminent for his
agricultural knowledge, pointed out to me a particular field, in
which all attempts to grow wheat had been unsuccessful, while
no such incapacity existed in tha adjoining fields. In such a
case as this, one would look to the chemical analysis of the soil
to determine what ingiedieut was deficient, or what unfriendly
element existed or predominated in the soil to prevent the growth
of the plant ; and, this being ascertained, perhaps a remedy might
be found. But the extraordinary and minute exactness to which
the chemical analy^ of the soil is sometimes carried, and upon
which many scientific persona insist, it would seem, can serve
little other purpose than that of producing despair of adaptii^
our cultivation to such diversified and minute variations.
What portion of the soil is abstracted for vegetable food is not
yet determined ; and it is a singular fact, that, though analyt-
ical chemistry has demonstrated that certain mineral substances
)yGoo»^Ic
THtOmiES or THK OPBK1.T10IT OT THE BOn.. 393
are taken up in the oi^;ani«tu of plants and are essential in
composing its stnictuie, and has proceeded to calculate the actual
amount in pounds' veight abstracted by the grovth of ciops
of a particular quantity, it haa nerei yet, by an analysis of the
soil before the planting, and as exact an examination after
the crop has been removed, determined the loss in such case.
Why this has not been done, or whether it be beyond the present
power of chemical analysis to accomplish, — extraordinary as is the
degree of perfection to which the science has been advanced, —
must be left to others to answer. I am perfectly aware, of course,
that the same identical soil cannot be subjected to the process
of analysis, and then employed for the purposes of vegetation,
with a view of ascertaining what has been lost or abstracted ;
but an equal weight taken from the same place with that em-
ployed for growing the plants might be examined, and after-
wards that in which the plants were grown, so that, by this kind
of comparison, the truth might be to a degree approximated. I
am qiiJte aware that it may be said, in this case, that the amount
of mineral ingredients found in the produce would show the
exact amount abstracted ; but it would be extremely interesting
to know, by an examination of the soil, that these results exactly
or nearly corresponded. But it is found that land left to itself
for a length of time recovers its fertility, and, after a lapse of two,
three, or more years, the same crop, which failed when grown in
immediate succession to another of the same kind, can be advan-
tageously cultivated ^ain. It would be highly curious, then, by
retaining a portion of the land in which the plant had been
grown, and leaving it exposed to the ordinary influences of tight
and heat, and rain and frost, to ascertain in what length of time
the soil would recover its exhausted elements of fertility. This
has not, within my knowledge, been attempted.
The ingenious theory of Decandolle, that the exudations or
excrementitious matter from one kind of crop unfitted the ground
for an immediate repetition of the same species of plant, seems
now to be generally abandoned. It is a well-established |»in-
ciple, which practical men understand quite as well as the scien-
tific, that a rotation of crops is indispensable to a successful
agriculture ; and the theory is altogether probable that a par-
ticular crop exhaiists the soil of certain elements essential to its
production, which must be somehow supplied before a second
)yGoo»^Ic
394 EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE.
crop of the same kind can be grown on the same land ; but it
vould be extremely interesting if the fact of such exhaustion, and
its extent, could be more particularly determined by a chemical
examination of the soil which has been cultivated. The beau-
tiful theory of the great agricultural oracle of the day, that
certain mineral ingredients which are always found in the ashes
of plants, and which are carried off when these products are
removed, and, being essential to vegetation, require to be either
artificially replaced or supplied by a natural process, — and that,
the land being suffered to rest, or applied to a different production,
the ordinary influences of air and moisture in decomposing the
rocks of the soil will renew the supply of these mineral elements
which have been removed, — seems to offer the desired exptana-
tion ; and the experiments to which this theory has led, and
which, imder its influence, are now going on in various parts of
the country, must presently determine it, and, what is better,
show its proper application, and greatly simplify the processes of
agriculture, reducing its expenses and giving comparative cer-
tainty to its results.
The operation of air and moisture upon the soil, the effects of
light, and electricity, and frost, upon vegetation, all admit to be
powerful ; but they are as yet only partially understood, and
present subjects of the most interesting inquiry. In the progress
of science, technically so called, we have much to hope for ; but
in what it has already accomplished, enough has been gained to
quicken, but very far from enough to satisfy, the appetite. One
of the most eminent agricultural chemists of the present day,
Boussingault, second perhaps to no other, has said,* " A great
deal has been written since Bei^;man's time upon the chemical
composition of soils. Chemists of great talent have made many
complete analyses o{ soils noted for their fertility ; still, practical
agriculture has hitherto derived very slender benefits from labors
of this kind. The reason of this is very simple ; the qualities
which we esteem in a workable soil depend almost exclusively
upon the mechanical mixture of its elements ; we are much leas
interested in its chemical composition than in this ; so that
simple washing, which shows the relations between the sand and
the clay, tells, of itself, much more that is important to us than
* Rnral ^icaaomj, Iaw^ edition, p. 966.
)yGoo»^Ic
THEOMCS or TH£ OPEK&TION Of THX SOIL. dVO
aa elaborate chemical analysis." This is certainly a great con-
feaaiou for an emineDt chemist to make.
To exemplify the diflerent results to which the most scientific
men arrive in these cases, I will refer both to Boussingault and
Ton Thaer in respect to a simple point, the presence of the car-
booate of lime in the soil aa essential to the growth of a crop of
wheat, on which subject the public mind has been so long, so
generally, and so confidently made up.
Ton Thaet says,* " The richest argillaceous soil that I ever
analyzed, the fertility of which was regarded as of the very richest
quality, was taken from the right bank of the Elbe, some few
miles from its mouth ; it contained eleven and a half parts in a
hundred of humus, four and a half of lime, a great quantity of
clay, a little coarse silica, and a considerable portion of very fine
silica, which could only be separated from it by ebullition. It
certainly possessed a great degree of cohesion, but, when moder-
ately moistened, it was not very tenacious. It was made to bear
the richest crops, as cabbages, wheat, autumnal com, beans, &c. ;
but every sixth year it was necessary to manure it thoroughly,
and to give it a fallow."
On the preceding page, he aays, " The richest Iwid I ever ana-
lyzed, and which was taken firom the nurshes of the Oder,
contained 19$ parts in 100 of humus, 70 of clay, a little fine
sand, and an almost impereeptible quantity of lime ; but the situ-
ation of this land was too low, and it was too damp, to admit of a
correct estimate being formed of its fertility."
Boussingault says,-|- " I may remark generally, that, from the
whole of the analyses of good wheat lands which have hitherto
been made, it appears that carbonate of lime enters in consid-
erable quantity into their composition ; and theory, in harmony
with ivactice, tends to show that it is advantageous to have this
earthy salt as a constituent in the manures which are put upon
soils that contain little or no lime."
On the next page, % he says, " M. Berthier's analysis is still
far from proving that the presence of lime in a soil is indispen-
sable, inasmuch as beautiful wheat crops are grown in the neigh-
borhood of Ifisle without lime. In proof of this fact, I shall
here cite the analysis of one of the most fertile soils in the world,
* VAi. pp.3SS,aSi. f Run] Economr, p. 294. tp.395.
)yGoo»^Ic
396 xaaonAs aoriccltdbe.
the black soil of TchonioJzem, which Mr. MurchisoD infoniu
us constitutes the saperficies of the amble lands comfvised
between the 61th and 57th degrees of north latitude, along the
left bank of the Volga as fu as Tcheboksar, from Nijni to
Kasan, and stretching over a still more extensive district upon the
Asiatic side of the Ural Mountains. Mr. Muichison is of opioioD
that this land is a submarine deposit formed by the accumidation
of sands rich in oiganic matters. The Tchomoizem is composed
of black particles, mixed with grains of sand ; it is the best soil
in Russia for wheat and pasturage ; a year or two of fallow will
BUlBce to restore it to its former fertility after it has been
exhansted by cropping; it is never manured.
" M. Payeo found in this black and fertile soil,
'* Organic matter, 6.95 (containing 2.46 pec cent, of azote.)
SUica, .... 71.66
Alumina, . . . ILM
Oxide of iron, . . 6.63
Lime, 0.80
Alkaline chlorides, 1.21
PhosjAoric acid, . a trace.
Lobs,. . . . . 1.24
100.00 "
It is a little remarkable, judging from the analysis here given,
that not only is the quantity of lime extremely minute, but even
the phosphates, deemed so essential and indispensable to success,
are also absent.
Such are the diversified results to which even the most scien-
tific are led ; and they are well adapted to admonish us of the
imperfection of human knowledge, and the limitation of human
powers. In Lincolnshire, where some of the best farming in
England, as is universally admitted, is to be found, on a soil
where the whole substratum was chalk, or the carbonate of lime,
and where the mould or loam was not more than three or four
inches deep, I found the farmers manuring the land, from pits
dug in the field, with the very chalk by which the whole soil
was underlaid. Upon my proposing the question to an eminent
geological professor, then with me, much interested in sgricul-
ture, why this was done, he replied that the lime in the snrfiwe
)yGoo»^Ic
THEORIES or THE OFEaAIlON Of TBE SOIL. 397
aoil had probably become exhausted by sinking down, through
its greater specific grarity j but I could not see that there could
be any difficulty in the plants reachiug it, where the whole body
of lime lay within so short a distance of the surface. My own
belief is, that, in this case, its operation is chiefly mechanical,
and that its use was merely to consolidate the upper sur&ce, and
make it more adhesive for the roots of the plant, and that any
other substance or marl, equally firm and consistent, would have
served the same end.
One of the most eminent chemists of the present day, distin-
guished for the splendor of his attainments, seema to entertain,
with no small confidence, the opinion that chemistry, including
jwobably electricity and galvanism, is destined to solve all ths
secrets of vegetable and animal life ; that the various processes
going on in nature aie mere chemical processes ; and that any
thing like a vital power above or beyond them all, and incapable
of being solved by scientific investigation, is an hypottiesis
unworthy of an enlightened mind. It is certainly not for the
human mind, as yet, to say what cannot be done ; and it would
be quite premature for Science to assume that she has reached
the ultimate boundaries of investigation, as it would be impious
for her to daim the prerogatives of omniscience. But if I may
in the case adventure the remark, — admiring as much as any one
can the actual and wonderful achievements of science, — ' there
still remains beyond even the farthest advances an impassable
barrier, a terra incognita, which the most adventurous have not
yet penetrated. It is easy to ascertain that certain substances
have an affinity for each other, and science, with . wonderful
ingenuity, has determined the forms of combination under which
they become united. The action or force by which they are
brought together and there held may hereafter be explained, and
may be ranked under some unknown chemical force ; but as yet
any attempts to define, or even conjecture, its nature, have been
wholly abortive. The simple and familiar fact, that the muscles
are obedient to the will in moving the limbs, every one admits ;
but in what this will consists, and how it is exerted, and how it
effects its purpose, seems as yet as far from being reached, as on
the day that the first child was born into the world.
We are very apt to exclaim, in the ecstasy of the Grecian phi-
losopher in the successful investigation of an interesting prob-
34
)yGoo»^Ic
398 XUVOFEAM AOSICUI-TUBC.
km, " I have found out ! I hare found out 1 " when, with all the
apparent and flattering loosening of the stringB, the Gordian knot
temains as firm as ever. The i^ocesaes of nature must be all
simple enough to the great Mind which established them, but
that is not the human mind. To compare a rushlight to the
sua would fall infinitely short of expressing the difference be-
tween them. But it is obvious that bo many circumstances must
eombine to accomplish eren the simplest and meet familiar
results in nature, that, to a finite understanding, the simplest pro-
eeeses must be complicated. Any person of common observa-
tion, who will go into a meadow or pasture, and obserre the
difierent varieties of plants which cover the ground, and remark
bow every one preserves its own peculiar distinctive character
and form, and, though all growing upon the same soil and imder
ib» same external influences, each one extracts for itself, and fm:
itself alone, that which its own peculiar character and constito-
tioD require, — and that in size, and form, and color, and odor,
and stem, and leaf, and fruit, and seed, there are essential, and
inviolable, and invariable distinctions, — and that each one wppto-
priates to itself diat which is required to form the stem, and to
expand the leaves, and to Uirow in the coloring, and to ntstoie
the fruit, preserving always the perfect identity of the species,
and fumi^iing in some cases a nutritious, and in others a poison-
ous compound for animal life, — will, I think, be very far from
considering the phenomena of vegetable life as simple, or resol-
vable into those few chemical laws which have been established
in what must at least be still ciHuidered as only the infancy of
the science.
LXVI. A MODERN DISCOVERT.
It is lately stated, as one of the great discoveries of the age,
that an eminent agricultural chemist has invented (or rather de-
termined how they should be compounded) a variety of manures
specially adapted to the particular crop to be cultivated, furnish-
ing in exact measure and kind the food which is required. The
professed object is to supply those mineral and alkaline sub-
)yGoo»^Ic
Discornr. 390
stances to the soil of which it has been ezhansted in the process
o£ cropping, and to furnish them in such form, and so combined,
as that they may be best taken up by the plant, and presented to the
fdant only so gradually as the habits of the plant may require.
This eminent chemist claims, to use his own words, " to have
found means to give to every soluble ingredient of mannre, by its
combination with others, any d^iee of solubility without oltet-
ing its effect on regetatioo. 1 give, for instance, the alkalies in
such a state as not to be more soluble than gypsmn, which, as is
well known, acts through many years, eren as long as a particle
of it remains in the soil. The mixture of manures has been
adapted to the mean quantity of rain in this country, (England ;)
the manure which is used in summer has a greater degree of solu-
bility than that used in winter. Experience must lead to further
results, and in future the farmer will be able to calcnlale the
amount of produce of his fields, if temperature, want of rain, &c.,
do not oppose the manure coming fairly into action. I must,
however, observe that the artificial manures in no way alter the
mechanical condition of the fields ; that they do not render a
heavy soil more accessible to air and moisture ; for such fields the
porous stable manure will always have its great value ; it can be
given together with the artificial manure." *
With the highest respect for this eminent man; whose scien-
tific labors have given a spur to agricultural inquiry and experi-
ment unknown in any former time, one cannot but remark the
convenient reservation afforded by the qualification " if tempera-
ture, want of rain, &c., do not oppose the manures coming fairly
into action ; " and the recommendation to apply the stable ma-
nure together with the artificial manure, and the statement, in
another place, that certain manures "act far more favorably on the
production of grain crops, especially if they are added to the
animal excrements, and are given to the fields at the same time,"
present sagacious and certainly very safe advice. They slightly
remind one of a custom formerly prevalent in some Catholic
countries on the Continent, when, at the opening of the sfMring,
the priest was accustomed to go over the fields of his parishion-
ers to give them his blessing ; but when he came to fields which
were exhausted and sterile, he was very careful to add, " This
needs manure." The doctrine of the occasional and temporary
• Liebig on Artificial Haanrea.
)yGoo»^Ic
400 EDSOPXAN AaRICDLTtJHS.
exhaustion of the soil, by the continued repetition of the same
crop, of ingredients or elements important to its growth and
maturity, certainly seems reasonable and welt established ; but
the dread which seems to possess some minds of an exhaustion
which would doom the soil to perpetual barrenness, without some
extraordinary supply of the materials of which it has been de-
prived, may have more ground to rest upon, when the birds in
any country or locality are unable to find time to form the shells
of their eggs, and animals become mere lumps of gum-clastic for
want of material to form their bones.*
There is a lecuperaiire power in nature by which it would seem
that any soil, originally adapted to the growth of any particular
plant, by rest, or by the growth of other and different plants, be-
comes again fitted for the original cultivation. That this may
be hastened by artificial manures, there can be no doubt. That
science may at last achiere the great discovery of a way by
which the same plant may be cultivated uninterruf^edly year
after year on the same soil, is certainly to be hoped for.
Whether this object is already accomplished by this distiu-
guished philosopher, is now to be submitted to actual experiment
by those who can afford to purchase this artificial manure.
* The feoiB which wan to htnot Bome nundB, lest, by coltivatioD, the ezhaoB-
tion of the soil ahould proceed eoAxaa ultimately tn put even the existence of
the human race in peril, (ioin iunine, nuiy be ueetUl eoough in ezcitlDg men Id
firugali^ in the saving of manures, and enterprise and industry in their applica-
tion ; bat seem aa little wariauted aa the sanguine expeclatioos of the Hilleritea;
who looked for the end of the wodd in Aptii, 1643, and Kme of whom, lia¥ing
got theit white ixdtes fitted, and their wings spread, seemed to be rather out of
temper that their predictions failed, and that Heaven in its mercy granted the
'■poor dogs," the unbelievers, a short reprieve. Voltaire, when admonislied th^
cofiee was a slow poison, remarked that it must be veiy slow indeed, for he had
drunk it constantly for seventy years. Hr. I^ell, in bis late Tonr in the United
States, (which, let me remark by the way, is written in the calm ^tirit of a [Aila-
•ophical observer, and does honor to his candor and sense of justice, as well as to
his scientific attainments,} is of opinion that the time occupied in the recession of
Niagara Palls from the shores of Lake Ontario, where they once were, to their
present position, could not have been lees than 35,000 years ; and that the fossil
remains, both vegetable and animal, now found there, show that even this period,
startling as it may seem, belongs to a modem and not a primeval era. How idle,
in respect to these matten, seem, then, the calculations of beings, who
Ai drouni m mai^a of, Kod whoie little liTo
„Gooi^lc
sou.* or ORCAT BRtTAIF. 401
These compounds are adreitised for sale at £10 sterling,
or $50, per ton, aad a ton, it is said, will be sufficient for
manuring four acres. Some agricultural &iends, who have a[H
plied them, hare promised oie the results of their experiments.
My readers shall have them when they are receired. Such a
discovery would certainly constitute a great advance in agricul-
tural imjMwement. I shall not venture to predict, but patiently
wait the issue, not deeming it necessary to caution those, whose
foods are limited, against la^e investments. It seems, from
some examines already given, that, with time, the soil itself, by
its own inherent energies, for which we cannot be sufficiently
grateful, will recover its exhausted fertility. In the mean time,
its use is never to be abandoned ; for the imjffoved agriculture of
modem times has certainly made one great advance in utterly
condemning a naked fallow, and the soil may be occupied with
equal advantage, both to itself and its cultivators, by a mccession
of tenants.
LXVn. — SOILS OP GREAT BRJTAm.
The soils of Great ^tain, in two or three respects, differ essen-
tially from the soils of the United States. In Great Britain, w
lather in England, — for I believe the formation does not extend
into Scotland or Ireland, — there is a vast amount of chalk, com-
ing, in some cases, directly to the surface, and turned up by the
l^ough ; in other cases, formed a few inches below a surface of
mould or loam, interspersed, in some cases, with an infinite
number of small or broken flint-stones. We have much cal-
careous soil in the United Stales, much of the jMrimitive and
secondary limestone formation, bat I know of no deposits of
chalk. I have not seen in Great Britain any soils of puie sand,
snch as we find on Cape Cod, in Massachusetts, on the eastern
shores of New Jersey, and in the South Atlantic States. Nor do
1 know in the United States of any such mountain peat, or b(^,
as is to be found in parts of England, and in vast tracts of Ireland.
In the latter country there are many hills, of very considerable
elevation, and in Scotland aad England likewise, covered with
34*
)yGoo»^Ic
SUBOFEAN AOUCULTDBS.
pure b<^-peat to the depth, I have seen in some instaoces, of
ten OT twelve feet, and holding water like a sponge. Of course,
these must have formed, in some distant period, valleys, or level
surfaces, where vast forests once stood, and, falling down, passed
into decay, succeeded by those plants which constitute the [oin-
cipal substance of which these beds are composed; and then
afterwards have been elevated above the surrounding country by
some great convulsion of nature. These hills are entirely desti-
tute of trees, and covered only with fiirze, or heather, or moss.
I know of no examples in the United States of deep deposits of
peat being found upon elevated summits ; but there are likewise
in Ireland, as in the United States, very extensive tracts of level
peat-bog shut in by high grounds, saturated by water, and of
unascertained depth. There are likewise in En^and some
extensive peat-bog meadows, of the improvement of which I
shall presently treat ; but such tracts, within my observation, are
not common.
There are likewise in England immense extents of alluvial
soil. The valley of the Thames, for a great part of its extent, is
clearly alluvial ; so are the flat lands upon the Humber and its
various branches ; so are the immense tracts, denominated fen
hnda, in Lincolnshire, Bedfordshire, and Cambridgediire ; so is
the beau^ful valley of the Trent, and the valley in which York
is situated ; so likewise is the rich White Horse Volley, as it is
termed, in the county of Berkshire. Some of these are a stiff,
adhesive clay, of the most tenacious character ; others a deep,
rich loam ; and some of them have been redeemed from the sea
by a [ffocess called v/arping, which I shall presently describe.
These are composed of what is here called ailt, which consists
of a very fine sand, and muddy or aluminous matters, held in
suspension by the water of the tides, and brought down likewise
by the waters of rivers coming from the interior and swollen
with rains, which have swept down the cultivated hills, and
robbed them of some portion of their riches. These lands are
justly deemed some of the most fertile in the kingdom.
There are likewise extensive tracts of soil resting upon the
red sandstone, like some of the soils in New Jersey, producing
large crops of the richest herbage in pasture, and fine crops
under tillage ; but of the common granitic soils of New England
I have met with few examples. There are, however, I believe,
)yGoo»^Ic
ci^sairiCATioN of soils. 403
extensive tracts of tbem, especially in the north. A geological
sorvey of the Island of Great Britain has been executed with
great skill, and the various geological formations distinctly indi-
cated on a map ; but such have been the extraordinary convul-
sions on the earth's surface, that the geological lines are not an
infallible guide to the character of the soil. It may be safe, in
general, to infer the character of the soil from the nature of the
rocks prevalent in any particular locality ; but the diluvial and
alluvial deposits often differ entirely from the character of the
rocks which lie benealh them. No knowledge of the geological
fortnattoQ of a country, therefore, — so far as its cultivation, and
the general character of the crops to be raised, are concerned, —
will supply the place of personal observation and experience.
If the nature of the soil were the only circumstance to be
taken into censideration in determining the character of the
agriculture to which it is adapted, the mode of cultivation, and
the crops to be grown upon it, the whole subject would evidently
be greatly simplified ; but the climate, including heat and mois-
ture, and the aspect and elevation of the land, are quite as much
concerned in every question connected with this subject.
LXVm. — CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS.
For all practical purposes, soils may be ranked under five
different heads — sandy, clayey, calcareous, peaty, and loamy.
I purposely avoid all scientific distinctions, and use such terms
as even the commonest farmer will understjmd. A sandy soil
ia that in which sand abounds ; clayey, in which clay ; calca-
reous, in which lime in some form prevails; peaty, in which
peat ; loamy, in which a rich loam abounds. These soils are
sometimes found so combined, that it might be difficult to desig-
nate their character by any one of these general terms. In some
places, they are found in almost a pure state. In general, where
there is found in a soil 80 per cent, of sand, it must be pro-
nounced a sandy soil ; and so the clay, the peat, or the lime ; but
it is not always easy to class a soil which is of a mixed chai^
)yGoo»^Ic
404 BUBOFBAM ianctjhTuax.
acter, and say what kiad of element predomioates. By sight
and feeling, hoverer, practical men are able to fonn an opinion
of a soil upon which it may be safe to act. Besidea the principal
elements, to which I hare referred, there is often found some
mineral ingredient, which may seriously affect the chaiactet of
the soil, and the degree of the presence of which can only be
determined by scientific examinatioa. Iron, copper, or minoal
coal, is in general sufficiently indicated to the eye, or shows
itself in the water which percolates the soil. The different
forms, too, in which lime presents itself in the soil, whether
as chalk, oi gypsum, or magnesian limestone, are all to be con-
sidered in determining the character of a soil.
LXIX. — FHTSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE eOIL.
In addition to the characteristics of a soil of which I hare
^ken, there ate other circumstances, usually denominated the
I^ysical properties of a soil, by which its fertility, or the kind
of cultivation to which it may be [ffoper to subject it, are to be
in a great degree determined. These are its wetness or dryness,
its power to absorb or retain moisture, its consistency or friability,
and its temperature. All these matters are essentially connected
with the fertility of a soil, and the kind of crops to which it is
to be applied.
1. Wetness of a Soil. — Wet soils, or soils a considerable
part of the time under water, produce a coarse herbi^ of little
value to stock— iu many cases scarcely sufficient to support life,
and rendering scarcely any nourishment. The manure of
animals fed upon the produce of such soils is comparatively
worthless. It has been found, likewise, by repeated experiments,
that water allowed to remain upon land for any length of lime
is it^utious to vegetation, when the rapid transition of water
over the land might be highly beneficial. An exception, of
course, is to be made where the passage of a turbid stream or
flood ia arrested long enough to afford opportunity for the depo-
)yGoo»^Ic
FBISICAL PROPERTIES OT TEC SOIL. 405
sitiOD of the enriching matter with which its waters are charged.
The effect of too much water Is to reduce the temperature of
the soil, to obstruct the access of the external air to the roots
of the plants, and, in fact, to macerate and destroy the tosture of
the finest kinds of herbage. Perhaps it would be a more simple
statement, and equally just, to say that the aquatic plants are,
with some exceptions, not adapted to the nourishment of animal
life, and that those which are most suited for the food of man
or beast, are not suited to be grown under water. Water is of
great importance to their sustenance and growth. They cannot
live without it; but they cannot lire in it. As to the human
being, it may be of the highest benefit, both as an internal and
external application ; but there is soon an end to the matter when
man is plunged into water, and kept under it.
All hope of cultivation or improvement must be abandoned,
where land is under water any considerable portion of the time,
or where it is fully saturated with water, like a sponge.
2. Power to absobb Moistobe in a Soil. — I may remark,
in the next place, that the fertility of a soil very greatly depends
upon the power of the soil to absorb and to retain moisture.
Some very distinguished men have maintained that the fertility
of a soil may be measured by this power, an opinion which, it
may be said, (without meaning a pun,) has much ground to rest
upon, but which cannot be admitted without considerable quali-
fications. Moisture and wetness are in this case to be carefully
distinguished. A soil consisting almost wholly of sand possesses
no retentive powers; and though of all other soils the most
absorbent, yet the water passes through it as through a sieve.
Clay, on the other hand, is extremely retentive of water, often to
the prejudice of the vegetation which grows upon it. Liebig,
in a recent treatise npon artificial manures, to which I have
already referred, seems to be of opinion that the system of drain-
age now prosecuted with so much enterprise in England may be
carried to an injurious extent, so as to induce the too rapid pas-
sage of the soluble manures which are applied, and before they
can be taken up by, or have performed their proper office to, the
growing plants. As every thing which this distinguished gen-
tleman asserts is now deemed oracular in the agricultural world,
I will quote his observations at lai^e.
)yGoo»^Ic
406 KUBOPEUt AOBICUI/IUBC
" The reason why, in certain years, the influence of the hest
and moBt plentiful manuring ia Bcarcely perceptible, is that,
during the moist and lainy springs and summers, the pho»phate»
and other salts with the aUcatine bases, aa also the solubk ammo-
niacal seUta, are entirely or partially removed. A great amount of
rain and moisture lemores, in the greatest quantity, the very
substances which ore most indispensable to the plants at the time
they begin to mature and fonn seeds. The system of draining
which of late has been so extensively followed in England
brings the land into the state of a great filter, through which the
soluble alkalies are dravn off in consequence of the percolation
of rain, and it must, therefore, become more deficient in its
tolubU efficacious elements. Attentive farmers must have ob-
served that, after a certain time, the quality of the grain on land
laid dry according to this principle deteriorates ; that the produce
of grain bears no due proportion to the produce of straw."
" What is more evident, after these remarks, than that intelligeot
farmers must strive to give to the soil the manuring substances
in such a slate as to render possible their acting favorably on
the plants the whole time of their growth. Art must find out
the means of reducing the solubility of the manuring substances
to a certain limit, — in a word, of bringing them into the sane
state in which they exist in a most fertile virgin soil, and in
which they can be best assimiltied by the vii^in plants."
" The attention which I have paid to this subject has been
crowned with success. I have succeeded in combining the
efficacious elements of manure in such a manner as that they
will not be wsshed away ; and thus their efficacy will be doubled.
Owing to this, the injurious consequences of the present system
of draining are removed ; agriculture is placed upon as certain
principles as well arranged manufactories ; anA, instead of the
uncertainty of mere empiricism, the operations of agriculttue
may be carried on with security ; and, in place of waiting the
results of our labors with anxiety and donbt, our minds will be
filled with patience and confidence."
Such are the brilliant visions which are held up before the
mind of the farmer ; and such is the distrust which this great
man would throw over the enterprising practice of dtainit^. It
is not quite easy to understand how the plants are to take up
their food but in a condition of the most minute solution ; nor
)yGoo»^Ic
PHTSICAL PBQFZBIIZS Or TBI SOU.. 407
how, if they are dissolTed, they are to be kept from being
washed away. It is not for any finite mind, in cases which
admit of any doubt, to say what is possible or what is impos-
sible ; and it would be premature to condemn that which comes
tecommended upon such high authority, and is yet to be made
the subject of experiment. After the extraordinary and most
beneficial results which have been effected by the thorough
drainiog of aU superfiuous wet from the soil, the agriculturista
may, however, pursue the system with a good degree of con-
fidence, especially if a mode has been discovered of combining
the alkalies and the phosphates, that they shall not be so dis-
solved by lain and wet as to be washed away, and yet that they
shall be eo dissolved that they may be taken up by the plant as
its wants may require. Within the last month of writing this,
I have seen, on a thin, dry, and light soil, in which sand
abounded, the beneficial effects of thorough drainage, where, on
a field of turnips, the crop of the drained portion, with no other
difierence than the drainage, was evidently better, by one half,
than that on the undrained part. If it be the fact that soils of a
'friable or porous nature are, in this way, liable to lose these
beneficial elements by rains and wet, it would seem extraordt-
nary that the fact had not been sooner discovered, and their
deficiency and destitution made evident. I would not express
these doubts in any captious spirit, knowing how much agricul-
ture must, in the end, owe to science, and being ready to bail
with the h^hest satisfaction any triumph it may achieve.
3. CosntTKUCT AXD FauBiLFR or Soils. — The next point
to be considered, in the character of a soil, is ite consistency or
friability. A soil, if too closely packed, — which soils of almost
pure clay are liable to be, — not only forbids the passage of water,
which it holds stagnant upon its surface, but is impervious to
the roots of plants, especially of those plants which send their
roots downwards in search of nourishment. It Is likewise ex-
tremely difficult to be worked in wet weather, being not easy to
move upon, adhering to the feet of the workmen and the horses,
and to the imfdements, and in dry weather being sunburnt and
bard, and, when turned up, remaining in large and unmanageable
clods. In the northern parts of the United States, where the
frosts are severe, plants are always liable to be thrown out, and
)yGoo»^Ic
408 COBOPBAlt AOBICDUTCKB.
their roots torn asonder, by the violent dismption of the c]od&
Oq the other hand, soils may be too fine, powdery, and friable,
being subject to be blowa by the winds, being too little retentive
of moisture, and therefore liable to be severely affected by
drought, and failing to furnish a sufficiently strong hold for the
roots of those plants which spread themselves upon the surfiice.
A soil neither excessively consistent and close, nor excessively
friable, is undoubtedly to be preferred. All pent-up or stagnant
water, either on the surface oi within the ground, is unquestion-
ably prejudicial to a healthy vegetation ; and a freedom or porosity
of soil, so as to admit the free access of the air, is an important and
valuable feature. It seetus to be a well-established fact, that a
newly turned up surface attracts moisture from the atmosphere ;
and the more friable a soil is, the more surface it exposes to the
external air. In condensing the aqueous particles floating near the
surface, it thus procures for the plants growii^ upon it some of the
most important elements of vegetation. This is undoubtedly the
secret of the success in forwarding vegetation by frequeut stirring
of the earth around plants even in time of dioi^ht, especially
jriauts with broad leaves, such as cabbages and lettuces, which,
by means of their expansive foliage, protect the earth undemealb
them from the direct rays of the sun.
4. TxifpeRATtiKX or Soils. — It is not my intention to give a
treatise on this subject, nor to extend my lemarlcs beyond such
notices as will best explain the great improvemeats in cultiva-
tion, or the management of soils, which have been undertaken
and accomplished here, and which may ]XDperly be said to con-
stitute the glory of English husbandry. I proceed, then, to ob-
serve, that another important property of soils may be said to be
their temperature. This is a matter of great importance in respect
to vegetation. Heat, as well as moisture, are both equally essential
to vegetable life and growth. The temperatnie of a soil would
seem to be very little under human control ; yet undoubtedly
much may be done in some ways for this object. At certain
seasons of the year, on the approach of frost, vegetation is arrested,
and at all seasons, in certain altitudes, cultivation is hopeless. In
Great Britain, this limit is reckoned at fifteen hundred feet above
the level of the sea; but the cultivation of wheat cannot be rec-
ommended above six hundred feet The main source of heat to
)yGoo»^Ic
rHIIICU. rBOrKRTIBS O* IBM •OIL. 409
the soil is the rays of the son. Whatevn may be thought of
that immense internal fire of liquid matter supposed to exist witbiB
die centre of the globe, and oeoupjring a large portion of it, while
we are resting only upon a thin ontwaid crust, yet little of thii
heat is felt at the surface ; and animal and vegetable life is d»>
pendent upon that magnificent orb which the Creator seems to
have {Jaced in the firmament as the emblem of his own inex"
haastible, impartial, and widely expansive goodneas, which bida
the sleeping earth, in the spring time^ arise as it were from the
dead, and put on the habiliments of vegstabls splendor and
beauty, which fills the luscious vine of summer with' its rich
clustOTS, and gilds the autocmal harvest with a bMMficent and
matchless glory.
The temperature of the soil is then dependent upon external
infineaces, — upon the sun {oioiarily, and the atmosphere as
affected by the heat of the sun. This temperature is, of course,
affected by the condition of the soil as to wetness or dryness,
and somewhat by its inclination and aspect
The more direct are the rays of the sun, the stronger the heat
produced by them ; and the lighter or br^htar the surface on
which they fall, tha less sttongly are they absorbed, and the
mote strongly reflected. In jadging of the fertility of a soil,
with some persons its color is always matter of consideiation ;
black soils absorbing heat mach more strongly than wiiita or-
light-colored soils. A rich garden bkck mould is « greet ab<«
sorber of heat. A sandy soil, or 'soil camposed mainly of silex,
becomes soon heated, first, from its' dryness, the water posaiBg
directly through it, and, second, from the smooA surface and
crystalline form of the particles of which it is ccanposed ; the
beat is increased by being reflected fh)m one side to the other,
as in a tin oven. The temperature of a soil is materially affected
by its condition as to moisture or dryness. This is obvious to
every one. But there is another curious fact in this case, not so
generally observed — ■ that water is a non-conductor of heat down^
wards. It would be difficult to make a kettle of water boil by
making a fire over it. So the snn's heat upon a wpt surface -is
repelled, and not transmitted; and whQe evapotetion may-be
going on at the surface, the lower strata remain cold. The tem-
paratiwe of a soil is materially affected by its aspect Hence
soils lying to the sonth, receiving as they do the 'more direct
36
)yGoo»^Ic
410 KCBOrXAK AOBICDLTUBE.
nys of the suii, are much warmei tbtm those to the north, and,
in both cases, the temperature is affected by the angle of incli-
natioD at which the land presents itself towards, or recedes £rom,
ihe rays of the aun; the steeper it is towards the south the
warmer — the steeper it is towards the north, for ob7iou8 reasons,
the colder the temperature. It is well known, in respect to the
tenderer fruits — such as peaches, for example — in high northern
latitudes, that the crop is generally more certain on the northern
than on the southern side of a hill, for the reason that, the &ost
continuing longer and more constantly, they come into flower
at a later period, and therefore are less liable to Uie dangers of
being repeatedly fiozen and thawed, and to be cut off by the
late frosts in the spring.*
LZZ. — PEATT SOIL.
There are two other raiieties of soil to which I have referred,
upon which I shall take leare to make some passing remarks.
The first is the peaty soil, which is composed wholly of vege-
table matter, and is sometimes found of a great depth. It is
evidently formed of the deposit and decay of vegetables, and in
different stages of decomposition, — some being reduced to a fine
aitd compact pulp, which cuts like butter, other being only pai^
tially decayed, and retaining the original forms of its leaves and
stems. If vegetable matter were, as is often reckoned, the best
food of plants, it would seem as though no soil could be so
fertile as that of peat. This is not found to be the case, how-
ever, but for reasons not so well established as the fact The
l^anta of which peat land is composed have perished under
water. It may be said, therefore, that they are rather in a state
of preservation than decay, and this is quite obvious from the
&ct, that the water is required only to be drained out, or dried
np in them, and they furnish a fuel equal to wood. " From the
* "In tha counby in which Iremde, it has been remariied, that thoae portiona
(f land which leceive the firat nja of file morning ctin are more apt to anfler
ftom the effects of white ftoeti than othera, becanM the aadden ttanaHaa fian
eoldtobeataeanblraSbcta delicate plaiita."—iVa«eh TVoM. 4/" Pm natr.
)yGoo»^Ic
PEATT BOII» 411
natnre of its fomiatioQ under the surface of water, it acquires a
portion of tannio, which has the property of preserring aninud
and Tegetable matter from decomposition." It may be, likewise,
that the species of plants of which, in general, these preserved
plants are composed, being of an aqoatic nature, they do not
form the most suitable oourishihent to plants of a different
description. I speak in this case according to the vulgar appre-
hension of the manner in which plants are fed, well knowing
that the received doctrine is, that the oi^anic portions of plants
are obtained wholly from the atmosphere, and that the soil
mpplies only their mineral ingredients. Tet it must be ad-
mitted that, in ordiiiary cases, the fertility of a soil essentially
corresponds to the amount of vegetable matter found in it,
whether it supplies, in any degree, the actual substance of the
[dant, or, by its gradual decay, be merely the vehicle of transmit-
ting for its nourishment the gases out of which its substance is
to be composed. It is certain, however, whatever may be the
philosophical reason in the case, that pure unmanufactured peat
does not form a nourishing soil of substance for plants, other
than those to which a wet soil is particularly congenial, and that
it cannot be made so, but under a particular management, which
I shall presently describe. The vegetable matter of which peat
consists, being once thoroughly reduced, and mixed with other
substances of an alkaline character, is rendered a most enriching
ntannre for most kinds of land, though a much less substantial
one than is generally supposed. One of its great uses is that
of an absorbent, taking up the liquid matters which would others
wise be lost.
Immense bogs hare been redeemed, and brought into a state
of productive cultivation, in England ; and, of late, these improve-
ments have been going on with greater success than usual. In
Ireland, such improvements have proceeded to a great extent,
and the Waste-Land Improvement Company have at this time,
in one place, five thousand acres of bog in the process of im-
provement This place I had the pleasure to visit, and shall
presenliy speak of what has been, and what is proposed to be,
accomplished. The peat-bog, under &vorab1e circumstances, as
1 have seen in the United States, as well as in England, may be
rendered in the highest degree productive and profitable. The
bog of salt marshes is of a different character from the fresh
)yGoo»^Ic
413 KUItOFEAK i.SSIOnliTITBX.
water peat-tx^. This, howerer, is composed of vegetable matter
iat^e main, bemg altc^ether marine jdants, which have aerveA
as a bind of net'Work to collect the earthy matter brought amoqg
them by the tide. The quantity of, salt intermixed with these
deposits gives them a peculiar character. . They are favorable
to the production of plants . congeDial to them ; but other plants
cannot be made to grow upon them until they become thoroughly
decfonposed ; and, in that case^ ao: soijs yield a more luxuriant
or richer vegetation. In truth, th^y require to be reduced to the
Aate of fine mould, and the greater portion of the saltness ex-
hausted, which time itself will effect where they are kept from
the access of the tide, in order to be in a condition favoraUe to
the growth of other than marine or saline plants.
LXXL — LOAMT SOILS.
' Next to peaty 'Soila,' I have to speak of what are called loamy
soils. These are not very well denned. There has been much
debate as to what constitutes loam oi mould ; but if it be difficult
to define it with exaotness, there is no great difficulty with {«ac-
tjcal men in understanding - what is intended by it. 1 sunioee
the proper definition of mould to be decayed v^etable matter,
sod of loam to be that portion of the soil in which this monld, or
decayed vegetable matter, (or /tumui, as it is technically called,)
is mixed up with other common mineral elements, such as sand,
clay, and lime, and in a state of fineness and equal or diffuuve
commixture. I do not know that any great error would be coipi-
mitted by considering mould and loam as synonymous, and by
saying that mould or loam is a rich, unctuoiu, dark-coloied mat-
ter, abomiding in vegetable as well as miaeial substances, found
usually on the surface of fields, especially of those which hare
been cultivated, or those which are entirely in a state of nature ;
and of various depths, from inches to feet. In the tich valley of
the Mississippi, I have seen it extending to a depth of twelve and
eighteen ' feet, and of extraordinary richness. In cases of pure
■and or clay, little or notlnng of this is to be found. In ch^k
)yGoo»^Ic
BUHUa, OR TIOETABLE HOULD. 413
soils, its depth is usually very small. It constitutes the rich and
fertile upper stratum of a soil which is usually cultivated by the
plough ; and it becomes gradually deepened as the land is culti-
vated and manured. The depth of this loam or mould may be
considered, in general, as the best test of the goodness of the soil,
or its productive character. I know that this is sometimes
denied. The dark-colored condition of the upper stratum is not
always an Indication of mould, for occasionally there is met with
an upper stratum of deep sand, colored with some mineral sub-
Btance, which is almost utterly barren, and very difficult of im-
provement ; but ordinarily, other circumstances being equal, the
surest test of the fertility of a soil is the depth of the vegetable
monld or loam on the sur&ce.
Loamy soils receive their particular designation from the
niineral substance with which they abound ; thus we speak c^
sandy loams, or clayey loams, from the predominance of either
of these substances in the soil ; and undoubtedly the richest of
all soils is that in which there is an intermixture of various
elements — some one says, where lime, clay, and sand, are mixed
in equal proportions with mould, or decayed vegetable matter ;
but it is not certain that the exact proportions are ascertained.
LXXn. — HUMUS, OR VEGETABLE MOULD.
The substance designated as vegetable mould, or humus, in
its pure or unmixed state, is not an infallible indication of the
fertdity of a soil, as I have already stated in respect to peat
formations. Liebig refers to the soils in the neighborhood of
Mount Vesuvius, composed wholly of matter thrown from the
crater, as highly fertile. " The land in the vicinity of Vesuvius
may bo considered as the type of a fertile soil, and its fertility is
greater or less, in different parts, according to the proportion of
clay or sand which it contains. The soil which is- formed by
the disintegration of lava cannot possibly, on account of its
origin, contain the smallest trace of vegetable matter ; and yet
36*
)yGoo»^Ic
414 SDKOPSAH AGUCDUrUBB.
it ia veil known that, vhen the volcanic ashes hare been exposed
for some time to the influence of air and moisture, a soil is gisd-
ually fonned in which all kinds of plants grow with the greatest
Ituniriance. This fertility is owing to the alkalies which are
contained in the lava, and which, by exposure to .the weather,
are rendered ci^nble of being absorbed by plants. Thousands
of years have been necessary to convert stones and rocks into
the soil of arable land ; and thousands of years more will be
requisite for their perfect reduction — - that is, for the cowjilets
exhaustion of their alkalies."
This is a very extraordinary statement, and, without implying
any distrust of the authority on whiph- it is made, is certaitUy
not consonant to general experience. Qeneral experience, would
seem to show that soils wiUiout any vegetable mould are . not
productive, and most practical farmers .would prefer, of all othars^
a soil where the vegetable matter, well compounded, existed, in
abundance, forming, as it ^s terqied,. adeep andrichimm. But
it would peem. that, in tbei^ case to which Lieb^ refers, thousand
pf ypars ate. nsc^aviry to iwder a. mass, of lava iertile, and in
9ueh a case it might be feirly.iiiesumed that some vegetable
matter, plight aocumulateand produce the desiied mixture. I
do not presume to call in question an authority so distinguished,
and for which no man has more respect than myself; but I
cotdd wish ital we bad more facta in the case, or that they were
more definitely stated.
Until recently, almost all agriculturists, both the scientific and
practical, haVB considered the quantity of vegetable matter
contained in a soil as the test of its fertility. A prejudice so
universal, and so long established, would se<»n, on those grounds,
strongly entitled to respect. It has been as well undwstood
that vegetable matter alone, as in the case of peat, and this bat
partially decomposed, was not fertile. Bat the opinion, of, tbe
connection of vegetable mould with fertility applied to vf^ge-
table matter in a state of cgmmiaution and intermixture -with
other elements of a soil, and here the fertility of the land has
been underatood to bear a very close relation to its predomiouMie
or deficiency. Peat itself, when thon>ughly decomposed, has
been found a most efficient msoure. The effects constantly
accruing from the appUcation of dacay^d vegetaUe^natter to, the
)yGoo»^Ic
HDMCS, OR TXaETABLB MOULD. 41S
Boil, from the application of tfae dung of cattle, vhich is in the
main decomposed vegetablo matter, and the extraordinarily
loxuriant vegetation always appearing upon dung-heaps left on
the field, or upon places where dung-heape have been formed,
seemed to speak the same language. The supposition has been,
that this regetable matter constituted, in fact, a part of the food
i>f plants, and went to assist in forming their substance.
The doctrine of Liebig denies directly the supposition that
Ais humus, or vegetable matter, is taken up as the food of plants,
because, where a forest grows, the vegetable matter in and upon
the soil actually increases, instead of diminishing ; but then,
although, in the case above referred to, of the volcanic soils near
Mount Vesuvius, one might be led to infer that he considered it
of no moment, yet this I think would be doing him an injustice.
Be does consider the humus of the soil as fiimi^ing, in its
decay, a necessary supply of carbonic acid t^ the fiant in the
proeess 6£ gemination, though of no use after the plant gets
above -grouild; and he supposes that the manures of animals
fed npon the i^oduct of the land roium to the land those
miBera] el^nenta which they took {vom it, and which are indis-
pensahle to their perfect formation. This may be so; and in
tfiis view he does not deny the value of vegetable mould, or
humus. But certainly there was nothing improbable in the
supposition that plants might hare found some portion of their
food in those decayed substances which once constitnteid a pert
of the substance of their predecessors. Indeed,'! see as yet no
fluffieient grounds to conclude that their office in supplyii^
carbon to the growing [^ant ceases as soon as the plant is above
ground, and able, as he supposes, to gain its own supplies for
kself from the atmosfdiere. It is quite certain that the growth
6f a forest would be checked, and the amount of humus in the
soil be diminished, if all the decayed leaves and limbs, which
fall from the trees, were constantly removed ; and it is as certain
fliat the continual cultivation of lartd, without supplies of manure,
exhausts ite vegetable mould ; and that the application of vege-
table manures to crops in a growing state is often as efficacious
as when applied, or ploughed in, with the seed.
)yGoo»^Ic
CDItOPEAH AOItlCni.TDBX.
LXXIIL — PECULURITIES OF SOIL.
There are some characteristics of diflereat soils which seem
to be generally admitted by practical men, but not very well
defined. Thus some soils are deemed much better than others
for the production of beef, others for that of butter, others for
that of cheese ; and I found farmers, in some of the dairy districts,
going 80 far as to assert that cheese could not be made on some
soils, or rather, as I inferred from their remarks, could not be
made to so much advantage as on others. But this, it seemed to
me, could only be an indirect inference. That these products,
both in quality and quantity, depend much upon the nature of
the plants upon which the animals are fed, is an obrious fact ;
and that some sotts may be more favorable than others to the
production of such kinds of plants as are particularly suited to
particular uses or objects, I could easily understand ; but any
other connection of the products with the nature of the soil
seemed to me far from being established. To speak, therefore,
of a cheesy soil, as I heard in some dairy districts, seemed to
me of questionable propriety, as, under an intelligent agriculture,
I could hardly doubt that a different species of herbage might bo
cultivated upon the same soil which Dov produced that which
was unfavorable.
I hare given these brief notices of the general character of
soils in England, of which the counterparts may be found in the
United States. I have given them in tenns which will, I think,
be understood by the commonest farmer. I could without any
difficulty have borrowed learning enough for the occasion, and
have talked philosophically in the case ; but in all I have read on
the subject, I have as yet discovered no practical advantage to the
general mass of readers, irom so viewing it, beyond what is
secured by more simple statements. The importance of the
nature of the soil to the husbandman, who spends his labor upon
it, is very great. Some of the mineral ingredients, which are
found in the soil, are indispensable to vegetation. Those which
are found in the plants can only be received from the soil ; but
it is a singular fkct that, in case of a deficiency, one may some-
times be substituted for another. " Potash is not the only sub-
)yGoo»^Ic
APFUC1.TI0N or CHXHISTBT TO ASKICI7I.T1TBX. 417
stance necessary for the existence of most plants ; indeed, it has
been already shown that the potash may be replaced, in many
cases, by soda, magnesia, or lime."*
LXXIV. — APPUCA-nON OP CHEHI8TRT TO AORI-
CULTURK
It must not be inferred, from any remark which has fallen from
me, that I overlook the valne of chemical science and inquiry in
respect to agriculture. An inference of that nature would do^me
ft great injustice. Our obligations in this matter are already rery
great, and more and wider triumphs are to be looked for. But two
or three things, in .this case, appear to me deserring of considera-
tion, and likely to modeiate an ezcsssire ctmfidence. The first
is, that vegetation, and consequently cultivation, in the most scien-
tific sease of the term, is not so simple a matter as some persons
woodd have lis im^ine. How, for example, particular plams from
Uw same soil ere capable of extracting entirely different sub-
stances, according to their own peculiar and individual chaiae-
tera, each one [^eeerving its own identity in form, taste, odor,
color, fiuit, and use, is not yet explained. The explanation is not
even ap[Hoached. in: the second place, it seems assuming quite
too much to suppose that all the procesaea of vegetation are to be
tesolved into mere chemical processes — understanding by chem-
ical processes those taws or operations of which chemistry haa
attained a knowledge. The remarks which I have just made
■eem to demonstnte this. In the next place, the knowledge
which chemistry haa already furnished, either of the nalun of
soils or manares, or of the phenomena of vegetation, has not as
yet been of so practical a cbanicter aa is to be hoped for ; and -it
would seem extremely difficult, not to say impossible, to meet on
any extended scale the diversities of soil which it has illustrated.
The newly-invented manure, to which I have above referred,
should it be fomid to equal what it aeems to ^ranaaB, may
flitly meet this objection, and thus effect an important stride
in agricultoral improvement.
)yGoo»^Ic
muaartm Aaaicuunmm.
LZXV. — THEORY OF AaWCULTURE.
The preacDt theory of agricultaie asnunes that plants c
of two species of matter — vegetable and mineral ; that the fonner
is derived wholly from water and the air, and the latter from the
soil. The plant is not perfected without the conjoint aid of
both. The former consists of oxygen, hydroges, carbon, and
nitn^n ; and the latter of at least eight different kinds of mineral
robstances. The latter are found in the ashes of plants, and are
indestructible. They consist usually of four acids and four
alkalies ; — silicic acid, phosphcffic acid, sulphuric acid, and mu-
riatic acid ; and, of the alkalies, potash, soda, lime, and magnesia.
Other mineral substances are found ; but these which I hare
enumerated are the principal. Boussingault thus designates
them : "The residue left by the combustion is commonly com-
posed of salts; alkaline chlorides, with bases of potash and soda;
earthy and metallic phosjrfiates ; caustic or carbonated lime and
magnesia ; silica ; and oxides of iron and of manganese. Several
other substances are also met with there, but in quantities so
small Uiat they may be neglected."*
The mineral substances found in the ashea of plants may be
supplied by art ; yet whether to be applied to the land in a direct
and simple, or in a combined or mixed form, and, if so, how com-
bined and mixed, are points not as yet determined. It is certain
that there is only one form in which they can be taken up by
the plants, and that is, in as extreme a degree of solubility as
they are capable of being reduced to. Whether they shall be so
reduced before they are applied, — whether, for example, they shall
bo [Hresented to the plants in a solid or a liquid form, or whether
they shall be by any ut prepared, or it shall be left to the vital
operations of the plant to prepare them, — are points yet to be
determined. These questions will naturally faesent themselves
again when the subject of manures is considered.
In respect to the organic parts of vegetables, — those which form
their largest portion, and consisting of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon,
and niln^n, — the two former are understood to be supplied by
water, the carbon by the atmosphere, and the nitrt^n, consti-
^6l
)yGoo»^Ic
THEOBT or iaaicxji.Tvmt. 419
tuting the nuthtioos part of the rogetable, from ammosiaj which
is itself a compound of oitrogea and hydrogen, and supplied
partially by tain, by the decay or putrefitctioD of animal matter,
and iQ the excrementa of animala. In the escape of ammonia
from out dung heaps, it is supposed a great portion of their most
valuable material passes off; imd attempts hare been made to fix
this volatile substance, so as to secure it for the service of the
plants, to be taken up by them as reqtiired. For this purpose,
gypsum has been strongly recommended to be sprinkled in
stables, and to be spread upon manure heaps. It is quite doubtful
vhether its effect has met the sanguine expectations which were
fonned of it. In the report given by Professor Henslow, which
he has been kind enough to send me, of fifteen attempts to fix
ammonia by the application of gypsum to dang, Uie result seems
to leave the question wholly undetermined. His conclusions
from these ezperimeats ace given in this result: "It will be
seen that, with turnips, the effect has been unifonnly in favor of
gypsumed dui^. With the straw of wheat, the result is twice
in favor of the gypsumed dung, once against it, and in one case
there is no difference. In respect to the wheat itself, it is six
times in favor of the gypsumed dung, and sit times against it.
The practical inference to be deduced from this part of the
inquiry favors the idea of using gypsumed dung for a turnip
crop, but shows that it produces no better effect than ungjrp-
■omed dQE^ upon a wheat crop." Such results certainly lead
to no very strong conclusions. But the beneficial effects of
covering manure heaps with mould, in order, in the first place, to
prevent the escape of the volatile parts of the manure, and, in
the next [dace, to absorb the gases, — so that the soil used for a
covering becomes itself a valuable manure, — are points long ago
determined by the practice of many enlightened farmers.
Whatever may be the success or the ill success of dealing
with the miaeral qualities of the soil, or with those subtile gases
of which vegetables are composed, there are [vocesses of a prac-
tical nature to be applied, the [sopriety and utility of which are
established. The practice of agriculture is still very much in
advance of the theory of agriculture. I do not undervalue
scientific agriculture. Science may do as much for agriculture
as for any other deparbneot of business, or art, or health, or
cfHufort, or eqjoyment In no department is success more
)yGoo»^Ic
dMir»bl«, or woqU it prove more extennrely bawficui. Tb4
htunan mind finds the greitest of all deligbti in the acquintion
of knowtedgs, and is impelled by an iastinctive impulte "to
Mwch into tbe c«aMi of thingi." A mac, if iamiliar -with the
jdaoe and route, may find hii way, if the lampa were not lighted,
eren of a dark night, in the labyriDtfaine streets of London ; bat
be mast [voceed slowly and doubtingly, and may tumble into
an open sewer, or run against a post, or eacouotn other obstru^
tions more yielding. than the post, yet twice as dangerous. Bat
since science has kindled the beautiful and fai^eaching silver
flame of gas, and convoierd night into day, he walks in saoority
and confidence ; he escapes, if he has wisdom so to choose,
all perilous obstructioos ;- and he reaohes his destinatioB by ithe
most direct, tbe most expeditious. Mid a o
LXXn. — ACTUAL DfFROVratENTS.
The soil must be the great object of the farmer's t
and here he tomj accaat^ubmXH^. I mean much rslativeiy^
and with a due consideistion of the limitationsby wlticb bunHS
power is always hammed in. L^t aAd heal, sunshine and
tain, wind and frost, and many other infloenoes most impoitant
to vegetation, of which ag yet the human imtginatioD has not, in
all probability, taken eognizance or conceived, an wholly beyood
his control or dictate. Arrogant and pcestmiptnous as he is, the
earth could not contain him, if he wwe not chained down by
the fact of his absolute dependence. There is a beautifol tuaai
in the mytholc^csl fable of Jove's faavkig gjrvn the reins to
Phaeton, and the disastrous consequences which followed. But
the ameliorations whiehan improved agrionltare may effect are
great, and sufficiently eAcooniging to the loftiest self-esteem;
A wet soil may be drained ; a dry soil tnsy hi irrigated. A
barren soil may be enriched ; a i-ieh soil may be nude more
fertile and jHt>ductive. A thin soil may be deepened'; a heavy
soil may be made lighter ; a loose soil nuy be made more com-
pux. A bleak soil may be sheltered ; and ammfsvorable aqnet
)yGoo»^Ic
PLODaaiifa, 4S1
may be alleviated. Waste lands may be cODverted into fertile
fields, and a growth of nauseous w unnutritious weeds sup-
plaoted by bending sheaves of golden grain. BiveiB may be
drrerted from their tortuous courses, now rendering vast tracts
of land inaccessible, and made to flow in straight lines, leaving
their recovered banks open to the plough ; and immense extents
of the richest alluvial lands may be rescued from the sea — the
feeble aim of human art and industry drive back the spoiler, and
stay even his proudest waves. All these noble triumph EngU^
agriculture has achieved ; and I shall take paina to lay them
before my readers. What I propose to do then further, in this
Dumber, is, to detail their various improvements, and then to
■peak of the adaptation of particular soils to those purposes for
which experience haa shown them best fitted.
LXXVn. — PLOUGHING.
The first and most general operation, to which the soil is sub-
jected, is ploughing. Man must have been early taught that, in
ccder to reader the earth productive, it must be tilted ; wid it
would be eztiemely curious, if the materials of such history
were attainable, to trace the {WogresB of improvement from the
first instmment employed to stir the earth to the present beautifol
and ingenious implement, by which acres, and miles of acres, are
at pleasure inverted. It would be interesting to know how the
North American Indians cultivated their com (maize) when the
conntry was discovered; tradition haa not [weaerved the traces
of the method which they adopted. Their implements must
have been few, and of the most simple description. The smooth
stones, some of which I have myself found in {daces known as
their favorite haunts, of a wedge shape, may have been used f<x
digging the ground for the deposit of the seed, and perhaps fcff
keeping the soil loose round the [dants: near the sea-shme a
clam-shell may have answered Ae same porpcwe. Of weeds,
probably they had fisw to contend with, as the land was new and
Bol attrchai^ed with manure, o£ which peths^ they did not know
)yGoo»^Ic
4SS KnBOPEAM ABBICCLTUBX.
the use, smce, vithin (ho memory of persons now living, iannen
in the vicinity of Albany were accustomed to cart the maoare
frnu theii bams on to the Hudson when frozen, and in the
neighborhood of Montreal on to the St. Lawrence, that, at the
breaking of the ice in the spring, it might be carried away by the
stream. Eren much more recently, in some parts of the country,
fiurmers, when Ihey have found the piles of manure round their
bams accumulated to an inconvenient size, have prefeired to
desert them, and build other bams, rather than be at the ttouUe
and expense of removing these heaps. One is often amused at
bearing people boast of " the wisdom of our aocestota ; " and, to
be consistent, we should expect to see such persons adjusting the
equilibrium of a bag of grain upon the horse's back by putting
the com in one end and a stone in the other.
When I come to treat of the implements of husbandry, I shall
describe an English plough ; at pteaeut I have to deal only with
Uie operation itself.
I think I may say that, in England and Scotland, the art of
jdoughing has reached perfection, and that it is luuivalled and
unsurpassable. This at least is my opinion, which must be taken
at what it is worth, I cannot conceive how it can be im[«oved ;
and this not in rare instances, and at ploughing matches, but I
may say universally. In some ca^es, the work has been done
better than in otheis ; but I hare not seen an example of bad
ploughing in the country ; I have not seen one which, in the
United States, woidd not be jHTonounced superior.
LXXTUL — THE ENQUSH CHARACTER — A DIGRESSION.
It may be thotight a little ont of the way, hut 1 will take this
occasion to say, that the English know what right lines are. It
is but just to say of them tlul of which I am convinced, after a
iiuniliar and close observation, — that they are an upright peo{de ;
that they have, with as few exceptions as are ordinarily to be
expected in a commercial community, none of that slyness
which some men chuckle over aa a otmunendabla quality, but
)yGoo»^Ic
TBC FEBFBCnOH Or PbOUSHlNO. 433
which, though it may mount a fine bearer and wear the best
Saxony broadcloth, is only a loft Dame for villaay ; that theit
habits, like their ploughing, are direct and straight-forward, and
are opposed to all balks and all tortuous windings. I thank
God that -the blood of such a people flows in my veins ; for I
look upon honesty as the true nobility of man, and the only aris-
tocracy to which my heart bums to pay always its spontaneous
and unclaimed homage. " An honest man is the noblest work of
Gh)d ; " a passage, of which a facetious divine, a man as true as
he was witty, once said, " If it were not in the Scriptures, it
ought to be."
LXXIZ. — THE PERFECTION OF PLOUOmNG.
The perfectum of any art consists in its accomplishment of its
particular object in the best mumer, and by the simplest means.
The perfection of ploughing consists in its performing its work
exactly as you wish or require to hare it done. You wish
the surface soil of your field completely inserted. Tou wish
this to be done at a particular depth, and the furrow-slice to be
cut in perfectly direct lines. Tou desire it to be of a certain
width and certain thickness, and the same in erery pert of the
field. Tou require that it should be raised without breaking, and
either laid completely flat upon its back, or made to recline upon
ils ne^hbor at a particular angle of inclination ; and you wish it
so done that, if it be greensward, erery portion of the herbage
shall be completely that in, and not a spire shall date show its
head between the furrows, any more than a straggling French-
man on the field after the battle of Waterloo. And you want
this performed at the rate of about an acre a day of eight hours*
work, with your team moriag at the rate of two miles or two
miles and a quarter per hour, so that they may work comfortably
erery day in the week. Tou desire your ploughman to follow
his team, and execute his part with entire attention to what he is
about, without perturbation, without sweating, without fretting,
and especially without swearing, which some men whom I hare
known, both at ploughing matches and in their own fields, hare
)yGoo»^Ic
424 BUBOPEAR Aaaicuvrnmx.
deemed indiapensabLe to the proper peifonoance of their voA ;
in which matter I beg leave to say I ^ways entirely differed from
them in opinion, having never yet discovered any reason
why men, vho aasnme to belong to the order of rational animals,
should, by their passion and the indecency and ptofaneness of
their language, degrade themselves below the brute animals
which they undertake to govern. Now, in all the perticulais
which I have pointed out, tbe ploughing here will be done exactly
according to a prescribed form. I said, in my first report, that
the plonked land resembled a ruffle just come from under tbe
crimping iron. Tbe representation is perfect.
lAXX. — PLOUGHING HATCH AT SAFFRON WALDEN.
I attended, among several others, a ploughing match at Saffron
Walden, where there were at least ten competitors, with lots of
an eighth of an acre ; and, as well as I can remember, tbe
fujTow-oUces were to be seven inches in width and five inches
in depUi. it was not a match against time, slthoi^h the work
was required to be completed within a certain time. I do not
misstate when I say that I do not believe there was the variation
of an inch, in tbe whole field, in the width or depth of the
fiurow, or a single crooked line, or even one solitary balk.
The fields or lands were struck out before beginning. Two
horses composed a team, aad tbe ploughman was his own driver.
Some boys under eighteen were allowed to enter as competitors
for boys' premiums. I went over tbe field in an ecstasy of
admiration at its imiformity, neatness, exactness, and beauty.
There were some peculiar i^ulations adopted on this occasion,
to which I may properly refer. Ploi^hmen who had obtained a
first-prize premium on any former occasion, for ploughing, were
disqualified, by the rules of tbe society, from entering into the
general competition. But, with a view " of giving such merito-
rious ploughmen another opportunity of showing that their skill
and eneigies remain unimpaired," a special competition was
offered to them, and seven prizes were i»oposed — the first
)yGoo»^Ic
PLOvaHnra iutgh at surEOir waldeh. 42ff
UDoanting, in money Bud clothing, to £8 lOs., or about |43, the
lowest to £2 10s., or more than (IS, and the unsuccessful com-
petitors, to the number of serea, were to nceire £1 each.
This was potting them through a fine sieve, so as to come at
the best qoatity. A premium of five guineas waa likewise
offered to the &rmer who had employed the greatest number
of ptoughboys on his occupation, in proportion to acreage, for
the preceding year, provided one of the boys in his employ
should have obtained a jvize for ploughing at the Annnal MeeU
ing. Such a premium as this seemed well suited to induce the
farmers to give paxticulsi attention to the improvement of the
lads in their service. Two circumstances contribute strongly to
the perfecting of this most essential art. The first is, that boya
are trained to it as early as they can possibly be employed with
safety. The second is, the division of labor which generally
prevails, so that individuals devote themselves, to a degree
exclusively, to one particular object ; a ploughman is constantly
employed at the plough, and a herdsman in the pastures, or stalls.
There are two points, which have seemed to me always pai^
ticulaily to test the skill of a ploughman. The one is the mode
in which he lays out his land, and strikes the first furrow ; and
the second, that in which he finishes the last furrow. In the
case to which I have referred, the last land remairted, at the close,
B single unbroken strip of equal width, from one end of the field
to the other, lying like a stretched-out ribbon, which, as the
ploughman came down the course, he turned without breaking,
and with perfect precision, from one end to the other. In this
instance, the horses seemed almost as well trained as the driver,
and inspired with an equal emulation. The finishing of the
ends of the lands is always a work of great care ; they are cros»-
jdoughed, and the whole aflair is completed with an equal neat-
ness throughout.
I have seen very good ploughing in the United States, and
perhaps in no department of ^riculture has greater improvement
taken place than in ploughing, and in the construction of
ploughs. Formerly, nothing could be more slovenly executed.
A straight line was not to be seen. The land was not half
turned over. The iiirrowa were of such depth or thickness as
they might chance to be ; and the plough itself, when in action,
resembled very much a live animal, with a sort of grasshopper
)yGoo»^Ic
motion, which ooe man at the stilts, and often two mm riding
upOQ the beam, were stni^Ung to keep down, and, like police
officers, to preveDt its escape. A man was always required, like-
wise, with a hoe, to assist in tmning the fiurow-Blioe at the end
of the share, or in the discouraging duty of raising again, and
turning over by main force, those furrow-elices which, notwitb-
Btaading they had been raised by the plough, like a reluctant
boy pulled out of bed in the momiug, with his eyes half open,
insist upon getting back again as soon as the master's baok is
tiuned. L remember many a thump on the breast from the
bandies of the plough, and many a sudden jerk, which has
thrown me upon the funow, when I have been riding on the
beam, and many a splitting of a beam, and many a brwiking of
a share ; and hare looked back with dismay upon a long furrow*
dice obstinately turning back into the furrow, aAer 1 had sup-
posed it securely laid over. Somewhat of this experience may
have been necessary, to enable me to estimate propwly the excel-
lence of English ploughing, when the implement seemed to
move through the ground with as much quietness, directness, ease,
— I may almost add grace, — as a boat through the water, with
its sails spread to a &ToriQg breeze, and an accomplished steers-
man at the helm. Some allowance is to be made for the con-
dition of our fields, compared with the English fields. Here
there are no stumps of trees, and no stones, to impede or derai^
the plough. With us, alas ! in many cases, the stumps and stones
remain in resolute opposition, to dispute our entrance, and, like
bad tenants, can be dispossessed only by main force.
I know that some may ask,*What is the use of doing things
with so much care ? I answer, in particular, that, the field being
more thoroughly worked, the advantages to the crops, both in the
suppression of weeds and in furnishing a more favorable bed for
the extension of the roots of the plants, and its after cultivation
and management, are quite sufficient to recommend it. But I
answer, in general, that the labor in the end is less, and more easy,
in doing things well and regularly than in half doing them, and
that in a slovenly manner ; and that habits of order, neatness,
and regularity, in one branch of labor, lead to the same habits in
other branches, and are of eminent advantage ; and, according
to an excellent proverb, a thing which is well done is twice
)yGoo»^Ic
aXNEKU. BOLU FOB FUHiaHtNO.
LXXXL — GENERAL AULE9 FOR PLOUGHING.
The depth of ploughing, the width of the funow-aUce, the
ntunber of ploughings which should be given to land, and the
■eaeon at which it should be executed, depend on such a variety
of circumstances, that it would be difficult to prescribe any atii-
T«nal rules.
The objects of ploughing aie, to loosen the soil, and to rendei
it permeable to the roots of plants, that they may extend tbem-
•elves for noarishment and support ; to make it accessible to the
air and lain, from which, according to modem theories, it gathers
both oxygen and ammonia, for the food of plants ; and, lastly, to
give an opportunity of incorporating manures with the soil, for
their support and growth. It has another object, of course,
when greensward is turned over, which is, to bury the herbage
then on the ground, and substitute other plants.
The depth of ploughing varies in different soi)8, and for dif-
ferent purposes. The average depth may be considered as five
inches, but no direction on this subject will be found universally
applicable. Three of the most eminent practical farmers with
whom I am acquainted here plough not mora than three inches ;
but the Bur&ce mould, in these cases, k very thin, and the nnder^
•tratum is a cold, clammy chalk. One farmer, whose cultivation
ia successful, and who cultivates " a light, poor, thin, moory
soil, with a subsoil of either blue or white clay, peat, oi white
gravel," carefully avoids breaking up the cold subsoil, and cuts
np the swaid with a breast-plongb, which is a kind of paring
spade ; and, after burning the turf, and spreaduig the ashes with
ft due application of artificial manure, consisting of equal quan-
tities of lime, wood and turf ashes, at the rate of sixty bushels
to the acre, end sowing tnniip~seed, cultivates between the rows
with a single horae-plough, which cannot, of course, take a deep
fiirrow. The second year of the course, when he sows wheat,
he ploughs it very l^htly with a horse, after having fifst breast-
ploughed it, so aa thoroughly to cover in the manure which the
sheep who have been folded upon the land have left upon it.
The third year it is breast-ploi^hed, sown ia turnips, and culti-
vated between the rows wi^ a h(»se, as before described. The
)yGoo»^Ic
HXS BUEOPBAH AGRICDLTCU.
fonrth year it is simply breast-ploughed for bailey. The fifth
and sixth years it is ia grass. Thus, ia the whole course of a
six years' rotation, this land is only p)oi^hed four times by meo,
and three times with a single horse-plough. Another fanner ia
the same neightKtrhood sajrs that, Ufon this description of land,
any other than the breast-plough would not leave the ground suf-
ficiently firm for wheat. Mr. Pusey, M. P., whose excellently
managed farm I hare had the {Measure of repeatedly going over,
in remarking on the above accounts, says, "Occupying similar
land, I may add that I never plough it deeply, but I repent of
BO doing ; and am falling more and more each year, by the
advice of ne^hboring farmers, into the use of the breast-plov^h,
instead of the horse-plough. This manual labor is quite as
cheap, for a good workman con pare such hollow tender land at
4 s., or even at 3 s. per acre. It is possible that the droi^ht of
oar climate in Gloucestershire and Berkshire may be one cause
of the success of this practice in those counties, and that the
same soil, if transferred to Westmoreland, would require deepw
workii^. Therefore, without recommending shallow cultiva-
tion in districts where deep jdoughing has been hitherto prac-
tised, I would merely warn beginners against plunging recklesdy
into the subsoil." These examples are certainly well worth
considering. I do not uoderstaod that these practices at all mil-
itate against the doctrine of the advantages to be obtained from
subsoiling. In cases where subsoiling and thorough draining
are not applied, this shallow ploughing may be preferred, as the
mingling of the cold and inert subsoil with so thin a surface of
vegetable mould would doubtless be prejudicial, at least for a
length of time ; but the improvement of such land by a system
of thorough draining and subsoiling is another matter, to which
I shall refer in its proper place. There are consideiahle tracts
of this moorish land — that is, athin, black, coarse peat, not half
decomposed, resting upon a cold and hard pan of gravel or
clay, or what some persons have mistaken for maii, in Massachu-
setts, and other parts of the country, the improvement of which,
so far as my experience has gone, has been almost hopeless.
While upon this subject, I may as well give the results of ihe
management of the first former referred to, and therefore subjoin
them. " By this mode of management, an economical system
is followed up through the whole course, by being nearly all
)yGoo»^Ic
OENUUL MXSIXS fOB PLOUOHIirQ. 429
performed by manual labor, by wbicti means a remuneratiDg
crop will be produced, and the land always kept firm, which is
the only difficulty to be overcome on this descriptiou of soil.
The iarm, when first taken by me, was wet ; aa much out of con-
ditioa, and as light raid weak, as it well could be — parts of it
beiag merely held t<^ether by the roots of grass and weeds,
natural to moory I^d, but which must be very prejudicial to the
production of those crops that are to benefit the farmer. I com-
nteoCed by draining, and then pursued the foregoing system of
cultivation, by which my most sanguine expectations have been
realized, thoi^h I was told that the land would be too light and
too poor to plant wheat after tumipe. I hare never found any
ill effects from paring and burning, experience having taught me
fhaX it produces a manure particularly beneficial to the growUi
of turnips; thereby enabling me to firm the land by sheep."*
This fanner speaks of performing a great portion of his work
with manual labor. I think some part of it might rather be
called pedestrian than manual ; for, if he ploughs his land by
men, he treads it oat by women. He says, " Before the horse-
roll can be used, I send women to tread it, and, if occasion ro-
qntre, tread it ^ain ; after which, I have it twice hoed. I have
found more benefit from this mode of pressing than any other,
being done at a time when wheat, on this description of soil, re-
quires assistance." f
I have found other farmers, who, with their wheat crops on
light, chalky soils, ploughed in a very shallow manner, and then
were accustomed to tread their land with sheep, in order to give
the wheat plant a firmer footing ; as, otherwise, in a very light
■oil, it might be thrown out by the wind. These cases, how*'
" Joamal of the Royd Agricultural Bocietj, vol. tI p. I.
f ThH ifl a UH to which women hare not u jet been pat in onr "hslf.cml-
bed" countiy. I due ta.y, however, aaaj penous think that it ia very well to
mike such clever mime-la servicraUe ; their " keep^" sgriculturallf Bpeakin^, ie
■omewhat expensive ; and, ae they have their share in the pleasure of consuming',
diey may aa well take their pait in the \abor at pnMJuciDg. Whatever any peraoos
may think, however, I will aay no such nncivil thing; but, lince the celebrated
Amimtt, Fanny BUaler, returned 6ixa the United States, aiiet a two years' tour,
with a gain of twen^ thouaand pounds, or one hundred thousand dollars, it cannot
be denied that the Americans are quite willing- to pay for the use of wouien'e
feet — in a way, we admit, more elegant, tasteful, and chtsaical, but certainly not
ntm leepeclahle, and not half as useAil, aa that of treading the wheat-gnnuid.
)yGoo»^Ic
430 EDKOPZAH AOaiCULTUa^
ever, mtut all be deemed exceptions ; and the genetal rule in
England, where the soil admits of it, and manure ia abundant, is
that of rather deep ploughing. Fire or blz inches is the averse
depth ; in many cases, much more than this. The loam, or
vegetable mould, is, without question, the great source or me-
dium of nourishment to the plants. Be it more or less deep, it
is always safe to go to the bottom of this, and, by gradually
loosening a portion of the subsoil, or lower stratum, and incor-
porating it with the mould, and rendering it accessible to the
air and light, it acquires the nature of mould, and the whole
arable surface is enriched. The deeper the soil, the more
deeply the roots are permitted to descend, and the more widely
they are enabled to spread themselves, —unless they penetrate a
substratum unhealthy from wet or the too great [vevalence of
some unfavorable mineral substance, — so much the mote luxo-
riant and productive is the vegetation likely to prove. The
depth to which the roots of fdants will go down in search of
food or moisture, where the soil is in a condition to be pene-
trated by them, is much greater than a superficial observation
would induce us to suppose. It is confidently asserted that the
roots of some plants — such, for example, as Incem and sainfoin —
go to a depth of fifteen, twenty, and even thirty feet. This
seems scarcely credible. Red clover is known to extend its
roots to the depth of three feet, and wheat to the depth of two
or three feet, where the condition of the soil is favorable to their
extension. Ton Thaer, the distinguished agriculturist, says,
« be has pulled carrots two and a half feet long, the tap-root of
which was probably another foot in length." The tap-root of a
Swedish ttunip has been known to extend thirty-nine inches;
the roots of Indian com full six feet. These statements may
appear extraordinary ; but, by the free and loose texture of the
SOU, it is obvious a good husbandman will give every opportunity
for the roots and their extremely fine fibres to extend themselvet
as Cu as their instincts may prompt them.
Next to the depth of ploughing, the width of the fuirow-slice
is to be considered. This, of course, depends mainly upon the
construction of the plough. A plough with a wide sole or base,
m the hands of a skilful plouglunan, may be made to cut a nar^
row furrow-slice ; but a narrow-soled plough cannot be made to
cut a wide furrow-slice, though it may sometimes appear to do
)yGoo»^Ic
QEHKIUI. BULXI rOB FbOOflBIMO. 431
■0 by leaving a part of the ground uotorned, which the funow-
riica is made to cover. Where, as in old ploughed land, the
object ia solely to leave the ground loose and light, it is advisa-
ble to take a very narrow furrow. Where, otherwise, the object
is to move greensward or stubble ground, and to cover in the
vegetable matter, such a width of furrow must be taken as will
cause the slice, as it is raised by the share, to turn over easily.
This widdi may generally be reckoned at nearly twice the
depth, though less will answer ; but a fiurow-slice of equal sides
would not turn, but stand on end. The manner in which the
fiurow-slice will be turned depends somewhat upon the form of
the mould-board, but more, in general, upon the skill of the
ploughnuuL Two modes are adopted ; the one to lay the fur-
rov-alice entirely flat, shutting its edge exactly in by the edge of
its rMighbor; the other, to lay it at an inclination of 4B degrees,
lapping the one upon the other. The former mode, where land
is to be sown with grass-seed, and, as the phrase is with us, laid
down, is, nndonbtedly, to be preferred. Ferhape, in any case
where a grain crop is to be cultivated, it should be preferred,
as its beneficial effects have been well tested in the United
States. In the United States, however, from a higher temper-
ature, the vegetable matter thus pressed down may be expected
sooner to be decomposed, and thus sooner furnish a pabulum for
the growing plants, than in a climate where, in a much lower
and more even temperature, the decomposition cannot be ex-
pected to take place so rapidly. In other cases, and for vege-
table crops, — I mean in contradistinction to grain crops, — a
different mode of ploughing, that is, laying the furrow-slices one
upon the other at an angle of 45 degrees, or half turned over,
would leave the ground more loose, as well as expose a larger
surface of the inverted soil to be enriched by the air. In this
way, by hairowiog and rolling, the vegetable matter will be
completely buried. This mode of Roughing is evidently pre-
ferred throughout the country, as I have seldom seen the sward
completely inverted and laid flat, though I know the practice
prevails in some counties. To avoid having any of the grass
protrude itself between the furrow-slices, they have here, what
I have never seen in the United States, a skim-coJter, that is,
a miniature jdoughshare, or blade, placed under the beam, and
)yGoo»^Ic
433 EUftOPEAM AOBICDLTUIU.
80 adjusted as to cut an edge from the forrow-elice as it is tumed
over ; this piece, bo cut off, at once dropping down, and being
buried under the fuirow-slice as it goes over. The conseqaeoce
is, that tbeie is no grass on the edge of the furrow-slice to show
itself, and great neatness is therefore given to the whole work.
There is snother mode of ploughing, which I have sometimes
seen practised, by which the fmrow-slice is not merely lifted,
but may be said to be rolled over, or twisted in a sort of bag-
fashion. This seemed to me to be principally owing to the
concave form of the mould-board, for no woikmao could have
done it with a straight or convex form of mould-boa^. It
would seem to render the soil more friable and loose ; but every
departure from a straight line, or wedge form of tbe mould-board,
evidently much increases the draught. The slum-colter, to
which I have referred above, somewhat increases the draug.!^
but in a very small degree.
The great object of the English farmers, in pbiughing, seems to
be the tiiorough pulverizatiwi of the soil ; and they we therefore
very seldom satisfied with one ploughii^, but tbair land is re»
peatedly [doug^ed, scarified, and harrowed. They crosft-ploo^
their land, and think it desitable to reduce the sward land to a.
fine tilth, tearing it to pieces, and bringing all the grass, and roots,
and rubbish, to the surface, th^ they may be r^ed up and burned,
or carried to the mannre heaps. The propriety of this practioft
is, in my mind, quite questioDable. It would seem to me much.
better to turn the sward completely over, and then cultivate on
the top of it, without disturbing the grass surfaoe, leavisg that,
when thus tumed over, to a gradual decomposition, that it might
in this way supply food to the growing crop, whereas the ab-
BtractioD of so much vegetable matter must greatly diminish tlie
resources of the soiL Where, however, the field is infested with
twitch grass, (iriiicum rqtena,) — in which, indeed, many of the
fields in England abound to a most extraordinary extent, — there
may be no getting rid of it but by actually loosening and tearing
it out ; but where it is a mere clover ley, or an old grass pasture
or meadow, the taking out and removing the vegetable matter
seems to be a serious waste. Even tbe twitch might be mam^ed
where the crop is to be hoed, though, in grain crop^ its p
is extremely prejudicial.
)yGoo»^Ic
OEITIRAIi RITLEB rOS H^DSBIHO. 433
Having thus descnbed the general style of ploughing, as it prfr-
Tails in England, I come to speak of particulai processes which
an occasionally practised.
1. Lappimo a PLooeaiMo. — A field of greensward, or stub-
ble, is often, in the autmnn, only half ploughed ; that is, a foirov-
dice ia turned over directly upon an nnploughed surfitce ; and
then another furrow is turned upon another unplougbed surface,
until the whole field, being thus ploughed, presents a succession
<^ open fairowB and of lapped lands, and only half of it is in
tact stirred. In the spring, these intermediate places are broken
up by the [vocess being directly rerersed. Some advantage
may come, in this case, from the decomposition or rotting of the
vegetable matter placed between the two soifaceB thus bconghl
together, although this can hardly be expected to proceed at a
rapid rate, if at all, during the winter season, and the fnirows
may serve as drains to carry off the water irom the land ; but, ex-
cepting the saving in time by half doing instead of wholly doing
the work, I see no advantage in this process over the regular
mode of ploughing the whole field at once. It is advised, how-
ever, in perftmning this opeistion, that the part of the sward
which is laid over aboxAd be wider than that upon which it is
hud, that, by its weight, it may be broken, and the whole ren-
dered more friable.*
3. RiBBiiTe, OB Havtesmo. — There is another mode of
|iloaghing called ribbing; or raftering, differing tcareely from
the method just deseribad, excepting that two ftnrow-sUces am
laid upon one, instead of one upon one. In this ease, an open
fiirrow and an alternate lidge present themselves over the whole
field ; the Airrowe serve to keep the land frtm stagnant water,
and the tumed-up land ia exposed to the ameliorating processes of
* " When Itnd bu becomo vny fbll of twitcb, it ii a gaoA jdan to belf-ploosh
it — that IB, turning over one flurow ud then another tqtposite, to meet iL ITti^
ii done in NorembOT, it will check the growth of the twitch daring the winter.
The land, when ploughed in a contruf Erection earl? in the ipring, will lie in
faMpa, Mid thoBbeeome quite dty, when Ac twitch nny etsilr be get out, and a
good tumip ftllov be mad*. Scofflen are now made, which will unwer the p«r-
pcae of stirring land that hai been plouf^ed, and thus nie the labor and ex-
pense of a, ploughing : I^a/Bon*! harrow ia a mo«t naeltal implement' — SDt
jonf « Pradieel Anna-, 4th edition, p. SSL
37
)yGoo»^Ic
434 EDBOFKAV AOBICULTDBE.
the air and the frost. The field, when done ia the best possible
manner, as it often ia, [vesenta a beautiful example of aitistical
skill. In the springing, prepaiatoiy to after cultivation, the whole
is broken up and levelled, by reversing the operation. I am not
able to Bee any decided advantage which this mode has over the
tegular ploughing of the whole field at once, e^pt in the savii^
of time, and this saving is at the expense of only two thirds of
the land being ploughed.
3. LiTiNo js Bans, oa Stitchis. — There is another mode of
[toughing, or rather of laying the land, which prevails in Eng-
land and Scotland to a great extent, and is nearly universal upon
low and wet soils ; that ia, the practice of laying the land in
beds, or what aie here commonly called stetches. In this case,
a ridge is formed in. the centre, by laying two furrows back to
back, and then ploughing up to them on each side, until a suf-
ficient land is gone over to form a bed. These beds vary much
in width, from five to eighteen and thirty-six feet. In some
cases, under a system of ploughing which is called two in and
tvo out, four beds are formed into one bed, of perhaps sixty feet
in breadth. In Essex county, on the lowlands, they are only
five feet in width. An open furrow is of course left for the
water to flow off, which runs down the sides of the beds. The
object is to lay the laud dry ; but it is obvious there is a loss of
land in the furrows, and, whOe there is a constant accumulation
of rich soil on the centre of the bed, the mould must gradually
become tbixmer as you approach the furrow, and the furrow is
always indicated by an absence of product, or the growth of
coarse and worthless grasses.
These ridges, in English cultivation, are seldom altered, but
(though often, far from being bounded by a straight, are bounded
by a winding or crooked furrow) remain the same as they have
been doubtless for a century. Indeed, they are in many places
regarded with a kind of superstition, as though the land would
lose its fertility if they were broken in upon ; and some writers
on English husbandry assert that water flows better in these
winding gutters than it would in straight furrows, whi<!h is cei-
tainly a new philosophy. Though, where they are not properly
ploughed, there is liable to be a continual accumulation towards
the centre, yet I cannot say that I bare ever seen so great an
)yGoo»^Ic
GKITEBIL BnLZa WOK PLODOHIMa. 43S
increase of them as is described Id Toa Tbaer's Agricaltuie,
irhich has been recently translated into English, and published
in two volumes in London. " In places," says this author,
" vhere, as is frequently the case, there hare been no ditches
between the lands of different proprietors, or where these ditches
bare been filled up for the sake of gaining additional surface, all
the ploughmen have avoided throwing the earth to the outside,
from fear that, if they did so, their neighbor might cany off' that
which was thus placed within his reach. In this manner, ridgea
ef considerable breadths have become devoted in themiddle to such
a degree, that two men, walking in the parall^ farrmes which
bound them, will not be able b> see each other." * This seems
to be a regular piece of Munchausen ; and if al] book agricul-
ture were of this description, one could hardly be surprised at
some little incredulity and distaste on the part of common prac-
tical fanners.
The advantages of laying land in this form, in cases where
land is wet and heavy, or where the rain does not pass off readily,
are obvious. Where the ridges or beds, likewise, are made
equal, and with care, the ridges and funows furnish a conve-
nient measurement of land in sowing, reaping, or harvesting.
There is a considerable loss of land in the furrows, where the
beds are, as in some cases, made very narrow, as for ezamjde when
formed of ten furrow-slices, and two furrow-slices are taken for
the drain, the amount of land taken for the drains will be equal
to one sixth of the whole, or one acre in six-— a very considerable
loss, it must be admitted; but then, in every system of ploughing,
there must be open furrows left at the sides, if not in the centre,
of the fields ; and where the beds are lai^, as described above,
throwing, for example, four common beds of fifteen feet each, so
as to form one of sixty feet, the loss by open furrows would be
greatly reduced. In countries subject to much snow, and severe
frosts, it is objected that, the snow being naturally blown from
the elevated into the lower parts of the field, the ridge, or highest
part of the bed, is more exposed to the alternations of freezing
and thawing, and so the grain plants on the ridge are liable to be
* Princi^ea of Agricultara, hj Von Thur, voL ii. p. 84, a* tniwlBted Ihxn
tin French by those tro moat intelligent and indaithouB agiicultnnl imtor^
WiUiun Shaw and Cuthbeit W. JohDMm, Ewpans.
)yGoo»^Ic
UQ BDBOraAll AOBlOTLTCnB.
thrown out and deatrored. I do not know that this objection is
entitled to much coatidentiDo, Wbere the furrows are made
fiom east to west, instead of from north (o south, — and the lattoc
ought always to be Uie diiectioa, — thero will be a considenible
difieience in the tmnperature of the two sides of the ridge, as the
difference in the efibet produced by the sun's rays, when &UiDg
directly upon * surface inclined towards the sun, or upon one
directly the rererse of this, must be considerable. It is oi^ed,
likewise, as an (Ejection to these ridges, that the rain, as it Citlls,
passes too rapidly into the fuiiows, and is carried off without
gradually soaking into the land, as on a flat surface, and givlog
the whole its full advantage. These are some of the objections
tuged against this system of laying the land in ridges ; and, since
the introduction of the system of subsoiliog and tborough^drain-
ing, Mr. Smith, the introducer of this inunense and extraordinary
im[ffOTement, and in general those persons who follow oat his
BotioDs in other mpects, disapprove altogether the plan of laying
oat the ground in ridges ot beds, and leare an even and un-
faroken sur&ce. In cross-ploughiag fields laid in beda, there is
likewise an inconvenience arising from the fiurows ; and the
same difficulty likewise applies to the harrowing of such fields,
•specially if it is attempted to be done across the furrows. Hsr-
cows formed with a concave under-side, to ad^t them to Uw
shape of the bed, are sometimes used lengthwise with the ridge ;
hut they are ill adapted to cros»4iatTOWing these ridges, or to be
usad upon land with a Bat and even surface.
The beauty which is given to the cultivation, wh«« such
ridges prevail and are wdl formed over extensive fields, is oef
tainly some recommendation of them ; but this supposes them to
be made evenly and with care. Upcm as fait a view of the
subject as I can t^e, I should recommend them, not for their
beauty, but fM their utility and convenience. But in this case,
excepting where the land is very wet and low, I should insist
aponawidth c«tainly not less than forty feet; and I ^ould
avoid by all means too much accumulation of earth in the centre
(^ the ridge, which an «zpert ploughman is very capable of
doing.
4. Imzt-^bd Cdltivation. — There prevuls in Ireland a mode
of ridging land, different from what I have described, and called
)yGoo»^Ic
OXNEKAI. SOLUS FOR PLOOOHINO. 43T
— vith what propriety I am unable to see — the lazy-bed sjrstem.
It is done, in geneial, only in vet and Iot lands, though I hare
•een it upon other lands. In this case, the whole land may be either
jdonghed or dug orer by the spade, before the formation of the
beds, or it may be left in grass, and the [vocess proceed in this
way : Beds of fooi feet wide are marked out, and divided by a
furrow-drain about one foot wide. The potato sets oi .seed ate
laid upon the groand or bed, at such distances as are deemed
best, generally in lines across the bed, and the earth in the
furrow is cut down to the hard pan, even a foot and a half in
depth, by a spade, and taken out and thrown upon the seed
which has been deposited on the bed, and the whole is carefully
smoothed off with the shovel. The fresh earth thus taken from
the furrow-drain brings no seeds of weeds with it, and the after
coltivation is easy. The potatoes in the autunw being dug
with a spade, the whole ground is pretty thoronghly foiled, or
dug OTer, uid, when it is used the next year for a crop, — it may
be of potatoes again, or of oats, — the fiirrow-drain is filled up,
and one made in another place, oi in the centre of that which
was the bed, so that, in truth, the whole field becomes pretty
thoroughly cultivated.
A very intelligent fanner, whom I had the jdeasure of meetii^
in Ireland, was kind enough to give me an account of his nkan-
agement of some of his land on this plan, a system which he
considers as extremely well adapted to a cold, wet soil, not yet
carefully dniined, or to a dry soil which may hare become ex-
hausted by constant cropping and shallow ploughing.
" I lined out the ground to be tilled, in ridges four feet wide,
and furrows two feet wide. I then dug out of the parts lined off
for the furrows, and put on the ridges, all the active soil which
could be taken up by the spade. The sets were then planted, and
covered by the earth which had remained in the furrows, and
which was for this purpose cleanly shovelled. By this mode I
obtained a dry seed-bed in moist ground — a fresh, active soil in
exhausted ground, and a depth of surface in light land.
" In one instance, on a cold, retentive soil not drained, where
there had been a very poor crop of potatoes the previous year,
and the soil not stirred from the time the potatoes had been dug
out until the oats were sown, a good crop of oats was obtained.
In the other case, a second crop of oata was taken off the same
37*
)yGoo»^Ic
438 BUS0FKA1T
field, the atubbles having been ploughed in October. Tbu crop
was much superior to the former. It produced fine grain, and
was so luxuriant that tbe greater pait of it was lodged prerious
to lei^iiag on the 9th of August. Should the sur&ce or active
■oil be very fallow, the breadth of the ridge may be narrowed,
or the breadth of the furrow increased. The wide furrows allow
of loosening the subsoil, either with erow-Jnrs, picks, or spades,
and i carefully renrre all stones which appear, for dnios, where
draining is necessary ; and where it is, I now drain wherever I
find the stones at hand — sometimes before tilling. I make tba
drains at f<Hty or nzty feet apart at first, and put in my inter-
mediate drains in each succeeding year, as I obtain stones in
loosening the sabsoiL
" I lay OQt my ridges for potatoes, the breadth as for oats,
putting the sets in rows across the ridges, five sets in each row,
and the rows vsrying trom eighteen to twenty-two inches apart ;
— tima saving seed, being enabled to keep the plants iree ftom
weeds, to dig out the potatoes at less cost without injury, and
increasing the produce, over the old lazy-bed system, in tbe pro*
portion of one sixth."
The object of this farmer is to till his low land, in a way to
avoid the evil of excessive wet, by this simile method, before
he can go to the expense of completely furrow-draining. The
method of managing land by com|dete drainage, which 1 shall
twesendy describe, would undoubtedly be to be preferred, where
there is a sufficiency of time and capital ; but in tbe mean time
the other system may be adopted as a temporary substitute.
This gentleman gave me, at the same time, an account of an
experiment made as to the distance at which potatoes should be
jdanted, which seems worth lecordii^, and which I will insert
liere, though not exactly in place.
The potatoes were cultivated in the lazy-bed fiudiion described.
Bix ridges were laid out four feet wide, with two feet furrows ;
on equal quantity of manure laid down fw each. Two lidgoa
were planted, the cuttings being laid thick, without any regit-
larity ; two ridges had the cuts placed in tows across the bed,
fourteen inches apart, five sets in a row ; and two ridges, seveft-
teen inches asunder, five sets in each row. The manure was
Sfoead over the entire of the ridges tilled in the old lazy-bed
way, and immediately over the sets i^anted. The qaanUty of
)yGoo»^Ic
flZNxmAL am.t» ros rLosoHiMO. 439
aeed leqnired by the fint mode of pUmttag waa six and s half
stoue, or 91 pounds ; by the second method, 77 pounds ; and
by the third method, 70 pounds. The quantity of ground, in
each case, vas seren squara perches. The produce was as sub-
joiued: —
In the first method, 1218 pounds.
In rows at 14 inches, 1358 "
In rows at 17 inches, 1442 "
He adds that the advantage of the latter method is not only
a coDsidei^Ia increase of produce by the acre, amounting to
SISZ pouiuls over the first method, bat there is a decided advao*
tage in every operation which takes place, from the planting to
the digging. The ridges take less seed ; require less labor ; can
be iieed from weeds with greater ease and less danger to the
tender sta^ and di^ with greater fecility, and without injury
fiom the spada. Another advmntage is, in those places where
there is but a light surface, they may be " moulded up," or the
dirt broagiU to the plants, with much benefit.
I give this as an example of spade hudtandry. As such, it will
have its ralue with many of my readers. It is not adapted to
ealtiration upon any eztandad scale ; but there are tanalJ luecea
of low, wat land throughout the country, which the owneis
eannot afford at once to drain thoroughly, but from which, in
this way, good crops may be (d)taiDed, and the land brought
into a conditioD of ppodnctiTe imfvovement. The experiment,
in regard to quantity of seed, is certainly worth considering.
Potatoes are never cultivated in Bngland or Ireland, as with us,
in hills. I have known as large a production from a field culti-
vated in hills three and a half feet apart each way, as in almost
any other mode ; but the expense of gathering them is more than
upon <»ie planted in drills, so as to be easily turned out by the
jjough. A distiagutshed farmer in England has invented vrbat
he calls a bog's^head plough, for the purpose of turning out
potatoes which are planted in drills, without injuring them. It
resembles a hog's snout attached to the front part of a jdongh,
without a colter, by which the potatoes are raised and turned
oat of thnr bed. This may be said to be copying nature, for it
is clearly the way Aat profound race of investigators, the swine,
would turn oat the crop, if they were sent into an undug potato
)yGoo»^Ic
440 SUKOPEAM AQBICULTDBX.
field ; but it has no great advantageB, in this matter, ova a douUe
mould-board plough.
5. CoMtxcT Pi/ooonino. — The proper and best mode of
]doughing is so exactly and well described by a recent and
eminent Scotch agricultural writer, that I thiak I cannot do
better than to give it in full to my readers.
" Whatever mode of ploughing the land is subjected to, you
should take special care that it be ploughed for a winter furrow
in the best manner. The furrow-slice should be of the requisite
depth, whether of fire inches on the oldest lea, or seven inches
on the most friable ground ; and it should also be of the requisite
breadth of nine inches in the former case, and of ten in the
latter; but as ploughmen incline to hold a shallower furrow
than it should be, to make the labor easier to themselves, there
is less likelihood of their making a narrower furrow than it
should be, a shallow and a broad furrow conferring both ease
on themselves, and getting over the ground quickly. A proper
furrow-slice in land not in grass, or, as it is termed, in red land,
should never be less than nine inches in breadth and six inches
in depth on the strongest soil, and ten inches in breadth and
seven inches in depth on lighter soils. On grass land of strong
soil, or on land of any texture that has lain long in grass, nine
inches of breadth, and five inches of depth, is as latge a fiuTOV-
alice as may possibly be obtained ; but on lighter soil, with com-
paistively young grass, a furrow-slice of ten inches by six, and
even seven, is easily turned over. At all seasons, but especially
for a winter furrow, you should endeavor to establish for you>
s^a character for deep and correct ploughing."
" Correct ploughing possesses these characteristics : The liir-
low-elices should be quite straight, for a ploughman that cannot
hold a straight furrow is unworthy of his charge. The furrow-
slices should be quite parallel in ler^;th ; and this property shows
that they have been turned over of a uniform thickness, for thick
and thin slices, lying together, present irregularly horizontal lines.
The furrow-slices should be of the same height, which shows
that they have been cut of the same breadth ; for slices of dif-
ferent breadths, laid together at whatever angle, present unequal
vertical lines. The fiirrow-slices should present to the eye a
similar form of crest and equal surface ; because, where one
)yGoo»^Ic
generaij bulks tok PLouaaiira. 441
AuTow-dlce exhibits a narroTer surface than it should hare, it
has been covered with a broader slice than it should be ; uid
irfaeie it displays a broader surface than it shoald, it is so exposed
by a narrower slice than it should be, lying upon it. The fut^
row-dices should have their back and face psrallel ; and to dis-
cover this property requires rattier minute examination after the
land has been [doughed; but it is easily ascertained at the time
of ploughing. The ground, oa being ploughed, should feel
equdly firm mider the foot at all [daces ; for slices in a more
upright position than they should be not only feel hard and
ODSteady, but will allow the seed com to iall dovn between
them and become buried. Furrow-slices in too flat a stats
always yield considerably to the pressure of the foot ; and they
are then too much drawn, and afford insufficient mould for the
seed. Fuirow-siices shoidd lie over at the same angle ; and it
is demonstrable that the largest extent of surfiue exposed to the
action of the air is when they are laid over at an angle of 46°,
thus presenting crests in the best possible position for the actim
of the harrows. Crowns of ridges, formed by the meeting of
opposite furrow-dices, should neither be elevated nor depressed,
in regard to the rest of the ridge, although ploi^hmen often
eommit the error of raising the crowns too high into a crest — the
feult being easily committed by not giving the feered " (that is,
the first, or marking-out slices) " furrow-slices sufficient room to
meet, and thereby [nessing them upon one another. The furrow*
brows should have slices uniform with the rest of the ridge ; bat
jrfoughmen are very apt to miscalculate the width of the slices
near the sides of the ridges ; for if the specific number of forrow-
alices into which the whole ridge should be ploughed are too
narrow, the last slice of the furrow-brow will be too broad, and
will therefore lie over too flat ; and should this too broad space
be divided into two furrows, each slice will be too narrow, and
stand too upright. When the furrow-brows are ill made, the
mould-furrows cannot be proportionately ploughed out ; because,
if the space between the furrow-brows is too wide, the mould-
furrows must be made too deep, to fill up all the space, and vice
versa. If the ftirrow-brow slices are laid too ^at, the mould-
forrows will be apt to throw too much earth upon their edges
next the open ftirrow, and there make them too high. TVhen
the furrow-brows of adjoining ridges are sot jdoughed alike, one
)yGoo»^Ic
443 EimorEAH AaucDLnm.
side of the opeo fuiroir will require a deeper mould-^arrov than
the other." •
There is no more accuracy and ezactneM prescribed in these
directions, in the execution of this first great operation of hus-
bandry, than what is actually attained and practised both ia
England and Scotland. The Lothiana, in the vicinity of Edin-
burgh, — and which may indeed be considered as the garden of
Scotland, — the counties of Northumberland, Lincoln, and Nor-
folk, in England, exhibit this perfection of cultivation. It may be
seen in many other places, but in these on a more extended scale
than in others. But such excellence, however, is not attained
without very great pains, and, with expert ploughmen, a long
course of [vactice. I shall be asked, pertiaps, what advantage
comes from this exact mode of performing the work. It might
be enough to answer, that, in every species of labor, and in every
practical art, what is done should be well done, and perfection,
bow fyi soever he may fall short of it, should be every man's great
aim. It might be enough to say, that the moral influences upcm
a man's own character, and life, df habits of exactness, order,
care, and neatness, are always great, and of very serious value;
but I may confidently add, that the perfection with which land
is tilled is of great importance to the crops, and directly con-
ducive to their perfection and abundance. The man, too, who
studies to jdough and cultivate his lands in the best manner, will
be anxious to have his irajdemenla of the best kind, and to keep
his team in the best order and condition. Indeed, multiply as
we will the excuses for slovenliness, irregularity, and careless-
ness, there cannot be a doubt that habits of wder, exactness, and
carefulness, in all respects, are directly conducive to, nay, are the
true foundations of, all profitable arrangement. I may add, like-
wise, that where every thing is kept in order, and all work pro-
ceeds by rule and system, though these rules may sometimes
appear extreme or severe, affairs are managed at less expense of
labor and time than in a more negligent and reckless mode.
The great object of ploughing is to pulverize the soil, to open
it to the admission of those great enrichers of the land, and those
great inslnimeDts of vegetation, heat, light, air, and moisture ; to
Aimiah a penetrable bed in which the roots of the plants may
* Stepfaei^ Book of tte Fmn, vol L p. 63EL
)yGoo»^Ic
OBNXaU. BOLSS TOR rLODSHIITa. 443
atabliah themselves, and stretch themselTes out in seBrch of
food ; and, by bringing the stony portions of the soil under the
infliieDce of external agents, to produce a chemical decomposi-
tion, and supply of those mineral ingredients, a portion of which
is indispensable to the healthy growth and productiTeoess of the
plants which are cultivated. It is important, therefore, lo reduce
the soil to as fine a tilth as possible. It is important to do this,
likewise, that the manures which ue appUed may be thoroughly
intermixed with the soil. In gardens, and in small plats, this is
done by the spade, which in fields is attempted by the plough ;
the object in both cases being to render the soil loose, fine, and
fri^le. The more care is exercised in the ploughing, the more
certainly will these ends be accomplished.
6. Tumcb-Flocohuib. — I come next to speak of what is
called trench-ploughing. This term is ap[Jied to a deeper
ploughing than usual, or to a double ploughing, where one
plough follows directly in the farrow left by a preceding plough.
In trenching land with the spade, whidi I have before described,
the object is completely to invert the soil, layii^ the sur&ce soil
imdemeath, and covering it with that stratum of soil upon which
it had previously rested. The object obviously is, to deepen the
coltivatable soil, — if I may coin a word which will be very well
understood, — and, by bringing the lower stratum to the surface,
expose it to influences by which it may gradually become
enriched. Soil taken from almost any depth, after lying upon
the surface for a length of time, will ordinarily of itself acquire
a productive power, and may be cultivated with success. I have
Iniown this to be the case with earth taken from the bottom of
a deep veil, which, after a length of time, became productive.
There is always, in such cases, an accumulation or accession of
eztmneous matters, which come one hardly knows whence,
how, or when. The suriace of the coral reefs, of which the
islands in the Pacific are examples, after being raised above the
vater, are gradually decomposed snd enriched ; seeds of plants,
floating in the air, or brought by birds, or cast ashore by the
waves, gradually establish tbemselveB. The lichens, or mosses,
and an humble class of vegetation, present themselves, until pres-
ently, from their decay, and the deposits of animal life in various
forms, a rich mould is formed, and this barren rock becomes, in
)yGoo»^Ic
444 BraopcAir Acaioiii.TUHB.
time, the fertile abode of animal and vegetable life. The ra-
cuperative power of nature is every where seen most active.
Lands exhausted by cultivation are restored by the skill and
labor of the faithful and enlightened cultivator. Even left to
themselves, to the spontaneous efforts of nature, they recova
their exhausted fertility ; and soils, which have never yet seen
the sun, by being brought to the light and warmth of day, and
to the refreshing and renovating influences of son, and air, and
rein, become productive, and stand ready to perform their part
in supplying the wants of the vegetable, and through them of
the animal creation. Trench-ploughing, which aims wholly to
assist this operation of nature, and take advantage of its ready
benevolence, is done by a single plough, which goes to a aepth
of at least fourteen inches, completely inverting this quantity of
soil ; or the land is first ploughed in the ordinary mode, and a
second plough follows in the same furrow, at a depth determined
at the pleasure of the ploughman. In the former case, it is
obvious that the surface soil is completely inverted and buried ;
in the latter, the substratum is rather mixed with the upper soiL
In the former case, it is clearly a very bold operation. On the
Island of Jersey, famous for its cultivation of esculent roots,
parsnips, and the white canot, and other crops, they have what
is called a irenchrfhugh^ which, going to the depth of fomrteen
inches, and throwing out a wide funow, requires a heavy team.
In this case, the neighbors club together, imiting their teama so
as to assist each other.* The subsoil, onlesa there is « supa<-
* I Till gira hem Uie account of this cqwntioD, trata Goknd Lb Cootsnr,
whoM high repiitation w well Mabliahed in the Kgrieulbtnl conunaiii^.
■■ In moot ciaea, in the month of OctotMr or November, ft stdm-plon^ing ii
glren to tn old, ot two jeui' lea, which ii left exposed to the winter ftMbi. It
M wdl harrowed ud craaB-hairowed prerioos to caiting oat the nmntire, which
i> spmd OD the gmund at a nte lan^ag betw«en IS and 20 tm» per acm. In
•ome caaea, the abova pievioua ikiiii-plooghLng ii defemd until Janoaiy or Fel^
ntar;, in order to allow the cattle to feed off any faeihaga that maj be left m the
hnd, M that the two ploughinga now to be described take place in the aanie
Bxmth.
H A abort time [the ahoTter the better] pnrioua to putting in the cropv the
land receivee iti aecond, and geneiallj last ploughing. The trench-plon^ thaa
oomea into play, preceded bj its pioneer, the two-hone-plongh. A trench ii
iqiened through the middle, or length of the field, in thii manner, ^letwo-hone-
ploogfa ia made to cast off a fhmw np and down, ao as to aeatat in forming &»
bench ; the trench ia then neadj uik 18 inohea deq^ more or leaa, aeooidiiig t»
)yGoo»^Ic
aXHKBAL KOLXt TOB PLOUaHIDG. 446
dinndaace of manure to be applied and mixed with it, cannot
be brought at oqca into a itate of active |«oductiTen«ss. Where
there is a sufficiency of manure, however, there is, no doubt, some
advantage gained, to what extent it is not easy to say, fiom tho
freshness of the virgin soil which is brought up. Otherwise,
time and cultivation will be required to bring thia fresh and
comperativety inert soil into a condition of productiveness. In
this case, however, the farmer must exercise his own judgmient,
and consider his own means. He may be sure that the deeper
and the richer is the soil, or mould, which he has'to cultivate, bo
much the more abundant will be bis crops. To create a soil,
however, is not a sudden opemtitm ; and, in cases where the
die depth of the awl, and winued off two feet with apadM, the «Mtii bein^ thrmm
off ta a dwUnce on eftch lide.
" A man with a epode ahould then be placed at each end of the fiurow, to dig
and square it oat lialf the length ol tbo trmtob-pkHigh, a* wide as the fiimiw in-
tended bi be taken, in <»der to enable it to plunge into its depth at once, on turn-
ing in to work ; thii ia made at the left-hand side of either fUnow, after the kubU
two-hone-plough baa made iti start.
■■This two-bone-ploogh (one that will take a width of (hmw one inch wider
Ihaii the tnneh-ploai^) tbea pncedei and tarm in the manure and tnif; together
with three inches of soil, into the bottom of the fiuiow, or ]M«p«ied trench. The
trench-plough, drawn by fbui, aiz, m eight hones, according to the depth dewed,
then turn over tram ten to eighteen inches of clean soil on the tnrf, which ia so
completelj buried as to deatro; all vegetation, eren in the fieahly-lmAen sod
When the sod ta qnite fiedi, as little soil as possible dtoold be taken up by the
■nail [dongfa, so that the couch or weeds may be more comj^etelj coveted by a
great maia of dean soil. When the ploo^ied land becomes so wide as to render
it ioconrenient foi one man, at tack aid, to open the fluiow tat the plough on one
■de, and square np the otiwr aide neatiy, mm man is placed at eocft earner to
petfann thia wmk, ao that two additional men at each end of the land, or fbnr in
•U, are now digging, levelling, and aqoaring op the comen. Two acres or more
may tinv be tamed up in a day, as the trencb-plou^ takes a wide fiurow, firom
rieren to thirteen inches, and, by its excellent eonstniction, moves and tnnw the
wbdesoiL
'Tliie opention is petformed by joint-stock labor by alt the laimen in Jeisey,
who bring their teams to assiat each other. It is ^tpn^ately denominated, not
a great plongfaing, but a okkit nieeiNS ; indeed, no apade husbandry is so effi-
cient, as most men, in digging, merely tun the aecondipit npcm the nnder, or
(rencb-fllice, whereas the whole soil ia shaken and broken by the trencb-plon^"
Certainly the loii, in this (wse, must be vety rich lo bear bemg inverted at this
depth. I give the whole account, rather as matter vS agricnhnnl coriooi^, than
with any notion of its iwing adapted to our husbandry. These very great opera-
tiMS, in which so many men and so many horses are employed at one time, I have
always fonnd of doubtful expediency, and ahoatd deem it prndent to MtA more
sinple means of aceon^Uabing the and, if more wnple could be fvaoA.
)yGoo»^Ic
4W BOBOVBJJt A<lU«tn.*tnUL
•ar&ca U completely iorerted, the rich eoil is buried, and the
ondenoil brought to the top, he may labor in a ni» hope of an
ultimate compeontion ; yet he most in soch caae wait with a
maniy patience ; and it may be advinble in aome instancea to
have aome regard to the length of hi* pone, and the time of his
life ; perhapa, in EngLaod, it would be aa well to add the toma
of bia lease, which may not always be sach as to encouiage soh-
atantial improvemeats. Sach improvements, being intended to
be permanent, can hardly be otberwiae than expensive.
I do not know where I can better introduce to my readeis
an experiment upon soils, which I witnessed in progress in that
admirable establishment, the Agricultural Museum and Nnr-
sery-Grounds of the Meara. Drummond, in Stilling, Scotland,
which I strongly recommend to the notice of every intelligent
traveller in that picturesque and most interesting locality,
whether his objects of pursuit be of an agricultural nature, or
otherwise. If the experiment leads to no practical results, it is
deserving of attention, aa matter of philosophical curiosity. I
give it from their own written communication to me.
" Notice of a Comparative TYialofthe QuaSlies of variant fwe
Eartha for tupporHng VegeteUion, made in the Nurtery-
Grounds of W. Drummond a»d Sont, StirUng.
" Garden pots eight inches in diameter were filled each with
a pure earth, reduced, by pounding, to the consistency of gravelly
sand, where it had previously existed in the indurated or rocky
state. Oats were then sown about the middle of April, three
plants being allowed to remain in each pot. The pots were
plunged to the rim in an open border, cinders of coal being put
tmder them, and care otherwise taken that the roots of the oats
should obtain no extraneous nourishment The plants were
watered with common spring water, a few times, in very dry
weather.
" The stalks attained, in general, to the height of two and a
half to three feet. The grain fully ripened about the beginnii^
of September.
" PRODOCE.
Bartk*. Emr». Otbm.
"Granite, (Aberdeen,) 13 . 220
Clay slate, dnmitive,) 11 . 241
)yGoo»^Ic
GBHSKAL RULES TOB PLODSBIHO. 4Jit
Earth: E»n. Orahk*.
OreenstoDe, (secondvr trap,) 10 . 246
Limestooe, . 9 . 261
Chalk, 13 . 365
Oypsum, (Tflry sickly plants,) 6 . 40
Saodatone, (silicious,) IS . 230
Pit-sand, (btown,) 12 . 210
t&xtb clay, (taken ten feet andei the Biuface,) . 10 2^
Mixture of all the abore kinds, 9 . 190
OtHnmoQ light loamy soil, 18 . 463
" Experiments of this natnie seem worthy of farther prosecii'
tion, particularly relative to the respective influence of the atmos-
phere and toil in the nonrishment of plants. When the oats
vere sotd, scientific as well as practical men predicted, that \a
moot of tbeee earths they would not grow ; and when they saw
them growii^, predicted XhaX they would not ripen seed. The
femlts have proved otberwiBe."
A single experiment, in such ease, can hardly be considered
as decisive, excepting as to the possibility of plants living and
maturing in an nnmized soil. The fact of their not succeeding,
with one exception, so well in a soil composed of the several
varieties as in a simple soil, is likewise noticeable. The superior
anceess of the plants in loam is also to be observed, to show that
their growth was not wholly dependent upon the atmosphere, at
•ome would have us believe, and that (he soil furnishes smne-
thing more than a mere support for the plants. The growth, in
each case, must be considered as inferior ; and, without deducing
any general conclusions, which might be premature, or endear-
oritig to fit the facts to any received theory, I submit it to the
further inquiries of those who have the curiosity and talent to
pursue these interesting investigations. If it prompts to other
well-conducted experiments, my object will be answeied.
The bringing of any considerable quantity of inert soil to the
surface is obviously attended with uncertain results, so much
depends upon the nature and condition of the soil so brought up.
At the Duke of Portland's, at Welbeck, places were pointed oat
to me where the surface mould had been removed, a portion of
the nbaoil taken away, and the mould, or top soil, returned to
)yGoo»^Ic
He CDBOTBAB AGUCDLTDBE.
its place ; but in no instance was its iverious fertility reatorad.
Deep cultivation will undoubtedly in the end recover such places,
but time and patience are indispensable.
7. Simsoii,-Pi.ou6HnTa. — The next great operation, performed
with the plough, is here called aubamling. The object of this
is similar to that of trencb-pioughing — that of loosening the sub-
stratum, and deepening the soil to be cultivated. But it differs
in this respect : trenching, either by the spade or the plough,
buries the surface soil, and covers it with that which is turned
up ; but subsoil-ploughing aims to loosen the substratum to the
depth required, without bringing it to the surface or coverii^
the mould, and, by the gradual intermixture of the lower stratum
with the upper soil, to enrich it, and ultimately convert the whole
into an equally arable and fertile condition. SubsoiUng is pei^
f<»ined by a plough of a peculiar construction, following in the
furrow of a common plough. If we suppose the first plough to
have turned up the land to the depth of seven inches, the next
I^ough loosens it to the depth of nine inches more, so that the
whole land ploughed is in this case equal to sixteen inches.
The great objection to trenching land, either by the plough m
spade, is, that it brings the inert soil to the surface in a conditknt
nosuited to the purposes of vegetation, and that thus much time
is necessarily lost before it can, without great expense, be
restored to its former fertility. The advantage of subsoiling is,
that it so gradually raises the substratum to mingle with the top
soil, that the cultivation of the latter is not interrupted, but ibe
soil is benefited by the slight intermixture. Another and very'
great advantage derived from subsoiling, is in the admission of
air and heat to the loosened soil, by which it is im{ffoved, and
better subserves the purposes of vegetation, and at the same time
opportunity is given for the free expansion of the roots of the
plant. On many descriptions of soil, the surface, or vegetable
mould, rests upon a hard pan at greater or less depth, and which
is impervious to the roots nf the plant, aud does not suffer even
the water to pass off freely. However long this may have
existed, as the plough has usually gone only to a certain depth,
this substratum has become the more indurated by the treading
of the horsRS in the ploughed furrow, and the constant sliding
of the sole of the though over it. It is the object of the subsoil-
)yGoo»^Ic
GXHXKAL BDLM TOS PL006HIN0. 440
plough always to break up this pan, which, atlet being broken
up and exposed to the air, gradually ciumbles and becomes min-
gled vith the upper soil
This is subsoiliog, as it is here termed, of which every modem
treatise of English husbandry is fiill. It can scarcely be said to
be an absolutely new practice,* for passing a second plough in
an open furrow may be considered as a species of subsoiling ;
yet the credit of introducing the practice, and establishing it
upon just principles, as connected with draining the land, must
be fully accorded to Mr. James Smith, of Deanston, in Scotland,
a man of whose sound understanding and practical skill I might
speak in the highest terms, if my humble voice would add any
thing to the distinguished and substantial reputation which he
enjoys throughout the kingdom. I have been over the estate in
Scotland which was under his care ; and, though the land may
be considered as inferior, yet its fine appearance, the regular
arrangement of his fields, the condition of his fences, and the
perfept cleanness and productiveness of his grounds, present an
eminent and beautiful example <^ the most improved husbandry.
A great portion of his labors are indeed under ground, and out of
sight ; but the results of them are obvious.
Mr. Smith was the active manager of an extensive cloth or
cotton factory, in the neighborhood of which was the farm on
which he effected such improvements. The condition of the
factory in all its departments, the buildings for the persons who
are em[4oyed in the factory, the whole arrangement of the facto-
ry village, the condition and reputable conduct of the operatives,
mid the measures taken for their educational improvement, are
very much in advance of what is to be found in many places both
in England and the United States, and, while they do Mr. Smith
himself the highest honor, present a beautiful examine for imita-
tion. Mr. Smith is entitled to the high merit, not of applying
" WoHedge, in hia TSjnterj of Hmbuidiy, describe* (A. D. 1677) TOy
clearly the first rude attempt to construct a subsoil-plough. He tells us of <■ ui in-
genioQS young man of Kent, wbo hod two ploughs fastened ti^ether very firmly,
by which he plou{^ed two fiirrowB st once, one nndei another, and so stiiied the
luid twelve or fborteen incbes deep. It only looeeneth or ligbteneth the laad to
that depth, but doth not bury the upper crust of the ground so deep as is usnaBy
done by digging." Quoted in Raiwome's excellent worh on the Implements of
AgrknlUue,pL 12.
)yGoo»^Ic
4B0 BuaoPBur
the subsoil-plough to the laod merelrr (by which the most rala-
able improvements have been effected,) but to the interesting
comniiinity of several hundreds, over which, as the agent of the
Deanston works or factory, he presided. By education, and by
paternal care and interest in their welfare, he has done what ha
could for the improvement of tbeii condition. He may be said
to have broken up and elevated the lower strata, that, by bring-
ing them from a degraded conditioD to the light and air, and by
degrees preparing them to intermingle with the higher strata, he
might alike benefit both parties, and substantially imjffove the
character of the whole.
Mi. Smith invented a plough for the express purpose of sub-
soiling, of which i design presently to give a plate. It is with<
out a mould-boaid, but it has a feather on the ahaie. Several
other [Jougha have been invented for the same purpose — om
made under the direction of Ur. Pusey, called the Charlbury
plough, which proposed to perform both the operation of plough-
ing the land and subsoiling at the same time. It was therefore
a common plough, and, several inches below the sole of the
plough, and behind it, there was attached a tumed-up or crooked
tine or foot, calculated to descend into the soil in the furrow to
the prescribed depth. The draught of this ploDgh must be of
course, by such an arrangement, considerably increased, and the
instrument would appear rather clumsy ia it» operati^Hi. If it
did its work well, this is all that could be required. One of its
great merits is stated to be a considerable superiority Over tfae
Deanston plough, in lightness of draught I have never seen
it employed. Another subsoil^ough, which has been recom-
mended, is a single iron tine or foot, attached to a proper frame
with handles, and which, being drawn through the furrow after
the other plough, loosens the soil in e single line. It would
seem to be an isBtrument of small expense, aa well as simple
construction ; but it executes the work very imperfectly, not
stirring the whole ground, but dividing it only in single lines.
Mr. Smith's plough, having a small feather on the share, not only
moves the whole bottom of the furrow, but it raises a small
portion of the subsoil, and lays it against the side of the furrow
already turned over, thus mingling the subsoil and the upper
soil in some smalt portions together. This may be considered
as a decided advant^e. But, to describe the practice of subsoil-
)yGoo»^Ic
aXNSIUI. BUUB TOK FUHTaKIIfO. 451
ing land vithoat that of thorough-draining, vhich forma a part
oi the same system, would be unjust to Mr. Smith. This, how-
eret, I shall do most fully under the subject of dtaining, which
will come as matter of course.
To Bubsoil without draining is not to be indiscriminately
recommended. lo heavy and clay soils, it would be of little use,
aa they would soon settle down into their former compactneas.
In some aoila it would only serve to increase their wetness, a>
the water, sinking deeper into the groand, without any provision
for its escape, would pass off less quickly by evapotation than
if nearer Iha surface. In lighter soils, where its only effect
would be to loosen the soil, it would undoubtedly be beneficial.
8. ExpEaraxOT in Sdbsou-ino Hsath Lahs. — An example
of success in the application of the subsoil to heath land, which
ia within my knowledge, is so remarkable, that I will give it to
my readers at laige. The gentleman to whom I shall refer, Sir
Edward Stracey, is himself the inventor of a subsoil^ot^h,
ktkown as the Rackheath plough, after the name of the property
which he occupies, and which is much lighter of draught Uian
the Deanston {dough.
" On my coming to reside on my estate at Rackheath, about
aiz years since, I found 500 acres of heath land, composing two
farms,without tenants,— the goree, heather, and fern shooting up
in all parts. In short, the land was in such a condition that the
crops did not return the seed sown. The soil was a loose,
loamy soil, and had been broken np by the plough to a depth not
eiweeding four inches, beneath which was a substratum (pro-
Tincially called an irott'pan) so hard, that with difficulty could
a pickaxe be made to enter in many places ; and my bailiff, who
bad looked after the lands for 36 years, told me that the lands
were not worth cultivating ; that all the neighboring farmers
said the same thing ; and that there was bnt one thing to be
done, viz., to jdant with fir and foieat-trees. To this I paid
little attention, as I had the year preceding allotted some parcels
of ground, taken out of the adjoining lands, to some cottagers, to
each cottage about one third of an acre. The crops on all these
allotments looked fine, healthy, and good, producing excellent
wheat, carrots, peas, cabbages, potatoes, and other vegetables, in
abundance. The question then was, How was this to be done ?
)yGoo»^Ic
On the oatside oX tfae cottage allolmeDti, all vas buien. It
could not be by tbe manure that had been laid od, fof the cot-
tageiB had none but that which they had aenped from the toeda.
The magic of all this I could ascribe to nothing else but tbe
tpade ; they had broken up the land eighteen inches deep. As to
digging up 500 acres «ith the spade, to tbe depth of eighteen
inches, at an expense of six pounds an acie, I would not attempt
it 1 considered that a plough might be constiucted ao as to
loosen tbe soil to tbe depth of eighteen inches, keejong tbe best
soil to the depth of four inches, and near the sur^ce, thus ad-
mitting air and moisture to the roots of tbe plants, and enabling
them to extend their spongioles in search of food, — for air, mois-
ture, and extent of pastoie, are as neceaaary to the thriving and in-
crease of vegetables as of animals. In this attempt I succeeded,
as the result will show. I have now broken up all these 500 acres
eighteen inches deep. The process was by sending a common
plough drawn by two horsee to precede, which turned over tbe
ground to the depth of four inches. My snbsoil^ough imme-
diately followed in the fiirrow made, drawn by four horses, stir-
ring and breaking the soil twelve or fourteen inches deeper, but
not turning it over. Sometimes the iron-pan was so hud that
tbe horses were set fast, and it became Daceesary to use tbe pick-
et, to release them, before they could proceed. After the first
year, tbe land produced double tbe former crops, many of tbe
carrots being 16 inches in length, and of proportionate Ihicknesa.
This amendment could have arisen only &om tbe deep plough-
ing. Manure I had scarcely any, the land not producing then
stover snfficient to keep any stock worth mentioning, and it was
not possible to procure snfficient quantity from the town. Tbe
plough tore up by tiie roots all the old gorse, heather, and fern,
so that the land lost all the distinctive character of heath land,
the first year after tfae deep ploughing, which it had retained,
notwithstanding the ploughing with the common ploughs for
thirty-five years. Immediately after this subsoil-ploughing, the
crop of wheat was strong and long in the straw, and the grain
close-bosomed and heavy, weighing 64 pounds to the bushel ;
the quantity, as mi^t be expected, not large, (about 26 bushels
to the acre,) but great in comparison to what it produced before.
Tbe millers were desirous of purchasing it, and could scarcely
believe it was grown upon the heath land, as in former years it
)yGoo»^Ic
OEITEKAL KCLKS rOB rUMJflBIMO. 453
iras difficult to get a. miller to look at a sample. Ijet this be
bome in miad, that this land thea had had no manure for years,
-was run oat, sod could 0QI7 have been meliorated by the admis-
uoa of air and moisture, from deep ploughing. This year the
wheat on this land has looked most promising ; the ears large
and heavy, the straw long, and I expect the produce will be
from 31 to 36 bushels per acre. My Swedish tamips oa this
land this year ai« very good ; my pudding and sugar-loaf turnips
fiuling in many parts, sharing the fate of those of my neighbors,
having been greatly injured by the torrents of rain which fell
after they had shown themselves above the ground. Turnips
muBt hare a deep and well-pulverized soil, in order to enable
them to swell, and the tap-roots to penetrate in search of food.
The tap-root of a Swedish turnip has been known to penetrate
39 inches into the ground. I will add only two or three gen-
eral observations.
" Ist. The work done by the plough for exceeds trenching
with the spade, as the plough only breaks and loosens the land all
aroand, without turning the subsoil to the top, which in some
cases (where the subsoil is bad) would be injurious to the early
and tender jdants ; and if the subsoil is good, it would be ren-
dered more fit for vegetation after the air and moisture had been
permitted to enter. The ploughing is also tai preferable to
trenching by the spade, even for planting, (i. e. trees,) as it may
be done at one fourth the expense.
"2dly. It were very preferable, if possible, to work the horses
abreast, pair and pair ; but, in using this plough, the horses must
work in a line, for, if abreast, the horse on the land ploughed
would soon be fotigued, by sinking up to his hocks; and, to
render the draught more easy, the second horse from the plough
should not be fastened to the chains of the horse next the
jdoi^h ; but the chains of the second horse should be made
long enough to be hooked about two feet behind the back-band
of the chains of the horse next the plough, so that the second
horse will dmw at an angle of about 33 degrees ; otherwise,
were the chains of the second horse hooked in front of the back-
chain, he would pull the whole weight of his draught, together
with that of the horses preceding him, on the back of the horse
next the [dough ; and the strength of the horse would be lost iu
)yGoo»^Ic
4S4 EUBOFBAM ASBIODX^TDBB.
the draught, as his whole povers vould be exerted in his en-
deavors to pierent being brought down upon hia knees. By so
arranging the chaiiu, the power of Uiree horses would be eqoal
to that of four."
Such were the farorable results of this bold experiment In
many other cases, however, the result has not been so successful ;
and when the state or character of the land is such as to retain
the water, as (to use the exiH«Esion of one highly intelligent
farmer, who subsoiled his land without first draining it) " it some-
times does like a sponge," the subsoiling is as likely, and pei^
haps more likely, to be injurious than beneficial. The Deanston
system, as it is here called, of subsoil-jdoughing and farrow-
draining will presently be fully stated to my readers.
9. Subturt-Plocoh. ' — The same gentleman last referred to,
Sir Edward Stracey, is the inventor of what is called a gubtvrf-
plough, which is fitted for use in lands where it is desirable to
stir the soil beneath without breaking the turf. It does not
differ much fium the subsoit-pdough ; and, being once inserted into
the ground, breaks it up to the depth of about ten inches, leavit^
DO other marks of its operation than the lines cut in the turf,
which very soon, by the natural growth of the grass, become ob-
literated. The lines are at the distance of about fourteen inches
from one another. It loosens the soil underneath, admits ths
air and rain, and permits the roots to spread themselves. He
says, "after a trial of it, that the quantity of the aftermath, and
the thickness of the bottom, have been the subject of general
admiration. Another advantage iiom this subturf-ploughing is
that, before that took place, water was lying stagnant on many
parts, (after heavy rains,) especially in the lower grounds, to a
great depth ; now, no water is to be seen lying on any part, the
whole being absorbed by the earth." This supposes that the
lower strata, below where the plough has reached, are porous, and
easily transmit the water, or, otherwise, it might be liable to the
objections to which I have referred above.
10. pERTECTtocr OF Enolisb Plouohino. — I have spoken of
the various modes of ploughiug, and of the extraordinary exact-
ness with which it is executed. It would be curious to trace
)yGoo»^Ic
(«6)
SMITH S SUBSOII^PLOnGB.
CBMP.4H.)
" llu* performfl the opentko of Bubioil [doughiiig, to the depth of firm Ian ta
BitBeii inche* below the miftoe, uid, when preceded bj the common ploogli,
which U the plan reconuneiided, the depth reaxihed below the Burftce ground i>
jut BO much the more tbui the first plough effecto."
EACKEKATH BTTBTUBF-FLOUaB.
"This {dough UMwen tdminbly for under-ploagfaing gnm Unds, and i« mado
Into > eubtuif-plough by chuigiiig the wheel gear in front to that of a carriags
and two whoela."
)yGoo»^Ic
456 BUBOPEAH AOBtCDLTDKE.
the progresa of this art, from its rudest stages, to ibis beautiful
and facile maoDer which distinguishes its performance in the
best cultivated districts of England and Scotland. I do not like
to say that no further improvements can be made. No reflecting
man, who has witnessed the eztraoidJnary changes, and inven-
tions, and improvements, of half a century, and seen the contin-
ually-shifting scenes, and the new actors presenting themselves
on the stf^e, and bringing the treasures of their wisdom and
skill to the vast accumulations which genius and science have
already heaped up, wilt assert this of any human art ; but it is
safe for me to say, that I do not know how, in the best cases, the
execution of the work can be improved. Under the direction of
an experienced and well-skilled ploughman, and an efficient and
well-trained team, the implement itself moves like a thing of
life, and performs its office with the precision of the highest in-
telligence.
This is not the effect of accident ; it is the work of severe and
careful training. Boys are early accustomed to stand behind the
plough, and stimulated by the strongest motives which can be
addressed to their cupidity, their love of approbation, or their
ambition of excellence. Under the prevalent subdivision of
labor, to which I have before alluded, the advant^es arising
from practice, and a fixed attention to one particular object, are
obviously secured. The man who ploughs, and does little else
except ploughing, is far more likely to execute his work thor-
oughly and well than the man whose attention is divided among
a multitude and diversity of pursuits.
11. Plouobimg-Matches. — The ploughing-matches, likewise,
in which most intelligent and severe judges are appointed, the
rules of competition are stringent and absolute, and the golden
rewards most liberal, have contributed essentially to the improve-
ment of this art.
We have witnessed the same results in the United States. I
recollect the first [^oughing-match at Brighton, under the
auspices of the Massachusetts Society for promoting Agriculture.
The gradual proficiency, from these early and comparatively rude
trials, to the triumphant and beautiful results which, more than
a quarter of a century afterwards, with honest pride, I have wit-
Dessed at Worcester, shows that there is no deficiency of talent
)yGoo»^Ic
GZMEftll. BULBS VOR nXIDflmiHO. 4ST
and ikill, and no lack of bo hooorabte ambition of ira^aurement,
and that in the rarioiii departments of the arts, and in spheres flf
Buprorement and progress higher than those of the mechaaioal
arts, all that u wanted among ua, to the development of power
and skill, is "a fair field and no faror.*'
The regulations of the English ploughing-matehes differ in
aome respects from those in the United States. The jndges in
the English ploughiag-^natehes nerer come on to the field until
the work is done and every team withdrawn. With us, they
are present from the commeQcement to the close of tiie work.
Our practice is, in my opinion, to be jneferred. In the fortnw
ease, no party is known, and impartiality, thereftm, may be said
to be perfectly seenred. So ht it is well. The "work is accu-
rately surveyed and measured ; the depth of the ploughing, the
widtft of the fiirrow-Hdice, the mode of laying it over, tba stiaight-
ness of the lines, the manner in which the first furrow-slices are
brought t(^ther if it is ploughed back to back, <x the finishing
of the last and middle furrow if the piece is ploughed from the
outside to the centre, the freedom from balks and breaka, are all
carefully eonsideted in the Terdiet rendered. In the United
States, every effort is made to secure impartiality, consistently
with other arrangements, inasmuch as that no names, but only
numbers, are given to the judges, and the different plats of ground
to be ploughed are drawn fot by tot. Then the judges on the
fidd observe the whole progress of the operation ; zneasore the
diffeteot portions, as the work goes on ; and watdi the tempm
and conduct of the ploughman and tbe b«inii^ of his team, the
manner in which he treats bis team, and the condition in which
they come off from the woilt. These circumstances all deserve
consideration, aad should come in as elements on which a judg-
ment is to be made up. la both cases, it is understood, as it
diould be, that no party having any personal or pecuniary
interest in the result shall have a {dace on the bench. The
English are exact and positive in prescribing the depth of tiM
ploughing, and the width of the furrow-elice even to a h^-ineh,
and insist upon a uniform width throughout tbe whole, t have
orged tiaa same thing often upon committees, in my own coun-
try, on which I have had the honor o( being placed, and hatva
been met with tbe objection, that Ais was requiring too much,
and would operate as a discouragement. In my opinion, yon
)yGoo»^Ic
408 BuKOPKAir AOticmauaa.
cannot reqnire too much, provided yon make your {wemiums in
proportion liberal. ElzceUence is never attained by presentiiig
an inferior standard. Let your reward* be as liberal as possible ;
reqnire the work to be done as well as possible ; and make your
rules reasonable, but as stringent as poesible ; and hold con-
formity absolute and inevitable. In every such competition,
there are minds in which the anperior value and splendor of a
triumph under such circumstances will rouse a powerful and
noble ambition ; fire will be brought out of stone, end, as in
some beautiful chemical experiments, you will see the blaze
burning under the ice. But if you must have a scrub race, have
it in another port of the field, and after the noble-spirited horses
are withdrawn, and the donkeys and the Rosinantes are brought
fivward. I have never known a case, in which this loose system
of accommodation and indulgence }»evailed, and where the rules
were nanowed or expanded to fit the occasion, that the decision
of the judges gave geneial satisfaction, or ought to give sat-
isfaction.
It is very mortifying to &il in an object for which one has had
a hard struggle. Many a noble fellow, after bavii^ reached the
upper limbs of the tree, as he was upon the point of putting his
hand on the firuit, has found himself, with every effort and strain,
not quite high enough to reach it, and perhaps has come tnm-
Uing down, with his clothes torn, and his fiice scratched, to the
ground. Upon such a mind, the only effect was to rouse his
ambition to a stronger pitch, to give new vigor to his muscles
and new enei^ to his detennination. This was as it should be,
I have been told of an Irishman, — an Irishman he was, of
course, for none bat this clever peojje ever do such pleasant things,
. — that he called to demand the payment of the highest prize in
the lottery, which he said he had drawn. Upon jHresenting his
ticket, he was told that it was the number next above his to
which the prize had fallen. He said "he knew that very wdl;
but he did not suppose that such great folks would stand out for
a single number." In all cases of competition, the prize should
only be paid to the number which has actually drawn it. It
may, in many cases, be expedient to give prizes for effort, and
for partial excellence ; but if the }»«mium is announced for ao-
eomplishment, to accompUBhm«it only should it be paid.
)yGoo»^Ic
SENBRAI. BDLCI TOB TIiOCrOHIHa. 450
12. HoBsis mKD FOB PLOuoanro. — toughing here is almoat
VDirersallf done with horseB. 1 sav some ozea ploughing at
Holkham, with leather harneBaea and breastplates, instead of
yokes atul bows, as employed in New England, and I have
foond oxen used is some few other cases, but, within my obser*
TBtioQ, these caaes are very rare. The question of the com-
patative expediency of employii^ horses or oxen in fana work
will come up for discussion presently.
The horses are extremely well trained, and usually groomed
with the greatest care. I have found one remarkable excep-
tion to this practice, and that of a very large &rmei of high
repute. He never suffered his horses to be curried or sheared,
or confined in stables. When brought home from their work,
they were turned into open yards, with capacious sheds, and the
stable doors, without any division of stalls, were always left open.
The mangers were plentifully supplied with food, and the
troughs with water, and they ate and drank, stood or reclined,
or walked about, as they [leased. The yards and stalls were
always most abundantly littered. I should have scarcely thought
proper to mention a case of management, which some might pro-
nounce careless and slovenly, and of which, in riding through
some parts of New England, one would hardly be at a loss to
find examj^es, were it not that this was the practice of a very
lai^e farmer, extremely skilful and intelligent, and the iavorite
tenant and model of one of the largest proprietors, and one of
the greatest agricultural improvers in the conntry, (the late Lord
Leicester,) and that he pursued this practice from choice, and
because he deemed it most conducive to the health and comfort
of the animals. He maintained that the animals, not being kept
in warm stables, but familiar with the changes of the weather,
bore them wi(h less inconvenience and suffering than they others
wise would have done ; that a great deal of time and trouble
was saved in the care of them ; that, being at liberty to lie down
when they pleased, their rest was more refreshing than if con-
fined and tied in a stall ; that, the hair being given them for a
covering, it was wrong to atrip them of their flannels at a season
when they most needed them ; and that the dirt itself, matted
among their hair, assisted in retaining the wannth. These were
all philosophical reasons, which did not quite convince me of the
wisdom and expediency of this mode of managing. The last
)yGoo»^Ic
460 BDROrBAB A<imiCat.TUBB.
ai^mneat, in reapect to the dirt keepii^ the animak vanuer,
■eems well imdMstood, and practically ezemi^ified, by many of
the lower clasaes in Ixudon, Ediabu^h, aiul Dublia, and, if wdl
fiHinded, might do something towards leaseniog the compaBsion
which one must otherwise feel for their suffering from the wam
of fuel. The horses in possessioa of the farmer spoken ttf
appeared in good conditioa, and were stroi^ for labor ; and the
practice pursued was of sereral years' standing.
The usual jaaetice is for the ploughman to be at the stables at
four o'clock in the morning ; to clean, water, and feed his horses,
and to be in the field at work at six o'clock. With a short time
to rest occasionally, be continues his ploughing until two o'clock,
witea he returns to the homestead, the horses ere thoroughly
cleaned, and rubbed, and watered, and fed, and at last littered
for the night — eight hours being considered as a day's work; and,
in ordinary cases, an English statute acre, of the same size as an
American acre, is his allotted stint There are cases of heavy
land, in which only three quarters of an acre are considered a
day's work ; and others, of lighter Itmd, in which upwards of an
acre and a quarter are accompli^ied. In Scotland, a pair of
horses are ordinarily considered sufficient for any kind of land,
and they are worked side by side. If three are employed, two
walk upon the land, and me in the furrow. The [oactice of
•ffil^oying only two horses to a j^ugb is beginniug to prevail
in England ; but, in many instances, three and four horses are
used, drawing at length. This [wactice is not so entirely with-
out reason as some trarellers represent it, for in some land it is
desirable and necessary to avoid trampling it, and consohdating
it the more, by the horses' tread ; but when, as it has occasioD-
sdly happened, I have seen five horses harnessed lengthwise to a
single plough, with two men tU the plough, and three men or
boys with the horses, my own admiration has sometimeB hot-
dered ap<m the ridiculous. The aSaXt of turning at the end, in
such a case, is somewhat like wheeling a battalion of undisci-
plined militia at a country muster, and, unless the field be very
loi^, a la^e portion of the day must be occupied by these evo-
tntions. The Scotch {donghman, with only two horses, and the
reins over his neck, turns a comer like an officer's charger, and
requires no aid.
In some cases, ploughs with double mould-bosrda are used,
)yGoo»^Ic
461
which regularly tam two furrows at the tame time. In light
land, and where the Roughing is shallow, they save time and
expense. In stronger lands, where three horses are sufficient, it
is obrious that the expense of one horse is sared. In heary
lands, where four horaes would be required on account of the
double mould-board, it is obrious nothing would be gained. In
parts of Lincolnshire, on the chalk formation, where the ptough-
ing for wheat was not more than three inches, these ploughs
were much approred. I give below a cut of a double furrow-
jidough. The invention of this i^ough is by Lord SomerviUe ;
and it is certainly creditable for the ingenuity of its construction.
LXXXIL — A DIGRESSION.
PaooaEss or Ihpsovehent. — I have gone thus at la^ into
the operation of ploughing, because it is the great operation of
husbandry ; and having finished the field, let us stand aside, and,
looking at the work, indulge a moment the reflections which
suggest themselves.
A ruffle from under a crimping iron does not present a more
beantiful object than a well-ploughed field firom under the hands
of an English or a Scotch artist. The lines are all straight ; the
furrows well turned ; the headlands cross-ploughed ; the comers
finished. A well-disciplined mind enjoys the highest pleasure
from seeing an operation of any kind, even the most humble,
well performed, and perfected according to its proper measure.
There is something, likewise, extremely gratifying in witness-
)yGoo»^Ic
iog the [»^>gi«8s and adnoceBwiit of hunum skill and vt From
digging the grooiul with a rtick, that a hole might be made for
the deposit of the wed, to the perfect invenioD of it by the
plough, what an inuneiue stride ! That ia hot done ia a day,
which, in the rude agea referred to, cot^d scarcely hare been
•ocomplished in a year ; and that ia now performed with eaae,
and without aoy unkind tax upcni the health of man or beast,
which could not otherwise have been effected without the moot
sarere exactions of human toil, and ofteo at the expense of the
premature shortening of human life.
I.TTynr _ IMPROVED HACHINERT.
There are persons continually complaining of the introdnction
and use of machinery in Urn place of human labor, and as there-
fore prejadicial to the inteiesta of the poor. At an agricultural
dinner, I listened with a good deal of interest to a distinguished
nobleman, who was defending machinery against this charge,
by endeavoring to show that, so fiir from machinery lessening
the demand for labor, it was the ordinary result of it to cause
the employment of more persons than were occupied before its
introdnction. This may be the fact ; but if this were the only
result, or if this result stood alone, it would not be a very strong
recommendation, and should be clasaad with the kind of argu-
ment used not long since in I^liament, in commendation of the
com laws, that they encouraged labor by renderii^ agricnltn-
lal ptodxux dear, when it is obvious that, jnst in fvoportion as
the -ptice of a^cultural produce increases, the value of the wages
of the laborer decrease, his supplies are diminished, and, thoi^h
labor is mora in demand, it is worse paid.
1. MACBivcaT LiOBixiTs LisoB. — The value of improved
machinery rests upon different grounds. Its first effect ia to
lessen the severity of human toil. Through the ingenious i^
plication of the mechanical powers, that is effected by the hand
of a child, which the united force of hundreds of men, strained
)yGoo»^Ic
■MPKOTBD MAOHimKr. M3
to an iatennty most painful and injuiiouB, could acarcely accom-
plish. The wheel, and the le7er, and the puUey, and the in-
definite multifdication and carious combination of powers which
act inranta, execute works of a magnitude, before which die
iimies of an ancie&t or a modem Alexander might sit down in
despair. Instead, accordii^ to the fashion of ancient monarchs,
of throwing golden fetters into the tonent, to stem its force,
modem science puts an iron bit into its mouth, and rides Ui*
■mphantiy upon its crested wares. The victorieB which human
an has achieved or&t the elements of nature, once deemed un<
tamable, adorn with matchless splendor the annals of our times;
and yet, like the crepuscular light, like the first darting up of the
morning rays upon the eastern horizon, they only presage the
fidl light of day. Fire, water, air, in Tsrions forms, stand ready
to do man's bidding ; and, ss the miracle of modem art, the
winged lightning presents itself to his service, and becomes the
instantaneous bearer of intelligence between places the most
distant — between places whose distance, be it what it may, will
Bake no difierance in time or certainty, where once the meam
of an uninterrupted continuity of communication shall have
been discovered. These are great achievements, and their
^ects are fslt in every department of labor. In agricultural
operations, if the mechanic arts have not yet done as mocb as
in many other branches of industry, yet they baVe rendered no
small contributions ; and it is not to be fo^otten, that the agri-
cultural interest, if not specifically served, shares as largely as
any other class in the general benefits which the improvements
of the mechanic arts confer npon society. The plough is an
immense advance upon the spade ; the cultivator, upon the hoe ;
the horse-rake and hay-tedder, upon the hand-rake and the
common fork. The steam-engine perfonns the work of many
men and many horses in the threshing of grain, and the pump-
ing of water, and various other operations to which it is applied.
In the fens of Lincolnshire, two immense steam-engines, one of
eighty, and one of sixty horse power, under the care of one ot
two individuals, completely drain an extent of surEsee of many
thousands of acres. They bring these hitherto waste tracts of
country under the dominion of productive cultivation, and, by
its magical infiueoce, bid these unsightly and barren sands adorn
themselves with the glittering tresses of a golden harvest These
)yGoo»^Ic
464 Ensopua AStacourumm.
are among the miracles of machinery, under the guidance of an
intelligence -which is an emanation irom the Divine SpiriL
One hundred and £Ay thousand acres, in the neighboring fens,
an now in the jvocess of beii% redeemed from the sea, and com-
pletely drained, by a similar machinery. The courtiers of the
king may now safely challenge him to place his chair upon the
beach, and bid the waves retire. What could human labor
effect in such cases without the aid of machinery ? For all the
men, and women, and children, in England, to hare attempted to
accomplish such a work, without such help, would have been as
wise aa to undertake to dip out Lake Superior with a table-
qioon.*
3. M^CBimaT utckeises Proddctioit. — The second effect of
machinery is, to multiply production to an unlimited extent. A
cotton manufactory at Manchester turns out in a day as much
cotton cloth as, ander the old system of household spinning and
weaving, could have been made in all Lancashire in a fortnif^t,
perhiqw a month. With improved machinery, twenty acres —
may I not say fifty? — can be ploughed, harrowed, manured,
drilled, cultivated, and the jHDduce harvested, and threshed, and
* " ff Teferance b nnule to tike avidence given before die Honee of ComoMHa,
to which the irameKMii petitioni comidaiiiiiig of Kgricnhim] dirtnei were re-
feired in 1831, it will be aeeti that, it tbtt time, aliiKMt the oul; gnin produced
in the fena (rf* Cambridgeshire eoDaieted of oats. Since then, by dnJning and
maouring, the capabilitj of the soil lias been so changed, that these fern now
prodnce some oTtha finest wheat tliat is grown in England ; and this mora coattf
gtaiu now constitiitea the main dependence of the fumns in a district vriieie,
finiiteen yean ago, it> pniduetioQ waa acaicely attempted."
" It has been found that an engine of the power of ten biwsee is sufficient for
draining 1000 acres of land, and that, on the avenge of years, thia wort may be
perfonned bj setting the engine in motion for periods amoanting in the a^t»-
gate to 30 days ot 13 faoura each, or 340 bonis in a]|. Several engines have
been erected for this poipoee within the last three or four years, scnne of them
having the powar of 60 or 70 horses ; each of these large enginea ia employed in
draining from 6000 to 7000 acres of land. The cost of the first establishment cf
diese engines is stated to be £1 per acre, and the axpenae of keeping them at
work 3 s, 6 d. per acre. This plan is fiMind to bring with it the ftirther advantage
that, in the event of long-continued drought, the fanner can, without af^nehenaiai),
admit the water requited for his cattle, and for the purpose of irrigation, secure
in the means he possesaea of regulating the degree of moistnte, if the dioaght,
•a is frequently the case, dxnld be followed by an ezcen of rain." — Porta't
)yGoo»^Ic
mpkorts Mkcmmmx. 480
prepared for food, vhere, under the rude syetem of the aboriginea
of the country-, the cultintkni of only ooe could be canted on,
and its produce secured. Indeed, all such comparisons seem
idle, because, -without machinery of some kind, no cultivation
vhatenr could take place. The human hand is itself a machine,
and one of the moat perfect deacriptim. If there ia any adran-
tags in having two hands rather than me, then there must be a
correspondent advantage in any contrivance by which one hand
can be made to do the work of two, or two hands of four, and
still more when one can be empowered to do the work of
thousands.
From the manner in which some men speak of machinery,
one would suppose that the world would be better and happier
if men and women wen to go back to umple fig-leaves for
aprons, and andreiBod sheep^ins for coverings, and find shelter
and lepose at night under some overhangii^ rock, or on a bed
of bemlo^ boaghs, in a wigwam of birch-bark. I have ilo
sympathy with such "simple and {ffimitive " notions. I will
say nothing of the charms and blesaedneaa of a state of perfect
innocence, because I would not offend any honest man's jm^ju-
dicea, nor thrust my face and hands agaimt the porcupine armor
o( oontroveinal theology ; but I coofeaa I have always had some
miagivings as to the happiness of what poeta describe as the
golden age, and theologians depict aa the paradisiacal state,
when the human race had nothing to do but to enjoy themselves,
and to enjoy thanuelves in doing nothing — an experiment which,
whenavef I have tried it, I have always found extremely monot-
onous and wearisome. Strength is to be found only in the
exertion of the musdea ; food yields its nouriahment only when
the machinery of digestion ia in fiitl operation; and health,
and power, and happiness, are compatible only with the highest
activity of the phyaical and the intellectual focultiea.
When tha ignorant and vulgar, whose views do not extend
beyond the first immediate effects, bum foctories, and break
threshing-mills to pieces, an enlightened and generous miod
would feel compassion for their ignorance and infirmity ; but
when minds of a different order, professing to be enlightened,
become, aa we sometimes see them, the cavOlers against im-
proved machinery, and prate about the "simplicity of the good
old times," when men used clam-shells for spoons, and thomi
)yGoo»^Ic
466 BDsoFKur agucdltubb.
for [UDS, sod goat-skioa for glass bottles, and wooden bowls
instead of china, — and, in some instances, do far worse by foster-
ing the TindictiTe prejudices of the rulgar against those inven-
tions of art and genius which relieve the severity, facilitate the
exertion, and immensely increase (he productive power of labor, —
I hold them as without excuse, and could wish diem no worse
lot than to be exiled for a season to some parts of Ireland, where
these prejudices agtinst improved machinery are as fierce as
theirs can be, and where they may find millions living in a stale
of destitution as complete and absolute as seems compatible with
the continuance of life.
3. Gekkru. Efvegth on Labob. — I confess, however, them
is one view of this subject which I must not pass over, and
which I cannot take with equal complacency. The efiects of
improved machinery should be to alleviate and to shorten
human toil, and, in multiplying production, to extend more
widely the supply of food, and the common comforts of life.
The laboring man should, on every princi[de, be the first to
share in these benefits ; but far too often be is the last Food
is greatly multiplied both in quantity and variety ; but, in a
country where labor is superabundant, the wages of labor
become proportionately reduced, and the power to purchase
restricted. There can be no doubt that, ib respect to clothing
and furniture, the condition of the laboring population is greatly
improved above what it formerly was. An American clock, for
example, made in Connecticut, — -that home of industry and the
useful arts, — an article both useful and ornamental, and in which
^e " gude " housewife is sure to take an honest pride, may be
purchased in London for a pound. A century ago, this would
have been an article of furniture which a nobleman might covet.
But it is too true that improved machinery scarcely dimin-
ishes — in many cases it increases — the demand for human and
brute labor. Two men only ore required to thresh grain with a
flail ; from five to eight, besides the horses, or the attendants
upon the steam-engine, are employed at the threshing-machine.
Much more is threshed, and, in consequence of these increased
facilities, much more is grown, and therefore requires to be
threshed. " But for the invention of the steam-engine, a large
proportion of the coal mines now profitably worked could not
)yGoo»^Ic
IKPaOTBD MACHINVRT. 467
have been opoDed, or must have been abaodoned. It is well
known that, by the consumption of one bushel of coals in the
fiimacfl of a steam-boiler, a power ia produced which, in a few
minutes, will raise 20,000 gallons of water from a depth of 350
ieet — an effect which could not be produced in a shorter time
than a whole day through the continuous labor of twenty men,
working with the common pump. By thus expending a few
pence, an amount of human labor is set free, to employ which
would hare cost fifty shillings ; and yet this circumstance, so
fiur £rom having diminished the demand for human labor, eren in
the actual trade where the economy is jvoduced, has certainly
caused a much greater number of persons to be employed in
coal-mining than could otherwise have been set to work." *
It certainly ia matter of congratulation, rather than of com-
jdaint, that more food ia produced to be eaten, more clothing to
wear, and more fuel with which to warm our habitations and to
^ply to other purposes of utility, necessity, or enjoyment; but,
in looking at the severity and long continuance of toil to which
a lai^e part of the laboring portion of the community are anb-
jected, and how, in many of the arts and operations of manufiw:-
tnies and trade, human health and comfort are wholly disre-
garded, and human life is used ap with as much indifference as
fuel is thrown into the furnace of the steam-engine, one cannot
help deeply lamenting that the burden cannot be lightened on
the back of the hard-driven animal, and that they whose toil
pEoducea every thing are put off with the smallest and meanest
portion of the fruits of their own industry. How far govern-
ment should interfere, in such a case, between the employer and
the employed, is a question not without great practical diffi-
culties. Human society is such a complicated web, that the
extreme tension of any single thread disorders the whole piece.
Every [vovision should be made for the protection of the young
and helpless ; opportunity should be afforded for the full devel-
opment of their f^ysical powers, and for the education of their
minds. No pains should be spared to protect good morals and
decency, and to secure human life against any extraordinary perils.
The hours of labor should not be too long extended, nor the
hoars of seasonable rest encroached upon ; and, in any case
■ ProgieM of the Nition, nA L p. 339>.
)yGoo»^Ic
tfS
Then they are vhoUy dependent upon others for the proriaion
which they require, that proTiaion ^ould be at least aa kind and
liberal for the human bipeds as for the domestie quadrupeds.
It might be ^Etremely difficalt to effect this ; but, until this ia
done, oui condition is not half Chiiatian. Araiice, by force, or
cunniDg, or art, — openly sometimea, but more often oorertly, —
ia constantly trimnphing over humanity and joitice ; and it may
be r^aided as the Jnggemaut of ctrilization, cmshing with in-
difference all vho come in its vay.
LXXXIV. — HOIUt CONSIDERATIONS.
Before ve torn from the ploogbed field which we hatre bees
««item]^tiog, I hara but one oi two mote lestarks to make,
which will not, I hope, be deemed oat of place. The otdioary
operations of natare are ao familiar, that we cease to look at
th«n with surprise. We choose to -wtup oarselres up in onr
own conceit, and, certain facta rsgnlaily occuiring under cotain
conditions and circumstances, ve satisfy ourseltes with saying
that it is according to the laws of nature, and thinh tberefoe
that we understand it. I do net perceive that we understand it
any the better beeaase it is according to the laws of nature ;
since these laws themselves, in their ultimate eansea and opent-
tions, are utterly insoluble to the human undenrtanding, and the
frequency and uniformity of their results, so far from lesaeniog,
actually increase the miracle. I say mnraeie, iat in no other
light than as miraculous can we regard the changiog scene
which is now to pass before our eyes. The field, ae we now
look at it, presents but a naked mxfac* oS inert dust ; but tbcte
are powers and infioences at work, within and aionnd it, of the
most subtle and amaaing character. Ilie earth has opened its
bosom, and the children of men are to receive nouridmient and
life from the bounty of their common mother. Man easts the
dry seeds upon these naked fdrrowa, and they are at once qoiok-
«ied into life. The earth, the air, the sun, the laiu, all laud
their combined aid, in exactly ntch measure, and at such time.
)yGoo»^Ic
u is needed for the perfection «f the work. The pUott rise
ent of the jronnd with a spirit «ad besaCy which no faumsn art
oan liTal. The hand of an ioviuUe artist is at work to expand
the roots, to ttain the stem, to mould the leares, to protect all
with a net-work t^ the finest web, to throw in oolon of exquisite
beauty, and to fill the pendent seed-vessf4s with bread, for Ae
■nstenaoce and nouriBhrnent of animel life. In a few weeks, m
months, the field so latriy naked and desolate is laden with
treasures far richw than gold, and for which all the gbttering
diamonds of Pern, and all the shuiiag pearls of Orient climes,
would be no nibstitnte. llftn gtthers what, with strange pre-
-tumption, he calls the jsodncta of Ma skill and labor, and Wa
his gamer with the golden treasares of the fields. New, beoaoae
this happens so regularly and sa fpequeutly, shall it caase to
en»te his surprise, and touch his hewt ? In my humble opinion,
its frequency, and its compantire certainty, Tsstly expand the
miracle i and if the rich firuits of a beoeficenee, so entirely
beyond his conmiand and control, yet withal so constant, so
fitithful, so liberal, call out no aspiiations of piety, if " harvest
home " awakens no anthem of Aanksgirii^ and reremnce io
his soul, he must not claim an equality even with the animak
which he drires, for " As ox knowech his owner, and Ae a»
his uuHter's crib."
IXSXV. — UAKROWWQ.
There are rarious operations to be gone through with, sAer
the laughing. The first olgect in Englidt eultiration is to
mduee the soil to as fine a tilth as possible. Toll, Who is some-
tmes called the father of English arable cultivation, deemed the
loosening, and stirrii^, and reducing the soil, as all that was
necessary to its pcadnctivenesa, and that mannra ai^ht be dia-
p«tsed with. The first position was the ibandation of great
improTwnems; but the \attet was sood diseoTraed to be aa
error. His practice, which was tried by many pentaiB, hud the
foundation of what is called the New Hoshandry, sod may be
40
)yGoo»^Ic
470
eoDBidered u eonsUtuting as en in Elogliah agricnltme. It ia
eoriona to obwrre, that oflentiniM, in human history, great mit-
takM Isad to great imfWOvemeDta and diacoveriea; and in th«
complicated coorae of human affaira, a dirioe ProTidence, in
compariaon vith which human ngacity can aeaieely be con-
aideied other than aa anant folly, conrerta the erron of man
into inatniments of truth and knowledge. Experiment ia the
highway to science, and it ia aa deaireble, in many caaes, to
know what will not, aa to know what will aoeceed. Hen are
always ready, through self-eatsem and the lore of apfwobation,
to detail and magnify any fortunate results ; bat he is a bmre
man, and mon entitled to respect, who, by way of caution, will
expose bis failures, and guard the sanguine and adTentnnnu
against tha errors in which he himself became involved. This
ia a noble disinterestedness ; bat many men, like the fox who
lost his brush in a steel trap, wish nothing ao mach as to see
their neighbois subjected to the same mortification.
The Romans, in their husbandry, pnscribed four distinct
processes of arable calture. The fint was to break the land ;
the second to turn it over ; the third was to break it again ; the
fourth was to turn it again.* They understood perfectly the
use and advantages of thorough and deep tillage. The English
farmers are fully aware of this, and follow repeated plonghinga,
with various other -pnteuM.
The first is that of harrowing. This is done lengthwise with
Ae furrow alwajr* in the first instance, and then croaswise,
until the surface is comi^etely mellowed and pulverized. With
US, in general, harrows are made single, and the teeth aet in
wooden frames, and, though they are UBoally made sqnare, yet
the chain is generally attached to one of the comers, which
gives them a diamond shape, and ia supposed to lessen the
draught. We seldom take a breadth, in snch case, of more than
four and a half or five feet. Here the best harrows are made,
both frames and teeth, of iron. The teeth, or tines, work to a
depth of five to eight inches, and furflow each other in lines
about four inches apart. Seed harrows, or harrows for covering
the seed, have tines about four inches in length, and are nwde
proportionately light.
„Gooi^lc
■AaiuMrura. 471
I do Dot know that I csn do better for my raaden, thmn to
mbjoia the remarks and illiutmioiu of one of the most eminent
implement makers in Great Britain, Hr. J. Allen Raniome, in
his Valuable treatise on the " Implements of Husbandry."
" It is admitted, by all acquainted vith the subject, that har-
rowing, especially on heavy soils, is the moat laborioos operation
on the farm, — not so much, perhaps, on account of the quantum
of power requisite for the draught, (though this is sometimes
considerable,) as for the speed with which the operation is, or
ought to be, accompanied ; and yet it is frequently left to the
charge of mere boys, and sometimes performed by the wont
horses on the farm.
" If we examine a field, one half of which has been harrowed
with weak, inefficient horses, and whose pace was consequently
doggish, the other half vith an adequate strength and swiftness
of animal power, we shall find the former will be rough and
mifinished, the latter comparatively firm and lerel, and com-
pleted in what would be called a hasbandry4ike manner.
Scarcely any thing in farming is more unsightly than the wavy,
serpentine traces of inefficient harrowiitg. The generality o^
barrows appear too heavy and clumsy to admit of that despatch
without which the work cannot be well done ; and tbon^ it is
evident that different soils demand implements of proportionate
weight and power, yet, for the most part, harrows bare been
lather over than onder weighted, particularly when employed
after a drill, or to bury seeds of any kind.
" Harrowing has been so long regarded as an operation which
must be attended with considerable horse-labor, that attention
does not appear to have been sufficiently turned to the inquiry
whether this labor might not be greatly reduced, by lightening
the instruments with which it is performed. Many would be
surprised at the amount of reduction of which seed-harrows, at
least, are capable, and, where land is clean, to see how effectively
a gang of very light small-toothed harrows may he used.
" Having noticed, in some ports of Norfolk, the perfect manner
in which seed C(»n is covered by a common rake with wooden
teeth, a friend of mine constructed a gang of harrows on the
following plan, and he states that it proved the moM popular and
Qteful imt^ment of the kind to the farm.
)yGoo»^Ic
47d eusopcjui MaaxooLTtnt.
Gmg^Li^ SBed-HamiM.
" The fruses an of aoh, and tm light aa
possible, with iron teeth, beinj but three
inohes leng,. ezcltuiTe of the part which
entora the wood-work. They saew
into the balks in the awiuker dtown ia
the anitexed figure.
'^It diould be obaerved that the above four harrows are amply
■ufficient to cover a twelre-funov stetch or ridge, of 108 ioches,
but three wiU be wide enough for a three-ftirrow stetch of 90
inches, excluHtre of a Dnatl portion of the furrows. If for aome
purposes the teeth be found too thick, every alterikate tooth may
be taken out ; but for general putpoaes this will hardly be neces-
sary. The two horses require, on this plan, to be kept quite
level ; far, if one be soffeied to go in advance of the other, a
diagonal line is produced, by which the teeth will be made to
follow each other, instead of cutting iresh ground. I am aware
that, by the usnat construction of harrows, a diagonal line of
draught is required, in order to throw the teeth into a pcepw
working position ; but I am strongly inclined to the opinion,
Aat the correct working of the implenMOt ought to depend OD
he eenstntction, and not on any particular mode of workii^ U,
Besides, the system of keeping one horse in advance of his
partner is bad in principle ; it is an unequal division of labw,
the fore^iorse being compelled to do more than his share of the
work, which, under any circumstances, is always heavy enough.
)yGoo»^Ic
BAMMOwvia. 479
The balks of the above set of harrows were made of wood, in
order to insure extraordinary lightness ; but, for general purposes,
I prefer those made of iron, the weight of which can be increased
to any reasonable degree, without adding much to their sub-
stance. This ia important in working tenacious clays, which,
by adhering to the common clumsy wooden balks, considerably
increase the labor, and at the same time impede the proper
eiecution."
Sometimes harrows are made in two parts, that is, two small
and complete harrows, placed side and side, and united by flex-
ible hinges. In such case, the harrow can be reduced to half
its width, by one part being doubled over oa the back of the
other ; or, when the land is in ridges, and the harrow travels on
the summit of the ridge, the two parts, by the flexible junction
in the centre, are able to accommodate themselres to the curra"
ture of the ground upon which they tmrel. Sometimes three or
four harrows are attached first to each other, by these hinges,
side and side, and then to a single beam, to the ends of which
the traces of the horses are appended, and in this case they
sweep a breadth of nine feet. This carries on the work with
great rapidity. A pair of good horses might carry such a breadth
without difficulty, upon light land ; but upon a heavy and tena-
cious soil, the labor would be too great for them.
'Qtmg qf Heoty Jrvn Ebrmm.
" The above engraving of iron harrows is introduced to show
I form in which they are usually made ; they are used in
40 •
)yGoo»^Ic
474 nrnoruK lauoDLTnas.
gangs of three, four, or fire, as may be required to suit the lands
OD vhkh they are used, and may be made to any weight re-
quired." * No ioteUigetit farmer, however, will ever think of
harrowing hia land, ualeas it be of the lightest description, in a
wet state. It has beea by sonae persons deemed an improve-
ment to make the front tines of a harrow shorter than the back
ones ; hut no advantage comes from this. By many the practice —
and in my opinion with reason — is coudcmoed , as the iDstmment,
in such case, unless brought too near the horses, will he found to
dip in boat, by which means the draught is considerably io-
cieased. Teeth of a uniform length throughout are to be pm-
ftrred. The flexibility given to a harrow, by a hinge in Aa
centre, is a great improvement Is many cases, ime harrow is
attached to another so as to follow it, but so fv removed to one
side or the othw, that the teeth follow in diSlersnt lines. la
such case, it is obvious that the draught must be very much
incfeased, both from the diriance of the last hairow from the
moving power, and from its lying flat and dead epon the ground,
and having no advantage of the lift which is given to the for*
ward harrow by the chain which attaches it to the horses, and
which it would have, if it were set in the same frame.
There are several varieties of harrows, but, excepting the frame
being made of iron instead of wood, and their being connected
by hinges, so as that the frame becomes, so to speak, flexible, I
see no prominent excellence to be pointed out " In an experi-
ment made between a pair of wooden harrows and a pair of iron
ones constructed on the same plan, and having the same number,
and precisely the same disposition, of the teeth and frames,
although those of iron were found to be 20 pounds Ughter than
those of wood, yet the former worked decidedly better and
steadier than the latter ; in fact, the iron harrows cut into the
land, while those made of wood rode, or r^her danced, upon the
A harrow, called a web or chain brush bairow, invented by
Ur. Smith, of Deanston, I have seen, hut not in operation ; and
its effect must be to reduce the surface to a very fine tilth, but it
is not its object to penetrate the soil. If we take a number o£
small iron circular plates, perhaps three inches in diameter, with
)yGoo»^Ic
BAjutownte. 475
thin or riiarpeiwd edges, and string them upoQ iron rods, npcm
which tbey will revolve freely, and arrange them in Bqitares like
the panes of a window or sash, and with enough of them to
fi»m the desired size of a harrow, we shall have formed the
iDBtniment to which I refer. As they revotre vertically, and
are drawn over the aurfoce, their tendency is to cut all the lumps
into fine pieces, and to leave the surface well reduced and pul-
verized.
At Lord Hatherton's well-managed farm, at Teddesley Park,
Staffordshire, I saw a revolving harrow, somewhat resembling a
hay-qnvadiog machine, Uie long and curved teeth of which pen-
eOatad the ground dee^dy, thoroughly stirred it, and brought the
weeds and rubbish to the surface. It was moved upon low
wheels, and perf(»ined its work most effectually.
I shall boirow, for the benefit of my readers, an account c^
BiddelL's extirpating harrow from Mr. Ransome's valuable book,
before qaoted. I have not seen the iostrument at work, but
its efficiency will be understood from the account.
" Bipdkll's ExTDVATma Harkow. — This is a new implement,
iorented by Arthur Biddell, of Playford, and similar to the scar-
ifier which bears his name. It is intended for breaking up land
when it is too hard for the heaviest harrows, and for bringing
winter fallows into a state of fine tillage. In woiking summer-
)yGoo»^Ic
476 EDROPKAN AGUCOLTDBK.
lands, it is calculetecl, by the shape of its teeth, to bring to the
aurface all grass and rubbish. The teeth are placed in three
rows, in order to allow sufficient distance from each other to
[H^vent choking, and the implement is so constructed as that, by
means of lererS) the teeth may be elevated or depressed at
pleasure. According to the form of ihe lands it may be required
to operate upon, it may either be used perfectly parallel, or the
fore teeth may be made to penetrate deeper than the hinder ones,
whilst those at either side may, when one wheel is required to
run in the furrow, be instantly adjusted to the level of the land,
so that every tine shall penetrate to a uniform depth of six
inches, if required ; and they will work equally well at any leas
depth.
" I have frequently seen this implement at work on very foul
land and on stubbles, when it has been too bard to allow the
□se of the plough. As the interval between the lines formed by
its teeth does not exceed four inches, the soil has been com-
pletely stirred. The tines may be either used with points oi
with steel hoes ; and with the latter the skimming, or, as it is
frequently called, the 'broadshare' process, may be quickly
accomptished. The weight is not found to be a disadvantage,
but, from the stability it gives, the contrary ; and, being home
on high wheels, it does not require so much horse-labor as might
be supposed, two horses, on most soils, being generally suffi-
LXXXVI. — SCARIFYING, OR ORUBBINO.
What is called, in England, the scarifying or gnibbing of land,
is little else than harrowing it with a deeper and stronger instru-
ment than a common harrow, with a view to reduce it to fine
tilth, and to bring up the roots and weeds which may infest the
land. The English and Scotch aim, in their husbandry, at an
extreme cleanness of cultivation. There are — as it would be
strange if there were not — examples among them of slovenly
cultivation ; but cleanness is the prominent and almost universal
characteristic of their husbandry. The late Lord Leicester, (Mr.
)yGoo»^Ic
BCAHnnifa, ok aRDSBma. 477
Coke, of Holkham) used to make it his boast, that not a weed
could be fouod in eztensire fields of his cultivation, and offered
a high reward for the diacover7 of one. The couch grass,
(triticum repens^ and the common charlock, (wild mustard,) and
the poppy, abound, in some districts, to a most extraordinary
degree ; and in cleaning the fields, in the autumn, of couch grass,
the piles of it which ate sometimes seen would lead one to
•appose that it was the only crop grown on such places. I|k
some cases, where the land is very dirty, and the cleansing very
thorongh, the heaps of weeds have been as niunerous as cocks
of bay in a mown field.
The general practice is, to barn these heaps upon the field, to
the expediency of which I strongly demur. The amount of
ashes obtained in such case is altogether inconsiderable. The
cooch grass being extremely vivacious, and propagated from
every joint, it is not easy to bury it so deep as to- extirpate it.
Some of the Scotch farmers pile it up at the outside of their
fields, and mingle with it quicklime, which of course soon
Qonsumes it. I cannot help thinking it would be much better to
use it as litter in the caitle-eheds or stalls, and fold-yards, where,
by the trampling of the stock, it would soon become decomposed,
and, without dangw of startii^ again into life, it would go to
Msentially increase the compost heap.
The operatitm of scarifiers, or grubbers, will be seen at once
by a reference to the plate. Many of them are certainly very
efficient tDStniments, and, when the team is sufficiently powerful,
stir the land most thoioaghly to a great depth. There is a con-
•idenible variety of them ; and the peculiar excellences of each
of them are always fully set forth by the inventor or maker, —
in doing which, there seems to be no want of talent or address
among the English, and some of them may fkirly challenge com-
petition with Peter Pindar's razor-seller, or with any of the
vivacious and voluble tribe of Connecticut pedlers.
The infinite variety of machines and mechanical contrivances
exhibited at the great agricultural shows in this coantry, cover-
ing literally acres and acres of ground, strikes a visitor with
astonishment. As, in reading the accounts of patent medicines
in the public newspapers, one is led to think that the reign of
disease is abolished, and the victory of health, life, and perpetual
youth, on earth, secured, so, in looking at the Dumber and variety
)yGoo»^Ic
478 ETTBOPEAN AOBLICITLTCU.
of agricaltural imptements presented on soch occasions, and the
diversity of purposes which they are most certainty and e^eetu-
ally to accomptish, one is almost persuaded that human labor
and superintendence may be dispensed with ; and that the
farmer, as he would wind up his clock on Monday momiDg so
that it may run all the week, so he has only to set his agricul-
tural machinery in motion, and may then leave the field with a
quiet confidence that every thing will [ffoceed as he desires it
idiould. After having visited, likewise, the establishmeDts of
many large proprietors, and seen the broken and condemned
implements, and the piled-up, useless lumber of this description,
in their implement-rooms and sheds, I cannot help thinking that
there is, among a great many men well informed in other mat-
ters, a fair share of susceptibility to imposition ; that " razors
made to sell " meet with no want of purchasers in England ;
and that the manufacturers perfectly understand themselves,
when they have got their pail under a full cow. The human
tongue is certainly an extraordinary piece of machinery, and its
flexibility cannot be sufficiently admired. I see, in the papers of
the week when I am writing, an advertisement of a potato-
powdet, recommended to families to be put into the pot with the
potatoes to be boiled, so as to correct the evils of the diseased
potato, and not only to neutralize its pernicious influences, but
actually to convert the diseased portions into useful nourishment.
The pike and place of s^ are both given. There will be many
to buy, beyond all question. When will the reign of empiricism
cease on earth ? When the last man has left it ; and not sooner.
The operation of scarifying will be better understood from a
picture of some of the principal instruments in use than from
any verbal description.
The first to which I shall refer is called, after Uie name of its
inventor,
Bii>Diu.'s SciRirnB — and I shall allow the maaniacturer to
speak for himself.
" This implement is for the purpose of cultivating land nnder a
Tsriety of circumstances, and bringing it into a proper state of
tilth mnch more effectually, and at less expense, than can be
done by the means generally employed for that purpose.
)yGoo»^Ic
ucAvtmnQ, OB OBmBiifs. 479
" It may be successfully used to dean wheat, bean, and pea
■lubbles, directly after harreet ;
" To break up such parts of clover layers as may hare failed
in the plant, and to break up land after green crops, in May or
June, in {veparation for turnips, coleworts, ice. ; thus accom-
jdishii^ fiue and deep tillage, without briuging fresh earth to
the Burface-land, in preparation for barley and oats.
*'Ita Advantages are — Saving, m TiUage, of half the labor,
both manual and horse, over the ordinary method of cleaning
land.
" Saving of TVme. Lands may be broken and stirred, with
this implement, in much less time than with the plough.
" Itt^roved CitlHvation. The operation of this scarifier is much
more effective for spring crops on strong lands than ploughing,
as it occasions less treading by horses, produces more mould, and
allows the moisture to be more advantageously retained ; and the
seed will be deposited in the soil which has been exposed to the
winter frosts.
" Less harrowing is required, as the land is broken up, and
left much finer than after the plough.
"The couch grass (if any) is brought to the surface without
Iseaking it.
)yGoo»^Ic
4W XBSOnEAH AcunonAOBB.
" The luid is left b^ diis implanent in a sute to be immedi-
ately harrowed, which may be done in time (o break the da^
before tbey become too hard.
" In all cases, where it is desiiaUe to give tillags to the laod
without tumiog down the surface, tfas impiement may be wed
with great advantage.
"DirecUonM for using the Scarifier. — In nnng tiie scarifier,
attention should be paid to set it level, and the depth of scarify-
ing may be varied from one to ten inches, which is done by
means of the two levers.
" When the land is very hard, and required
to be cot clean, first use the chisel points, and
then follow with the wide boes.
" The chisel points only should be used on
clover leys ; the roots of the clover beiog too tough for the hoes,
and are not required to be cut up.
" The horses should be kept in a direct line, and the imple-
ment not suffered to tarn without taking the Jix-e part out of the
ground by means of the long lever. IWticular attention should
be paid to this ; for, although the slanting direction in which tbe
tines are set will bear the draught required while the horses go
Btra^ht forward, they cannot stand against the twist, if the
scarifier be turned round before the front tines are taken out of
their work. It is also needful to observe, that the draught iron
from tbe fore wheels, upon which the wtuppletrees hang, should
be snspended by tbe diaogfat chain higher ^an where the tbree
draught irons (when in work) go upon the ujvight part of ^
fore azletree ; otherwise, this may bend or give way.
" The wheels, on either side, may be made to go h^er or
lower by shifUog the eoi^iag irons, where holes ate made fw
that purpose, where one wheel has to work in the farrow ; which
may be the case when a stetdi is scarified by going on one nde
1^ it, wtd coming back on tbe other.
" It is essGDtiid to have whippletrees ad^ted to the impl^
ment ; if otherwise, it will &il to scarify up the footmiaikB of
tbe horses."
Tbe next imidement for the purposes described, and which
has been a long time in use, is called
)yGoo»^Ic
BCABtTTUia, OB aBOBBUfO. 481
FmaTSOK'a Ssu-Ci-zunKo Habbow. — " This is on efficient
imi^einent for cleaning lands under tillage from couch gnaa and
other weeds ; the curratura of its teeth being so fonoed as to
biing to the surface all weeds and vegetable rubbish."
This was among the first improTements of the kind, and has
been followed by a great many other inventions, of which I
shall offer only two other examples. The first is,
Eibkwood's Gbubbxb. — " The leverage that is obtained by
jiteaaing on the handles or stilts of this machine, whether in action
or at rest, is so simple, and yet so powerful in its effect, as to reg-
ulate the depth of the tines to the greatest nicety ; or, in cases
of obstruction, to throw them out altogether. It is an admirable
implement, and well deserving the high commendatioD generally
bestowed on it." Objections have been made, however, to the
form of its teeth.
The next instrument which I shall notice is called the UJ^
euAtvofor, and made at the iron and agricultural implement
41
)yGoo»^Ic
48S suaopcijt Aaaicxn.vum*.
works of the Evl of Dncie, at Ulef, in GtoticMt««htre, aod tmdflr
the direction and management of a highly intelligent and ptac-
tical machinist, Mr. Richard Clybarn, a rint to whose eetabliak-
ment afforded me the highest gratificatiui.
The Ulet Oultitatoe. — " No. I size, with 5 tines, covering
a space of 40 inchet.
"No. 2 size, with 7 tines, covering a space of 56 inches.
" The imivovements consist, first,
in a new method of fiuteniog Ibe
tine into the frame, so as to insure
a sufficiency of strength to the upper^
end of the tine, where the greatest
I strength is required ; secondly, in
making the scarifiers and grubbers
concave on the imder side, which causes tbem to wear to a
sharp edge, and enter the ground better, where it is veay
hard ; thirdly, in constncting them in such a way, they can be
made of wrought iron.
" The frame is of cast-iron, made to receive five or seven tines,
each tine covering a space of eight inches, and so arranged that,
although drawing lines only eight inches apart, they are two
feet from each other ; this, with their curved shi^, and length,
prevents its clogging in the foulest land. There are three siHta
of points ; one, two inches wide, for grubbing up or breaking land ;
another, nine inches wide, for working stubble ; the third set has
steel blades, and are used for paring, instead of the hreast-[Jough :
these points all fit the tines without pins to hold tbem. The
tines are fastened into the frame with a split key and cotter ; and,
in case of breaking, they can be taken out and others put in, as
easy as the colter of a plough. The height of the frame from
the ground is about two feet ; the wheels are of cast-iron, the
front ones 1 foot 6 inches diameter, and the back ones 3 feet 4
inches diameter. The machine is riiised and lowered by turning
a handle, the axle of which has a worm fixed on it, working into
a wheel fixed in the crank-axle of the back wheels. This wheel
has a projecting arm, in which a stud is fixed : to this stud is
attached a connecting-rod, the upper end of which is connected
to the long lever which has its fulcrum in the centre, and is
connected with the firame by a joint ; the other end of the lever
)yGoo»^Ic
OCNBRAL BZIUKKB OH TBE 0U OV AeBIOUIACBAI. HACBUTCKr. 463
m connected to the top of the T «xle, on which the front wheels
Tork. It will be aeeu by this urangement that, if the handle is
turned to the right, the machine is lifted upj and if to the left,
let down : this is indicated by the dial-plate on the right-hand
side of the machine, marked in inches, in and out of the groand ;
one rotatitm of the handle raises or lowers the machine one
inch."
This instrument, wherever it has been naed, has been highly
approved.
It will be obrioos to my readers, that the object of these sev-
eral inreotions is to put the ground into a fine and deep cultiTa-
tion ; and, io many cases, the scarifier will be substituted with
great advantage for the plough. In the spring of the year, es-
pecially, where land has been ploughed in the autumn, it would
be most injudicious, in many cases, to reverse the sward with a
plough, and at the same time, «s the wetness of the land may
lequire that it should be cultivated lightly, a harrow or scarifier
presents the most proper implement
Ab & matter of curiosity, a Table of ingenious, exact, and
•omewhat useful calculations, in regard to the business of
plooghing or scarifying land, will be. inserted on the last page
tf this Rf port.
LZXXVn. — GENERAL REUARKS ON THE USE OF AGRI-
CULTURAL MACHINERY.
In presenting these diferent examples to my readers, they will
not expect me to recommend them, nor to mark a preference of
one over the other. That I must leave wholly to their jui^
roent. I have only to say that the best results are to be ex-
pected only from the most carefiil and thorough cultivation j but
with the best feelings towards those ii^nious mechanics and
artisans who hare done so much to alleviate and &cilitate labor,
my own experience, and that of many friends, would lead me
to advise to caution in the purchase of any machines whose
)yGoo»^Ic
484 EUKOPEAH iaBICULTUBE.
mility has not been thoronghly tested, and especially those of a
comi^icated or ezpeosire character. A machine which promiaes
much may greatly disappoint ns in the results. Some of the
most complex mBchinea perform only that vhich the most
ample would accomplish with half the trouble, and it is often
quite as difficult to manage the machine as to perform the labor.
A machine constructed upon the most sound and philosophical
{vinciples requires, many times, a philosojdier to guide it. Agri-
cultural machines of a comj^cated nature are constantly liajile
to get out of repair, and at times when the inconreaience and
loss, occasioned by the stoppage of the work from such acci-
dents, are excessive. Then the conduct and miinagement of the
machine must go into the hands of persons who are ignorant
and stupid ; who hare a prejudice against the success of ma-
chinery, because they erroneously suppose that it interferes with
their labor ; who generally resist all innovations, and who but
too often find a malicious gratification in the failure of all
attempts at improTement The remedies for this very common
evil, it is not easy to determine. The first is, if possible, to give
the laborer a direct personal interest in the success of the machine
in use. The second is less direct, and can only be looked for in
the future ; that is, the better education of the laboring classes,
which shall enable th^n to take more just views of their own
jHrivale interests, and understand their inseparable identity with
all measures of general im|H;orement, with the progress of the
mechanic arts, by which, if labor is not abridged, i^oduction is
greatly increased, and with the interests and welfare of every
other class in the community. Happy will it be for the world,
when the true principles of political economy — so welt illustrated
in the well-known Latin Able of the revolt of the limbs against
the stomach, and as clearly in the sacred writings, when the
apostle reminds us that "we are members one of another, and if
one member sufier, all the members sufiet with it, and if one
member rejoices, all the members rejoice with it" — shall be every
where understood, and, if we may dare hope for such a result,
conscientiously applied and practised upon.
)yGoo»^Ic
pun-icmLAB KxufPLSs or ufrROTEmnr.
LrSXVm. — PARTICULAR EXAMPLES OF IMPROVEMENT.
I have Bpolcen ot the {Hvparation of the land, by culture, for
the deposit of the seed, under the heads of ploughing, subsoiliog,
paring, deep-stirring, Bcarifying, and hairowing j but there were
tvo proceswfl going on, in Comwall, of so peculiar a character
that I deem it proper to detail them.
1. Tebut. — The first was at Tehidy, the residence of Lady
Bassett, under the direction of an intelligent and ac<!oin[dishied
agricultnriBt, a gentleman veil established in the principles, and
familiar with the jnactices, of agriculture, in the best cultivated
districts of Scotland, and who was emidoyed not merely to put
the home-estate under a proper course of management, but, by
example, counsel, advice, encouragement, and rewards, to asnst
and induce the tenants on the ptopaity to abandon the objectim-
able and profitless modes of husbaibdry which they had long
followed, and introduce a better system, which the experience
of the most improving and best Caimerq in the country bod
sanctioned.
An extenaire tract of land oa the sea-coast was underlaid,
about three inches, below the surface, with a compact bed of flint
stoikes, of four and six inches in depth, and might indeed be very
jsoperly called macadamized. Vegetation on such land was
almost hopeless, for the mould, or regstable matter, on the
surface, bad httle depth, and no plough or cultirator could pene-
trate this obstinate mass of stones. But this farmer undertook
to remore with pickaxes this entire mass of stones, and had
accMnplished a considerable tract when I had the pleasure to
Tisit it. The piles of stones lay as thick, and rery much larger,
dian cocks of hay, upon the field, preparatory to their being
carted away, for the making or repairing of roads. Under this
layer of stones was found a soil which could be brought into,
and, under proper manuring, would liberally reward, good culti-
vation. The Gorai^ men, who, in the capacity of miners, are
accustomed to face difficulties of no ordinary magnitude, and
will march up against the brazen walls of a copper mine, where
they may pick and hanuner away for weeks and months with-
41*
)yGoo»^Ic
486 ausoPEAH asbicdi-tubx.
out reward, vjth as mach indtSerence as they would cut avay
upon a loaf of stale bread, performed this service with a labor
and persereraDCG worthy of all praise. Under this layer of
stones was a soil capable of ivoductive cultivation, and the reward
was found in the crops which were growing on a portion of the
recovered land. After the stones were removed, the land was
subsoiled, and a crop of turnips, manured with guano, was taken.
The effects of guano, when the land manured by it was com-
pared with a part of the field manured only with the ashes of
the furze, were here most remarkable. The experiment was a
brave, and, though labor was at a low rate, it was an expensive
one; bat as the land was comparatively without value in its
former state, the only question in the case was, whether the
land, after being redeemed in this way, would be worth the
expense of the recovery. Heavy as this expense was, the land
became worth a great deal more than it cost. In fact, it was so
much land literally created by the process ; and its situation,
where it was easily accessible, greatly enhanced the value.
2. Scobell's Fujl — The other experiment to which I
referred was goin^ on between Penzance and Land's End, on the
farm of Colonel Scobelt — a farm, in respect to parts of which
the culture would seem like going upon a forlorn hope, the land
laesenting a most forbidding aspect ; and yet in its results
exhibiting a conclusive test of the best husbandry, by its per-
manent improvements, and its ample returns for the labor and
expense bestowed upon it.
Some parts of Cornwall — where the hospitality of the inhab-
itants is in an inverse ratio to the quality of the soil — reminded
me of a tract of country very well known to many persons in the
United States, through which the turnpike-road passes between
Lynn and Salem, in Massachusetts, which some one facetiously
called the " abomination of desolation," and of which the British
prisoners, in pasdng over it on their way to Boston, in the last
war, demanded, with considerable emphasis, " whether that was
the " (here using a theological phrase, which it would
be quite improper to repeat out of the pulpit) " country for
which the Americans were fighting." There is this remarkable
difference, however, in favor of Cornwall, that, like some old
miser, who seeks to conceal his riches under an appearance of
>, Goo»^Ic
PABTICULUI XZAMPLES Of UfPHOTKHENT, 487
extreme squalidueas and destitution, it is underlaid with inex-
haustible mineral treasures, aa I myself, in a dress befitting the
infernal regions, with a lighted torch in my hand, descending
by the slippery rounds of a ladder seveo hundred feet, and trav-
ersing two miles under ground, had the gratification — for so I
may call it, since I am once more on the surface —to witness. In
this part of the country there is little wood, and no coal, and, for
fiiel, the inhabitants pare the surface of the land, which seems
covered with a thick matted moss and heather, and which, when
taken off, leaves under it a mixture of white gravel, and black,
peaty mould. This being taken off in spots, the country resem-
bles the face of a man reduced to a skeleton, with his skin pitted
aad blotched all over with the smalt-pox. It will be understood
that I am speaking only of a part of Cornwall, and, in particular,
the mining districts ; for in some parts there are spots of eminent
fertility, of which the culture is singularly skilful, and the pro-
ductiveness nowhere exceeded.
Some of the land owned by Colonel Scobell is of the descriptioo
of which I have spoken. He sells the moss and heather, taken
off by, what a native American may properly call, this scalping
process, at twenty-four pounds per acre ; and then, by deep and
brave cultivation, and by most ample manuring, at an expense
of ten pounds an acre, he brings this very land into productive
cultivation. This is what, in New England, we should call
adroitly, and, certainly, most honestly and creditably, " turning a
penny ; " here it is evident it might be designated by a denom-
ination two hundred and forty times la^r. After tiiis land is
in this way brought to, it would readily let at thirty or forty
shillings per acre. AAer the land has been pared, bis process is
to drain, subsoil, and manure it, and then he gets excellent crops
of turnips, barley, and wheat.
All circumstances considered, the whole management of this
iarm seemed to me excellent, and it will cot be deemed out of
place if I now speak of it, since tbe subject is before me.
The farm embraces an extent of some hundreds of acres, of a
gravelly soil, and much of it composed of rotten and decomposed
granite rock. It required no small resolution and courage to
take such a tract of country in hand, with a determination to
make its cultivation profitable ; for, though I have referred to
some cases in which the returns from the sale of the furze and
)yGoo»^Ic
488 SQ&OPKAM AflBICULTCBK.
heather upon it were very large, it could scarcely be expected
that such a process of profit was applicable to a lai^ extent
The fann is not in what would be called " pink style," and
nothing is done for show. The fixtures, though very conve-
nient, are of a plain and inexpenBire character. He keeps 150
head of neat stock ; he raises all his calves ; he fats a lai^*
number of swine, of which he has an excellent breed, being a
mixture and cross of the Essex, the Neapolitan, and a boai pro-
cured from the United States, which appeared to be a chance
animal with excellent points. His cattle are of the improved
Durham, which seemed not the kind best adapted to the short
pastures of the country, and were not in good condition, having,
aa he said, suffered from the extreme drought which had pie>
vailed daring the summer, and of which it was quite evident
the stock in all that country had felt the severity.
His stock are kept in the house the greater part of the year,
and fed upon steamed food. His swine are genetally killed at one
year old, and weigh from fifteen to seventeen scores of pounds ;
and when kept until two years old, he calculates them to weigh
about thirty-five scores of pounds. He has killed those which
weighed thirty-six score. They run in the pasture upon grass only,
" with no meat," — that is, no grain or meal, — from April uoti}
October. They are then put up and fed with steamed potatoes,
mixed with barley meal, and given to them while warm ; and
twelve gallons of barley meal are deemed sufficient for the fattening
of a hog. His swine, when put up for fattening, are fed several
times a day. Indeed, the hind watches them coDstautly, and
supplies theoi with food as often as their troughs are emptied.
The cattle are tied in stalls with chains. Provision is made,
by a movable trough, to let in wa(er to them, so that they are
not turned out except for occasional airing.. The stable end
barns are upon the side of a bill, and the cattle are kept upon a
lower story.
The upper part of the bam is devoted to the washing and
steaming of the food ; for all of it, the chaff as well as the vege-
tables, are steamed for the stock. The turnips and potatoes are
placed in a large trough or tub, directly under a full current of
water, coming from a drained field, which falls some short dis-
tance directly upon them, and immediately passes off, carrying
the dirt wiUi it The potatoes are steamed in barrels. The
)yGoo»^Ic
PABTICDLAm ZXAltPLKS OF WPBOTZMElrr. 489
barrels are suspended in an itoD half hoop, and are swung back
and forwaid by a crane. They turn upon a pivot, and have but
one head in. They are easily swung round to the trough,
where the potatoes are washed, and then filled. A movable
bottom, full of boles, is then placed in the open head, to prevent
the potatoes from falling out, and they are again swung round
and dropped upon a platform, and a steam-pipe, opened by a
cock, introduced under the bottom, which effectually steams
them in fifteen minutes. They are then again attached to the
lever, swung round, inverted, the movable head taken out,
again inverted, and the cooked contents poured into a trough,
and the barrel again filled and cooked as befoie ; so that, from
the beginning to the end of the jsocess, they can scarcely be
said to be touched with the hand.
The turnips, with their tops on, are dropped from the cart into
the washing trough, and, when washed, are shoved along, and
thrown into steaming boxes level with the floor, on which they
are washed. These boxes have a false bottom, or grating of
iron, under which the steam is introduced by a pipe, and, after
being sufficiently cooked, the end of the box is dropped, and
they are easily shovelled into a cooling box, set still lower than
the other, for their reception. The chaff is steamed in a lai^
closet. All the hay for the cattle is cut by a machine, on an
npper floor, and easily shovelled into this closet, where it ia
steamed by a pipe introduced from the common steam machine.
Every thing is contrived to simplify and relieve labor. The
food is then pat into burows, and wheeled, through the passages,
to the different stock to be fed. The water, which comes from
the turnips when steamed, is always saved, and, being mixed
with a small quantity of barley meal, is given to the store hogs.
It will ferment if left to stand, and is deemed quite nutritious.
Oatmeat is used for the stock, when barley meal cannot be ob-
tained, and is deemed much better.
The potatoes and turnips are all washed, and shovelled, and
steamed, by a single young woman, stout, healthy, active, and
ene^tic, not in appearance much to my taste, as " a fine gentle-
man," but entitled to respect for her cheerfulness and good-
humor, and for the spirit and fidelity with which she performed
her humble duty. Her master ^ke of her in the kindest man*
)yGoo»^Ic
EUBOPKAB AOUCDLTUaZ.
ner, and, in looking at her in hei laborious service, I could not
help thinking of that noble line, —
" Act w^ jDur put ; Hwre all tha honor IIm."
The maDore of the stock is thrown into the yards. Different
kinds are mixed, and some hogs are kept among it, who, by
stirring it constantly, prevent its fermentation. The liquid
manure is all saved in tanks, and, in some cases, is, with great
success, led over the fields.
With the water obtained from the drajn^e of the land, Mr. Sco-
bell has created a mill-power, which turns a wheel twenty^eigbt
feet in diameter. With this is connected a threshing machine, a
winnowing machine, and a flour and grain mill, for the purposes
of the establishment ; and the same power is applied to a mtU for
crushing and sifting bones, to a chaff-cutter, and to a grindstone.
From the situation of the ground, likewise, on the side-hill,
Mr. Scobell is enabled to irrigate portions of his land, which he
does with great advantage. From the rocky character of the
country, the fences on tha &rm ore stone walls, a very desirable
mode of disposing of the surplus stone in the fields ; and his
gates upon the farm are of iron, at the moderate cost of 7s. 6d.
per gate. They appeared, however, quite too light and £nil for
endursnce.
The fixtures on the &nn are of the rudest description, and do
pretensions are made to neatness or exactness ; but every thing
seemed well cared for ; and foe economical arrangements, for
effecting the purposes intended, for a management combining
the lowest scale of expenditure with the highest scale of profit,
few more successful exam^des hare ever come under my obser-
vation. The aourageouB enterprise, which could boldly &ce
the obstacles to be encountered in this most inauspicious tract
(^ country, would qualify a man for a much higher military
commission than that which its proprietor had borne, and the
Bound judgment and skill which suggested and planned the
improvements, and carried them out with such a creditable
•conomy of labor, are well worthy of commendation.
)yGoo»^Ic
COBNWAUi AND TBZ LUID'B
LXXXEL — CORNWALL AND THE LAND'S END.
Wanj of the practices prevailing in Cornwall, with the modes
of speaking, and fonns of ez|H«88ioQ among the people, are so
Qearly allied to those of New England, as to satisfy me that we
most have imported them firom thia part of the world, and that
scions from Cornwall are thickly ingrafted in our pilgrim land.
I wiah we might inherit, in the fullest measure, the spirit of full-
aouled hospitality which I foimd among them. I have only to
r^ret that the rules which I have prescribed to myself forbid
my saying what I would. But the feelings of grateful and affec-
tionate respect are not the less strong for being suppressed ; and
my Cornwall friends, from their own generous natures, may- be
assored that my sense of their constant and disinterested kind-
ness is all which they themselves would desire it should be.
On this excursion into Cornwall, I went to the Land's End,
and planted my foot on the very last rocky poiut, extending into
the sea, which I was -able to reach. I had but a few moments
before pass^ a traveller's home, wiUi the significant s^, " The
First and the Last House in England." Nothing can be more
picturesque than this rude and rock-bound shore, with its white-
fringed ruffle of surf, as far as the eye can reach, and a few
■catteied rocks at a distance, over which the swelling waves
were profusely pouring their showers of diamonds, so treacherous '
to the home-bound mariner, so pictoiesque and beautiful to the
landsman, as he suns himself upon the grassy shore, watching
the distant sails scattered upon the wide expanse, full-freighted
with human life and hopes, glittering in the sunlight, and float-
ing like water-fowl in their native element.
As I stood upon the far-jutting point of the promontory, and
felt that no intervening country separated me from the land of
my birth, and the home of what is moat dear to me, I found my
head growing dizzy, my hesft beating as though it were strug-
gling to get out, and my cheeks quite wet, perhaps with the
spray ; and I could only find relief in sending a thousand un-
spoken messages of affection, and in more earnest prayers for the
prosperity of the land, and the loved ones whom I had left
behind. May the winds waA the former to their objects, and
the last find a response in heaven I
)yGoo»^Ic
BDBiOPXAll A0B1CD1.T1TBK.
TABLE,
Skivatg tt< DtMlonee tmdttd bg a Btne, in plmi^ing or Koryfying im,;^:n
^ Land; alto the Quonl^ i^LandvoHud tn a Jhg,<^ Ihe Ratt of auUat
imd eigUttn Mitt per A^ ijf mtte Iburt. — (AAntim and Stau/t I\aw^*
^ nd. i p. 191.)
■rwlAaf
Bnadlkof
Piinv*-4lc«
£n«i|fc«|l>«d|»r
^
«.
""1
«■"'
.^
«.
IB MOa. 1 U JfilK
7
14*
1*
34
9*
6*
6*
8
12*
1*
35
«t
6*
H
9
11
1»
36
n
6*
6*
10
H,
H
37
n
6i
<
11
9
2
38
at
«A
6*
13
8*
**
lA
30
a*
'*
6*
13
7*
2*
»A
40
s*
'*
»i
14
7
s*
s*
41
St
'*
«t
IS
«J
2*
St
42
3*
'1
«l
16
6*
«A
»»
43
2A
'1
7
17
6»
3A
St
44
n
8
'A
18
«J
3*
2A
45
n
8*
't
19
«i
3*
3A
46
s*
8*
't
SO
4A
3{
3*
47
SA
8}
't
ai
4A
34
3*
48
SA
et
'f
22
4*
4
3*
49
2
SA
'A
23
4*
<*
3A
50
S
9A
8A
24
4*
4*
8A
51
lA
9t
8*
2S
4
4*
4
52
lA
9*
81
26
3*
4f
**
53
lA
9f
8*
27
3S
4A
4*
54
H
9t
8A
28
3*
5*
4*
55
It
10
9
20
8*
6*
«
56
If
10*
9
30
3*
6|
t
57
It
lOf
14
31
9*
6{
6
68
lA
lOf
9*
sa
3A
H
«*
59
lA
lOf
«J
33
3
6
s*
60
If
lOA
9A
wn> or THE riBST Younu*.
)yGoo»^Ic
EUROPEAN AGRICULTURE
AND
RURAL ECONOMY.
FROM PERSONAL OBSERVATION.
BY HEHRY COLMAN.
" For, in all thiDgE whataTer, tbe mind is Ihe moat T«luabls and Uie moit impoitanl ;
■od in tbit scale tba whole at agriculture is ia a nalutal and just order : Ihe beait ii
an inJbrmiag prindple Id ths plongh ind cati, the Inhorer ii u nuDii lo Ihe buat, lod
the farmer is aa a tbiaMi^ and preaiding principle to ths Ubocer." — Bvbee.
VOL. I. — PART II.
BOSTON;
ARTHUR D. PHELPS, 124, WASHINGTON STREET,
LONDON:
WU.ET AND PUTNAM, 6, WATEELOO PLACE.
1644.
„Gooi^lc
BOSTON Tilt t
)yGoo»^Ic
PREFACE TO THE SECOND REPORT.
It seema hardly necessary to gire any other reason
why my SecoDd Report has not sooner made its appear-
ance, than the absolute impossibiHty of doing in this
case what I could wish. The great difficulty of pro-
curing the information which I seek, in an exact and
authentic form, the peculiar embarrassment and incon-
veniences, which surround B stranger in a country,
where the habits and manners are wholly different from
ibose to which he has been accustomed, innumerable
engagements connected with the objects of his pursuit,
travelling and a necessary and frequent change of resi-
dence, the obvious inconveniences of reporting upon a
subject before its examination is completed, and various
other circumstances combine, to prevent the rapid prog-
ress of the work, and present the strongest claims upon
the indulgence and candor of my readers. I commit it
now to the public with extreme diffidence, a diffidence
greatly increased by the kind manner in which my coun-
trymen have received my first number. They may be as-
sured that nothing can separate my affection from the
land of my birth ; and while my highest ambition* will be
more than satisfied by their good will, I shall find an ample
compensation for my labor, and a long and painful sep-
aration from my friends, in the consciousness of having
)yGoo»^Ic
conferred some, though it may be a very humble, benefit
upon my coimtry.
My readers in thia, as well as in my First Report, will
perceive some miscellaneous matter; but the reasons
for this were given before, and will, I hope, be deemed
suiGcient. They will find in this number a good
deal that appears to mc practical, and of the highest
interest My future numbers will be still more prac-
tical.
I gave in my first number an engraving, by an emi-
nent artist, of one the best specimens of the best of
cart-horses in England ; and in this number I give a
picture of one of tlio beat bred bulls of the improved
Durham Sliort Horns, the originals of both of them
being deemed by committees of the utmost compe-
tency, worthy to receive the highest premiums at the
Cattle Shows. These will be followed by engravings
of all the principal breeds in England and Scotland of
Cattle, Horses, Sheep, and Swine ; and I purpose, in
the progress of the work, to give a full account of each
of these diHerent kinds of stock. I shall also give
a description and an engraving of all the most val-
uable agricultural implements; and those especially,
which in my opinion would be worth adopting in my
own country.
I have promised tliat my Reports should be the result
of personal observation; and I wish my friends, for
whose impatience, much as I regret it, I really feel
obliged, would consider this. I could easily rest where
I am, and compile my Reports from printed books and
journals ; but I should do it at the cost of my sense of
duty, and of their respect and confidence ; an expense
infinitely greater than any incurred by my delay, one
which really I cannot afford, and which I am sure, upon
)yGoo»^Ic
reflection, tbey would not impose on me. The naagni-
tude of the enterprise, and the difficulties of executing
it even to my own satisfaction, are constantly enlarging
to my view ; and had I duly estimated them in the
beginning, even with all the "enthusiasm*' with which
my friends so liberally credit me, I should not have
presumed to undertake it. 1 will do, however, what. I
can, and as well as I can ; and it will be rendering
some service, to have invited public attention to the
subject, and, as a pioneer, to have opened the way
for more competent, but certainly, no more willing
laborers.
I cannot promise my Third and Fourth Numbers at
any particular time ; but they are in progress, and there
will, 1 hope, be no unreasonable delay. I have now to
visit Ireland, some of the counties of Scotland, the
Dairy portions of England, the Flax and Flop districts,
and several others. On my return to London at the
close of the season, having then completed my English
tour, I shall devote myself to the preparation of my
Reports; intending in early spring to visit the Conti-
nent, and in hopes, by the blessing of God, to return to
my beloved country in the autumn. Happy as 1 shall
then be, if heaven accords me this privilege, to embrace
my home once more, I shall not be able, without
painful regret, to quit the glorious and honored land of
my fathers; a country for whose hospitality I shall
never cease to be grateful ; and for whose great im-
provements, and noble institutions, and extraordinary
advancements in all the useful, elegant, and humane
arts, I cannot but entertain the highest admiration.
Nor without the deepest feeling shall I be able to
separate from friends, the intimacy and frankness of
whose friendship has seemed to give to it almost the
)yGoo»^Ic
leogth of an ordinary life. My sense of their kindness
I have no words to express. The charms of their
society, and the remembraoce of their virtues, to which
even tlie highest titles add no lustre, will be cherished
aniong the richest treasures of my heart, to the day of
my death.
London, 66 Chabino Cross, 1B14.
NOTES.
There having been some disaatiafactioD expressed with the ty-
pography and form of the first part, and it being chiefly introductory
to the work, it haa been deemed advisable to adopt a new rorm and
type in the publication of the remainder. It is hoped this will he
approved. At the same time, it is intended, before the completion
of the work, to republish the first part to conform, so that those per-
sons who wish to have theii parts uniform, that they may be bound
together, can receive a copy of the second edilion in exchange for
their number of the first edition, (if uninjured,) by calling at the
Publisher's Office in Boston.
Such of the author's friends in England as desire to obtain the
American edition of the work, either in ten separate numbers, or in
two volumes octavo, of about 500 pages each, bound in cloth, will
be supplied with them on application to Messrs. Wiley and Putnam,
American Booksellers, 6 Waterloo Place, London, at 12s. Qd. per
volume, or 355. for the set complete.
For the convenience of those who wish to calculate the tables in
the following pages, the English currency may be reduced into dol-
lars and cents by estimating the pound sterling at $4.80, the shilling
at 24 cents, and the penny at 2 cents. This will cover the usual rate
of exchange between the two cotmtriea.
)yGoo»^Ic
ADDITIONAL SUBSCRIBERS.
S. B. Hnuer,
Ba«taa,Uwi. 13
Hod. Leman Gibba. LironU, N. Y. 1
Joseph Breck tL Co
Hon. J. Larrowe,
HammondsDort. 1
Charles P. BcHHia,
Henry Chamberlain. York. N. V. ' 1
Thomas D»vi»,
David McDonald,
A. B. Wheeler
Edward BrowQ,
it^st
;
Hollowway Long, " 1
G. O.J.DuReUe.M. D. " 1
John a. Chsndlet,
Paul Ooddard,
id^lfdaVi. Co.,
John Hallowway,
John P. Bool,
Charles R. Bond & Co..
F. A. Gray,
Campbell ttairis.
J. H. Fnncis,
J»oies Ellison,
J. B.Tlanis,
Rev. Daniel AnstiD
Cambridge, Mass. l
James Gtlmour,
locreue S. Smilh,
Don:hesU
,MMa. 1
Rosvrell Slocking,
Samuel Filihugh,
F. W. Hacoiidray,
MounlMorrU, N.Y.I
Samaet Weld,
Roihury,
Msss. 1
Wm. H. Spencer,
Oeneseo, N. Y. I
AnUHi Fanier,
Mass. 1
Elisha WhillelKV,
Brooklyn, N. Y. t
A. Roheion,Jr.,
FallRiye
Mass. 1
M. W. Kirlir,
Henrieila, N. Y. I
Wm. R. Roboion,
Joseph Sibley,
West Rus'h. N. Y. I
George Hodges,
N. AndoT
r, Mass. 1
Lea<lyardLincUeaii,CRienaviB.N. Y. l
JohnAbhollf ,
Weslford,
Muss. 1
S. D. Chiids,
Clica. N. Y. I
John Clark,
Lowell, Mass. 1
Capt. Wm. Mcrrine, "' l
Rer. H. A. Miles,
Edmund A. Welmnre. " 1
Wiliiim W. Boolt,
H.C.Meriam, N
E. D. Gillespie,
New York City, 1
TewkBburjr, Hast. 1
H. J. Lillle,
Partlaud, Me. 3
N. B. Kolbins,
Plymouth
Mass. I
Ceoife Colman,
S. Sedgwick,
Jo«ph'HBll,
CharlBi R. Babbelt
KS^-r:
Glazfer, Masiers &
1 HaUowell,Ma. 1
R. B. Allen,
BeUast, Mo. 1
Hiram Smilh,
B. B. David,
Amhersl, N. H. 1
Lewis Brooks,
Josiah H. Hobbs,
Wakefield, N. H. 1
Abetard Reynolds,
Charles Steison,
Cincinnati, Ohio, 1
Hiram Blanehard,
E. Brigham
ScunueT Q. Barker,
Seubea Sikei,
George Whimev,
C. Coles,
Samuel B. Cha^,
SilTertoo,S.C. 1
WiUiam W. Mnmford.
R. F. W. Allston
Georgetown, S.C.I
W. A. Herriek,
Hon. J. J. Ormood
Tuskalaam,Al«. 1
John Pish,
James B. Wallace,
John Giffon),
John McCormick,
Asron Enickson,
Allen Mason,
Richard Williams,
Jr. feCo.,
William Kidd,
Jacob Dunnelt,
Hon. T. Spalding,
Pawlncket, R. I. 1
William BueU, >
Darien, Ga. 1
John B. ElKood, M
0.
Peler Huliie,
Philadelphia, Penn. 3
Rush, N. T. 1
Charles 0. Shepaid
John B. Crosby,
Aleiander Martin,
Ftsdcu Brown,
Lima, N. Y. 1
Thomas H. HtMI,
Thomas D. Bnrrall,
Robert T. Leach,
Genera, N. Y. l
W.W. Marsh,
Victor, N. Y. I
Eraalu, Clark
Limaj N.
Y. 1
Geo. J. JesBup,
Palmyra, N. Y. 1
Ira Godfrey,
Stephen Hyde,
Jonalhaa Townsen
Geo^e E. Kiag,
. " >
L.E*L.ph.m,
Penn Yan
N. Y. 1
Samuel E. Hudson
NewMk, N. Y. I
is.'T-^'"--
Albion, N
Y. I
Cyrus A. Ballon,
Sweden, N. Y. 1
Daniel Keayon,
John H. Holly,
Viclor, N
Y. 1
Lyona, N. Y. 1
John's. French,
A. L. BMonwilt,
„Gooi^lc
8 ADDITIONAL SDBSCBIBEBS.
Janm Dnan,
Mvr..n H. Cluk, „ ,_ _ . ,, , .
S.'HililRib, PhelH, N. r. 1 Win. R. tinna, Medina, N. Y.
Caiui Cnoe, '' I Silst M. BomuBiu, "
Rnlph Plumb, Bnblo, N. Y. 1 John & G«. Kiibr,
Abnet Bryan 1, ■' I (h-rin Scorille, "
AllwnH.Tracj, " I Hm. R. H. Smith, Penr, N. Y.
iiinniurl HHni, " I Jmiah Andrrsa, ''
I. A. Itbiuom, " 1 Mmrlf Slodilnrd "
Lcw'n KstoD, " 1 Lucius Southwick, Kt. Monii.N. T.
O. P. H™?. LockpoH, N. Y. 1 Aneus MrBrtn, York, N. Y.
J. Killourn, " 1 Elioa S. Gilbtrt, Bichmonl, N. Y.
Dmniel H. Bnnui, Cbili, N. Y. I Hon. Juoei HcNair, Dnninlle, N. Y.
AgeaU of this work ire requested. to send to the Publisher a list
or aoy errors they may perceive ia the names or residences of the
subscribers, which were appeoded to the first number ; as it would
be desirable to issue a new and complete list in one of the subse-
quent numbers, both of the early subscribers and those since re-
ceired, with all the miBtakes corrected, and arranged in a uniform
muuier, so «■ to be bound in at the end of the volume, if desired.
)yGoo»^Ic
EUKOPEAN AGKICULTUEE
RURAL ECONOMY.
FROM PERSONAL OBSERVATION.
BY HENRY COLMAN.
" For, in all thmgi whaterer, Ihe mlod ij the mast raluBbl* *nd tlie mmt imporUnl g
■nd in Ibis Kale the vhols of ogricnltnra ii in a mtuial and just order : the beaat ia
■n inibfmiaig priudpla lo the ploogh and cart, the laborer ii u reason to the twaiC, and
tha btmei ia a* a thinking and preaiding priadpla to the laborer." — Bdbei.
VOL. I. — PART HI.
BOSTON:
ARTHUR D. PHELPS, IM, WASHINGTON STEEKT.
LONDON:
WILEY AND PUTNAM, S, WATERLOO PLACE.
1845.
„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc
NOTICE.
I OFFER my Fourth Report to my readera with a
strong solicitude for the contiDuance of that kindness,
with which they have hitherto honored me. The sub-
jects of it, and the tnanoer of treating them, may appear
to some persons too miscellaneous; but I beg them to
consider the variety of tastes for which I have to pro-
vide ; and I promise, that in the end none shall be
willingly neglected. My plan embraced not merely an
account of the agriculture of Europe, especially in those
great points in which it might serve for instruction and
profit to my own countrymen ; but in addition to this,
withont intermingling any personalities whatever, a
picture of rural life, habits, and customs. If the con-
dition should prove better than our own, we might
gather useful counsel ; if it should be otherwise, it
might be to us a subject of congratulation.
I have had letters from the United States, praying
that I would give a particular account of the English
markets. This I have endeavored to do in the present
number. What I have stated as facts may be relied
upon. I have given such as I deemed most interesting
and important. The manner in which they are pre-
sented, and the sentiments interwoven in the narrative,
may not suit all tastes. Some may consider it scarcely
)yGoo»^Ic
grave enough for the subject " Some," says Tucker,
in a similar case, *' will suck off the plum, aud spit out
the mediciue ; " but I can only say, I have anxiously
labored to make my commuoications useful and agree-
able to my various readers.
I have not been without advice, given in the kindest
manner by friends at borne, to adopt a particular style ;
and some have suggested to me models for imitation.
But when any man attempts to walk in another man's
shoes, his gait is liable to become awkward and un-
steady ; and I am warned by the fate of the jackdaw,
who strutted into the barn-yard in the peacock's feath-
ers. Every man, who is not a servile imitator, has in
general his own way of doing things. It may be awk-
ward, unseemly, or in bad taste ; but where there is no
intentional impropriety, but an honest desire to do right,
you would prefer this to any unnatural efforts on his
part, which might only render his awkwardness more
apparent. There comes to all, likewise, a period of
life when any change of habits, which the rust of years
has clenched, is scarcely to be expected. If I should
put myself under the tuition of the most accomplished
masters, I fear it would now be hopeless for me to
attempt to figure in a polka or a quadrille.
These remarks are suggested by a review of my
work in the United States, which a friend has been kind
enough to send me. I have nothing to complain of in
the temper of the review. The writer, afler a suffi-
ciently flattering notice of the author, to break in some
measure the force of bis censure, proceeds to complain
of the work, as not enough " matter of fact and prac-
tical " in its character. The writer admits that he has
read only the third number. I will not say how very
)yGoo»^Ic
iDCODveDient it alwap must be to the host to receive
visitors in sq unfinished house, and one scarcely cov-
ered in ; but it seems premature to judge of an edifice
by the inspection of a single room. I am not for the
first time on trial before the public. It is now ap-
proaching forty years, since I first publicly interested
myself in the improvement of the agriculture of my
country ; and during that whole time few months hare
passed without some contributions on the subject from
my pen to the public press. Whether, therefore, my
writings are practical or not, the public have ample
opportunity to judge.
I claim no merit for myaeK, but that of being a care-
ful collector of what I deem valuable facts, within my
own or the agricultural experience of others ; and of
stating these facts truly and perspicuously. I have
carefully avoided alt speculations, and theories not fully
confirmed ; and my constant study has been to make my
statements intelligible to the humblest, and, if possible,
at the same time, attractive to persons of cultivated
minds. I have been most anxious to raise the profession
of agriculture from its low estate to its proper dignity,
as a humane and intellectual profession. In this way,
I have strove to commend the subject by any little
honest arts which I could use, to persons of education
and refined taste ; that instead of burying themselves in
cities, they might find the country instinct with new
life, and in rural and industrial pursuits obtain food for
the mind as well as the body, subjects for the most
interesting philosophical investigation, and sources of
innocent pleasure, of wise and religious instruction,
eminently adapted to make them wiser, better, and hap-
pier. These are the best ends of life. I wish 1 could
)yGoo»^Ic
thiDk that my labors have done anytbiog for this object
In respect to its utility and importance, 1 have never
bad one moment's misgiving.
Id this noble pursuit, I have had the honor of being
contemporary, and, as a co-laborer, associated with
Bordley and Taylor of Virginia, Peters and Lorain of
Pennsylvania, Deane of Maine, Buel and Gaylord of
New York, Lowell, Pickering, Deiter, and Feasenden
of Massachusetts, some of them men of great minds
and large philanthropy. To the living it is not be-
coming to allude ; but in that strong wish, which I
know these great and good men would express were
they now alive, I do most cordially join, that those who
follow us may do infinitely more and better than we
have done.
fiut the writer goes on to say, that I have not the
power to execute the work which 1 have undertaken, as
it should be executed. It may be ungracious, but I
admit that there may be cases in which it is necrasary
to tell a blind man that he cannot see. Such rebukes
are sufficiently discouraging, but I assure my friends
this suggestion will not be lost upon me, and I wilt try
to make up for Want of ability, by increased diligence
and zeal. I will only add, that should the reasonable
wishes of any subscriber to the work, or any reader, be
disappointed, his regret will bear no comparison with
my own.
)yGoo»^Ic
NOTES.
Such of the author's friends in England as desire to obtain the
American edition ,of the work, either in ten separate numbers, or in
two volumes octavo, of about 500 pages each, bound in cloth, will
be supplied with them on application to Messrs. Wiley and Putnam,
American Booksellers, 6 Waterloo Place, London, at 13i. 6d. per
volume, or 35f. for tbe set complete.
For the convenience of those who wish to calculate the tables in
the following pages, the English currency may be reduced into dol-
lars and cents, by estimating the pound sterling at $4.80, the shilling
at 24 cents, and the penny at 3 ceQts. This will cover the usual
rate of exchange between the two counuies.
Agents of this work are requested to send to the PuUiaher a list
of any errors they may perceive in the names or residences of the
subscribers, vrhich were appended to the first number ; as it would
be desirable to issue a new and complete list in one of the snbs^
quent numhers, both of the early subscribers and those since r^
ceived, with all the mistakes corrected, and arranged in a uniform
manner, so as to be bound in at the end of the vdume, if desired.
The arrangement made between Hr. F. W. Wilcox, as " Travel-
ling Agent," and the Publisher, has been dissolved by the mulOal
desire of both parties. Gentlemen wishing for the work, can obtain
the numbers of any of the Agents, advertised on the third page of
the Cover.
)yGoo»^Ic
FOR SALE AT THIS OFFICE,
i. VALniBLB
ESSAY ON GUANO.
DsscBiBmo the properties and best meUiods of its ap-
plication to Agriculture and Hordcutturej with the value
of the importations bota different localities; founded
CD actual analyses and on personal experiments, which
will be detailed, with numerous kinds of Trees, Veg-
etables, Flowers, and Insects in this climate.
Br I. £ TESCHEMACHER,
OF BOSTON, MASS.
)yGoo»^Ic
„Gooi^lc
„Gooi^lc