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THE
EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS,
EUROPE.
BY
RECLUS.
EDITED BY
E. G. RAVENSTEIN, F.R.G.S., F.S.S., ETC.
VOL. II.
FRANCE AND SWITZERLAND.
ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND MAPS.
NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
1 , 3, AND 5 BOND STREET.
JUN7 1956
CONTENTS.
FRANCE.
CRAP.
I. GENERAL ASPECTS. THE COUNTRY AND ITS INHABITANTS
PADS
1
Geographical Position; Geology, p. 1. Climate; Rivers, p. 7. The Prehistoric Age of
France, p. 13. The Inhabitants of France, p. 16.
n. THB PYRENEES, THE LANDES, AND THE BASIN OF THE GAKONNE 23
The Pyrenees, p. 23. The Landes, p. 39. The Adour, p. 45. The Garonne, p. 48.
Topography. Pyrenees-Orientales, p. 53. Ariege, p. 65. Haute-Garonne, p. 57. Hautes-
Pyrenees, p. 59. Basses-Pyrenees, p. 62. Gere, p. 64. Tarn-et-Garonne, p. 65. Lot-et-
Garonne, p. 67. Landes, p. 67. Gironde, p. 69.
III. THE ALPS, THE RH^NE, AND THE COAST OF THE MEDITERRANEAN ..... 74
General Aspects ; Mountains, p. 74. Provence, p. 75. Maritime Alps, 78. Cottian Alps,
p. 78. The Alps of Dauphine, p. 80. The Alps of Savoy, p. 84. 'The Rhone and other
Kivers, p. 89. Coast-line and Lagoons, p. 108. Climate, p. 114.
Topography. Aude, p. 115. Herault, p. 117. Gard, p. 119. Ardeche, p. 122. Bouches-
du-Rhone, p. 124. Var, p. 130. Alpes-Maritimes, p. 134. Vaucluse, p. 136. Hautee-
Alpes, p. 139. Basses- Alpes, p. 140. DrSme, p. 141. Isere, p. 142. Savoie.p. 144. Haute-
Savoie, p. 146.
IV. THE JURA AND THE BASIN OF THE SAONE (FRANCHE-COMTE AND BURGUNDY) . . . 148
General Aspects ; Mountains, p. 148. Lakes and Rivers, p. 150. Inhabitants, p. 156.
Topography. Ain, p. 157. Jura, p. 158. Doubs, p. 159. Belfort, p. 162. Haute-Sa3ne,
p. 1G3. COto-d'Or, p. 164. Saone-et-Loire, p. 167. Rhone, p. 171.
V. THE PLATEAU OF CINTHAL FRANCE (GEVAUDAN, VELAY, AUVEHONB, ROUEROUE, LIMOUSIN,
l'i':nKioRn, MARCHE, BOURBONNAIS) 174
The ( Y-vcmics, p. 174. Mezenc and Vivarais, p. 177. Velay, p. 179. The Volcanoes of
Auvcrgno, p. 181. Limousin, p. 186. Forez, Beaujolais, and Charollais, p. 188. Inha-
bitants, p. 188.
Topography. Lozero, p. 189. Haute-Loire, p. 189. Aveyron, p. 190. Tarn, p. 191. Lot,
p. 193. Cantal, p. 194. Puy-de-Dome, p. 195. Correze, p. 197. Dordogne, p. 198.
Haute- Vienne, p. 199. Creuse, p. 200. Allier, p. 201. Loire, p. 204.
VI. CHAREXTR AND VRNDEE (ANGOVMOIS, SAINTONOF., AUNIS, POITOU) ..... 206
Geni-r.-il Aspects; Hills, p. 206. Rivers, p. 207. The Coast, p. 208.
Topography. Charente, p. 212. Charentc-Inferieure, p. 214. Vienne, p. 218. Deux-
Suvres, p. 219. V. mil'-.-, p. 220.
VII. THK BASIN OF THE LOIRE . 222
ll.'iMTiil As],, its, p. 222. The Loire, p. 223.
Topography. Niovrc, p. 230. Cher, p. 232. Indre, p. 232. Loiret, p. 233. Loir-et-Cli. ,,
p. 2151. KUI-I <l-l,oir, p. 236. Indre-et-Loire, p. 236. Maine-et-Loire, p. 238. Sarthe,
p. 239. Mayennc, p. 242. Loire-Infcrieure, p. 242.
iy CONTENTS.
PAGE
CHAP. . 246
VIII. BUITTANY (BHETAONE) ........
General Aspects, p.. 246. The Coast, p. 248. Inhabitants, p. 253.
p. 256. Finistere, p. 258. C6tes-du-Nord, p. 261.
Yilaine, p. 264.
OCC
IX. THE CHANNEL ISLANDS ............
Jersey, p. 266. Serk, p. 268. Guernsey, p. 268. Alderney, p. 269.
970
X. LOWER NORMANDY AND CoTENTIN ........
General Aspects, p. 270.
Topography. I* Manche, p. 272. Orne, p 275. Calvados, p. 276.
XI. THE VALLEY OF THE SEINE ........
The River Seine, p. 280. Upper Normandy, p. 287. The Coast, p. 289.
Topography. Yonne, p. 290. Aube, p. 291. Haute-Marne, p. 291. Marne, p. 292. Seine-
et-Marne, p. 297. Par'u, p. 299. Seine-et-Oise, p. 307. Aisne, p. 310. Oise, p. 314.
Eure, p. 314. Seine- Inferieure, p. 316.
XII. NORTHERN FRANCE (BASINS OF THE SOMME AND THE SCHELDT; PICARDY, ARTOIS, AND
FLANDERS) ............... 322
General Aspects, p. 322.
Topography. Somme, p. 331. Pas-de-Calais, p. 334. Nord, p. 337.
XIII. THE VOSOES (BASINS OF THE MEUSE AND THE MOSELLE) ....... 345
General Aspects, p. 345.
Topography. Meuse, p. 350. Ardennes, p. 350. Vosges, p. 352. Meurthe-et-Moselle, p. 354.
XTV. STATISTICS OF FRANCE ............. 356
Population, p. 356. Agriculture, p. 359. Mining, p. 364. Manufactures, p. 365. Com-
merce, p. 366. Social Statistics, p. 371.
XV. GOVEBNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION ........... 374
Local and Central Government, p. 374. Judicial Authorities, p. 376. Ecclesiastical
Authorities, p. 376. Education, p. 377. Army and Navy, p. 377. Finance, p. 378.
Colonies, p. 380.
Tabular Statement of Area and Population, p. 382.
France ; its Departments, Natural Regions, and Principal Communes, p. 384.
SWITZERLAND.
I. GENERAL ASPECTS. THE ALPS ............ 391
II. THE JURA 409
III. GLACIAL PERIOD 414
IV. KIVEKS AND LAKES .............. 419
V. CLIMATE, FAUNA, AND FLORA ............ 434
VI. THE PEOPLE 442
VII. TOPOGRAPHY ...............". 452
Ticino, p. 453. Valais, Vaud, p. 454. Geneva, p. 456. Fribourg, Neuchatel, p. 459.
Bern. p. 460. Solothurn, p. 464. Basel, p. 465. Aargau, p. 467. Luzern, p. 471.
Sdiwy/. I'ri, I'nterwalden, p. 469. Zug, Zurich, p. 470. Glarus, Grisons, p. 471. St.
Gallen, p. 472. Ai>pmz<:11, Thurgau, p. 473. Schuffhausen, 474.
VIII. AoRitTLTURK, INDUSTRY, AM> COMMERCE .......... 475
IX. GOVKHNMBNT AM) ADMINISTRATION ........... 490
INDEX
497
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
MAPS PRINTED IN COLOURS.
1 . France, Geological 4
2. France, Political 53
3. Mont Blanc 86
4. The Volcanoes of Central France . .177
6. Geological Map of the Paris Basin
6. Switzerland .....
7. Mount St. Gotthard .
PAOK
301
391
484
PLATES.
The Pyrenees, as seen from the Terrace of the
Castle at Pau .... To face page 23
The Maladotta, seen from the Summit of the
Posets 31
Panorama of Cier and the Valley of Luchon . 56
Toulouse ........ 68
Peasants from the Valley of Ossau ... 62
Bayonne . . . . . . .63
Bordeaux ........ 69
La Pcrtc du RhOne at Bellegarde
Carcassonne
Marseilles . . ...
(In-noble and the Alps of Belledoniv
Mont Auxois and the Statue of Vercingetonx
Lyons .......
Ml(- 1,1 AllVei'iMII' ....
Tx; Puy-fti-Velay .....
Vllllev of Mont I>ore-les-lt:iillH
89
116
124
142
167
171
186
189
197
Limoges . . ' . . To face page 200
Source of the Loiret ..... 233
Chambord Castle ...... 235
Nantes . . ...... 242
252
'209
308
317
34S
364
367
370
398
401
' Luke of Thun ...... 427
Mont St. Michel
Paris
Prospect from the Terrace of St. Germain
Rouen .......
Lakes of Ketournemer and Longemer .
Nancy
Railway Viaduct of Morlaix . . .
Le Havre
Mont Orvin, or the Matterhorn . .
The Jungfrau
Tl \\Yllhorn and the Roscnlaui Glacier . . 464
The [,ak,t of the Four Cantons (Axenstrasse) . 470
VI
LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS.
ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT.
FRANCE.
PAGE
2
5
6
1. The Contour of France .
2. The Historical High-roads of France
3. Lithe-logical Map of the British Channel .
4. Isothermal Lines of France . .
6. Lines of Equal Winter and Summer Tem-
perature for Paris .... 9
6. Comparative Area of the River Basins and
average Surface Drainage . . .12
7. Comparative Discharge of the Great Rivers
of France . .
8. DOL - ER - VEBCHANT OK "MERCHANTS'
TABLE," NEAB LOCMAKIAKEU . . 15
9. Dispersion of the Aryans . . .17
10. The Stature of Frenchmen . . .19
11. Profile of the Pyrenees .... 24
12. Mont Canigou 25
13. Puy de Carlitte 26
14. Defiles of the Aude .... 27
15. The Isthmus between the Corbieres and
the Cevennes ..... 29
16. The Little Pyrenees . . . . .30
17. The Maladetta 31
18. Mont Perdu 32
19. ROLAND'S BREACH 33
20. THE AMPHITHEATRE OF GAVARNIE . . 34
21. Section of the Ancient Glacier of Argeles 35
22. Ancient Glacier of Argeles ... 36
23. The Basques on the French Slope of the
Pyrenees 38
24. VIEW IN THE LANDES .... 40
25. The Dunes and Landes in the Pays de
Born 41
26 The Basin of Arcachon . . . .42
27. The Slope of the Landes .... 43
28. The Ancient Coast of the Landes . . 44
29. Successive Changes of the Bed of the Gave
ofPau 46
30. The Mouth of the Adour .... 47
31. The Subterranean Course of the Garonne 48
32. Radiating River Courses of Gers . . 49
31!. Valli:ys of Gers 50
34. The Plain of Uivicre .... 50
35. The Estuary of the Gironde . . .51
'M. Thi! " Passes" of the Gironde . . . 62
"i7. Seeticin ni 1 tin 1 PUM* of the Gironde . 62
18, I'urt-Vendres 54
39. Banner. s-de-Luchon .... 66
40. Tlif Convergent Valleys of the Garonne,
the; Ariege, and the Hers . . . ' 57
41. Toulouse 58
42. Canal of the Noste 69
43. BagiHT" -s-de-Bi^orre .... 60
41. Tumuli of Ossun 61
4o. Bayonne and the Mouth of the Adour . 63
46. Roadstead of St. Jean-de-Luz ... 64
47. The Alluvial Vlain of the Garonne, the
Tarn, and the Aveyron ... 66
FIO.
48. Cap-Breton .
49. Bordeaux
50. The Wine Districts of the Gironde .
61. The Invasion of Phylloxera, 1873-75
52. Zones of Oranges and Olives .
53. The Mountains of the Moora .
54. The Valley of the Arc
55. 'THE VEKDON AT QUINSON
56. The Gorge, or "Clus," of the Verdon
67. THE GLACIERS OF OISANS
58. AIGUILLE OF THE MEDJE
59. THE GLACIER OF LA GRAVE .
60. THE "FOREST" OF SAOU
PAGE
68
70
71
72
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
84
61. LEIS MOURRE .... 85
62. MONT BLANC AS SEEN FROM CHAMONIX . 86
63. Ancient Lake Beds in Savoy ... 88
64. Perte du Rhone and Bellegarde . . 89
65. The Lake of Annecy . . . . 90
66. The Lake of Bourget . . . .91
67. Ancient Glaciers of the -Rhone and the
Isere ... 93
68. Plain of La Valloire . .94
69. The Sorgues of Vaucluse ... 95
70. Pont d'Arc (Ardeche) .... 96
71. PONT D'ARC 97
72. THE ROMAN AOUEDUCT OVER THE GAKD . 98
73. The Crau and the Canal of Crapponne . 99
74. The Canal of the Verdon . . . .100
75. The Delta of the Rh6ne . . . .101
76. THE CANAL OF ST. Louis . . .103
77. The Lagoons of Aigues-Mortes . . 104
78. The Delta of the Aude . . . .105
79. Rigoles of the Canal du Midi . . .107
80. The Mouth of the Herault and Cap
d'Agde 108
81. Leucate and the Roadstead of Franqui . 109
82. The Lagoon of Thau . . -. 110
83. Bionomical Condition of the Littoral
Region of Herault . . . .111
84. Etang de Berre . . . .112
85. The Canal of Caronte . . .113
86. The Prevailing Winds at Aigues-Mortes . 1 14
87. The Port of La Nouvelle . . .116
88. The Harbour of Cette . . . .118
89. The Protestant Congregations in the South
of France 120
90. Bcaucaire and Tarascon . . . .122
91. The Invasion of the Phylloxera . . 123
<>->. -Marseilles 125
93. The Roadstead of Marseilles . . .126
94. THE MAUSOLEUM AT St REMY . . 128
95. KINO RENE'S CASTLE AT TARASCON . . 129
96. Toulon 130
97. Hyeres 131
98. The Gulf of St. Tropez . . . .132
99. NICE 133
100. Villefranche 135
101. THE CAVERNS OF BAOUSSE-ROUSS . . 136
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
vii
no.
102. Baousse-Rousse . .
103. Cannes and the Isles of L6rins
104. AVIGNON
105. Col de Larche
106. SlBTERON . . . .
107. Valence
108. Grenoble
109. Passes over the Alps ....
110. Thonon
111. The Jura
112. The Forest of Chaux ....
113. The Lake of St. Point .
114. The Lake of Chalin
115. The Lakes of the Cluse of Nantua .
1 16. The Lower Valley of the Ain .
117. The Great Defile of the Doubs
118. THE FALLS OF THE DOUBS
119. The Dombes in 1834 ....
120. The Mountains of Morez and St. Claude .
121. The First Terrace of the Jura, between
Lons-le-Saunier and Salins
122. Besancon
123. BESANCON
124. Belfort
125. BELFORT
126. Vesoul . . '
127. The Wine District of Cdte-d'Or
128. Le Creusot
129. LE CBEUSOT
130. Lyons
131. The Environs of Lyons .
132. The Mountains of Espinouze .
133. The Causse of Mtjean . . . .
134. THE DEFILE OP THE AKHM IIF, NEAK
RUOMS . . . .
135. The Hills of Coiron
136. Le Puy
137. THE PUY DE L' AIGCILLIER, MONT DOBB
138. The Puy of Sancy and the Lake District
139. The Chain of the Puy de D&me
140. Volvic
141. The Meanderings of the Lot
142. The Rapids of Lalinde .
143. Roquefort
144. Decazeville ......
145. Clennont and Montferrand
146. Thiers
147. Section of the Carboniferous Strata of
St. Eloy
148. Tayac and Les Eyzies, on the Vezere
149. The Coal Measures of Bezcnet .
150. Vichy
1-31 St. fitienne ......
152. The Head- Waters of the Touvre .
153. The Old Coast of Vendee
154. Noirm.mtirr ......
155. Silted-up Bays on the Coast of Aunis
l.v . Th. An. i. nt Gulf of Poitou .
157. Angouleme ......
158. The Brandy Districts of Charentc .
159. Rochefort anil the Lower Churente .
160. La Rochello
161. LA RUCHELLE ......
162. AKS-EN-RE
PAOB
no.
137
163.
138
164.
139
165.
140
166.
141
167.
143
168.
144
169.
145
170.
146
171.
149
172.
150
173.
151
174.
152
175.
152
176.
153
177.
154
178.
155
179.
156
180.
158
181.
182.
160
183.
161
184.
162
185.
163
186.
164
187.
165
188.
166
189.
168
190.
169
191.
170
192.
172
193.
175
194.
176
195.
196.
178
197.
179
198.
180
199.
182
200.
183
201.
184
202.
185
203.
186
204.
187
205.
191
206.
192
207.
195
208.
196
209.
210.
197
211.
198
212.
201
213.
202
214.
203
215.
207
208
216.
209
217.
210
2 IS.
211
-'19.
212
220.
213
221.
214
215
222.
216
223.
217
224.
MM
The Gulf of Aiguillon . . . .218
Les Sables-d'Olonne . . . .220
The Bill of the Allier . . . .223
The Authion 224
La Sologne 225
TheErdre 226
The Lake of Grand Lieu . . .227
La Grande Briere 228
Paimboeuf 229
The Mouth of the Loire .... 230
Le Croisic and Batz 231
Orleans 233
Chartres 235
Tours 237
Angers 238
THE SLATE QUAKKIES NEAR ANGERS . 240
LeMans . . ... . .241
Nantes 243
St. Nazaire 244
The Landes of Lanvaux . . . .247
Morbihan 248
The Peninsula of Quiberon . . .249
The Headland of Cornouaille . .250
The Bay of St. Michel . . . .252
BKETON PEASANTS ..... 253
Approximate Extent of the Breton Tongue 254
WOMEN OF CANCALE .... 265
Lorient and Port-Louis .... 267
Concarneau ...... 259
Brest 260
Morlaix 262
St. Malo and St. Servan . . . .263
VIEW OP ST. MALO 264
The Channel Islands . . . .267
The Forest of Andaine . . . .271
Meadows of Normandy .... 272
The Sinks of the Aure . . . .278
Cherbourg -, .... 274
THE BEACH AT GKANVILLE . . . 276
Caen and the Mouth of ijie Orne . . 277
Trouville 278
The Eavined Plateau of Upper Burgundy 281
The Lake Reservoir of Settons . . 282
The Source of the Seine . . . .283
The Basin of Vitry-le-Francois . . 284
Section of the Paris Basin . . .286
The Estuary of the Seine . . .286
The District of Bray . . . .287
Dales on the Coast 288
CAPE DE LA HEVE 289
The Environs of Langres . . 292
Chalons and its Camp .... 293
The Bifurcation of the Grand Morin at
Sezanne 294
Reims and Epernay .... 296
Tin CATHEDRAL OP REIMS . . . 296
Fontainoblcau 297
l':ci- and the Groat Highways of Franco 298
The Growth of Paris . . . .299
The Cciiiipiirutivu Growth of London and
P:mn in Poplimtion .... 300
The Areas occupied by London and Paris 30 1
NOTIIK-DAME 302
THE LOUVRE . . 303
LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS.
J2."j. '('HE NEW OPERA HolisB, PAKIS
226. Paris and its Aqueducts .
227. Paris and its Forts
228. St. Germain-en- Lay e
229. Laon
PAGE
. 304
. 305
. 306
. 308
. 310
230. St. CJuentin 311
231. Compiegne ...... 312
232. Chantilly 313
233. LcsAndelys 315
234. Rouen and its Environs .... 316
235. Le Havre. 317
236. THB CLIFFS OF ETRETAT . . 318
237. Fecamp 319
320
323
324
325
326
327
328
328
329
330
331
332
333
335
336
253. Valenciennes 338
254. Lille 339
255. Roubaix and Turcoing .... 340
256. THE BELFRY OF BEROUES . . .341
257. Gravelines 342
258. Dunkirk 343
259. Glaciers of the Vosges . . . .346
260. The Lakes of Gerardmer and Longe-
238. Dieppe .
239. The Hills of Boulogne ....
240. The Estuary of the Somrne
241. The Ancient Gulf of Flanders .
242. The Moe'res of Dunkirk ....
243. Section of the Strait of Dover
244. Strait of Dover and the Proposed Tunnel
245. Section of the Proposed Tunnel
246. Extent of the French and Flemish
Languages
247. The Coal Basin of Northern France
248. PfeRONNE-SUR-SOMMB .
249. Amiens
250. AJJIBXB CATHEDRAL
251. Boulogne
252. Calais
347
349
351
352
355
261. Meanderings of the Mouse
262. Charleville and Mezieres ....
263. Epinal
264. Nancy
265. Increase of Population in the Principal
Countries 357
266. Density of the Population in France . 358
267. Wheat Harvests 359
268. Produce of the Vineyards . . . 360
269. Pastures and Meadows .... 362
270. Average Value of Agricultural Produce,
with the Exception of Wine . . 363
271. The Increase <,f Strain Engines . . 365
272. The Railroads of France . . . .367
273. ' ':iiiiils ;tnd Navigable Rivers . . . 368
'271. 'Uncommercial Marines of the World . 369
27-i. 'I'll. N:n ; ii:ition of French Ports . . 370
27". Map exhibiting the Educational Condition
of France 372
277. VIEW OF MONACO 379
278. Comparative Areas of France and of her
Colonies 380
279. The Languages of France . . .381
no.
280.
281.
282.
283.
284.
285.
286.
287.
288.
289.
290.
291.
292.
293.
294.
295.
296.
297.
298.
299.
300.
301.
302.
303
304.
305.
306.
307.
308.
309.
310.
3U.
312.
313.
314.
315.
316.
317.
318.
319.
320.
321.
322.
323.
324.
325.
326.
327.
328.
329.
330.
331.
332
333.
334,
SWITZERLAND.
Val Piora and the Lukinanier .
Diagram showing the Slope of the Valleys
South and North of the St. Gottlmrd .
Sources of the Rhone, the Ticino, and the
Toce
The Illgraben
The Matterhorn (Mont Cervin)
Glaciers of the Bernese Alps .
BLUMLISALP GLACIER . . . .
The Diablerets
The Windgalle
PAOK
394
395
396
397
398
400
401
402
405
Piz Bernina 406
The Glaciers of Tschierva and Morteratsch 407
The Valley of Travers . . . .410
The Cluse of Undervelier . . .411
Meanderings of the Doubs at St. Ursanne 412
The Lake of Joux 413
The Catogne 416
Ancient Glaciers of Eastern Switzerland . 417
The Lake of Locarno (Lago Maggiore) . 420
The Lakes of Lugano and Como . .421
The Aletsch Glacier 422
The Lake of Geneva . . . .424
Section of the Lake of Geneva . . 425
The Lakes of Neuchatel, Bienne, and Morat 426
The Lakes of Brienz and Thun . . 427
The Grindelwald Glacier .... 428
The Swamps of the Linth . . 430
The Sources of the Rhine . . .431
Rain Map of Switzerland . . .435
AN ALPINE CLUB CABIN .... 437
Pfaffikon Lake . . . 443
The Pile Dwellings of Switzerland . . 444
Ethnographical Map of Switzerland . 447
COSTUMES IN URI 449
COSTUMES IN FRIBOURG .... 450
Eastern Extremity of the Lake of Geneva 455
Geneva . .... 456
The Lake of Morat 459
Bern . . . . . . .461
VIEW OK BERN 462
Interlaken 463
Bienne and the New Bed of the Aar . 464
Basel 465
Porrentruy ...... 466
Confluence of the Rhine, Aar, Reuss, and
Limmat ...... 467
The Lake of the Four Cantons . . 468
The Simmenthal ..... 476
Industrial Map of Switzerland . . . 480
THE EBENE FLUH 481
Passes across the Alps . . . .482
THE DEVIL'S BRIDGE AND THE ROAD OF
THE ST. GOTTHARI) .... 483
Railways of Switzerland . . . 484
The Tunnel of the St. Gotthard . 485
Diagram of the Tunnels of the Simplon
and the St. Gotthard . . . .486
The 1'ass of Maloggia . . . .487
THE MONCH . . 488
A UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY,
FRANCE.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL ASPECTS. THE COUNTRY AND ITS INHABITANTS.
GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION. GEOLOGY.*
RANGE occupies a medium extent amongst those countries of the
world which have played a distinct part in politics and in the
history of civilisation. Smaller in area than either China, Russia,
the Brazils, or the United States, it is nevertheless far more con-
siderable than that of either Greece, Portugal, Switzerland, Holland,
or even of England, all of which have left their mark upon the march of human
history. Scarcely covering the 225th part of the habitable portion of the globe,
its dense population ha nevertheless enabled it to play a part quite out of propor-
tion to its area.
It would be presumptuous if we claimed on behalf of France a sort of moral
hegemony amongst the nations of the world. Still, within the comparatively
small territory bounded by the Alps and Britany, by the Pyrenees and Vosges,
there have taken place events whose influence has made itself felt to the farthest
corners of the world. In arts and science France has found worthy rivals since
the beginning of this century, and there are other nations which claim to march
at the head of civilisation. But this merely proves that the area of the civilised
world has been enlarged that there are other nations capable of giving birth to
initiatory movements. But France has at .all times performed her share of this
work of human progress, and looking to the influence which her ideas have
rxcrcised throughout the world, it would bo difficult to conceive a future history
of nations with France blotted from the map of Europe. To a very large extent
* Dufrenoy et lic de Beaumont, " Memoires pour servir i une Description geologique de la
France."
36
2 FRANCE.
the inhabitants of France are indebted for the eminent position they hold to the
climate, the soil, and the geographical features of the country which they inhabit,
and a faithful description of these will be our task in the following pages.
It has often been said that France enjoys exceptional advantages from its
position between the Mediterranean and the open ocean. This position has made it
the intermediary between the old countries of the Mediterranean and Northern
Fig. 1. THE CONTOUR OF FRANCE.
. Actual loaxday. ^jxtr & duyanaja offi-ana.
Europe. Nowhere else in Europe is communication between the coasts of the
Mediterranean and the Atlantic equally facile. The plains of Poland and Russia
may offer fe*er obsls.olrs to intercommunication, but the Baltic and the Black
Sea, which they unite, are remote inland seas. In Central Europe the Alps are
an obstacle to the exchange of ideas and merchandise between the North Sea and
the Adriatic, but in France great natural high ways join the Atlantic and Mediter-
ranean ports and river basins. Mountainous Europe may be said to terminate at
GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION.-GEOLOGY. 8
the foot of the Cevennes, and the great diagonals of the western portion of that
continent, viz. that drawn from Germany to the Iberian peninsula, and that
connecting Italy with England, intersect each other within the boundaries of
France, which is thus marked out by nature as the great centre in which European
thought may be elaborated, where North and South may exchange their ideas.
The contour of France is distinguished by compactness no less than by a
certain elegance. A meridian passing through the capital connects the two
extreme points of the territory, dividing it into two symmetrical portions in such
a manner as to form an octagon. Oceanic alternate with land boundaries, and
these latter for the most part consist of mountain chains, which separate France
very distinctly from neighbouring countries. The principal of these natural
frontier ranges are the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Jura, the Vosges, and the
Ardennes.* We may even include amongst these bastions the granitic heights of
the Armorican peninsula, which overlook the fields of Normandy and Anjou to the
west. To these sterile hills France is probably indebted for not having been
conquered by England, for if Britany had been capable of attracting hardy
Anglo-Saxon settlers, it would have formed a link between Guyenne and
Normandy, and these provinces might then have remained for ever in the posses-
sion of the foreigner.
Curiously enough, it is the highest amongst these frontier ranges which separate
the French from nations of kindred origin, whilst the less elevated ranges consti-
tute the boundaries towards the Germanic countries. The Pyrenees, a most
formidable barrier, hardly to be passed in winter, divide France from Spain ; the
Alps, an obstacle almost equally formidable, separate it from Italy. But farther
north, the Jura and the Vosges, which are of comparatively small height, separate
the French from the German-speaking populations, whilst in the north-east, in the
direction of th ; ravined plateau of the Ardennes, the boundary in certain parts is
completely open and quite conventional. The frontier there has varied much in
accordance with the fortunes of war, but the two conterminous races did not
assimilate. In the south, however, had there not been the Pyrenees and the Alps,
it is to be assumed that instead of three Latin nations French, Spaniards, and
Italians each possessed of some special genius, there would now be but one.
France is thus doubly privileged. Its southern mountain barriers have pre-
served it from a premature fusion with other Latin nations, whilst in the north,
where the frontier is open, it was preserved by the natural antagonism of race, and
yet, owing to the facilities of communication, it rendered possible an extensive
commerce and an exchange of ideas. Paris, placed close to this open frontier, was
thus marked out by nature as the capital of the country : valleys and hills con-
verge upon it ; it is the principal seat of commerce and industry, and whether in
peace or wur lias always held the foremost place.
The physical features of the interior of France are harmonious in their very
Development nf coast-lino, not including indentations of less tlian three miles, 1.039 miles
(Channel G9'i, Atlantic SRI, Mediterranean 3X2 miles). Developmont of land frontiers, 1,3-19 miles
IVltriuin 1!SI>, I.ux.inlmi- 9, Germany 199, Switzerland L'-IO, It ily 255, Spain 354 miles). T tal
circumference, 3,288 miles.
4 FRANCE.
contrasts. A granitic plateau of a triangular contour occupies the centre of the
country. In the east it is bounded by the deep valley through which flow the
Saone and the Rhone ; on the south-west it is bounded by the valley of the
Garonne, whilst its north-eastern boundary runs parallel with the Loire. The
granitic mountain of Rouergue and the heights of Morvan are attached to this
plateau-like peninsula. Porphyries and lavas have been erupted through the
granites forming the nucleus of this plateau, and on all sides it is enveloped by
rocks of more recent age, as the bones of a human body are by flesh.
This comparison may be carried even further, and we may liken the granites
and other ancient rocks of the Alps and Pyrenees, of Poitou, Britany, and Cotentin,
of the Vosges and Ardennes, to the skeleton, whilst the sedimentary rocks depo-
sited in the valleys separating them represent the flesh.
A zone of Jurassic limestones surrounds almost completely the granitic moun-
tain mass of Central France, spreading out in the north-east along the foot of
the Vosges and Ardennes, and bounding in the north-west the peninsula of
Britany. A corresponding zone of cretaceous rocks extends along the northern
foot of the Pyrenees, from sea to sea, whilst the crystalline rock masses of the
Alps rise above the strata of Jurassic formation. The space occupied by rocks of
more recent origin than the chalk and Jurassic limestones is of small extent.
Geological formations and the relief of the soil divide France into a number of
historical and geographical regions, The elevated granitic plateau of the interior,
as well as the mountain barriers on the frontiers, must at all times have exercised a
deterrent influence upon the surrounding populations, whilst the rich and fertile
plains extending between them proved a powerful attraction. The rugged
plateaux, however, offered a secure shelter, whilst the plains were open at all times
to the incursions of enemies. Down in the valleys man struggled for the posses-
sion of the land ; in the mountains he held it securely. The historical contrast
between this barren central plateau and the surrounding lowlands is very evident.
The valley of the Rhone in the east, the basins of the Garonne and the Charente in
the west and south-west, and the huge bend of the Seine in the north, pulsate with
life, and the number of mountaineers who descended into these inviting plains has
been greater by far than that of the lowlanders who sought a home in the moun-
tains, for men, like water, always travel downhill.
The direction of the great historical highways of France has necessarily been
influenced by the configuration of the soil thus indicated. From Paris routes
radiate in all directions towards the north, the east, and the west, for there they
encounter no obstacles, but to the south of the Seine and the Loire these routes
had to accommodate themselves to the relief of the soil, and there are in reality but
two of them, viz. the great Roman road which leads across the lowest part of the
plateau of the Cote d'Or into the valley of the Rhone, and which Cassar followed
when he invaded Gaul ; and the great Iberian road, which passes to the west
of the central plateau. A third natural highway joins the extremities of these
two roads in the south. This latter skirts the southern slopes of the Cevennes,
and joins the Mediterranean to the basin of the Garonne. Nearly all the towns
* !
e
GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION. GEOLOGY. 6
which have played a great part in history are situated along either of these roads.
We need only instance Orleans, Blois, Tours, Poitiers, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Car-
cassonne, Narbonne, Montpellier, Nimes, Aries, Avignon, Lyons, Chalons-sur-
Saone, and Dijon. It has been noticed that the larger towns along these roads are
generally two stages apart, the intermediate stages being marked by places of less
consequence. In fact, these towns were originally merely military stages, the
distances being accommodated to the marching powers of infantry and cavalry.
Fig. 2. THE HISTORICAL HIGH-ROADS OF FIIANCB.
Where exceptions occur, they are due to special features of the soil or to the neces-
sities of commerce. In our own days railways have almost annihilated space, and
towns no longer grow up at such regular intervals.
It would be interesting to ascertain the great routes of the migration of man
and animals in prehistoric times. But this is a matter of no inconsiderable diffi-
culty. Constant Prevost, Delesse, and others have attempted to construct maps
exhibiiing France during various geological epochs, but their value is meiely
FRANCE.
conjectural, for, irrespectively of the uncertainty still existing with regard to the
age of certain rocks, it is almost impossible to tell to what extent the more ancient
formations have disappeared, owing to subsidence or denudation.
In the Silurian age it would appear Gaul consisted merely of an elongated
peninsula extending from where the Alps are now to modern Britany. Subse-
quently a wide strait separated this peninsula from a few Alpine masses, then
recently upheaved above the ocean, whilst newly formed land joined it to the
Fig. 3. LlTHOLOOICAL MAP OF THE BRITISH CHANNEL, SHOWING THE ANCIENT CONNECTION BETWEEN
BKITANY AND ENGLAND.
According to Delesse.
Land.
Sea Bottom
KorJry
li !.... .1 iii..liiij!|||
Sand'.
Pyrenees and to England. The rocky bottom of the channel, as laid down on M.
Delesse's lithological map, shows where the union between the two Britanie?
existed. When the liassic strata were being deposited in the gulfs of the sea, the
contours of the great plateau of Limousin and its outer fringe, consisting of the
Ceretmea, the Fore/, and the Morvan, were pretty much as they are now,
excepting that a deep strait intersected the southern portion. Fovir wide arms
of the sea separated this plateau from the Ardennes and Vosges, the Alps, the
Pyrenees, and llritany. The framework of modern France had thus become
CLIMATE. RIVERS. 7
apparent, and each subsequent formation helped to fill it up. During the
cretaceous age the central plateau was finally united on the one hand to Britany,
and on the other to the Vosges and the Ardennes : Boulonnais rose like an island
in the centre of the sea to the north. At the commencement of the tertiary
age this sea had become a gulf, the estuaries of the Garonne and the Adour had
much diminished in size, lakes were drained or filled up by alluvial deposits,
and at the time of the last glacial epoch, the date of which cannot be fixed even
approximately, the contour and relief of France were nearly what they are now.
The innumerable agencies, however, which change the surface of the land are
still at work : mountains are being washed away, lakes silted up, rivers change their
courses, extend their deltas, or enlarge their estuaries, while secular oscillations of
the land effect changes along the coast. As regards these latter an upheaval during
historic times has been distinctly traced along the Mediterranean coasts. On the
Atlantic seaboard the coast of the Landes has subsided ; to the north of the Gironde
we meet with incontestable proofs of an upheaval ; and along the British Channel
there are again indications of a subsidence, which extends through the Netherlands
as far as Dei. mirk and the southern shores of the Baltic. These slow movements
have resulted in changes which have exercised an appreciable influence upon the
march of history.
CLIMATE. RIVERS.*
THERE can be no doubt that the climate of France has undergone changes since the
beginning of the historical period, although it would be difficult precisely to deter-
mine their extent. The destruction of forests, the draining of swamps, and the
embankment of rivers must necessarily have affected local climates. There exist
no precise data in that respect, for exact meteorological observations are only of
recent growth, but a few general considerations prove it incontestably. Certain
plants can no longer be cultivated at the same altitude as during the Middle
Ages: olive, fig, and orange trees have retired farther south; the vine no longer
grows in Picardy and along the Channel. This retreat of certain plants, however,
may be due to our improved means of communication with countries where their
cultivation yields a richer harvest than under the inclement northern skies, and
we cannot therefore conclude from it that the climate of France has deteriorated
since the Middle Ages. But that changes in the climate have nevertheless taken
place is amply proved by an examination of our fossiliferous strata, from which we
learn that a sub-tropical and an arctic climate succeeded each other at intervals.
France at the present moment is divided into two climatic zones by the gra-
nitic masses of the great central plateau. The mean temperature to the north of
that barrier varies between 50 and 54 F. f whilst to the south of it it gradually
rises to 59. The contrasts are still greater if we take into account the moistuie
of the air, rainfall, winds, and all those other meteorological phenomena which
(institute climate. We then find that the northern Atlantic slopes of France
* liuurlot, " Yiirmlions de Latitude ft tie Climat."
8 FRANCE.
form a portion of Western Europe, whilst the southern Mediterranean slopes aro
almost African in their aspect.
Eastern and Western France contrast likewise, though not in so marked a
manner. The Atlantic coasts are exposed to the influence of the gulf-stream and
of warm south-westerly winds, and their temperature is more elevated than might
be concluded from their latitudes. As we proceed inland the warm Atlantic
Fig. 4. ISOTHERMAL LINES OF FP
By M. Eenou.
current gradually loses its power, westerly winds blow less frequently, and the
mean temperature of Cherbourg is thus nearly 3 higher than that of Verdun,
in spite of its lower latitude.
But this decrease in mean temperature is not the only contrast between the
extreme west of France and the inland districts, for the seasons in these latter
present greater differences. The climate along the Atlantic coast is essentially a
maritime one, and the differences between the extremes of temperature are not
CLIMATB.-EIVEES.
9
very great. In the east, where the equalising influence of the ocean is less felt,
the summers are warmer, the winters more severe than on the coast. The farther
we proceed inland the more will lines of equal winter and summer temperature
be found to differ. Localities in Eastern France, whose mean annual temperature
is inferior to that of localities on the coast, nevertheless enjoy a higher tempera-
ture than the latter during summer. The influence which these varying con-
Fig. 5. LINES OF EQUAL WINTER AND SUMMER TEMPERATURE FOR PARIS.
of Year, 5o F
n January 35 s F.
n July eflt F.
ditions of temperature exercise upon vegetation is apparent, for some plants
require a comparatively high mean annual temperature, whilst others, like the
vine, do not suffer from frost, but require a high summer temperature.
The menu direction of the winds in France has been computed by Kaemtz and
Martens at S KS W. ; that is to say, they blow up the lower valley of the Loire.
The proportions between easterly and westerly winds is as 100 to 152, that
37
10 FRANCE.
between northerly and southerly winds as 100 to 103. The preponderance of
westerly and southerly winds would be still more marked, did not the Pyrenees
oppose an obstacle to their progress. Along the Atlantic seaboard north-westerly
winds prevail, on the Channel south-westerly winds. Their direction, as a
matter of course, is modified by local causes and the configuration of the land ;
but thus much may be assumed as certain, that the atmosphere of France is being
continually renewed from the west.
In the valley of the Lower Rhone, which forms almost a world of its own as
regards climate, the direction of the winds is quite different : they blow up and
down this narrow valley, either from the Mediterranean or from the north.
Between the Spanish frontier and the Rhone, as well as to the east of that river
as far as the Hyeres, north-westerly winds predominate, whilst along the valley
of the Rhone itself the prevailing wind blows from the north, in the direction of
the Mediterranean. Thus, whilst the Atlantic slopes of France are exposed to a
preponderance of sea breezes, it is the land winds which prove victorious on the
Mediterranean slopes.
The configuration of the soil exercises as great an influence upon the distribu-
tion of the rain as it does upon the direction of the winds. The country, in that
respect, may be divided into three zones. Summer rains prevail in the north and
in the centre, as also in Germany and nearly the whole of continental Europe ;
autumn rains prevail in the west ; and on the Mediterranean slopes two rainy
seasons can be distinguished, viz. one in the beginning of the year, the other in
autumn : summer rains are rare there.
The amount of rain varies exceedingly in different localities. Along the sea it
is generally abundant ; the quantity decreases as we proceed inland, but the
mountains in the interior of the country form a second region where the pre-
cipitation is considerable, and on a map of France showing the distribution of
rainfall these mountain ranges stand out very distinctly. As a general rule the
quantity of rain increases from west to east, and from north to south ; that is, in
the direction in which the land rises. In the south, where the air owing to
higher temperature is capable of holding a greater amount of moisture in suspen-
sion, the rain after storms sometimes descends in torrents. Upon the whole,
however, the rainfall near the Mediterranean is less than near the Atlantic, and
the air there is drier, a feature sufficiently explained by the prevalence of land
winds.
There are only three stations in France at which the annual rainfall
approaches eighty inches. These are the Pyrenees of Gavarnie, which inter-
cept the moist winds blowing from the Bay of Biscay ; the mountains of the
Tanargue, between the sources of the Ardeche and Loire ; and the Alps to the north
of Gap. On the western slopes of the mountains and on the plateau of Limousin
the rainfall exceeds forty inches. It is least in a district embracing Meaux,
Troyes, Epernay, and Compiegne, which is remote from the sea as well as from
the mountain region, is badly wooded, and consists for the most part of chalk.
At Dunkirk, likewise, it rains but little, for the winds prevailing there part with
CLIMATE. RIVERS. 1]
their moisture whilst passing across England. From a careful computation made
by M. Delesse it appears that the rainfall throughout France averages 30 - 3
inches.
The number of rainy days varies quite as much as the amount of rain. At
Abbeville rain falls on 175 days in the year, at Lille on 109 days, whilst
Marseilles has only 55 and Hyeres 40 rainy days. As a rule the number
of rainy days decreases as we travel towards the south-east, and where
this is the case the rains are proportionately heavy. Storms, which occur
generally during summer, afflict as a rule the centre and the east of the
country, and M. Becquerel has shown that they blow ordinarily along the great
valleys.
Speaking broadly, France may be divided into seven climatic regions, of which
that of the great granitic plateau occupies the centre Britany, in the north-west,
is remarkable for its equable temperature , the northern region, named after its
principal river the Seine, is distinguished by a paucity of rain , while in the region
of the Meuse and the Vosges the extremes between cold and heat are greatest.
The three southern regions are distributed in an analogous manner. The climate
of the Gironde and of the Rhone is mild and humid; that of the Mediterranean
is changeable ; heavy rains alternate with periods of drought, and the winds
are high.*
The climate of a country is reflected to a great extent in its rivers. Unless
these are fed by glaciers "or flow for considerable distances underground, they
reflect the succession of seasons very fairly. Great is the contrast between the
torrents of the Mediterranean and the rivers and rivulets of hilly Britany. On
the southern slopes of the Cevennes, scorched in turn by the sun or lashed by
showers of rain, the torrent beds, dry during the greater part of the year, are
converted after rains into mighty rivers, sweeping before them vast masses of
debris. These tcadia of Languedoc differ most essentially from the quiet rivulets
of Normandy and Britany, which flow steadily throughout the year, and scarcely
ever overflow their banks.
The rivers of France flow in opposite directions towards the Atlantic and the
Mediterranean. The Rhone, rising in a glacier like the Rhine, and flowing
through a large lake, takes its course to the south. Where it traverses the plain
which formerly was merely a gulf of the sea, it receives numerous tributaries
descending from the Alps and the Cevennes, and when the alluvium brought
down by it shall have filled up the Lion Gulf, it will number nmongst its affluents
T j?- ssssf^ sSi R ir- D TJT h Jtt*
Limousin (Limoges) .... 51'8 36 - Autumn
liritany Hi.-t, 5 !'l 62'2 44'8 W. 28 208 do.
The Sein* (Paris) 60'0 646 37'9 W. 20 154 Aut. and Sinn
Vosges (Nancy) 50-0 66-1 35-2 S.W., N.E. HI 120 Summer
<; ir< rndef Bordeaux) .... 66-3 71-1 430 W. 32 150 Autumn
Rhone (Lyons) 53-2 700 37'1 N. 31 110 do.
Mediterranean (Montpclliet) . 58-3 7T6 424 N.W. 29 - Spring & Aut.
Average for Fninc* .... 618 68'0 410 W. 30 140 Autumn
12
FKANCE.
the Herault, Orb, Aude, and other rivers of Roussillon, for all these, as well as the
rivers rising in Provence, converge upon that gulf.
On the other hand, the rivers flowing down the Atlantic slope take a divergent
course, and a line drawn through their sources is much shorter than one con-
necting their estuaries. As to Britany, it constitutes a hydrographies! region
apart; and neither its commanding position nor its excellent harbours have
countervailed the disadvantage of its lying outside the great river systems of
France.
Fig. 6. COMPARATIVE AH^A OF RIVER BASINS AND AVERAGE SURFACE DBAINAGE.
Horizontal Scale 1 : 20,000, 000. Virtical Scale 1 : 50.
France*
: 20.000.000
Formerly it was supposed that the waters discharged by large rivers like the
Loire or Seine far exceeded in amount what could be derived from the rains, and
their sources were consequently supposed to communicate with reservoirs fed by
the ocean. Bernard Palissy and Denys Papin (166972) first demonstrated the
erroneousness of this view, and careful observations have revealed the fact that
only one-third or at most one-half the rain that falls throughout France finds its
way back to the sea by means of the rivers, the remainder being absorbed by the
vegetation or evaporating.*
Discharge
per Second.
Cub. ft.
2.013 (?)
24,510
3,880 (?)
31,786
3,354 (?)
41,600
7,840 (?)
2,225 (?)
63,850 (?)
1,770 (?)
2,800 (?)
2.014 (?)
212 000 (?)
River systems of France according to Delesse, Ch. Martir.s, Thome" de Gamond &c
Kiver.
Length of
Course.
Miles.
Are i of
Catchment
H:isin.
8q. m.
Average
llainfall.
In.
Rainfill
in Millions
^ of cub. ft.
Surface
Drainnge
in Millions
cf cub. ft.
Somme .
133
2,144
25 2
125,443
63,500 (?)
482
30,927
24-8
1,646,380
772,160
143
3,707
27-6
237,327
223,600 (?)
Loire ... . .
609
44,459
27-2
2,689,356
1,096,700
<'h:ir<-nte ....
224
3,860
33'4
300,190
106,000
Gironde
616
85,962
32'5
2,622,290
1,312.000
Adour ....
187
6,564
39-4
600 3S6
'247,200 (?)
Au.ie . . .
139
2,510
27'6
160,690
71,000 (?)
Rhone (with Saone )
and Doubs) 3
. 637
38,096
37-4
3,310,340
1,915,430
Moselle (in France) .
. 194
2,606
29-5
178,770
55,660 (?)
Meuse do.
. 318
2,898
2S-3
190,710
88,290
Scheldt (Escavit, do.)
75
2,518
23-6
140,858
6:(,500
FKAXCK . . . ,
00,315
3U-3
14,109,000
6,710,000
THE PEEHISTOEIC AGE OP FEANCE. 18
The rain which finds its way through rivers to the sea is one of the most
powerful geological agents. The ravines and valleys of the Pyrenees, the Cevennes,
the Alps, and the Jura exhibit its power of erosion : the layers of sand and mud
deposited along the banks of the Loire after floods testify to its giving birth to
new land, and at the mouths of the Rhone we may see how a river causes the
land to encroach upon the sea. The fecund soil of the Limagne, Touraine,
Agenais, and Bigorre, those gardens of France, is entirely a gift of the rivers.
The rivers, owing to the fertility of their banks, have proved the most power-
ful agents of civilisation in France, as everywhere else. In former times they
alone were available for the transport of merchandise and travellers on a
large scale, and most of the great towns grew up on their banks. Towns not
situated on navigable rivers, such as Nimes, Montpellier, Dijon, and Reims, were
mere stages on the roads connecting these river highways. Roads and railways
have to some extent deprived the rivers of the importance they enjoyed in former
times, and considerable towns have sprung up far away from them, near mines,
mineral springs, or fine scenery. St. Etienne, Le Creuzot, and Bagneres-de-
Fig. 7. COMPARATIVE DISCHARGE OP THE GREAT RIVERS OF FBANCB.
Horizontal Scale 1 : 4,000.
Shane' Seine, Gironik' Loire, Th* mluiU. *>f France/.
Luchon are of this class. The rivers, on the other hand, are being rendered
more useful to man from day to day. Canals are dug to connect them or to
irrigate the fields in their vicinity, embankments are thrown up to regulate them,
and their water is rendered available as a motive power. Still most of their
water is allowed to run to waste, and the day is yet apparently very distant
when they will be exhaustively utilised in the service of man.
THE PREHISTORIC AGE OF FRANCE.*
FRANCE had its inhabitants long before the events of history were placed on
record. Human bones mixed with those of animals, rude implements of peace
and war, and rudimentary works of art amply prove this. With Belgium and
the basins of the Rhine it is probably richer in these prehistoric remains than
any other country, and many caves and heaps of debris have become famous on
account of them.
Anthropologists are generally agreed that the most ancient examples of human
* llamv, " PaleontoloKte humaine;" Gabriel de Mortillet, "Tableau archeologique de la Gaule ; "
lful< i H i hriity, " J{rliijiiiii> Aquitunicn ; " Brocn, " Cumpte-rendu du C'ongres intern, de Paris, 1867."
FEANCE.
workmanship are the flint implements discovered by M. Bourgoing near Thenay,
in the valley of the Cher. In the tertiary age, when the contemporaries of acero-
therium and mastodon fashioned these rude implements, the aspect of France
was very different from what it is now, and there existed neither the sane pla
nor the same animals.
Centuries passed away, and the men who dwelt in the plains bordering upon t
Somme and the Seine, on the plateaux of Central France, and along the foot of the
Pyrenees had learnt to fashion flint implements of a superior kind, and with these
they pursued the elephants, hippopotami, rhinoceroses, and other animals which at
that time roamed over the lands of the Gauls. At a subsequent period, when the
rhinoceros had been exterminated, when man had expelled the bears from the
caverns to dwell therein himself, and when the horse, with the mammoth, was one
of the commonest animals, these stone implements began to be fashioned in greater
variety, to serve the needs of hunters, fishing, and domestic labour. Later still,
the bones and horns of animals were made use of, and frequently the figures of
animals and even of men were engraved upon them. Artists must have lived at
that time, though their names are for ever lost to us. Ornaments and figures
which they engraved upon their stag-horns are the same in style as those met with
subsequently on the vases dating back to the age of dolmens, on the arms of the
ancient Gauls, and even on some Gallo- Roman monuments.
Once launched upon the path of invention, man never turns back. Some sort
of relapse appears to have taken place after the reindeer age, but this applies
only to the ornamentation, and may be accounted for by an inflow of immigrants
inferior in civilisation to the older inhabitants of the country. At the same time
new weapons came into use ; man had acquired the art of polishing stones, and of
making durable earthenware. Later still he learnt to cultivate the soil, and to
train domestic animals. The old cave dwellings no longer sufficed for his wants,
houses arose in the plains, and solid structures of stone were erected by the men
of the neolithic age, wherein to deposit their dead. They threw up entrenchments
as a defence against enemies, and those who lived along the margins of rivers or
lakes erected their dwellings upon piles, thus securing themselves against unex-
pected attacks. In France itself these lake dwellings are scarce, but they abound
in Switzerland. No written record or tradition reaches back to that neolithic age,
but we know from the objects discovered in tombs and dwellings that bronze had
come into use. Imported from abroad, we find it applied to the most varied uses,
either cast or wrought.
A new era began with the introduction of iron, which was fashioned not only
into weapons, but also into tools of every description. Thenceforth human art and
industry took a rapid development. The numerous grave-hills scattered over the
country abound in curious objects deposited there by the relations of the defunct.
History begins to dawn, and we find ourselves in the presence of those tribes of
various races formerly known as Gauls.
There can be no doubt that the most populous districts of modern France were
also the centres of civilisation of the Celtic, Iberian, and Ligurian ancestors of the
THE PREHISTORIC AGE OF FRANCE.
15
modern French, although no traces of them have been discovered there. Their
towns have vanished, ruins have succeeded ruins, until all remains of tbe ancient
occupiers of the land have been reduced to dust. If we would find traces of them
we must penetrate into the woods, and into those remote parts of the country
where the population has at all times been thinly sown. The heaths of Britany
and the plateaux of Poitou still abound in dolmens and menhirs ; in the woods of
Franche-Comte grave-hills are met with in thousands ; on the granitic soil of
Central France we may still trace the pits which formed the underground story
of the Gallic houses ; whilst the pine woods of the Landes abound in vast
trenches (dotes), which mayhap sheltered the population of a village until it
was driven forth by invading Celts or Basques. But these dwellings, remote as
they were from the centres of civilisation, can hardly convey an idea of the con-
Fig. 8. DOL-KR-VERCHANT, OH MERCHANTS' TABLE, AT LOCMARIAKER.
dition of the population of ancient France, any more than an idea of our present
century could be obtained from the half-obliterated ruins of our out-of-the-way
hamlets.
Ever since the tertiary age the surface of France has been changing slowly
through geological agencies, and without catastrophes. We may assume, there-
fore, that the population of modern France has in its veins some of the blood of
these ancient tribes. The invading conquerors of France have become amalga-
mated with the tribes whom they found living there, and thus arose a race
resembling a trunk with thousands of roots, and known as the French " nation."
We cannot otherwise explain the astonishing variety of types met with in the
different provinces of France. As M. Andre Sanson says, " We are the intel-
lectual sons of the Aryans, but not their carnal sons."
]6 FKANCE.
The most ancient human remains hitherto discovered in France date back to
the quaternary epoch, for miocene man, who wrought the tools discovered at
Thenay, has left no trace. To judge from the skulls discovered under the lava
of De'nise, near the Puy en-Velay, in Auvergne, the men of that period were
long-skulled, but towards the close of the age of the mammoth and the bear,
short skulls are first met with. Archaeologists are agreed that the men who dwelt
in the caverns of the Pyrenees, on the Vezere and the Aveyron, were kinsmen of
the Laps, Samoyeds, and Eskimos. Their mode of life, their weapons and imple-
ments, and even their style of ornamentation, all appear to support that conclusion.
An invasion of barbarians destroyed the civilisation then attained, but gave birth
in the end to a new era of civilisation much superior in many respects.
THE INHABITANTS OF FRANCE.*
THE Iberians are the most ancient inhabitants of Gaul known to history. They
were kinsmen of those of Spain, who traded with Phoenicians and Greeks, and
whom the latter looked upon as aborigines. These Iberians occupied the country
between the Atlantic Ocean and the Garonne, as well as the valleys of the eastern
Pyrenees. In the west they were associated with the Ligurians of the Mediter-
ranean, and elsewhere they came into contact with Celtic or Kymric tribes.
Though Latinised, they have in a large extent their race characteristics ; they have
even retained their ancient appellation of Gascons and Basques, and near the
Pyrenees they retain their old language. Basques, Bearnais, and Gascons can
easily be distinguished from other Frenchmen ; they are full of natural grace,
supple of limb and mind, gay when at work, brave, though boastful, talkative, and
imaginative to the extent of sometimes allowing themselves to be carried beyond
the bounds of truth.
The Celts, a race quite distinct from the Iberians, occupied the country to the
north of the Garonne. Most modern Frenchmen look upon these as their veri-
table ancestors, though very little is known about them. Ancient authors can
hardly assist us in elucidating this point, for they wrote about the regions
beyond the Alps much as our ancestors wrote about Central Africa. Modern
historians, led away by false patriotism or by a rage for classification, have still
further obscured this question, which is only in recent times being cleared up by
the discovery of arms, weapons, dwellings, and human remains hidden for ages
beneath the soil.
Williams, Edwards, and Broca have shown satisfactorily, from a comparison of
skulls and bones thus discovered, that ancient Gaul was inhabited by two distinct
types of man, in addition to Iberians. The first type is met with between the
Garonne and the Seine. These Gauls, or Celts, as they were formerly called, were
smull of stature, of a brown complexion, and short- skulled, whilst the tribes in the
north-east, whether we call them Belg:v or Kymri, were tall, fair, and long-skulled.
* A. Hovelacque, " La Linguistiquc ; " FusM de Coulangrs, " Histoire dcs Institutions pohtiques de
I'An. i.'imr l-'i-.-mn ; " l>a;_'iic;ui, "Bull, de la Sue. d'. \nthropologie," Feb. 1868, Nov. 1874; "Revue
d'Anthropologiu," tome ii. 18; 3; Saint-Kene Taillandier, "Kevue des Deux-Mondes," Dec. 1875.
THE INHABITANTS OP FRANCE.
17
Ancient authors only describe these latter, probably because they were the most
warlike. The men described by Ammianus Marcellinus, like the Gauls repre-
sented by Roman and Greek sculptors, rather resemble Scandinavians, and they
were certainly not the direct ancestors of the present inhabitants of Central France.
Subjected tribes of a different type may possibly have lived amongst these Gauls of
ancient authors, and been numerically superior to them. At present the physical
type of the populations of Southern Europe prevails almost throughout France.
We can hardly assume that a slight change in the climate, brought about by time
and cultivation, should have exercised an influence sufficient to account for this
southern type. Taken as a body, the French are in reality a brown-complexioned
people, with heads round rather than oval, with eyes varying between black and
Fig. 9. PRESUMED DISPERSION OP THE ARYAN RACES ACCORDING TO ANCIENT AUTHORS.
APR C A
pale brown ; with a stature and muscular development rather below the average,
but of strong constitutions and capable of resisting fatigue and privations.
Of these ancient Gauls there now exist only geographical names and a few
short inscriptions. To judge from these their language appears to have differed
very much from the dialects spoken in Great Britain, and to have had more affinity
with Latin. Still the Aryan nature of the language does not prove that the
people who spoke it were of Asiatic origin. Omalius d'Halloy altogether denies
that an exodus of Gauls took place from Western Asia, and the map of Aryan
migrations prep ired by I'ictet, though of scientific value, cannot prove it. All we
know is that the Gauls dwelt for some time in the valley of the Danube.
There can be no doubt that we must trace the existing character of the popula-
18 FRANCE.
tion of France back to the tribes who inhabited the country anterior to the historic
epoch. Still we must not lose sight of the influence exercised by immigrants of
foreign races. The Phoenicians confined themselves to a few factories along the
shore of the Mediterranean, and were succeeded by the Greeks, whose colonies
Marseilles, Nice, Agde, and others were of sufficient importance to enable them to
exercise an appreciable influence upon the surrounding populations. Many Greek
expressions have survived to our day, and the Marseillais have no doubt reason on
their side when they boast of their Hellenic ancestors.
The Romans, however, those merciless conquerors of the Gauls, exercised a far
greater influence upon the formation of the French nation than did the Greeks.
Italian colonists, many of them old soldiers, settled in the country, and this immi-
gration, going on for six centuries, led to so considerable an infusion of Roman
blood that several towns in the south could fairly be described as daughters of
Rome, and the entire population as Gallo-Roman. These physical influences,
however, were far surpassed by moral ones. It was the Romans who introduced
the ideas and civilisation of the East, and more than all, they made Latin the
tongue of the entire country. Language is the mould of thought, and must
influence most powerfully the mind of a nation. The French, speaking a Latin
tongue, must therefore be ranged amongst the Latin races, in spite of their most
diverse origin. Though belonging geographically to the Atlantic countries rather
than to the Mediterranean ones, historically France forms a member of these latter,
more especially since Algeria has become a French colony.
Nevertheless, the barbarians, who after the fall of the Roman empire repeatedly
invaded France, whether Franks from the Rhine, Northmen, or Huns from the
plateaux of Asia, always came from the North. Scandinavian Visigoths established
themselves in the south of France, and more especially in the Narbonnaise, and
soon adapted themselves to their Gallo-Roman surroundings. The Germanic
Burgundians, who occupied Eastern France, are described by their contemporaries
as tall and strong, but at the same time good-natured. The Franks were far more
harsh towards the tribes they conquered. In the end they gave a new name to
transalpine France, and more particularly to that province of it which is known as
He de France.
M. Fustel de Coulanges does not think that those early German and Gothic
invasions sensibly affected the character of the Gallo-Roman populations. The
language and religion, social usages and political institutions, remained the same.
But though the Germans never arrived in bodies sufficiently large to change
the character of the people, their immigration continued for centuries, and in
the end their influence upon its physique became very app irent. M. Broca, in
his researches on the stature of Frenchmen, has shown this very clearly (see
Fig. 10).
The Normans, who settled in that portion of France now known as Normandy,
likewise influenced the type of the inhabitants of Neustria. In the south of
France " sea-kings " of quite a different kind put in an appearance. These were
the Saracens, who maintained themselves for a considerable time on the coasts of
THE INHABITANTS OF FRANCE.
19
Provence. In the eighth century, when the Berbers invaded Europe in such
overpowering numbers, these Saracens penetrated as far as the valley of the Loire,
and perhaps even to Luxeuil and Metz, and the inhabitants of Verdun are said to
have carried on a lucrative trade in slaves with them. Colonies of Saracens were
established in many parts of France, and there can be no doubt that numbers of the
Frenchmen now living in the basins of the Garonne and the Rhone are the remote
descendants of Mussulmans.
Fig. 10. THE STATURE OF FRENCHMEN.
ByBroca.
m.26
27-52
J. 86
The departments are numbered according to the stature of their military conscripts. The small
figures indicate the exemptions granted per thousand on account of small stature.
Since those invasions of Xormans and Moors, the ethnical character of the popu-
lation of France has undergone no wholesale change, for the influence of English
settlers in Guyenne, of German lanxt/ueiteff! and retires who remained in the country
at the close of the religious wars, and of the Spaniards in Flanders and Franche-
Comte, has been quite of a local nature. On the other hand, the vast peaceable
immigration which has been going on for some time past is certainly bringing
about changes, and in the presence of the cosmopolitan population of some of the
20 FBANCE.
large cities, a stranger may well be puzzled to tell whether it is a Frenchman he
has before him or not. It almost appears as if a European type were gradually
coming into existence.
In the meantime the population of France has been welded into a nation, and
in certain respects this nation exhibits greater unity than any other. This
cohesion is due not so much to the existence of a centralized government, but
rather to historical events, community of interests and of language, and to the
existence of a capital which is universally acknowledged as the common national
centre.
Ancient rivalries between the provinces of France have not, however, alto-
gether disappeared. The Bretons, Basques, and Flemish have even retained their
distinct language, and the peasants of some of the more remote districts can hardly
be said to have been assimilated with the rest of the population. Throughout
France, however, these local diversities are of a very subordinate nature, the
influence of the great towns is increasing from day to day, and the landmarks
between the old provinces have almost disappeared.
Of all the inhabitants of France, those living respectively in the north and the
south differ most strikingly. This difference is accounted for by the nature of the
country, diversity of historical traditions, and the memories of struggles carried on
in a past age. In a great portion of Southern France the Proven9al and other dialects
are still the dominant tongue, and about twenty years ago French was hardly
known by the bulk of the population. But as a literary language these southern
dialects have no future, and those even who speak them often hold them in
contempt.
On looking at the map it will be found that the dialects of Southern France,
including the " langue d'oc " properly so called, Provencal, Dauphinois, Lyonnais,
Auvergnat, Limousin, Gascon, and Bearnais, occupy very nearly one-half the area
of the country. Nearly the whole basin of the Rhone, that of the Garonne, and
the upper tributaries of the Loire belong to this half, and in the direction of
Switzerland it extends even beyond the French frontier and comes into contact
with German dialects. The wide range of these southern dialects proves the former
preponderance of Southern France in the work of civilisation, bu,t the " langue
d'o'il " is at present steadily gaining ground.
Language constitutes the strongest tie between man and man. We may fairly
say that the French language, the origin of which dates back a thousand years,
gave birth to the French nation. Common woes may have engendered a sort of
fellow-feeling amongst the diverse populations of ancient Gaul; they nearly all
combined in the time of Vercingetorix against their Roman oppressors. But Gaul
was merely a geographical expression then, and modern France only dates from
the time of the epic poems of the Middle Age.
In the course of centuries this language, as well as the men who speak it,
has undergone many changes. We can hardly conceive such a thing as an
average Frenchman. Those who maintain that the national character has under-
gone no changes ever since the Gauls appeared upon the stage of history are
THE INHABITANTS OF FRANCE. 21
decidedly in the wrong. There may still exist features which recall the Gauls
of Caesar and Strabo, but can it be fairly said of modern French peasants what has
been said of the Gauls, that " they are a people of war and uproar, running
through the world with swords in their hands, less, it appears, from avidity than
from a vague desire of seeing, knowing, and acting ? "
If we would meet a typical Frenchman, we must searcn for him in a place
offering every facility for his development. Such places are the large towns,
and more especially Paris, to which original minds fly from the stifling atmo-
sphere of small towns and villages. There the natives from every province come
into contact and amalgamate : the babbling Gascons, ever in motion ; the men
from the plateau, inured to hard work, and slow to make friends ; the people
from the Loire, with their quick eyes, lucid intellect, and well-balanced tempera-
ment ; the melancholic Breton, always living as in a dream, but full of tenacity
in all concerns of real life ; the Norman, slow-speaking, circumspect, and prudent ;
and the men from Lorraine, the Vosges, and Franche-Comte, who are quick-
tempered and enterprising. All these Frenchmen mutually influence each other,
and evolve what may be called the general character of the French people.
It is no easy task to sit in judgment over a nation. Since the days of the
illustrious Grimm, who denied " every truly moral sentiment " to Frenchmen,
many foreigners, from envy or ignorance, have painted them in odious colours.
On the other hand, there have been writers who have sought to elevate France
above all other nations. As to French writers, they have been charged either
with being prejudiced in favour of the nation to which they belong, or with
unfairly under-estimating its merits ; and, indeed, psychology is one of the most
difficult subjects of discussion.
Speaking broadly, the character of the French exhibits a combination of
northern and southern qualities. The country itself is intermediate between the
Mediterranean and the Atlantic, and its inhabitants form a link between the
Roman civilisation of the South, and modern times. The most diverse types are
met with amongst the French, but, as a whole, they present a new type, in which
classical features are replaced by mobility of expression, one-sided energy by
varied aptitudes. As a rule Frenchmen, and more especially Frenchwomen, are
most impressionable, and they are capable of fully reflecting the ideas conceived
by other nations. It is thus that all the great movements of Europe have found
a powerful echo in France, if they did not originate there. This explains too
the universal character of the French revolutions. It was France which pro-
claimed the "Rights of Man," and posterity no doubt will praise her for it ; it
is France which does not allow its progress to be stopped by matters of detail,
but always seeks for principles.
It is only natural that a nation holding the position of an intermediary of
ideas should be eminently sociable. A feeling of inborn goodwill attracts the
Frenchman towards his fellow-men, a spirit of equity dictates his conduct ; he
obliges by forethought and captivates by amiability. He is discreet in all things,
pleasing in dress and manners, without outraging good taste, and excels in the
22 FRANCE.
art of conversation. The Frenchwoman is in these respects even a better repre-
sentative of the national character. She is not only an excellent mother and
housewife, but possesses social qualities of the highest order. She delights by
her conversation, and constitutes the chief attraction of French society. It
seldom happens that foreigners do not enjoy themselves in France, but a French-
man scarcely ever feels perfectly happy in a foreign land, and no one feels more
cruelly than he the bitterness of exile.
The sons of Gaul are distinguished not only by quickness of comprehension
and superior reasoning powers, but they are remarkable amongst all civilised
nations for their tact and taste. For a long time they were looked up to as
the arbiters in literature, and in certain departments of art they still stand
unrivalled. Several of the neighbouring nations are indebted to them for a
development of their art industries, and Paris still remains the high school ' of
good taste.
France is a busy beehive, as is shown by the immense quantities of French
produce exported to other countries. In spite of the excessive subdivision of the
soil, the peasant landowners have converted France into one of the most productive
countries of Europe. Activity such as this not only testifies to the strength
of family ties, but also to the personal worth of the workers. Moreover, the
revivals which have succeeded each national disaster prove that the nation is still
full of vigour, and fully capable of taking its part in the great works of humanity.
But if Frenchmen have their virtues, they also have their faults. Their
sociability often degenerates into undue familiarity ; clever talkers on every
possible subject, they run the risk of becoming superficial ; men of taste and
refinement, they are apt to sacrifice vigour and originality ; too observant of
social propriety, they sometimes stifle the voice of their conscience ; members
of society or of " parties," they have not always the courage to assert their manly
independence. But in these respects how many true men do we meet with in
any nation ?
But, in spite of all, France has exercised a most powerful influence upon the
civilised world. Numerically the influence of Frenchmen grows smaller in
proportion as the area held by civilised nations extends ; but moral and intellec-
tual influences are not measured by numbers. The national life of France is
as intense as that of any of her sister nations, and her past experiences will
enable her to play an important part in the political and social evolution now
impending. But even if France were to disappear from the world's stage, there
would still remain the influence of the French language and literature. The
vigour, grace, precision, and suppleness of that language have made it one of
the most perfect vehicles of human thought. It has been propagated far beyond
the territorial limits of the nation, and millions speak it, not only in the Latin
countries, but in all other parts of the world.
a
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H
63
S5
u:
M
CHAPTER II.
THE PYRENEES, THE LANDES, AND THE BASIN OF THE GARONNE.
THE PYRENEES.*
HE region of the Pyrenees constitutes a distinct and separate portion
of France, whether we look upon its geology or the history of its
inhabitants. From the very first they differed from those inhabit-
ing the remainder of Gaul, and even now the Catalans of Roussillon
and the Basques resemble in language and manners their neigh-
bours of the Iberian peninsula. But it is principally because the Pyrenees
form the northern edge of the Iberian plateau, which is geologically bounded
by the lowland of the Garonne, that they form a region apart.
The lowland referred to extends from sea to sea, and up to the tertiary epoch
was occupied by a strait connecting the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean.
This ancient sea-bed has gradually been upheaved, and is traversed now by the
Aude, the Garonne, and their numerous tributary rivers, joined more than two
centuries ago by a navigable canal, affording communications between the two seas.
This Canal (In Midi may be said to form the southern limit of continental Europe,
for the Pyrenees which rise beyond already belong to a world half African in its
nature.
The vast depression which separates the Pyrenees from the Cevennes is one of
the great natural high-roads of France, which, however, is far less important than
the great northern roads, which place Marseilles and Bordeaux in communication
with Paris. Still a region which can boast of towns like Bordeaux and Toulouse,
which enjoys a mild climate, and possesses a fecund soil, must exercise considerable
local influence.
The Pyrenees and the Alberes, which bound this southern region of France,
extend like a wall from sea to sea. As Compared with the Alps, the geological
* H. Magnan, " Matcriaiix pour une Etude stratigraphique des Pyrenees;" Companyo, " Histoire
naturcllc des Pyrenees-* Incntalcs," 1861; De C)i,niM>n.|ue, " Les Pyrenees," 1854; Russell-Killotigh,
"(irandi-s Ascensions d, s Pyrc'-mVs ; " "Bulletin do la Soeiete Ramond," 18(i7, 1868, 1870, 1875;
" Ammairr dn (Hub Aljiin francais," 1S75 ; Calvet, "Progres rural dans les Pyrenees;" P. Raymond,
" Diet, des Basses Pyrenees."
FRANCE.
structure of these mountains is of the simplest, and one might fancy that they had
been suddenly ejected from a fissure in the earth's crust. Its mountain masses are
not separated by low passes, as in the Alps, and there is no difficulty in tracing the
direction of the main range, which runs almost in a straight line from Cape Creus
to the lower mountains of the Basque countries.
The geological features are equally simple. Granites, apparently not of erup-
tive origin, occupy the centre of the chain, and form many of the summits of the
main range. Schists and other ancient rocks connect these crystalline masses,
whilst sedimentary strata succeed each other in regular order on both slopes, from
triassic sandstones down to the alluvial soil deposited by the rivers.
In spite of this general regularity, the chain of the Pyrenees presents P great
amount of diversity if studied in detail. About its centre, where the head-waters
of the Garonne take their rise, the main range consists of two parallel ridges joined
together by a transversal chain. The northern ridge extends to the east, and
forms the Mediterranean Pyrenees, whilst the southern stretches west towards the
Fig. 11. PROFILE OP THE PYRENEES.
Horizontal Scale 1 : 4,COO,000. Vertical Scale 1 : 400,000.
Bay of Biscay, and constitutes the Atlantic Pyrenees. Of these two chains the
eastern is the least elevated, and the granite there is nearly always exposed ; whilst
the more elevated summits of the western Pyrenees consist of schists and lime-
stones. This shows that denudation has been going on more actively in the
former, and in a large measure accounts for the striking contrasts in the aspect of
the two extremities of the chain, and for the great variety of landscape met with
when travelling along their northern foot from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic.*
The Pyrenees rise steeply from the Mediterranean, which, at a distance of only
twenty-five miles from Cape Creus, has a depth of over 500 fathoms. Close to that
cape rises the group of San Pedro de Roda, resembling a detached outwork con-
nected with the frontier range of Alberes by a rugged ridge. The frontier range
named gradually increases in height from 660 to 5,000 feet, as we proceed from
Cape Cerbere to the mountains of Prats de Mollo and Campredon, and is indebted
* Length of Pyrenees from Cape Creus to Capo Sainte-Anne, near Hendayc, 266 miles : average
breadth, exclusive of Spanish foot-lulls, .Jl miles, urea occupied, 13,563 sq. miles; average height, 3,940
feet (:] ; volume, 1,0.50 cubic miles.
THE PYEENEES.
26
for its name to the whiteness of its barren rocks. It rises steeply on the French
side, but slopes down gently towards the south. Many roads lead across it, and
have been used from the most ancient times. Near Amelie-les-Bains a wall most
erroneously ascribed to Hannibal is pointed out ; at the Col de Pertus (951 feet)
Pompev erected a trophy in commemoration of his victories, and Visigoths, Franks,
and Moors crossed there after him. Numerous fortifications bear witness to the
strategical importance of these passes of the Alberes. Collioure in France, and
Fig. 12. MONT CANIOOU.
Scale 1 : 240,000.
5 Miles.
Rosas in Spain, defend the road along the coast. Perpignan and Figueras defend
the outlets of the defiles, and the French fort of Bellegarde secures the important
gorge of Pertus. At the present time these passes across the eastern Pyrenees are
no longer as important as they were when the Mediterranean was the centre of the
civilised world, and must yield to the road in the west which joins Lisbon and
Madrid to Paris.*
Altitu.l.s in Hi.- A11..V Ke fa T.TIIICS. H.fil^ f. 1 1 ; C.,1 tics Baliatres, 853 feet; Col de Banyuis,
1,1B2 feet ; Col do 1'crtus, 9ol fwt; Coustougos, 2,721 i'o.-t. Col d'Ares, i,92U foot.
38
FRANCE.
Mountains of considerable elevation attach the Alberes to the main range of the
Pyrenees which is hidden behind the bold mass of Mont Canigou (9,14
With its spurs and foot-hills this majestic summit occupies the entire area between
the upp r valleys of the Tech and the Tet. It is perfectly isolated on three sides,
Fig. 13. PUY DE CARLIITE.
Scale 1 : 240,000.
5 Miles.
and the summits which attach it to the main chain in the south are inferior to it
in height. Its bold pyramid does not yield in grandeur to that of Mount Etna ;
it is seen as far as Barcelona and Montpellie'-, and the astronomer Zach even
claims to have seen its dark profile projected against the disc of the setting sun
from Marseilles, a distance of 180 miles. Until rscantly it was held to be the
THE PYRENEES.
27
highest summit of the Pyrenees. As a trigonometrical station it offers many advan-
tages, and its slopes have proved a fertile field of exploration to botanists.
The Pyrenees, to which is attached the Canigou, form one of the most barren
and inaccessible mountain systems in the world. The passes leading across them
are mere notches, cut to a depth of 600 to 900 feet at an elevation of about 8,200
Fig. 14. THE DEFILER OF THE AVDE.
Scale 1 : 140,000.
feet, and the mountains near them are almost devoid of individual features. Even
the Puigmal (0,542 feet) rises but little above the extended rampart formed by the
mountains. A deep depression, excavated in the granitic rocks by mountain
torrents, separates it from another mountain mass farther north. This is the Col
de la Perche (5,322 feet), guarded on the French side by Montlouis (3,940 feet),
and on that of Spain by Puigcerda (Puycerda, 4,074 feet), built on a knoll of
28 FEANCE.
glacial origin ; and from it flow the rivers Tet and Segre, the latter a feeder of
the Ebro. The sources of both these rivers lie on French soil, and the political
boundary has been drawn in the most arbitrary manner. Some of the mountain
valleys near the pass fairly deserve their cognomen of " paradise of botanists,"
for curious plants found nowhere else in the Pyrenees may be gathered there.
The granitic mountains to the north of the fertile district of Li Cerdagne, on
the Upper Segre, rise from a huge quadrangular plateau which gives birth to the
head streams of the Tet, Segre, Ariege, and Aude, and is separated in the west
from Andorra by the much-frequented Pass of Puymaurens (6,293 feet). The
highest of these summits is the Puy de Carlitte (9,561 feet). At its foot detached
masses of rock are piled up in chaotic confusion, covered in places with moss, but
for the most part still bare of vegetation. Lakes and lakelets are scattered over
the plateau, and amongst these the Lanoux (black lake ?), 7,068 feet, is the
largest, though by no means the most beautiful ; for its dark waters only reflect
naked rocks and snows, whilst the lakes on the lower slopes are surrounded by
verdant meadows and woods. Another lake, at the head of the Tet, emptied itself
in the ninth century, and caused a fearful inundation. The mountaineers formerly
looked upon the many lakelets scattered over the Carlitte as so many remains
of the Flood, and Noah's ark they supposed to have stranded on the Puy de
Prigue.
The ground to the north and east of this granitic plateau descends gradually,
sometimes forming terraces intersected by bold precipices. Some of these terraces
are still covered with woods of beech-trees and firs, but elsewhere the forests have
been destroyed, and the aspect of the mountains is forbidding. As in the French
Alps, we meet with formidable defiles, or dm, excavated by mountain torrents
to a depth of many hundred feet. The most famous of these is the defile of the
Aude, which even impresses persons accustomed to mountains. If we descend from
the Baths of Carcanieres into this abyss, we almost fancy we have penetrated into
the very bowels of the earth.
Various passes lead across the spurs of Mont Carlitte. The Quillanne (5,644
feet), thus named after the town of Quillan, connects the valley of the Tet with
that of the Aude. Another pass farther east is dedicated to Jau, or Jupiter
( 1,964 feet), but is hardly used now. Lower still is the Pass of St. Louis (2,254
feet), which joins the valley of the Aude to that of the Agly, and through which
the road leads from Perpignan to Carcassonne. With it the Pyrenees terminate,
for with the scarped Puy de Bugarach (4,(W8 feet), to the north of it, begins the
region of the Corbieres, so rem irkable on account of its geological formation, its
coal beds, and bone caves, but deprived of verdure and running water, and difficult
to traverse in summer, when its bleached rocks reflect the rays of the sun. These
hills long formed the boundary between France and Spain, and the fort of Salses,
which defended the road leading along their eastern foot, as well as the ruins of
many castles, recalls the struggle for the possession of this country, which only
terminated in the seventeen:h century. Mount Alaric (1,970 feet), to the north of
them, and close to the Aude, bears witness to the still more ancient contests
THE PYRENEES.
29
between Romans and Visigoth*. It is one of the few remaining links of the
transversal chain which former^ joined the Pyrenees to the Cevennes.
The Pyrenees of Ariege, occupying the country of the ancient Sabartes, are far
more regular in their structure than the eastern extremity of the range. From
the Pass of Puymaurens (6,336 feet) to the gorge of the Garonne a distance of
110 miles the main chain extends without a break. Its summits, amongst
which the Pique d'Estats (10,305 feet) and the Montcalm (10,102 feet) are the
most elevated, occupy in nearly every instance the axis of this sierra. Mont
Vallier (9,312 feet), which forms so striking an object when seen from Toulouse,
is no exception to this rule. Huge blocks of weather-worn granite cover the
Fig. 15. THE ISTHMUS BETWEEN THE CoRBiiuEg AND THE CEVENNEB.
Scale 1 : 1,100,033.
E.ofP
A) Milts.
wesfern slope of this mountain. From ;i dist.mee these look like gruzing sheep
turned into stone by some sorcerer, as the legends have it.
The lakes which formerly lent a charm to this portion of the Pyrenees have
long ago been drained. Only' a few swamps are now left, and near these M.
Qarrigou bus discovered the remains of pile dwellings dating back to the age of
polished stone implements. But even without their ancient Likes these Pyrenees,
with their simple profile, terraces, and verdant slopes, are a noble sight. They are
typic il of the entire chuin, and hence the name birfn or jiiri'n, which in the valley
<jf the Arii'ije was formerly applied to a sheep-walk in the mountains, transformed
in I M Pyrenees, became general.
80
FRANCE.
Two lateral chains run parallel with the Pyrenees of Ariege, the most elevated
of which ramifies from Mont Carlitte, and to the north of the valley of the Upper
Ariege attains a considerable height. Its culminating point, the Peak of Tabe, or
of St. Barthelemy (7,704: feet), stands forth prominently. The mountaineers look
upon it with dread, and on its summit may still be seen the traces of ancient
excavations made by seekers after enchanted treasure. An inferior chain, farther
north, cannot boast of summits covered with snow far into the summer, nor of the
mountain pasture, lakelets, and limpid cascades of the Pyrenees. It is monotonous
of aspect, of inconsiderable elevation, and in parts almost resembles the walls of a
fortress. M. Leymerie, the geologist, has named it the Little Pyrenees.
These parallel ranges belong for the most part to the cretaceous formation, and
have been pierced by the rwers which descend from the snow-clad crest of the
Pyrenees. The Ariege, having passed to the south of the range of St. Barthelemy,
Fig. 16. THE LITTLE PYHENEES.
Scale 1 : '200,000.
the core of which consists of crystalline rocks, turns abruptly to the north, and
enters the plain through the gorge of Tarascon. The Salat has excavated itself a
passage through the granite of the gorge of Ribaouto, above St. Girons. The
smaller rivers which rise on the northern slopes of the lateral chains likewise take
their courses through gorges excavated in the tertiary soil, and one amongst them,
the Arize, runs underground through the famous cavern of the Mas d'Azil (938
feet), scarcely a thousand yards in length, and passable on foot, except when the
river is in flood. On leaving this tunnel the Arize propels a few water-mills, and
lower down passes through the picturesque gorge of Sabarat.
The upper basins of the Ariege and the Salat abound in caverns. The
" galleries " of Lombrives and Niaux pierce an entire mountain to the south of
Tarascon. Equally curious is the cavern of Bedeillac, the traditional burial-place
of Roland. These caverns have proved a rich field of exploration to anthropologists
and geologists. Bones of animals now extinct, as well as traces of prehistoric
THE PYRENEES.
81
man, have been discovered in them. Until recently many of these galleries were
used as places of refuge. That of Ornolac, near Ussat, gave shelter to several
hundred Albigenses, but the soldiers of the Inquisition built a wall across its
entrance, and they all perished, as did the Greeks in the cavern of Melidhoni.
To the zoologist these caves of the chalk mountains of the Ariege are more
especially interesting, on account of the insects without eyes which have been
discovered within them.
The Central Pyrenees. The gorge of Pont-du-Roi, through which runs the
Garonne, separates the Eastern or Mediterranean from the Western or Atlantic
Fig. 17. THE MALADETTA.
Scale 1 : 180,000.
0Mo E.ofGr.
3 Miles.
Pyrenees. Geologically this is the centre of the entire chain, which here consists
of metamorphic rocks. The valley of Aran forms the marked feature of this central
chain of the Pyrenees. Geographically this valley is part of the basin of the
Garonne, but politically it belongs to Spain. To the west it is bounded by the
giants of the entire range. From the hills around Bagneres-de-Luchon we are able
to admire these mountains, with their forests, pastures, snow-fields, and glaciers
The latter resemble in every respect those of the Alps, but do not descend so i;n-
into the vallevs.
In the " amphitheatre," or Cirque d'Oo (9,850 feet), we even meet with floating
icebergs similar to those of Spitsbergen or Greenland. Formerly the glacier of Oo
was far more extensive than it is now, and its ancient moraine, 5,900 feet lower
82
FRANCE.
than the terminal face of the existing glacier, is 4,400 yards in length, on an
average 1,640 yards wide, and 790 feet in height.
The most elevated mountains of the Pyrenees rise within the Spanish frontier.
The group of the Maladetta, or " cursed mountain," thus called on account of its
desolation,' terminates in a serrated crest, the principal " needle " of which still
hears its ancient Iberian name of Nethou (11,170 feet). This peak was first
ascended in 1842, but the region to the south of it was only revealed recently
by an Englishman, Mr. Packe, who discovered there the largest lake of the
Pyrenees, that of Gregonio, and the delightful meadows of the Malibierne. Mont
Fig. 18. MONT PERDU.
Scale 1 : 100,000.
2 Miles.
Posets (11,048 feet), on tne west of the valley of the Esera, rivals its neighbour in
height. It was first ascended in 1856. From its summit may be enjoyed what is
probably the grandest panorama in the Pyrenees.
Mont Perdu, the "lost mountain," the third great mountain mass of the
Pyrenees, rises likewise on Spanish soil. It was first ascended by the illustrious
Ramond in 1802, and since then its amphitheatres or cirques have become the
haunt of tourists. The limestone pyramid of Mont Perdu rises from an irregular
plateau, cut up into terraces bounded by precipices, and dotted over by curiously
shaped masses of rock. To the west the group is bounded by the famous " Breach
of Roland " (9,197 feet), said to have been cleft by the paladin's sword (Fig. 19).
THE PYEENEES.
88
Glaciers occupy the area enclosed between the rocky precipices. That between
Mont Perdu and the crest of Estaube, to the north of it, covers an area of 1-5
square miles, and within it is enclosed a lake, frozen almost throughout the year.
The waters descending from the plateau have excavated immense cavities,
locally called oules, or " porridge pots," but more generally known as cirques.
The largest of these amphitheatres is that of Troumouse, but the most admirable,
the glory of the Pyrenees, is that of Gavarnie (Fig. 20), bounded on the one
side by a perpendicular precipice 5,500 feet in height, on the other by rocky
Fig. 19. THE BREACH OF RotAND.
terraces. A magnificent waterfall, 1,384 feet in height, plunges down from the
glaciers when the snow melts, but in winter this and the numerous minor cascades
are converted into pillars of ice, which surround the amphitheatre like a colonnade
of marble.
The granitic peaks in this portion of the range are inferior in height to those
formed of limestone. That of Neouviellc (Pic d'Auhcrt), the most remarkable of
the former, only attains 10,144 feet, whilst the limestone masses of Pic Long
(10,479 feet), and Campbieil to the south of it, almost equal Mont Perdu iu
84
FRANCE.
elevation, and are joined in the east to the Pic d'Arbi/on (9,286 feet, and other
summits looking down upon the valley of the Aure, which rival the Pic du Midi
of Bigorre (9,4:37 feet) in beauty. This latter is separated from the main range
by a low saddle, over which runs the road of the Tourmalet, and being thus
isolated, the prospect from its summit is one of the most magnificent, extending
from the Pic du Midi of Pau (9,463 feet) to the pyramid -shaped Mont Vallier.
j?jj, 20 THE AMPHITHEATRE OF GAVAKNIE.
Neouvielie and the mountains in its vicinity are covered with boulders ; and
the moraines of ancient glaciers bound the " lakelets " which fill depressions in
the valleys. These glaciers have shrunk now to small proportions, but during
the glacial epoch they covered a vast extent of country. The most important
of them occupied what is now the valley of the Gave of Pau, as far down
as Lourdes. Anciently it appears to have extended beyond Tarbes, but even
if we credit it only with the dimensions given to it by MM. Martins and
THE PYRENEES.
35
Collomb, it had a length of 33 miles, and spread over 500 square miles. It
covered the site of the modern village of Gavarnie to a height of 4,430 feet,
was 2,590 feet thick in the basin of Argeles, and 1,180 feet above the site of
Lourdes. In comparison with this gigantic river of ice, the serneillies of
Mont Perdu and the Mabore, the glaciers descending from the dark flanks of the
Vignemale (10,795 feet), the most elevated summit of the French Pyrenees, and
the patches of ice to the east of formidable Balaitous (10,421 feet), are of
little note, for the whole of the existing glaciers of the Pyrenees hardly cover
20 square miles, arid in no instance do they descend beneath 7,200 feet above
the sea-level.
To the west of the Bulai'tous the height of the Pyrenees decreases rapidly,
and the Pic du Midi of Pau is the last of the great granitic peaks. With the
pyramid-shaped Pic d'Anie (8,213 feet) begins the country of the Basques, who
formerly believed that mountain to be inhabited by an evil spirit. Beyond Mont
Orhy (6,618 feet) we only meet with hills traversed by numerous passes, amongst
which the " Gate " of Roncevaux (3,600 feet) is the most famous. At the saddle
Fig. 21. SECTION OF THE ANCIENT GLACIER OF ARGELES.
Scale 1 : 80,000. According to MM. Martins and Collomb.
\ Mile.
of Aldudes the political boundary turns abruptly to the north, leaving to France
only low spurs and outlying hills. One of these latter is the Rhune (2,950 feet),
or "angular rock," affording a magnificent prospect over the Bay of Biscay.
Although the difference of latitude between the two extremities of the
Pyrenees does not exceed 1, they differ strikingly in climate and aspect. Near
the Atlantic the mountains are almost wholly covered with mould, and, where
trees are not met with, the soil is at all events thickly covered with shrubs and
furze. Towards the Mediterranean, on the other hand, the rocks are barren. In
the Western Pyrenees we might fancy ourselves in Scotland, whilst the anpres
of Roussillon and the secnnos of Catalonia resemble the arid hills of Greece. The
granitic rocks which prevail in the east .partly account for these contrasts, but
the principal cause must be looked for in the rains. In the Basque country it
rain.s abundantly, near the Mediterranean hardly at all, the boundary between the
two districts being formed by Mont Carlitte. The snow-line descends rapidly
as we proceed to the westward, and in the Mediterranean Pyrenees we meet
36
FRANCE.
neither with glaciers nor with perennial snows. The snow that falls there soon
disappears before the rays of the sun, the winds, and a hot south wind resembling
the foe/in of Switzerland, and locally known as auttni.
Fig. 22. THE ANCIENT GLACIER OF ARGELES.
Scale I : 400,000. According to C. Martins, and Ed. Collomb
JfeouVfrflt; '
.
5 Mill's.
The contrast between the two slopes of the mountains is even more striking
than that between their extremities. On the French slope we meet with snow,
THE PYRENEES. 87
ice, running streams, luxuriant meadows and forests, with numerous villages
scattered over the plain ; on the opposite slope the eye alights upon naked
rocks, poor pasturage, and heaps of stone serving as human habitations. To the
mountaineers the French slope is known as bach or batch that is, " lower " or
" shady " side ; the Spanish slope as soulune, or " sunny side." On the latter the
sun is more powerful and the rainfalls are less ; but man, by destroying the forests,
has made himself an accomplice of a hostile nature. Wild beasts are more
numerous there. The chamois (isard) abounds there ; wolves are plentiful, as
likewise on the French slope ; and sometimes one hears of the mischief done by
a bear. In the district of Capsir, in Roussillon, the lynx, the genet, and the
marten are still seen, but several animals, including the stag, which were common
in the Middle Ages, have disappeared. A few wild goats still inhabit the valleys
of Ordesa and Malibierne, in Spain, but in France the last animal of the kind
was killed in 1825.
The geographical nomenclature of the French Pyrenees is Basque and Latin,
but not Celtic, and we may conclude from this that the whole of the country was
formerly inhabited by men of Euskarian race. The ancient language is still spoken,
not in the less accessible portions of the Pyrenees, but in the open valleys of
the west, where we meet likewise with gipsies, cayofs, and casctjrots living in
separate communities. There are three dialects, viz. those of Labourd, of Lower
Navarre, and of Soule. The Basque does not appear to have lost ground since
the beginning of the Middle Ages ; but what the uncouth dialect of Beam failed
to accomplish, French will no doubt succeed in, and no sooner will the Basques
have learnt to speak two languages than they will neglect that one which proves
least serviceable to them. Up to the present it was ignorance which protected
Basque against the inroads of French, for one-half of the men and two-thirds of
the women of the country are illiterate.
Thousands of Basques migrate to the neighbouring towns of Bayonne,
Bordeaux, and Toulouse in search of employment, or seek a home in the New
World, where their number is probably greater than that of those who remain
behind in the old country. Hostility to the conscription is one of the great motives
of emigration, for the Basque, though fond of adventure, is averse to military
service, and more than half the young men called out annually fail to put in an
appearance.
The Pyrenees to the east of the Pic d'Anie are inhabited by Frenchmen
and Spaniards. The crest of the mountains does not, however, constitute the
ethnological boundary, for in numerous instances the Spaniards have encroached
upon the northern slope. Various circumstances account for this. The luxuriant
pastures on the northern slopes naturally attracted the Spanish herdsmen inhabit-
ing a sterile plateau, whilst the French agriculturists preferred remuining down in
the plains. The political boundary, for the most part, conforms to these ethno-
logical eccentricities, and the valleys of the Bidassoa, Carlos, and Aran have
been assigned to Spain, though situated upon the northern slope. Nevertheless
the Pyrenees constitute one of the most perfect political boundaries in the world.
38
FRANCE.
Between the two railways which skirt the extremities of the chain, the one
connecting Bayonne with Madrid, the other Perpignan with Barcelona, the moun-
tains, for a space of 280 miles, are crossed only by two roads practicable for
carriages. One of these runs over the Col de la Perche, to the east of Mont
Curlitte; the other through the Somport ("summit gate"), to the west of the
Pic du Midi of Pau. All other passes are practicable only during a part of the
year, and that for mules alone.
The distribution of centres of population in the region of the Pyrenees is
singularly regular. In the upper valleys, from the Alberes to. the Rhune, we
only meet with small villages, military stations, or watering-places like Bagneres-
de-Luchon. Along a line connecting the outlets of these valleys have been
Fig. 23. THE BASCIUES ON THE FBENCH SLOPE OF THE PYRENEES.
According to Broca.
built the secondary towns of these reprions, such as Oloron, Lourdes, Bagneres-
de-Bigorre, Montrejeau, St. Girons, Tarascon, Prades, and Ceret, where the
mountaineers procure their necessaries. Another twelve miles f.irther to the
north, and along a line running parallel with the former and with the crest of
the Pyrenees, we reach the more considerable towns, such as Bayonne, Pau,
Tarbes, St. Gaudens, Foix, and Perpignan, all of them situated either in the
plain or on low spurs readily accessible. No mining industry has caused towns
to spring up in the very cenlre of the mountains, for mineral waters, forests,
and pastures constitute the sole wealth of the Pyrenees. Breeding of mules and
horses is carried on successfully in the Cerdagne and elsewhere, and the cattle of
some of the eastern valleys enjoy a certain reputation, but as a rule the
resources of the country are allowed to lie neglected, and an acre of meadow
THE LANDES. 39
land in the Pyrenees does not yield one-tenth, nay, one-twentieth, of what it is
made to yield in the Swiss Alps.
The low hills and plains to the north of the Pyrenees are covered with debris
and boulders transported thither by the ancient glaciers. These boulders diminish
in size in proportion as we travel away from the mountains. At Pamiers, Tarbes,
and Pau they are still as large as a child's head, but farther north we only meet
with small pebbles and gravel, and finally enter a region covered with clay and
sand, which heavy rains convert into mud. The quagmires of Lauraguais,
between the Hers and the Aude, and of Armagnac, between the Garonne and the
Upper Adour, have hardly their equal in France.
THE L ANDES.
THE vast plain of the Landes stretches westward of these deposits of glacial drift.
Bounded by the ocean, the Adour, the cultivated heights of Lot-et-Garonne, and
the vineyards of Bordeaux, this plain covers an area of 5,400 square miles. It
is evidently an ancient sea-bottom covered with sands of pliocene age, sometimes
to a depth of 260 feet. At a short distance beneath the surface we meet with a
layer of compacted sand, formed by infiltration, and sometimes as hard as iron,
which is occasionally associated with it. This alias, as it is called, prevents the
growth of trees, and being impermeable, after rains the whole of the plain would
be converted into a swamp if crazies, or drains, had not been dug to carry off the
water. There are several "sinks" (entonnoiris), the most remarkable being
that of Hucaou, on the water-shed between the Leyre and the Garonne.
Formerly, before the Landes had been drained, the Landescots, or Lanusquets,
could only traverse these solitudes on stilts, instruments supposed to have been
introduced from England. Mounted on his stilts, the shepherd was able to cross
swamps with impunity, and to look after his flock, a long wand serving him simul-
taneously as a balancing-rod, a weapon, and an organ of prehension. This mode
of locomotion is confined now to the more remote districts.
In the beginning of this century the value of land in this region was ridicu-
lously small, and for a few francs a shepherd might purchase all around him as far
as his voice could be heard. At the present time, however, the Landes have kept
their original aspect only in a few places. Shrubs, ferns, and golden-flowered
broom are rapidly being replaced by fields and forests of Bordeaux pines. These
trees are admirably adapted to the Landes, and have been cultivated there from the
most ancient times, trunks of them having been found beneath thick layers of turf.
In Manmsin that is, the southern portion of the Landes the cork-oak is the
favourite tree, and near Bordeaux we meet with woods equal to any park of
Western Europe as to variety of foliage. These forests gradually prepare the soil
for agriculture, but the shepherds, whose pastures they encroach upon, hold them
in aversion.
The dunen skirting the shore of the Atlantic formerly threatened to overwhelm
40
FRANCE.
the whole of this region, for towards the close of last century they advanced
to the east at a rate of GO or 80 feet a year. This danger was created by man
himself, who destroyed the forests which had spontaneously taken root upoa
these hills of sand. The prevailing westerly winds then again drove
inland, and it encroached upon Laudes and swamps, and even overwhelmed
villages. The village of Lege twice retired before this invasion of sand, viz. 4,3(
yards in 1480, and 3,300 yards in 1660. Mimizaii retreated likewise, and when
Fig. 24. VIEW IN THE LANI>ES.
measures were at length taken to stop the invasion of the dunes, these latter had
again approached within a few yards of its houses.
The first experiment to stop the advance of the dunes was made in the
beginning of the eighteenth century. It succeeded, but it was only after M. Bre-
montier had overcome the resistance of the inhabitants, whom he desired to enrich,
that any serious progress was made. Seven hundred and twenty acres were
planted between 1787 and 1793, and since then the whole of the region of the
dunes, extending from the Gironde to the Adour, and covering 222,400 acres, has
been converted into a pine forest. .These plantations have exercised a happy
THE LANDES.
41
influence upon the climate, if it were only by facilitating regulation of the sheets
of water in the rear of the dunes. Swamp fevers (medoquines], which formerly
25. THE Dt NES ANH LANDES IN THE PAYS DE BOKN.
Scale 1 : 400,000.
1* | IDT* of Cr.
S* WWofP.rU
decimated the population, have disappeared, and the general health has improved
in consequence of the increased wealth of the country.
The ponds or lagoons which extend in rear of the dunes must be looked upon
30
FRANCE.
as ancient bays of the sea, from which they became separated by a bar of sand.
The salt water which they originally contained escaped through drains, and they
became filled with fresh water. The largest of these lakes, that of Cazau, covers
15,000 acres, and its surface lies at an elevation of between 62 and 66 feet above
the sea-level, according to the season. By means of a canal running parallel
with the coast the level of this as well as of the other lakes might be lowered, and
a safe water-way obtained connecting the Garonne with the Adour.
The basin of Arcachon, about half-way between the Adour and the Gironde, is
the only lagoon which still communicates freely with the ocean, but the time is not
far distant when it too will be disconnected by a bar of sand. This ever-shifting
Fig. 26. THE BASIN OF AKCACHON.
Scale I : 325,000.
gSv-- -U DtpA, U> i fat
Sand. X nuuL
DefM to
huj^ nn^cvtr
Dqilh. open 3i feet
--- -'U (faster Dctu
5 Miles.
bar, as well as the violent tides, is the great obstacle to the conversion of this
bay into a harbour of refuge, so much needed on the perilous coast of the Bay of
Biscay.
The rivers draining the littoral lakes of the Landes are turned to the south on
entering the sea, for the coast current runs in that direction, and throws up a
tongue of sand running parallel with the coast from north to south. The course
of the river being thus virtually increased to the extent of several miles, its
current grows sluggish, it performs its work of drainage less efficiently, the level
of the lakes grows higher, and they encroach upon their banks. The efforts of
engineers to remove the obstruction to the unimpeded discharge of the rivers have
THE LANDES.
43
not generally proved successful. The drainage of lakes and swamps has been
attempted, though not on the same scale as in the Netherlands. The most
important instance is that of the 'Luke of Orx, near Bayonne, which was emptied
in 1864.
Man and nature thus combine to modify the physical aspect of the coast of the
Landes, but the submerged portion of the coast has been subjected to changes on a
much vaster scale. A sand-bank marked on charts of the last century as being
situated 15 miles to the west of the basin of Arcachon has completely disappeared.
Floating ashes and seaquakes noticed by mariners point to the Bay of Biscay as a
seat of submarine eruptions. Thus much is certain, that the sea has been
encroaching extensively upon the land, and if we extend the slope of the Landes,
as shown in Fig. 27, it will be found that the ancient coast-line must have lain
12 miles farther to the west than the existing one.
In the time of Bremontier the sea gnawed away nearly 7 feet of the beach of
Fig. 27. THE SLOPE OF THE LANDES.
The figures express the height or depth in metres (10 m. = 32-8 feet).
Hourtin annually, and elsewhere its invasion was even more considerable, though
there were not wanting localities where the land actually gained upon the sea.
On first looking at the dunes facing the sea, it might be imagined that it is the
land which is advancing. The waves and the winds are supposed to throw
annually nearly 8,000,000 cubic yards of sand upon the beach of the Landes ;
but this sand is derived neither from the hills to the south of (he Lay of Biscay,
nor from the coast of Saintonge, to the north. It is furnished by the Landes
themselves, and by the submarine plateau upon which they rise, and in its minera-
logical composition is identical with the pliocene formation occupying the interior
of the country.
Further proofs pointing to an encroachment of the sea are furnished by the
remains of the ancient vegetation of the country and the traces of man which
have been discovered on the narrow ledge bounding the eastern foot of the dunes.
Nowhere are these 1 races more conspicuous than on the beaches of La Grave
and Matoc, to the south of the basin of Arcachon, for we meet there with layers
of alio*, with turf-pits, and the trunks of trees still bearing the marks of axes,
with bricks and broken pottery.
44
FRANCE.
Fig. 28. THE ANCIENT COAST OF THE LANDES.
Scale : 1,500,000.
But not only is the coast being gnawed by the sea, it is also slowly subsiding,
for traces of human residence have been discovered below high-water mark. The
coast to the north of the
Gironde participates in this
movement of subsidence,
and not only sandy beaches
Lave disappeared there, but
also rocks. One of the best
examples of this kind is
furnished by the rock upon
which stands the fine light-
house of Cordouan, which
illuminates the entrance to
the Gironde. When Louis
de Foix erected that build-
ing at the close of the six-
teenth century, the rock
upon which it now stands
was an island sufficiently
large to admit of dwellings
for the workmen employed.
It is now completely covered
at high water, and the dis-
tance between it and the
peninsula of La Grave has
increased from 3'1 miles in
1630 to 4-3 miles. Nu-
merous villages named in
old chronicles have been
swallowed up by the .sea or
overwhelmed by the dunes
marching before it. Soulac
was an important town on
the Gironde, below Bor-
deaux, whilst the English
held the country, but the
Gothic church and the few
walls which alone remain of
it now stand upon the shore
of the ocean, the dunes hav-
ing passed right over them
(see Fig. 35). The Gironde
itself would probably by this time have changed its bed had not the engineers
prevented it by the construction of costly embankmente. Nowhere else on the
20 Miles.
The figures express the height above the sea in metres
(10 in. = 32-8 feet).
THE ADOUE. 45
coast of France does man struggle so arduously against the assaults of the
ocean, and sometimes the issue is doubtful. Between 1618 and 1846 the Pointe
de Grave, at the mouth of the Gironde, receded 236 feet towards the south-east,
but the coast now is efficiently protected by embankments.
THE ADOUR.
THE geological history of the Lower Adour is connected with that of the Landes,
but the two Gaves, with their principal tributaries and head-streams, belong to the
region of the Pyrenees.
The Adour rises between the Pic d'Arbizon and the Pic du Midi of Bigorre,
about 12 miles to the north of the crest of the Pyrenees. Though fed by abundant
rains and melting snow, the drought of summer would cause it to shrink into
a rivulet insufficient even for purposes of irrigation if it were not for the Blue
Lake (Lac Uleii), a natural reservoir, the outflow from which is regulated by
means of a submarine tunnel, and from which 71 cubic feet of water are dis-
charged every second, a quantity sufficient for irrigating the valley and
supplying the manufactories of Bagneres and Tarbes. This is a work of
our contemporaneous engineers, but the canal of irrigation, which leaves the
river where it issues from the mountains to rejoin it 25 miles lower down,
dates back to the time of Alaric, the Visigoth. The island lying between this
canal and the river forms one huge garden, in which maize grows to a height of
15 feet.
On approaching the region of the Landes the river sweeps round to the west,
skirting the hills of Beam, the cultivated slopes of which contrast strikingly with
the desola'e plain on its right bank. At Dax, instead of flowing directly to the
sea, the Adour. turns towards the mountains, and, as far as its confluence with the
Gave, winds between hills.
The volume of the Gave is superior to that of the Upper Adour, but its current
being rapid and its slope steep, the tide only ascends for a short distance, and is
of very little service for purposes of navigation. The name Adour is therefore with
justice applied to the lower part of the river.
The Gave of Pau, in its upper valley, alternately forms cascades, flows tranquilly
along the bottom ^of deep ravines, or spreads out over emerald meadows contrasting
strikingly with rugged defiles. At Lourdes it leaves the mountains, but, instead of
flowing north over the plain, it abruptly turns to the west, and pierces the hills of
Bourn, all covered with erratic blocks carried thither by the ancient glaciers
from the high mountains in the south. Below the graceful bridge of Be'tharram it
winds across a plain, but at Pau it again flows amongst hills, from which it finally
emerges only 12 miles above its confluence with the Gave of Ossau. Throughout
the whole of its course it retains the character of a torrent, and is useless for
purposes of navigation.
The debris piled up by glacial action at the mouths of the Pyrenean valleys
have forced the Gaves repeatedly to change their course. The Gave of Pau
46
FRANCE.
originally flowed in the direction of Tarbes ; it then passed by way of Pontacq, and
this outlet having been blocked up by the debris deposited there, the river opened
itself a new passage through the defile of St. Pe. The bed of the Gave of
Ossau has undergone similar changes. At first it joined that of Pau near the
town of Nay ; subsequently it flowed north through the valley of Neez, and even
now a portion of its waters finds its way to that valley through an underground
channel 5 miles in length.
Fig. 29. SUCCESSIVE CHANGES OF THE BED OF THE GAVE OF PAU.
Scale 1 : 320.000.
of Paris
0"[9'39"f..ofCr.
5 Miles.
The estuary of the Adour, below Bayonne, has undergone similar changes.
In the fourteenth century its mouth was 12 miles farther north, where the
Boucligau now enters the sea, and the geological boundary between the regions of
the Pyrenees arid the L-indes must still be sought for at that spot. There are no
cliff's to the north of the Adour, but the nummulitic limestones of Biarritz extend
north, beneath the waves of the ocean, as far as a spot lying off the " Fosse " of
TILE ADOUE.
47
Capbreton, anciently an important seaport, which gave its name to the island of
Cape Breton, in North America.
The first change in the course of the river took place towards the close of the
fourteenth century, when a violent storm threw up a formidable bar, the river
Fig. 30. THB MOUTH OF THE ADOUK.
Scale 1 : 250,000.
b Milts.
flowing along tho rear of the dunes as far as the hamlet of Vieux-Boucau, or " old
mouth," 22 miles to the north of Bayonne. The present channel of the river
was excavated by human hands, aided by a great flood which occurred in 1571,
and swept away the last remaining obstacles.
48 FEANOE.
The ever-shifting bar at the mouth of the Adour is justly dreaded by mariners,
and, in spite of the jetties which have been constructed, the narrow entrance. to the
river is occasionally obstructed.
THE GARONNE.
THE Garonne rises on Spanish soil, on the southern slope of the Pyrenees. Its
head-stream, fed by the snow and ice of Pic Nethou, is swallowed up by a sink
known as Trou du Taureau ("bull's hole"), and after a subterranean course of
2J miles, reuppeais again as a gushing spring at the Goueil de Joueou
("God's eye"). At the hill of Castelleon this head-stream of the Garonne is joined
by a second river of that name, which traverses the Spanish valley of Aran, and
when it enters French territory, at the marble defile of St. Beat, it is already a
formidable river.
The glacier-fed Pique of Luchon is the first considerable river which joins the
Fig. 31. THE SUBTERRANEAN COURSE OF THE GARONNE.
SKjJometrei
Garonne on the soil of France. Lower down it receives the Neste, which flows
through the delightful valley of Aure, and its direct northern course being stopped
by the masses of debris deposited by ancient glacial action, it turns abruptly to the
east, and flows in a huge curve around that wonderful accumulation of shingle and
gravel traversed by the radiating courses of the Gers, the Bayse, and numerous
other rivers, all having their sources close to each other, as shown in Fig. 32.
These rivers are gradually washing away the sediment deposited by glaciers, and
nowhere else are we better able to study the influence which the earth's rotation
exercises upon the formation of valleys. Almost without exception the western
slopes of the valleys are gentle, whilst the rivers gnaw away the foot of the hills
on the east, and a traveller who crosses over from one valley to the other in a
westerly direction ascends by a gentle slope, but descends by a steep one.
Very different from these divergent rivers are the eastern or exterior tributaries
of the Garonne, for their sources are far apart, they flow generally parallel with
the equator, and, draining vaster areas, are more voluminous. One of them, the
Salat, is thus named on account of the brine springs near its banks. Another, the
THE GAEONNE.
49
Ariege, is not named thus because it carries gold (Aurigera), for its name is
synonymous with Arega, Aregia, Ereya, and Arize, all of which simply mean
river.
Though draining a basin inferior to that of the Loire, the Garonne neverthe-
less is a more voluminous river, thanks to the greater rainfall, the geological
nature of the soil, and the snows of the Pyrenees, which feed many of its tributaries
during summer. There are no torrent beds, as on the southern slope of the
Cevennes, and the hills of Auvergne and the Pyrenees are amongst the best
watered of all France. Floods, unfortunately, occur frequently, generally in May
or June, when the snow melts and rain falls abundantly.
At an epoch anterior to history the flow of the river was regulated by lakes,
Fig. 32. RADIATING RIVEH COURSES OF GERS.
Scale I : 1,875,000.
one of the most important of which occupied the fertile plain of Riviere. But
these lakes have been silted up and drained, and the floods occur now very
suddenly. One of the most disastrous happened in 1875, when the river rose
40 feet above its ordinary summer level, sweeping away bridges, destroying nearly
7,000 houses, and doing damage to the extent of 3,400,000. These floods might
perhaps be prevented if forests were planted upon the hills, but to this the pastoral
inhabitants of the Pyrenees have a deep-rooted objection.
The waters of the Garonne are not employed for purposes of irrigation, as they
might be, and there exist no canals comparable with that of Alaric, in the valley
of the Adour. M. Duponchel, however, has conceived the grand project of construct-
50
FRANCE.
ing a system of canals or drains, by means of which the hills of Gers might be
levelled, and a portion of the fertile soil of which they consist spread over the
barren Landes of Gascony.*
A navigable canal, communicating with the Canal du Midi, follows the course
of the Garonne from Toulouse downwards as far as the head of the tide, whence
Fig. 33. VALLEYS OF GEHS.
Scale 1 : 1,160,000.
the river is navigable throughout the year. Below Bordeaux, its great commercial
port, the Garonne rapidly increases in width, and the triangular peninsula which
lies between it and its twin river, the Dordogne, is known as Entre-Deux-Mers,
with reference to the sealike expanse of these great tidal rivers. Sea-going vessels
ascend the Dordogne as far as Libourne, at the mouth of the Isle. The bore
Fig. 34. THE PLAIN OF RIVIERE.
Scale 1 : 320,000.
1?30' IV.. I P.
, .-S'.Marlonr^
. . .-. _ ,.- x J V "~"~V v (. s~
0?50'l.. of Or.
which rushes up that river is said to have become more intense since the Garonne
has been confined within narrower limits.
The united waters of the Garonne and the Dordogne form a vast estuary,
known as Gironde, varying in width between two and six miles, and dotted
* " Creation d'un sol fertile a la surface des landes de Gascogne." llontpellier, 1864.
THE GARONNE.
51
over with numerous islands. There are many mud-banks, which interfere with
navigation, but the depth of the channel is nevertheless very considerable, and at
the mouth of the river, between Royan and the Pointe de Grave, it is no less than
Fig. 3o. THE ESTUARY OF THE GIRONDE.
Scale 1 : 640,000.
105 feet. This estuary is in reality an arm of the sea, and at Mechers, 6 miles
above its mouth, there are salt ponds and oyster beds. Cetacea and sea-fish ascend
the river with each tide, and porpoises gambol around the vessels as in the open
sea. Among these visitors from the Atlantic the maigre (Scitena aquila), a singing
52
FRANCE.
fish, is one of the most curious, and the crews of many a vessel have been frightened
by the sound it emits.
The banks of the Gironde exhibit many traces of geological action still going
on. The hills on the right bank terminate in cliffs, the foot of which is continually
Fig. 36. THE " PASSES " OF THE GIRONDE.
Scale 1 : 350,000.
;
^ %*&-?*3 AT* ' ^.a-f-sMp
tor.Ofcg,
-"'
.*fev/W ^-f
# .* f /'wr? - r/f fty/ t (tn
"-~"" '
,< '
<'"'
Dep h 0- 16 feet.
16-32 feet.
over 32 feet.
, 5 Miles.
being gnawed by the waves, and several villages have disappeared there, including
Gerioset, which occupied the summit of a hill to the east of Royan, and Talmont,
which stood at the extreme point of a peninsula.
Swampy plains of recent origin, such as the "polders" of Little Flanders,
Fig. 37. SECTION OF THE PASSES OF THE GIKO.NDE.
Weux Sonlac ,Tonr fcCordman V' ,],!., c,,,,l, rf Rmm FMr GIWT
drained in the seventeenth century, and the old salt marshes of the Verdun, extend
far into the peninsula of Medoc. The culminating point of the whole of this
region, the hill of Jau or Jupiter, scarcely rises to a height of 40 feet, and a
couple of centuries ago was an island. Ancient river beds can still be traced, and
PYRENEES OEIENTALES. 63
what is now the Pointe de Grave was formerly an island near the northern bank
of the river.
The submarine relief is likewise undergoing continual changes, which endanger
navigation. The channel, or "pass," of the Mastelier, which was the principal
one about the middle of the eighteenth century, is now occupied by a formidable
sand-bank known as La Mauvaise. The contours of the banks and the direction
of the currents are for ever changing, and in the course of less than a century the
bank of La Mauvaise has shifted 5 miles to the west, whilst that of La Cuivre
moves in an opposite direction. Still, thanks to lighthouses, buoys, and beacons,
vessels can at all times enter the Gironde with safety, and even at low water the
depth of the northern pass is nowhere less than 40 feet. At each tide no less
than 265,000 tons of water penetrate into the estuary of the Gironde, a quantity
in compurison with which the discharge of the Garonne and Dordogne combined is
almost inappreciable, even during floods.
TOPOGRAPHY.
PYRKXKES ORIKXTALES. This department is almost a portion of Catalonia as far
as its climate, its productions, and the language of its inhabitants are concerned, but
has formed part of France since the middle of the seventeenth century. It includes
the valleys of the Tech, the Reart, the Tet, and the Agly, all of which debouch upon
the plain of Roussillon. Each of these valleys is well watered, but, upon the
whole, naked rocks form the predominant feature of the department, which is
therefore able only to support a small population.
The valley of the Tech orVallespir that is, " austere valley " is the southern-
most of continental France. Its scenery is delightful, and the customs of its
Catalan inhabitants full of interest. At its head are the pastures of Costabona,
and on descending it we pass the sulphur springs of Preste, the old town of
Pmts-de-Mollo (1,3*0 inhabitants), formerly famous for its cloths; Ark* (1,871
inhabitants), the commercial centre of the valley, where rude cutlery is manu-
factured ; Cent (3,063 inhabitants) ; and the hot sulphur springs of Amelie-les-
Bains.
Across the naked range of the Alberes, defended by the fort of Bellegarde, the
great Spanish high-road leads through the Pertus. This road is far easier than the
one leading along the coast of the Mediterranean, through Collioiirc (3,446 inhabit-
ants), frequented by fishermen, and Port-Vrndres (1,910 inhabitants), which boasts
of an excellent harbour, much frequented by vessels in distress. Some wine is
exported from here, including the sort known as " rancio," which only attains
maturity after having been kept for ten years, and possesses tonic properties almost
equal to those of quinine.
The district of Aspres, which extends east of the Canigou in the direction of
the Mediterranean, is sterile, as its nnme implies, but excellent wine grows upon
its hills, and the lowlands, irrigated by the Heart, are of wonderful fertility. Elnr
(2,463 iuhabitants), the andeut Illiberri, subsequently named Helena in honour of
54
FRXNCE.
the mother of Constantine, is the only town of importance there ; its cathedral
dates back to the eleventh century.
The most important valley of the Eastern Pyrenees is that of the Tet ; the
Col de la Perche at its head, and the roads to Perpignan, are defended by the
fortress of Montlouia, constructed by Vauban. Lying at an elevation of 5,250 feet
above the sea, the climate of this place is most rigorous. Hot mineral springs
abound in this portion of the Pyrenees, but only those of Fernet, on the northern
slope of Mont Canigou, enjoy a world- wide reputation. Iron ores, suited to the
Fig. 38. POUT-VENDRES.
Scale 1 : 15,000.
1,000 Feet.
manufacture of steel, likewise abound. There are iron works at Ria, between
the small fortified town of Villeneuve de Conflant and Prudes, but most of the
ore is exported to Germany. Prades (3,725 inhabitants), Vinfa (2,093 inhabitants),
Ilk (3,222 inhabitants), and all the villages of the Riveral, to the very gates of
Perpignan, are indebted to the fertilising waters of the Tet for their prosperity.
Perpignan (24,379 inhabitants) is a fortress of the highest importance, for it
commands all the passes over the Pyrenees from the sea to the Puss of La Perche.
AEIEGE. 65
Traces of Moorish architecture may be discovered in its huge citadel, in the
Castillet, or little castle, and the " Loge," or old exchange of the Majorcans, but it
is not in other respects a fine city. Its ancient industries have declined since
Charles V. converted the town into a fortress, and its university, founded in the
fourteenth century, only exists in name. The climate, however, is delightful,
sub-tropical plants grow most vigorously, and the whole country might easily be
converted into a huge garden of acclimatization.
Wine is the great source of wealth of the country. Though ordinary roussillon
is used merely for blending the lighter wines of Central Franco, first-rate wines
are produced at Rivesaltea (6,077 inhabitants), on the Agly; at Estagel (2,678
inhabitants), higher up on the same river, and the birthplace of Arago ; and at
Salses, the Salsulae of the Romans. Most of these wines are exported through
Barcares, a port near the town of St. Laurent de la Salanque (3,990 inhabitants).
The country likewise produces olives. The tract along the coast, known as
" Salobres," is impregnated with salt, and hardly produces anything, but fair
harvests of cereals are gathered in the tract known as " Salanque," which bounds
it inland, the vine and olive being restricted to the hilly districts.
AKIEGE.* This department includes the old district of Couserans, the basin of
Salat, and the county of Foix, comprising the basin of the Ariege. Nearly the
whole of it is mountainous, and the main range of the Pyrenees forms the boundary
towards Spain for a distance of 136 miles. The only plain is that of Paumiers.
The population is thin and exceedingly ignorant.
The small canton of Querigut or Donnezan, on the Upper Aude, which is only
accessible to the rest of the department by the difficult Pass of Paillers, sheltered
the fugitive Protestants after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, but is now
visited only on account of its sulphur springs at Carcanieres. The upper valley of
the Ariege likewise attracts strangers on account of its hot springs, amongst which
those of Ax (Aquae) are the most famous. Hematite iron ores, lead, copper, and
manganese abound at Vic de Sos, in a side valley of the Ariege, but owing to the
difficulties of access, the want of fuel, and the restrictions imposed by mediaeval
guilds, the metallurgical industry is not very important.t At Tarascon there are
gypsum quarries, and travelling still 10 miles lower down the valley, we arrive at
Foix (5,127 inhabitants), with its famous old castle, the capital of the department.
IMow that town the Ariege passes through a series of gorges, and then enters
upon a vast alluvial plain, where stands Pamiers (7,837 inhabitants), the most im-
portant town of the department. Lower down still is Sarerdun (2,596 inhabitants).
The valley of the Hers joins that of the Ariege beyond the limits of the
department. It is one of the most charming of the Pyrenees, the pine woods of
Belesta, the intermittent spring of Fontestorbes, and the ruined castle of Montsegur
constituting some of its principal attractions, whilst Lacelanet (2,792 inhabitants)
and Mirepoix (3,102 inhabitants) are noted for their manufacture of cloth. On
* Berges, " Description du dip. do 1' Ariege;" Hordes-Pages, " Nolice sur le Couserans;" Astiuc,
"Mem. pour 1'hist. naturelle du I,angncdr."
t In 1873, 6,040 tons of cast iron, 5,045 tons of wrought iron, and 8S9 tons of steel were produced.
56
PRANCE.
the Arize, which flows direct to the Garonne, stands the busy little place of
Mas d'Azil (1,278 inhabitants), near which the river flows through a subterranean
channel.
The western portion of the department, ancient Couserans, is drained by the
Salat and its tributaries. The upper valleys of this region formerly constituted
as many self-governing communities, aud the inhabitants, until quite recently,
Kig. 39. BAONiRE8-l>E-LuCH()V.
Scale 1 : 215,000.
2 Miles.
retained their ancient dress and customs. In winter they leave their inhospitable
mountain homes in search of work in the more favoured plains ; and when bears
were still numerous in the Pyrenees, many of them travelled as bear-leaders.
Hot springs abound in these valleys, the most renowned being those of Aulus,
accidentally rediscovered in 1828, and deservedly popular on account of the
delights of the surrounding scenery. St. Girons (3,993 inhabitants), the capital
8
i
c
D
H
3
M
"
HAUTE-GAEONNE.
57
of the district, occupies a site at the confluence of the Lez with the Salat. It
carries on a lucrative commerce with Spain, the road leading through the Port de
Salau, and boasts of various manufactures. At St. Lister, which was the ancient
capital, may still be seen the ruins of Roman walls and of a Gothic cathedral.
The old episcopal palace has been very appropriately converted into an asylum for
lunatics.
HAVTE-GAKOXXE. This department includes portions of the ancient provinces
Fig. 40.- TUB CONVERGENT VALLEYS OF THE GAKONNE, THE AUIEGE, AND THE HERS.
Scale 1 : 600,000.
fGi-
i!W. of Paris
10 Miles.
of Gascony and Languedoc, and is intersected from south to north, for a distance of
150 miles, by the river Garonne, which has given it a name. It extends from the
crest of the Pyrenees to the foot-hills of the central plateau of France, and thus
exhibits a great variety in its scenery, climate, and natural productions.
In the very heart of the mountains lies the most famous hot spring of the
Pyrenees, that of Bfiynercs-de Litc/wn (3,1)82 inhabitants), the surrounding scenery
40
58
FRANCE.
of which its glaciers, woods, and mountain gorges forms its great attraction to all
admirers of nature. St. Gaudem (4,087 inhabitants) occupies a terrace overlook-
ing the ancient Lake of Riviere (see Fig. 34). Its neighbourhood abounds in
remains of prehistoric man, as well as in monuments of the Gallo-Roman age.
Valentin, a busy suburb of St. Gaudens, on the Garonne, still bears the name of
the Roman emperor who founded it, and higher up on the same river may be seen
the ruins of the Roman city of Lugdunum Convenarum.
Below the gorge of St. Martory, the Salat, thus called after the brine springs
of Salies, joins the Garonne, which thence flows through a fertile plain extending
to the neighbourhood of Toulouse. Its numerous towns and villages, amongst
Fig. 41. TOULOUSE.
Scale 1 : 60,000.
1 Mile.
which are Mart res (the ancient Calagorris), Cazeres ("2,422 inhabitants), Rieur
(1,452 inhabitants), Carbonne (1,658 inhabitants), Aittcrirc (1,973 inhabitants),
and Cinteyabelte (819 inhabitants), present an appearance of wealth, for it is now
many years since the Garonne inundated its banks. Muret (2,509 inhabitants),
in the very centre of this plain, has become famous on account of the defeat of the
Albigenses and Aragonese in 1213, which definitively placed Toulouse in the
hands of the French.-
Villefranche (2,134 inhabitants), and the other towns of Lauraguais, to the
south-east of Toulouse, as well as Grenade (2,674 inhabitants), Fronton (1,402
5
5
e
HAUTE-GARONNE.
59
Fig. 42. THE CANAL OF THE NESTE.
Scale 1 : 320,000.
inhabitants), and other places in the north, are mainly dependent upon agricul-
ture ; whilst Villemur (2,367 inhabitants), on the Tarn, and Revel (3,782 inha-
bitants), have some manufactures.
Toulouse (120,208 inhabitants), the entrepot of the fertile plain of the
Garonne, is one of those cities which cannot be dispensed with. Its favourable
position for war and commerce at all times insured its prosperity, and when the
Romans captured it they discovered in a sacred pond treasure valued at 15,000
talents, or 3,000,000. This
prosperity is perhaps greater now
than ever it was before ; but
though Toulouse has been the
capital of the Visigoths for nearly
a century (418 507), it carries
on no direct commercial transac-
tions with the Iberian peninsula,
but is the great intermediary be-
tween the Mediterranean and the
Atlantic. Including the suburbs,
the red-brick buildings of the
town cover an area of over 3
square miles. The town-hall or
Capitol, with its busts of illus-
trious Languedocians, occupies
the centre of the ancient city,
which was superior to the towns
of Northern France in wealth and
intelligence, until the henchmen
of the Inquisition caused its
streets to flow with blood, and in-
stilled a spirit of ferocious ortho-
doxy into the minds of its inha-
bitants, who burnt Vanini at the
stake in 1619, and in 1762 broke
the limbs of Galas, the Protestant,
upon the wheel. The church of
St. Scrvan, the cathedral of St.
>
Etienne, and the ancient monas-
tery of St. Augustine, now converted into a museum, are amongst the most
interesting buildings of the town. The library, far inferior to what one might
expect to find in an ancient university city, occupies another old monastery.
Commerce and industry flourish. There are manufactures of paper, starch,
tobacco, and textile fabrics, as well as foundries and saw-mills. The environs are
almost bare of trees, and there exists no park deserving the name.
S. This department includes the whole of ancient Bigorre,
60
FRANCE.
with portions of adjoining districts. More than half of it is filled with high
mountains. Its principal rivers are the Neste in the east, the Adour in the
centre, and the Gave in the west. The alluvial bottom-lands are of exceeding
fertility; hot springs abound in the mountains ; there are famous marble quarries
and busy manufactories ; but the population is still far from numerous.
The valley of the Aure, or Upper Neste, is one of the most renowned of the
Pyrenees, on account of its pretty scenery and grand perspectives. Arreau, its
capital, is merely a village, and Sarracolin is only better known because it lies at
Fig. 43.
Scale 1 : 280.0UO.
. 6 Miles.
the head of the canal of the Neste, and boasts of marble quarries. The popula-
tion, however, is more dense than might be expected, for hamlets and homesteads
lie scattered in all directions.
The valley of Campan, on the Upper Adour, is looked upon as typical of the
beauties of nature ; but the men who inhabit it are repulsive, as most of them are
subject to wens. At its mouth lies Bagneres-de-Biyorre (7,598 inhabitants), which
has paper and saw mills, marble works, and manufactures of fancy hosiery, these
latter giving employment to more than 2,000 women. The town is likewise the
HAUTES-PYRENfcES.
61
seat of the Soeiete Ramond, which has undertaken the scientific exploration of
the Pyrenees and established an observatory on the Pic du Midi of Bigorre.
Turbes (11,080 inhabitants), the capital of the department, lies quite beyond
the hills, and from the windows of its museum an unrivalled prospect over a
Fig. 44. THE TUMULI OF OSSUN.
Accord! >g to Bourbier and Letrone. Scale 1 : 62,000.
1 MUe.
verdant plain, bounded by blue mountains in the distance, may be enjoyed.
There are foundries, woollen-mills, and manufactories of felt, as well as a Govern-
ment factory of small arms and a cannon foundry. The surrounding country is
famous for its breed of saddle horses. Corn and wine are the leading agricultural
productions.
6 2 FEANCE.
The hilly country to the east of this smiling plain of the Adour, including the
plateau of Lannemezan, consists to a great extent of heaths. The best-known
village there is Capmrn, with hot mineral springs. Heaths also occur to the west
of the Adour, and one of them, near Ossun (2,400 inhabitants), is remarkable on
account of its ancient entrenchments and tumuli.
The basin of the Gave, in the west of this department, is perhaps more
frequently visited by tourists than any other portion of the Pyrenees, and
deservedly so, for it abounds in sublime scenery and natural curiosities. Its many
thermal springs form one of its greatest attractions. The sulphurous waters of
Bareges are efficacious in case of wounds, those of St. Sauvcur are available
against nervous disorders, but the various springs of Cauterets cure almost every
disease that human flesh is heir to, and attract as many as 16,000 sufferers in a
single year. The mouth of the valley of the Upper Gave is commanded by the
old fortress of Lourdes (4,577 inhabitants), become famous in our days through a
miracle-working spring near which quite a town of churches and convents has
sprung up.
BASSES- PYRENEES. This department includes Beam and the old " kingdom " of
Navarre, with the districts of Soule and Labourd in the Basque country. For the
most part it is hilly rather than mountainous, though the Pyrenees to the south
of the valleys of Ossau and Aspe still pierce the region of perennial snows. The
ravined plateau to the north of the Gave of Pau consists of glacial drift. There
are mines of iron, coal, and salt, many manufactories, and a great commercial port ;
but upon the whole this is an agricultural department, the resources of which
have not hitherto been developed as they might be. The tout/as, or heaths, which
cover 783,000 acres of the Pyrenean foot-hills, are quite capable of cultivation, but
the peasants prefer to use them as pasture ground. It is only natural, under these
circumstances, that the population should decrease.
The Gave, on entering the department, flows past the church of Bethar-
ram, an old place of pilgrimage, and then irrigates the fields of numerous
villages, the centre of which is Nity (3,093 inhabitants), which boasts of numerous
manufactures. Still following the river, we reach Pau (27,553 inhabitants), the
ancient capital of Beam. It is built upon a terrace, and owing to the mildness of
its climate has become a great resort of invalids. The terrace of its ancient castle
commands a magnificent panorama of the Pyrenees. The entertainment of visitors
is the great business of Pau, but there are also some manufactures of linen.
Morlaas, the first capital of Beam, now an inconsiderable village, lies in the
Landes, to the north-east ; and, proceeding still farther in the same direction, we
reach the castle of Montaner, one of the strongest fortresses built by Gaston
Phoebus.
Orthez (4,727 inhabitants), on the Gave, below Pau, was formerly the seat of
a university, and is noted for its ancient bridge and the donjon of the old palace
of the Dukes of Foix. There are numerous tanneries and other industrial esta-
blishments, and amongst the exports of the town figure " Bayonne hams."
The mountainous portion of the department belongs to the basin of the Gave
ZT
C>
a
w
B
s
z;
BASSES- PYRENEES.
68
of Oloron, the capital of which is Oloron Ste. Marie (7,223 inhabitants), at the
foot of the only Pyrenean pass available for wheeled traffic, viz. that of Somport.
There are cloth and cotton factories, and smuggling is carried on extensively.
High up in the hills, at the foot of the Pic du Midi of Pau, lie the sulphur springs
of Eaux-Bonnes and Eaux-Chaudes, and the valley of Baretous, in the south-west,
is famous for its cattle.
In descending the Gave we successively pass through Nararreux, an old
fortress, and Sameterre. At Oraas, near the latter, and at Salies (2,494 inha-
bitants), there are salt works, now carried on by Government, but they are far less
productive than formerly.
The villages in the interior of the Basque country are remarkable only on
Fig. 45. BAYONNE AND THE MOUTH OF THE ADOUR.
Scale 1 : 80,000.
account of their picturesque position. At Maitlron-Licharre, the old capital of
Soiile, are the ruins of a castle; llasparren (1,573 inhabitants), a very ancient
village, has shoe and cloth manufactures ; the fort of St. Jean-Pied-de-Port
commands the Pass of Roncevaux and two others. Near it is a colony of cagots,
a despised race formerly, but nevertheless intelligent, and superior in physique to
their neighbours. Most writers now look upon them as descendants of the
Visigoths.
llni/oiuir (22,307 inhabitants), though slightly inferior to Pau in population,
is by far its superior in commerce and industry. It is a fortress, but gaily painted
houses, open squares, and fine promenades give it the appearance of an open city.
Its Gothic cathedral is one of the finest edifices in the south of France. Its
64
FRANCE.
position at the bottom of the Bay of Biscay and on the most frequented road
between France and Spain marks it out as a great place of commerce ; but owing to
the bar which closes the mouth of the Adour, it has not attained a position
amongst the great commercial ports of France such as might have been expected,
and the numerous Spanish and Portuguese Jews are intent rather upon bourse
speculation than upon legitimate commerce.* As to the other harbours along the
coast of Gascony, such as Guethary and St. Jean-de-Luz, they are at present
of no commercial importance whatever. And yet the mariners from this coast
frequented America long before Columbus, though not before the Normans.
Great efforts are now being made to improve the harbour of St. Jean-de-Luz
Fig. 46. ROADSTEAD OF ST. JEAN-DE-LUZ.
Scale 1 : 200,000.
(3,131 inhabitants), though that town can never again become a great place
of commerce. Indeed, such importance as these coast towns possess is" due
entirely to their having become favourite seaside resorts ; it is this which has
transformed the village of Biarritz (3,348 inhabitants) into a cosmopolitan water-
ing-place, and is preparing a similar fate for Hendaye.
GERS. This department is named after a yellowish river which traverses it
from north to smth., and occupies the greater portion of the plateau of glacial
drift piled up at the mouths of the Upper Adour and Neste, and cut up by
torrents into numerous ridges of hills (see Fig. 32). It lies outside the usual
In 1872 Ihere were 1,320 Jews. In 1875 1,460 vessels, of an aggregate burden of 164,324 toi.s,
entered and cleared.
TAEN-ET-GAEONNE. 65
roads of traffic, but its valleys are fertile, and a fair wine grows upon its hill-
sides.
The most fertile portion of Gers lies on the south-west, and is watered by the
Adour. Immediately to the east of this valley rises the plateau of Armagnac, the
wines of which are to a great extent converted into brandy, ranking next to
Cognac. Cazaubon (760 inhabitants), Eauze (2,062 inhabitants 1 ), Montreal (690
inhabitants), and Vic-Fezensac (3,000 inhabitants), are some of the more important
places in Lower or Western Armagnac, separated from Upper Armagnac by the
valley of the navigable Bayse or Ba'ise, the more important towns of which are
Condom (4,933 inhabitants) and Mirande (3,230 inhabitants), the capital of Astarac.
Auch (12,145 inhabitants), the name of which recalls the ancient Ausques or
Eskuaras who founded it, lies in the valley of the Gers. It is a fine town, with
one of the most majestic cathedrals of France, an immense flight of stairs, leading
to the terrace upon which it is built, and a mediaeval tower dedicated to Caesar.
Higher up in the valley lies the village of Sansan, which has become known
through the palseontological explorations of M. Lartet and others. The lower
valley of the Gers is well cultivated, and the fields surrounding Flturance
(3,737 inhabitants) and Lectoure (2,963 inhabitants) are of great fertility. The
patois spoken at the latter place is said to contain Greek words, and the rivulet
formed by the fountain of Houndelie bears the Greek appellation of Ilydrone.
The towns in the extreme east of the department are in nowise remarkable,
except for the ruins of mediaeval castles and abbeys. L'Isle-Jourdnin (2,248
inhabitants) and Lombez, both on the Save, are the principal centres of population,
and carry on some trade in cattle and geese.
TARN-ET-GARONNE. This department, one of the smallest of France, includes
the hills of Eastern Lomague, the alluvial valleys of the Garonne, the Tarn, and the
Aveyron, and a hill region in the north and east which forms part of Quercy and
Rouergue. Some of the soil is exceedingly fertile, and there are manufacturing
establishments at Montauban and elsewhere, but the population is nevertheless on
the decrease.
Beaumont (3,608 inhabitants), the capital of Lomagne, as well as all the places
on the left bank of Garonne, is decreasing in population, and Ctistel-Sarrasiu
(3,547 inhabitants), on the opposite bank of the river, does so likewise, but never-
theless carries on a considerable commerce in wine and the products of the fertile
plain, too frequently devastated by the waters of the Garonne.
Monlavban (19,790 inhabitants) stands majestically upon a lofty bluff of the
Tarn, spanned there by a fine old bridge. Its position is a favourable one for com-
merce, but its greatness as a city passed away when it ceased to be one of the four
towns of refuge granted to the Calvinists. It gloriously withstood the armies of
Louis XIII. (ItolO), but twelve years later it yielded to Richelieu, and its civil
liberties and industries were annihilated. Linen and muslin, earthenware and
leather, are manufactured, but a spirit of enterprise capable of striking out new
paths is altogether wanting. The town-ball contains a fine library and a collec-
tion of paintings, many of them by Ingres, a native of the place.
41
66
FRANCE.
Moissac (5,675 inhabitants), in the alluvial plain and near the confluence of
Garonne and Tarn, is one of the great grain markets of France, and possesses a
medieval church and cloisters, which contrast strangely with a modern aqueduct
and an iron railway bridge. Valence d'Agen (2,926 inhabitants), lower down in
the valley, is wealthy and industrious. An old house is still pointed out there
in which sat the inquisitors who condemned forty-three heretics to the stake.
Fig. 47. THE ALLUVIAL PLAIN OF THE GARONNE, THE TARN, AND THE AVEYRON.
Scale 1 : 320,000.
. 5 Miles.
The plateau to the north of the Aveyron is but thinly populated, and the only
town of any importance there is Caussade (2,438 inhabitants). The Aveyron, on
entering the department, passes through a series of picturesque gorges, bounded by
limestone cliffs, the caverns in which have yielded numerous implements of palseo-
lithic age. St. Antoniii (2,520 inhabitants), the most considerable town in that
LOT-ET-GARONNE. LANDES. 67
part of the country, boasts of a town-hall built in the twelfth century, and of nume-
rous private dwellings dating back to the thirteenth.
LOT-ET-GAKONXE. This department is named after the two rivers which effect
their junction within its limits. The hills of Lomagne form a steep escarpment
towards the vale of the Garonne, and a considerable portion of the south-west
consists of Landes, but the northern half is occupied by tertiary hills of great
fertility. As a whole, the department is one of the most productive of all France;
its race of cattle is highly esteemed, and poverty is unknown.
Agen (17,806 inhabitants), the capital, lies on the right bank of the Garonne,
at the foot of a hill covered with gardens and villas. It is famous for its cattle
markets and prunes, the latter grown in the valley of the Lot. Three bridges and
an aqueduct cross the river.
Descending the Garonne, we first reach Port Ste. Marie (1,699 inhabitants),
near which the valley of the Buyse joins from the south, and up which leads the
road to Nerac (4,975 ii. habitants), an old Roman town, with the ruins of a royal
palace. Nerac has recovered from the injury inflicted through the revocation of
the Edict of Nantes, and now carries on a considerable commerce in wine and
brandy. Higher up on the Bayse is Moncrabeau (681 inhabitants), the Gascon
"head-quarters of liars, babblers, and boasters." Mezin (1,939 inhabitants), which
has exported wines to London since the fourteenth century, stands on the Gelise, a
tributary of the Blayse ; and lower down, near the same river, rises the castle of
Barbastc, now converted into a factory. Farther to the north-west, beyond the
forests recently planted in the Landes, lies Cattefjaioiu (2,074 inhabitants), with a
mineral spring and some manufactures.
Agnillon (1,993 inhabitants), near the junction of the Garonne and Lot, is but
a small place. Ascending the latter river, we pass Clniiac (2,388 inhabitants),
known for its "rotten" wines, which are made from overripe grapes; Castelmoron
(1,028 inhabitants), Ste. Livrade (1,404 inhabitants), and Villeneuve-stir-Lot (9,681
inhabitants), a busy place, with an old abbey, now used as a prison, the ruins of
the castle of Pujols, and several mediaeval buildings, including a bridge. Penne
(1,272 inhabitants), Fitmel (2,229 inhabitants), and Bonafiitil were known in former
times for their citadels, that at the latter place having been one of the first con-
structed to resist artillery.
Returning to the valley of the Garonne, we pass Tonneins (5,303 inhabitants),
entirely rebuilt since the Calvinistic wars, and Marmandc (6,037 inhabitants), both
of them driving a busy trade. Le Mas d'Agenain (1,245 inhabitants), and Mellhan
(639 inhabitants), on the left bank of the Garonne, are mere villages. Nor are the
few towns in the north of much importance, except, perhaps, Miramont (1,416
inhabitants), with its orchards of prune-trees.
LANDES. This department does not include the whole of the Lundes of Gus-
cony, though, on the other hand, it comprises, in the south arid south-east, some
of the foot-hills of the Pyrenees and of Armagnac. The resources of the depart-
ment are small ; there are no extensive tracts of fertile land, nor harbours ulong
the coast, and the population is therefore very thinly sown.
08
FEANCE.
Dax (9,085 inhabitants), on the Adour, is the natural centre of Chalosse, the
most fertile district of the Landes. It is an old town, with remains of Roman walls
and baths. The steam arising from its famous sulphur springs is seen from afar.
Thermal springs abound throughout the region, as at Pouilton (250 inhabitants),
La Gnm/iri/f, 'Tcrcis, and Prechacq ; rock-salt abounds ; asphalt is found in the
valley of the Luy ; and the iron in the western Landes is utilised in the forges
of Castcts (937 inhabitants). Peyrehorade (1,786 inhabitants), on the Gave, at the
head of navigation, is likewise a busy place.
Cap-Breton, in former ages one of the most famous seaports of France, has
Fig. 48. CAP-BHETON (1872).
Scale 1 : 33,611.
J-i} tt-if aw- IS KuA'
1 : Miles.
dwindled down into a poor village, but the harbour of refuge now constructing
there may bring back some of its ancient prosperity.
St. Sever (2,225 inhabitants) and Aire (2,906 inhabitants), both on the Adour,
are quiet country towns, though the latter is the seat of a bishop ; but Mont-de-Mai-x/ni
(8,328 inhabitants), to the north of them, the capital of the department, is a busy com-
mercial centre, from which are exported the brandies of Villeiieure. (1,155 inhabitants)
and Gabarret in Annagnac, the rosin of Roquefort in the Landes, and the wines and
manufactured goods of Chalosse. Labi-it, the ancient capital of a duchy, is now
merely a village, with the ruins of a castle built by Henri IV.
GIEONDE. 69
Some of the stations along the railway which connects Bordeaux with Bayonne
are rising into importance. Ichoiix has iron works, Labouheyre (La Bouverie) is
famous on account of its cattle fairs, and Morctux promises to become a place of
commerce. The ancient towns of the littoral region of Born, however, which were
joined formerly by a Roman road, have dwindled into insignificance. Mimizan,
the most important amongst them, attracts a certain number of seaside visitors
during the season.
GIRONDE. The Landes occupy fully one-half of this department, as far as the
Garonne and the estuary of the Gironde, and even extend beyond that river, but
the whole of the district known as Entre-Deux-Mers, as well as the hills of the
Fronsadais and Perigord, is an outlying portion of the plateau of Central France.
Bordeaux, so happily situated at the mouth of the Garonne, and on the great
high-road which connects Paris with Spain, is the natural centre of the department,
arid would insure it a pre-eminent position, even though its agricultural produc-
tions, its early vegetables, and wines had no existence.
Bazas (2,859 inhabitants), the ancient Novem Populana, and the seat of a univer-
sity at the time of Charlemagne, is an unimportant place now, but the tumuli, the
dotes, or remains of Gallic habitations, and the castle of Roquetaillade near it,
are full of interest to the antiquarian. The arrondissement of Bazas lies completely
within the region of the Landes, but its inhabitants have made considerable
advance in agriculture, they breed a highly esteemed race of cattle, and at Villan-
draut, in the valley of the Ciron, they grow excellent wines. The names of
Preignac, Barsac, Bomme, and Sauterne are known throughout the world, and
there are certain growths, such as Chateuu-Yquem, which are appreciated by
every connoisseur.
The towns along the Garonne and the Gironde know no other trade or industry
except what is connected with wine and agriculture. Catstets, at the head of the
tide, is a busy port ; Langon (3,903 inhabitants) and the old city of St. Macairc
(2,252 inhabitants), opposite, are still more busy. La Eeole (3,498 inhabitants),
higher up on the river, is a curious mediaeval place. Near Monsegur, to the north-
cast, is a district formerly known as that of the scoundrels (Gavacherie), because
it was repeopled, after the great plague of 1524-25, by colonists from Poitou and
Angoumois, who were at that time very much despised by the men of Gascony.
Descending the G.ironne, we pass Cadillac (2,257 inhabitants), with an old castle
now used as a refuge for women, and Cerons, well known on accoant of its quarries
and white wines. Villas and gardens tell us that we are approaching Bordeaux.
Soon we find ourselves facing the Maritime Railway station and the busy suburb
of Paludate, we pass beneath the iron railway bridge, and land at the quays of the
town. Towers rise above the multitude of houses, in front we look upon a fine
stone bridge, and beyond appear the masts of innumerable vessels filling the
crescent-shiiped harbour.
Few other cities can rival this capital of Aquitania. Founded by the Celtic
Biturigcs, but peopled for the most part by Iberians, the ancient Burdigala was
already a great town during the dominion of the Romans; but of the many monu
70
PRANCE.
mental buildings which existed at that time only a few ruins remain. The Middle
Ages are represented by numerous churches, one of which, that of St. Michael,
has a steeple of 350 feet in height, and a crypt with mummified corpses : the Gothic
cathedral has a belfry erected by Archbishop Pey-Berland Amongst modern
public buildings the theatre and the town-hull are the most remarkable, but it
is principally the magnificent private houses in the streets radiating from the
Place des Quineonces which impart a monumental character to the city.
The quays are far from sufficient for the hundreds of vessels which crowd the
Fig. 49. BORDEAUX.
Scale 1 : 95,000.
I Mile.
river, nor can vessels having a considerable draught lie alongside them. In order
to remedy this inconvenience capacious docks are now being constructed in the
suburb of Bacat^n. But even these will not always be accessible to the larger
steamers, which are frequently compelled to discharge a portion of their cargo at
Pauillac before they are able to come up to the city. But, in spite of all these
drawbacks, Bordeaux is the third port of France, and about 12,000 vessels of over a
million tons burden enter annually.
The exportation of wine (28,OUO,000 gallons in 1874) is the great business of
GIRONDE.
71
Bordeaux. For centuries the wines of Bordeaux were more highly appreciated
abroad than in France itself, and as early as the thirteenth century they were
Fig. 50. THE WINE DISTRICTS OF THE GIRONDE.
Scale 1 : 800,000.
K?raa
."./ Woods
London. It is only since the middle of last century that they have
shioii throughout France. The town has dockyards and other esta-
72
FRANCE.
blishments connected with shipping, sugar refineries, potteries, foundries, steam
mills, and establishments for the preservation of provisions.
Bordeaux, between 12J6 and 1451, was virtually a free city, and an English
soldier was hardly ever seen there, except in time of war. It is only since 1789
that the town can be said to form an integral portion of France. Its local tradi-
tions, however, are strong, and its citizens are by no means ambitious to imitate
Fig. 51. THE INVASION OF THE PHYLLOXERA.
Scile 1 : 480,000.
1':.^ '-I SUte of Plague in 18" J
J)evelopeme1 111 187i
Devclopement in 181 &
6 Miles.
Paris. They support a museum, a public library, and numerous scientific institu-
tions and educational establishments.
Not only the villages near Bordeaux, such as Begles (4,161 inhabitants), Talenee
(3,578 inhabitants), Heriynac (2,030 inhabitants), Cauderan (3,81 6 inhabitants), and
Le Bomcat (3,226 inhabitants), but also more distant places, share in the prosperity
of the great city. Arcachon (4,934 inhabitants) is one of these, for most of its
GIEONDE. 78
villas have been erected for the accommodation of visitors from Bordeaux. Arca-
chon and La Teste de Buck (4,596 inhabitants), near it, are moreover famous for
their oyster parks, which in 1874 yielded 84,000,000 of these delicious molluscs,
valued at 120,000. The basin of Arcachon (see Fig. 26) likewise abounds in
fish, and leeches are bred in the surrounding swamps.
Both banks of the Garonne and Gironde, below Bordeaux, must be looked upon
as dependencies of that city. Pauillac (2,044 inhabitants) is the advanced port of
Bordeaux. L'e Verdon, at the mouth of the river, is a roadstead, where a hundred
vessels may sometimes be seen at anchor, waiting for the tide or a favourable
wind. The narrow slip of land below Blanqutfort (2,294 inhabitants), known as
Medoc, produces annually some 2,000,000 gallons of superior wine, including such
growths as Chateau-Margaux, Chateau-Laffitte, and CLateau-Latour. The dreaded
phylloxera, which has committed such ravages in other parts of the department,
has hitherto spared the vineyards of Me*doc, owing, perhaps, to the sandy nature of
the soil and the prevailing westerly winds. Lesparre (2,442 inhabitants), in the
Lower Medoc, has a curious old tower ; and Old Soulac, at the mouth of the river,
boasts of an ancient Byzantine church, now surrounded by hotels for the accom-
modation of seaside visitors.
Blaye (3,801 inhabitants) is the chief town of that portion of the depart-
ment which lies to the east of the Gironde, defended there by Forts Pate and
Medoc. Blaye as well as Bourg (1,494 inhabitants), on the Dordogne, has
important quarries, but its chief trade, like that of all the towns of the valley of
the Dordogne, is in wine. The most important of these towns is Libourne (12,872
inhabitants), very favourably situated at the mouth of the Isle ; others are Ste.
Foy-la-Gmnde (3,916 inhabitants) and Castillon. The "Cotes," or hill wines,
which grow to the north of the Dordogne, enjoy a high reputation, those of St.
Emilion being among the most famous. The great wine districts of the Gironde
are shown on Fig. 50. They yielded, in 1875, 116,160,000 gallons of wine, valued
at 3,600,000.
CHAPTER III.
THE ALPS, THE RHdNE, AND THE COAST OF THE MEDITERRANEAN.
GENERAL ASPECTS. MOUNTAINS.*
HEN the Phoenicians first navigated the Lion Gulf and established
their factories near the mouths of the Rhone, that portion of
France which lies at the back of the mountains sloping towards
the Mediterranean was still wrapped in mystery. At a later date,
when Greek art and poetry flourished in the Hellenic settlements
on the Mediterranean, the barbarous populations in the interior still practised
human sacrifice. The Greeks sought to civilise the tribes which surrounded them,
and the youthful Euxenos married the fair daughter of a barbarian king ; but
when the Roman succeeded to the inheritance of the Greek, the work of civilisa-
tion had made but little progress. The Roman, however, was not content with
merely holding the seaboard, and Caesar, by availing himself of the almost
unbounded resources of a wealthy empire, succeeded in conquering the whole
of Gaul.
The boundaries of Mediterranean France are not as well defined as are those
of Italy and the Iberian peninsula. True it is almost entirely enclosed by moun-
tains by the Cevennes in the east, by the Alps in the west ; but two huge gaps
in these barriers have enabled nations and armies to overcome these obstacles. One
of them opens out between the Pyrenees and the Cevennes, and leads into the
basin of the Garonne; the other is reached by travelling up the Rhone,, and
opens a way, on the one hand, into Burgundy and the valley of the Seine, on the
other to the Lake of Geneva and the basin of the Rhine.
The valley of the Rhone is, indeed, the great historical high-road of France.
When Rome was still the mistress of the world, it was through this valley that
her legions marched to Northern Gaul. At a subsequent date, when Rome
had fallen from her high estate, a movement in a contrary direction took place,
Marion, " Geologie de Provence" (Revue Scientiftyu-:, 21st of December, 1871); Whymper,
"Scrambles amongst the Alps," 186069; Ladoncette, " Hautes-Alpes ; " " Annuaire du Club Alpin-
Fran<;ais;" Surell, "Etude sur les torrents des Hautes-Alpes ; " Ch. Lory, ".,
Dauphine ; " A. Favre, " Recherches geologiques sur le Mont Blanc.'
Lory, "Alpes de la Savoie et du
GENERAL ASPECTS. MOUNTAINS.
75
and the fair regions of Languedoc and Provence fell a prey to the power-
ful military nation which had established itself in the north of France. This
conquest was not accomplished without much bloodshed, but it finally gave
France her true geographical limits, with a seaboard on the Mediterranean,
and enabled her to play the part of mediator between the North and the South.
The countries watered by the Rhone and its great tributary the Sadne differ
widely as regards climate, geological formation, and inhabitants. Great are the
contrasts between Burgundy and Provence, Franche-Comte and Savoy. Never-
theless these countries, belonging to the same river basin, form a geographical
unit, and this fact is reflected in their history. Geographically this basin
consists of two regions, viz. the southern province, through which runs the
Fig. 52. ZONES OF ORANGES AND OLIVES.
/ f. A a T A t >#'-* tome/ *!
impetuous Rhone, and the departments of Central France, which, are drained by
the tranquil Saone and its affluents.
Provence. The coasts of Provence remind us oftentimes of Tunis or
Algeria. The promontories of limestone, porphyry, or granite, the sub-tropical
vegetation, the glittering villas embosomed in thickets of olive-trees, and the
radiant sky are the same as on the opposite coast of Africa, and it is there-
fore not without reason that naturalists include the coasts of Provence and
Southern Spain within a region which embraces likewise the African countries to
the north of the Atlas. Moreover, the most advanced group of mountains
between the Lion Gulf and Genoa, that of the Moors (2,f)56 feet), is quite distinct
from the Alps, and rather resembles the mountains of Corsica. This group of
granitic hills is named after the Moors or Saracens, who maintained themselves
in its recesses during the ninth and tenth centuries. There are here vast forests
of chestnut-trees, pines, and cork-trees, bu,t the soil, as a rule, is sterile, and the
76
FRANCE.
number of inhabitants small. Yet, on account of its delicious climate, its orange
groves, its palms, its fine beaches and bold promontories, it is one of the most
attractive districts of all Provence. The islands of Hyeres rise to the south of
these hills, that of Porquerolles, named after the wild boars which formerly
roamed over it, being nearest to the peninsula of Giens, which was formerly an
island, but is now attached to the continent by a neck of land, enclosing brackish
ponds abounding in fish.
Another small group of mountains, that of Esterel, rises to the north of the
Fig. 53. THE MOUNTAINS OF THB MOOHS.
Scale 1 : 600,000.
I avtf Btt
10 Miles.
valley of Argens and the Bay of Frejus, and, like that of the Moors, is completely
severed from the Alps. An old Roman road leads across these hills, which are
barren and rugged, but form a succession of porphyry and red sandstone promon-
tories, amongst which Cap Roux is one of the n ost magnificent on the Mediterranean.
The mountains which rise immediately to the north of these two groups show
by their strike and geological formation that they, too, do not belong to the
GENERAL ASPECTS. MOUNTAINS.
77
Alps. Amongst them are the heights of Ste. Baume (3,421 feet), which
terminate between Marseilles and Toulon in the superb promontories Bec-de-
1'Aigle, Cap Canaille (1,364 feet), and Cap Tiboulen, and the Chaine de 1'Etoile,
with a miniature Mount Olympus (2,605 feet). Other ranges rise to the north
of the valley of the Arc, which was a gulf of the sea at the commencement of
the tertiary epoch. The eastern extremity of this valley forms a magnificent
amphitheatre, bounded in the north by the wooded heights of Ste. Victoire
(3,283 feet). It was here Marius destroyed the Teutonic hosts, and the village
of Pourrieres recalls the Campi Putridi upon which thousands of the slain were
left to putrefy. All these limestone ranges exhibit a line more or less parallel
Fig. 54. THE VALLEY OF THE ARC AND THE HEIGHTS OF STE. VICTOIRB.
Scale 1 : 240,000.
3-ioF. TPu-n
6 Miles.
with the granitic nucleus of the mountains of the Moors ; but the serrated chain
of the Alpines or Alpilles (1,614 feet), which farther east rises above the stony
pasture lands of La Crau, already belongs to the system of the Alps, being in
reality only a prolongation of the chain of the Leberon, from which it is separated
by the valley of the Durance. A small volcano, now extinct, rises in the midst
of these hills.
The parallel ranges stretching towards the valley of the Var, in Eastern
Provence, are also ramifications of the Alps. Some of these Jurassic ranges
resemble the interior slope of a bastion ; others contrast by their barrenness with
f he smiling gardens of the Hesperides at their feet, irrigated by the fertilising
78
FRANCE.
waters of the Siagne. The highest summit of these ranges is Mont Cheiron
(5,834 feet).
The Maritime Alps. The promontories which are reflected in the blue
waters of Nice and Mentone, to the east of the Var, belong to the Maritime
Alps. The bold terrace of the Tete-de-Chien, or " dog's head," at Monaco, with
its steep precipices, bears a high tower dedicated to the Emperor Augustus, the
" conqueror of all the nations of the Alps," and forms a good natural boundary
between French and Italian Liguria. The political frontier between these two
countries, however, as drawn in 1860, lies farther to the east, and follows an
arbitrary direction.
The Maritime Alps extend from the Pass of Tenda in the east to the Pass of
Fi?, 55. THE VERUON AT QUINSON.
Larche (6,480 feet) in the north. Their most elevated summits are covered with
perennial snow. The torrents to which glaciers and numerous small lakes give
birth on the Mediterranean slope, force their way through narrow defiles cut
through lime and sandstones. Similar gorges, or dux, are met with in the lime-
stone hills extending westward to the Durance, one of the most remarkable being
that of the river Verdon, above Quinson.*
The Cottian Alps. Monte Viso (12,586 feet), which was looked upon for a
long time as the highest summit of the Alps, and has only recently been
ascended by Mr. Muthews, an Englishman, forms a connecting link between the
Maritime Alps and the Alps of Dauphine The geological features of these
mountains differ widely from what we meet with in other parts of the Alps.
* Highest Miniums in the Maritime Alj:s : Clapier de Pagaiin, 9,994 feet; Meicantourn, 10,391 feet.
GENEBAL ASPECTS. MOUNTAINS.
79
Monte Viso itself consists of serpentine. Granite is met with on the Italian
slopes, but schists and limestones predominate on those of France as far as the
valley of the Durance. This district, with its gorges and piles of rock, has not
inappropriately been termed Queyras, or " land of stones."
The roads which connect the valley of the Durance and Provence with the
valley of the Po lead across these Alps of Queyras and Monte Viso, collectively
known as Cottian Alps. One of these paths crosses immediately to the north of
Monte Viso at an elevation of 9,824 feet. A tunnel, or traversette, excavated
as long ago as the fifteenth century, renders its passage practicable at all seasons,
in spite of avalanches, mists, and storms. The Pass of Mont Genevre (6,067 feet),
Fig. 56. THE GORGE, OR " CLDS," OF THE VERDON.
Scile l : mnoo.
6"lioE. of Or
2 Miles.
now practicable for carriages, was first used by Hannibal and his army. These
and other passes, however, are only of local importarice now, and are frequented
almost exclusively by Piemontese who cross over into France in search of work.
During the Middle Ages they were important, too, as military highways, and the
mouths of the valleys leading up to them were guarded by fortresses, some of
which are still maintained as, for instance, Embrun (2,809 feet), Mont Diiuphin,
and Briancon (4,333 feet), on the Durance. The inhabitants of these remote
valleys might have maintained their independence if the country had not so
frequently been overrun by armies. On both slopes of the Alps they speak the
same dialect, and long before the Reformation they separated from the Roman
80
FRANCE.
Church. In. spite of massacres we there still meet with many Waldenses, or
Vaudois, St. Veran (6,592 feet), the most elevated village in all France,
being one of their principal seats. These Waldenses were formerly distin-
guished for their superior education, and in winter as many as a thousand of
them came down to the towns of the Rhone valley, and taught the mysteries of
reading and writing in return for a miserable pittance. The establishment of
village schools has put an end to this pursuit, and many of the natives have sought
a new home in Algeria.
The Alps of Dauphine. Another Alpine group, that of Oisans, rises to the
west of the valley of the Durance,- which, with its southern ramification, the
Fig. 57. THE GLACIERS OF OISANS.
Scale 1 : 250,000.
6 Miles.
Champsaur, lies wholly within France, and is bounded in the north by the deep
valley of the Romanehe and the Pass of Lautaret (6,792 feet), in the east and south
by tributaries of the Durance, and in the west by the Drac. This mountain
group consists of granite, encircled by Jurassic and cretaceous rock. Mont
Pelvoux (12,773 feet) is the most prominent summit of this group, but the Barre
des ficrins (13,462 feet), and the Aiguille, or " needle " of Medje (13,078 feet), the
latter immediately to the south of the valley of the Romanche, exceed it in height.
Glaciers cover about one- third of the area of this mountain group, and fairly rival
those of Switzerland. The most considerable amongst them, that of Mont de
Lans (5,293 feet,), covers an area of 8 square miles, and when making the tour of
GENERAL ASPECTS. MOUNTAINS.
81
the upper valley of Veneon, passing the glacier of La Grave and the Aiguille of
Olan (12,740 feet), we walk for a distance of 35 miles over ice and snow fields.
The most remarkable of these glaciers are, perhaps, those which descend from the
slopes of Mont Pelvoux and the Pointe des Arsines, and meet in the upper valley
of the Vallouise. One of them, the " Black Glacier," is covered completely with
rocks and earth so as to almost resemble a stream of mud, whilst the other, the
" White Glacier," is of dazzling whiteness, and gives birth to a torrent of bluish
water. None of these glaciers reach very far down into the valleys, and we are
Fig. 58. AIOUILLE OP THE MEDJE.
7%
not, consequently, charmed by the contrasts between verdant woods and ice, such
as delight the eye in Switzerland. Indeed, there are but few trees left in these
mountains, though there exist luxuriant pasture grounds, notably near the wealthy
village of Venose, the inhabitants of which export rare Alpine plants as far us Russia
and America.
A few Protestant congregations still remain, but the Waldenses, who formerly
inhabited the fine valley of Vallouise, have been wholly exterminated. The present
population of the country is wretchedly poor, and cretinism prevails. The famous
42
82
FRANCE.
church of La Salette stands high above the valley of the Drac, in the midst of
luxuriant pastures ; and near it, in the narrow valley of Godemar, there existed
until recently traces of a more ancient worship. In spring, when the sun first
appeared above the crest of the mountains opposite, the villagers of Andrieux used
to walk there in procession, and sacrifice pancakes in honour of the conqueror
of winter.
Chaotic masses of mountains occupy the whole of the region bounded by the
Fig. 59. THE GLACIER OF LA GRAVE.
Durance and the Isere, and extend down into the valley of the Rhone. Going
west from Mont Pelvoux, we reach the plateau of Matheysine (-3,050 feet), covered
with small lakes, pierced by crystalline mountains, and bounded by the precipices
overhanging the waters of the Romanche and the Drac. Crossing the latter, we
reach the Quatre-Montugnes, or " four ranges," separated by affluents of the Isere,
and running parallel with the Pennine Alps. In the north, beyond the Isere, the
mountains of the Grande Chartreuse (6,847 feet) extend in the same direction, and
GENERAL ASPECTS. MOUNTAINS. 83
in the south they are joined to the mountains of Vercors (7,695 feet), all three
having the same geological formation. The latter are hardly Alpine in their
character, their great beauty consisting in the contrasts afforded between open
valleys and sombre gorges through which torrents escape in picturesque cascades,
in the southern aspect of their sunny slopes, and the bold outline of some of their
rocky declivities.
The formidable Pass of Lus-la-Croix-Haute (4,920 feet) separates the Vercors
from a mountain group known as Devoluy, a name which etymologists derive from
the Latin devolution, with reference to the immense masses of rock which have
" tumbled down " into the valleys and gorges. The base of the great Peak of
Aurouze (8,905 feet) is completely surrounded by mounds of detritus, which, seen
from afar, have the appearance of white marble buttresses. Other mountains
resemble huge piles of rocks. Of this kind are the Obiou (9,160 feet) and
Faraud, which a local legend transforms into hostile giants who hurled huge
rocks at each other. This excessive weathering of the mountains is accounted for
by their geological composition. As a rule, strata of hard rocks alternate with
deposits of soft earth, and no sooner have rains, torrents, and frosts disintegrated
or carried away the latter than the superimposed rocks slide down into the valleys,
together with the villages which are built upon them, or tumble into fragments. To
a great extent, however, the improvidence of man is responsible for this rapid dis-
integration of the mountains, for it was he who destroyed the forests which
formerly covered and sheltered them. These forests, however, are gradually being
replanted.*
The mountain ranges which ramify to the south, towards the confluence of the
Rhone and the Durance, resemble those just noticed in geological composition, and
present the same white rocks and barren slopes. The forest of Saou (5,223 feet)
has long since succumbed to the woodman's axe. Further south rise the rampart-
like mountains of Lure (5,99o feet), attached by a transversal chain to the rugged
Leberon (3,690 feet), the reddish flanks of which are covered with patches of copse.
Atmospheric influences acting upon rocks possessing such different degrees of
resistance have resulted in some curiously grotesque formations. Thus to the
north of Forcalquier may be seen a group of mushroom-shaped rocks known as
L< /x Mourn'', the tops of which consist of blocks of compact limestone supported
upon stalks composed of clay marl.
Farther west rises a mountain appropriately called Ventoux, or the " windy "
(6,273 feet), which, owing to its isolated position, impresses the spectator
more than its height would warrant. Its lower slopes are covered with a belt of
verdure, and an ascent to its summit affords an opportunity for studying successive
belts of vegetation. The palacontological discoveries made in this part of France
shed much light upon ancient flora and fauna. The miocene strata of the
Ventoux and Leberon abound with the remains of lions, gazelles, hippurions, and
other animals now extinct. The miocene gypsum near Aix, on the other bank of
the Durance, has yielded fish, insects, plants, and even feathers of fossil birds.
* Between 1861 and 1871 234,760 urres were planted with forest in the French Alps.
84
FRANCE.
The fossil fish discovered there prove conclusively that the Mediterranean formerly
communicated with the Indian Ocean.
Thanks to an agricultural discovery of great importance, the districts of the
Ventoux and Leberon are now being rapidly planted with woods. Joseph Talon,
a poor mushroom gatherer, discovered in the beginning of this century that this
coveted fungus grew more luxuriantly in the vicinity of oaks. He quietly planted
acorns in the retired spots to which he was in the habit of resorting, and for many
years he kept his secret. It is only since 1856 that this new industry has spread,
and since that year no fewer than 148,000 acres have been planted with oak in the
department of Vaucluse alone. This department and the adjoining one of the
Basses-Alpes now supply nearly one-half the mushrooms gathered throughout
Fig. 60. THE " FOREST " OF SAOU.
Scale 1 : 160.000.
WE.ofPai
France, and exported under the deceptive appellation of " truffles of Perigord.''
The indirect advantages which have accrued to the country through the introduc-
tion of this industry are very great, for the flinty slopes and marls which are best
suited to the growth of these mushroom oaks are not adapted to agriculture, and
the newly planted forests cannot fail to exercise a happy influence upon the
climate, and put a stop to the ravages caused by torrents.*
The Alps of Saroi/. The famous chain of Maurienne, across which lead the
principal roads that connect France with Italy, separates Mont Pelvoux and the
* In 1875 32,000 cwts. of mushrooms were gathe oil throughout France, valued at 640,000. "Vau-
cluse yielded 8,000 cwts., the Busscs-Alpes 7,000 cwts., and Lut 6,000 cwts.
GENERAL ASPECTS. MOUNTAINS.
85
upper valley of the Durance from Savoy. The Romans availed themselves of the
easiest passes of that region, and on the summit of that of the Little St. Ber-
nard may be seen a cromlech which they dedicated to Jupiter, and which is still
known as the column of Joux (Jove). At a subsequent date the Pass of Mont
Cenis (6,885 feet) became the great highway between France and Italy ; but the
fine carriage road which connects Lans-le-Bourg with Susa has been very little used
since 1871, in which year the great railway tunnel constructed by Messrs. Grattone,
Grandis, and Sommellier beneath the Pass of Frej us was thrown open for traffic.
That tunnel connects Modane with Bardonneche ; it has a length of 40,092 feet,
and its summit lies at an elevation of 4,380 feet above the sea-level.
The mountains of Maurienne hold an intermediate position between the fine
summits of Switzerland, with their forests and luxuriant pastures, and the arid
Fig. 61. LEM MOURH*.
slopes of the Devoluy and the Alps of Dauphine. In some of the valleys, and
notably in that of the Arc, which constitutes the district of Maurienne proper, we
meet only with arid slopes. The ancient forests have been destroyed there, and
the upper limit of vegetation seems to have retired in consequence. Man will
have to struggle hard if he desires to reconquer the ground that has been lost
through his own improvidence.
Though very inferior in height to Mont Blanc, and even to the group of
< >isms, this chain of Maurienne, with its numerous ramifications, is of very great
importance. Vast masses of ice have accumulated in its rock- surrounded amphi-
theatres, and give rise to four considerable rivers, the Isere, the Oreo, the Stura,
and the Arc. Formerly, when these mountains were yet unexplored, it was
thought, on account of these snows, that Mont Iseran, in their centre, must attain
86
FRANCE.
a very considerable height ; But mont, in the patois of the country, simply means
" pass," and that of Iseran lies at an elevation of only 8,034 feet. The Grande
Casse (12,740 feet) and the Aiguille of Vanoise (12,675 feet) are culminating
summits on French, and Mont Paradis (13,271 feet) on Italian soil.
Valleys penetrate deeply into these mountains, and some of the more sheltered
amongst them are permanently inhabited to a height of nearly 6,000 feet. The
half-buried houses of Bonneval (5,900 feet), at the foot of Mont Iseran, are cut off
Fig. 62. MONT BLANC AS SEEN FKOM CHAMONIX.
from the rest of the worid for several months in winter, and barley and rye take
fourteen or fifteen months to ripen there. The want of pure air in these valleys,
the long and severe winter, and the deep shadows thrown by the mountains during
summer are popularly supposed to produce goitre and idiocy, which Dr. Grange
ascribes to the magnesian limestone of the country. He estimates the number of
persons suffering from goitre in Maurienne at 30 per cent, of the total population,
and in certain localities of the Tarcnlaise the proportion is still higher. The long
MONT
lMx?^K^
<\^T S ""-
" 1, Kf,l:,'0fat .
.
l ' *
Qa43W>**
u*.
6\5o'E.afKr.
NEW Y
L ANC
GENERAL ASPECTS. MOUNTAINS. 87
winters, however, enable these mountaineers to acquire some education ; and
formerly many Savoyard teachers were to be found in the towns of the Rhone
valley.
The granitic ranges to the west of Maurienne run in a direction conformable
to that of the Jura, and are intersected by the rugged gorges through which the
Isere, the Romanche, and the Arc find their way to the west. The group of the
Grandes Rousses (11,910 feet) is the highest summit here. Farther west, above
Grenoble, rises the three-peaked Belledone (9,778 feet), from the summit of which
we look down upon the verdant valley of Graisivaudan and the limestone moun-
tains which bound it on the west.
From a geological point of view the mountain mass of which Mont Blanc
(15,777 feet) is the centre is but a northern continuation of these western ranges
of Savoy. Its relief, however, marks it off very distinctly. The enormous
mass of talcose granite or protogine of which it is formed is separated by the
Passes of the Little St. Bernard (6,897 feet) and Bonhomme (8,151 feet) from
the other mountains of Savoy in the south ; sinks down steeply into the valley of
the Rhone on the north ; presents steep, glacier- covered slopes towards Italy ; and
descends more gently towards the French valley of Chamonix. At an anterior
period, when Mont Blanc was several thousand feet higher than it is now, it
formed but a single mountain mass with the Aiguilles- Rouges, now separated from
it by the valley of Chamonix.
The area occupied by Mont Blanc and its buttresses cannot compare with
certain mountains of Switzerland, nor does it give rise to any great rivers, for only
the Arveiron, or Arve, and the Dora Baltea rise on it, the one flowing to the
Rhone, the other to the Po. Its glaciers and snow-fields, however, are without a
rival in Europe. They cover 104 square miles, of which 64 drain into the valley
of Chamonix. The most famous of these glaciers is the Mer de Glace, or " sea of
ice," which slides down the valley at a rate of 328 feet annually, and gives birth
to the Arve.
Discovered as it were by two Englishmen, Pococke and Wyndham, about the
middle of the eighteenth century, and ascended for the first time by Jacques
Balmat in 1786, Mont Blanc has since become one of the great attractions of all
admirers of nature. Chamonix (3,444 feet), at its foot, has grown into a town ot
hotels ; and other villages in its vicinity, such as St. Gervais and Cormayeur
(4,067 feet), participate in the profits derived from tourists.
The mountains in Northern Savoy, which occupy the region between Mont
Blanc, the Rhone, and the Lake of Geneva, form a sort of link between the Alps and
the Jura, and from a geological point of view it is sometimes difficult to determine
of which of either of these systems a certain mountain may be assumed to form
a part. The cretaceous and Jurassic ranges generally run from the south-west to
the north-east ; that is, parallel with the Jura. Such is the direction of the pine-
clad ranges of the Grande Chartreuse (Chamechaude, 6,847 feet), of the parallel
ridges of the Beauges (4,996 feet) to the north of Chambery, and of the ranges
of Saleve (4,523 feet) and Voirons, near Geneva.
88
FRANCE.
Most of the valleys of this region are of considerable width, and not mere gorges
as in the Jura. There still exist, however, many denies bounded by steep preci-
pices, as if they had been cut by a sword, and amongst these none are more striking
than those cut by the Khone and its tributaries, Usses and Fier, through rocks
belonging to the lower cretaceous formations.
The transversal disposition of the mountain ranges of Western Savoy naturally
Fig. 63. ANCIENT LAKE BEDS IN SAVOY.
Scale 1 : 200,000.
,
2 Miles.
led to the formation of numerous lakes. But most of these pent-up sheets of
water have long since disappeared, and there now exist only three of any extent,
viz. the Lakes of Annecy, Bourget, and Aiguebelette. In the valleys of the Arve,
the Giffre, and elsewhere, however, many old lake basins can still be traced. The
agency of water likewise accounts for the numerous caverns which pierce the
mountain sides of Savoy, as well as for frequent landslips. That of the Granier,
THE RHONE AND OTHER RIVERS.
89
in 1248, buried a town and five villages near Chambery. Earthquakes, too, are
frequent, and may be due to subterranean strata settling down.
THE RHONE AND OTHER RIVERS.*
MOST of the heavy rain and snow which descend on the French slope of the
Alps find their way into the Rhone. Where that river leaves the Lake of Geneva
it is already of considerable size. Gliding along slowly at. first, it gradually accele-
rates its course, and at the mouth of a picturesque gorge it is joined by the Arve,
fed by the glaciers of Mont Blanc. This latter, when in flood, is superior in
Fig. 64. PEKTK DU RHONE AND BELLKGAHDE.
|J>'30J E. of P I
Scale 1 : 10,000.
volume to the Rhone, the flow of which is regulated by the Lake of Geneva.
Wheii the snows melt in the Alps no less than 38,850 cubic feet of water are dis-
charged into that lake in the course of a minute. But this water spreads over the
* Surell. " Etude sur les torrents des Hautes-Alpes ; " Ch. Martins, " Aigues-Mortcs ; " E. Desjardins,
"Aper<;u hietorique gur les embouchures dn Rhone, 1866;" Adiien Germain, "Rapport sur Tetat do
1'embouchure du Khone en 1872 ; " Ch. Lentheric, " Les villes mortes du golfe de Lyon."
A nf
Averap
? Surface
Length.
Basin.
Discharge in
Tons
Average
raiiithll.
drainage.
Miles.
Sq. m.
Jinx.
llin.
per sec.
In.
In.
Rhflne (with
Siione- 1 .,,
\ 0.17
38,096
117-50
5-39
16-5
37
22
Doubs)
. 1
Aude
138
2,062
20-43
4-9
61
29
15
Orb
90
591
24-53
2-4
25 (?)
35
20 (?)
Herault
122
1,119
36-:so
(?)
50(?)
39
22 (?)
Argons
63
1,243
(?)
12-8
50 (?)
31
19 (?)
Var .
75
880
39-23
27-4!'
42 (?)
35
24(?)
90
FRANCE.
whole surface of the lake, and issues only gradually through the Rhone, the banks
of which, as far down as Lyons, suffer in consequence but rarely from inundations.
The Arve, on the other hand, possesses no such regulating reservoir, and frequently
carries destruction along its valley.
The Rhone, below its confluence with the Arve, crosses a district formerly
covered by the Lake of Geneva, and then penetrates into a deep gorge, bounded by
the eastern declivities of the Jura and by Mont du Vuache, or Chuumont, and
Fig. 65. THE LAKE OF ANNECY.
Height 1,453 feet, area 10 square miles. Scale I : 230,000.
ft '^'7>W
J
defended by Fort 1'I^cluse, which overhangs it. The river rushes through this
gorge with great violence. At one spot it almost disappears beneath the rocks
which have tumbled down from the precipices that overhang it. This is the
" Perte du Rhone." A bridge there spans the abyss, and a short distance below it
is joined by the Valserine, passing through a gorge almost equally grand. The
great motive power of the river has been ingeniously utilised at that spot. A
tunnel conveys the water upon tourbine water-wheels erected in the bed of the
THE RHONE AND OTHER RIVERS.
91
Valserine, close to the confluence, and these wheels set in motion iron cables
communicating with the mills of Bellegarde, built several hundred feet above.
Thousands of tons of fossils are being ground there into dust, to be used as
manure.
At Bellegarde the Rhone abruptly turns to the south, flowing along the eastern
foot of the mountain chain which terminates in the Grand Colombier (5,033 feet),
overlooking the dried-up lake basin of Culoz. Within this ortion of its course
Fig. 66. THB LAKE OF BOUKOKT.
Height 770 feet, area 16 square miles. Scale 1 : 100,000.
|33o"E.ofP.
1 Mile.
it is joined by two rivers, the Usses and the Fier. The former, having passed
beneath the famous high-level bridge of La Caille, enters the Rhone near Seyssel,
a place well known on account of its beds of asphalt. The Fier, rising in the
neighbourhood of Mont Blunc, receives from a side valley the water discharged by
the Lake of Annecy. This lake consists of two distinct cavities or basins, and its
depth nowhere exceeds 100 feet. In many places its banks slope down gently,
a circumstance favourable to the construction of pile dwellings, the remains of
92 FRANCE.
many of which have been discovered. Elsewhere, however, they are steep, and
on the west the lake is commanded by the Semnoz (5,572 feet), or Rigi of Savoy.
The existing emissary of this lake appears to be of artificial formation. The old
outlet took its course farther east through a swampy plain.
At Seyssel the Rhone becomes navigable, and soon afterwards spreads out in
numerous channels enclosing sand-banks and willow-covered islands. It crosses, in
fact, the bed of an ancient lake, of which the Lac du Bourget is the last remnant.
Anciently the great glaciers of the Rhone and the Isere met in this depression,
which subsequently was converted into a huge lake, fed by the Drac, the
Romanche, the Isere, and the Rhone. The glacial drift and erratic blocks, which
cover the mountain slopes to a height of 1,600 feet, sufficiently prove this. The
Lake of Bourget has been immortalised by Lamartine's verse, and although its
shores are comparatively barren, the bold grey wall of Mont du Chat reflected in
its blue waters when the sun is about to set, and its wooded peninsulas, afford
superb contrasts.
On leaving the swampy plain of Chautagne and Lavours, with its sluggish
ditches and coveys of wild duoks, the Rhone for the last time takes its course
through a narrow gorge, overlooked in the north by the old Chartreuse of Pierre-
Chatel, perched on the summit of an isolated limestone rock. Having received
the Guiers from the south, the river turns abruptly to the north-west, and as far as
the plain of the Ain flows along the western foot of the Jura Throughout this
portion of its course the Rhone has frequently changed its bed, and there is reason
to believe that it formerly flowed west across the shingles and gravels deposited by
ancient glaciers, and joined the Saone to the south of Lyons. The relief of
this portion of France has undergone a rapid transformation ever since these
glaciers retired from the vicinity of Lyons. In the valley of the Drac erratic
blocks are scattered over the hillsides to a height of 4,260 feet above the river,
and near Lyons up to 1,150 feet. Rock-groovings, locally known as marcs, or
mud terraces, abound throughout these hills.
Below its junction with the Ain the Rhone spreads out and forms innumerable
islands, its bed near the hills of Miribel being no less than 2 miles wide. But
soon after it loses its lacustrine character ; its waters are confined to a single bed ;
and at Lyons it joins the Saone, and thence flows majestically southwards towards
the Mediterranean.
A sail down the Rhone from Lyons is a source of great delight to the traveller.
Swiftly carried along,* he passes ever-varying scenes of beauty. Without much
swerving to the left or right, the Rhone, overcoming every obstacle, flows due
south, and Michelet aptly likens it to a " furious bull rushing from the Alps to
the sea." Rapidly do we pass black rocks and willow-clad islands, woods, crum-
bling ruins perched upon bold promontories, and populous towns. Looking up the
tributary valleys, we now and then get a peep at the distant mountains, the white
summits of the Alps on the left, the burnt-out volcanoes of Central France on the
* Length of the Rhone, from the confluence with Hie Saone to the sea, 204 miles ; total fall, 532 feet,
or 32 inches per mile.
THE RHONE AND OTHER RIVERS.
98
right. In front the powerful mass of the Ventoux gradually grows in size until it
shuts out one-half of the horizon. We are approaching a southern clime. Olive-
trees appear in the vineyards, and the rocks assume that calcined appearance
Fig. 67. ANCIENT GLACIERS OF THE RHONE AND THE IBERB.
: 388,000.
10 Miles.
which is so characteristic of Greece and Sicily. At length the wide plain bounded
by the Cevennes and the foot-hills of the Alps stretches out before us, only a few
isolated hillocks rising above it like islands.
The glacier-born Isere is the first great tributary which joins the Rhone below
94
PRANCE.
Lyons. Where it leaves the valley of Tiges it is a considerable torrent, which the
accession of the torrents of the Tarentaise and of the Arc convert into a powerful
river. Formerly the Isere fed a huge lake, but now it takes its course through the
valley of Graisivaudan, the bed of an ancient glacier river wide enough to accom-
modate a Nile or a Ganges. Formerly the Isere, when in flood, could spread itself
over this valley, but embankments now confine its bed to a uniform width of 3(57
feet. These embankments sufficiently protect the country on ordinary occasions,
but inundations, when they do occur now, prove all the more formidable to
Grenoble. Close to that town the Drac joins from the south, its principal tribu-
tary, the Romanche, rising in the glaciers in the west of the mountain mass of
Oisans. In the twelfth century a landslip converted a portion of the valley of the
latter into a lake, and when the barrier broke in 1219, the freed waters carried
destruction before them, and even the inhabitants of Grenoble had to flee for their
lives. Among the smaller rivers which join the Isere lower down, the Fure is the
Fig. 68. PLAIN OF LA VALLOIRE.
Scale 1 : 400,000.
3o|
1 Mile.
most important. It rises in the Lake of Paladru, famous for its pile dwellings.
As to the rivers which disappear in the swallows (avaloirs) of the plateau of
Bievre, and passing beneath the huge moraine of Antimont, reappear again through
the " eyes " (claireii) near St. Rambert, they flow direct to the Rhone. The
discharge of the Isere varies exceedingly according to the seasons, and, owing to
the grey tint imparted to its water by the triturated rocks suspended in it, can be
traced for several miles below the confluence. A few barges navigate this large
river, but the traffic is of no importance whatever.
The Drome traverses several small lakes formed in the fifteenth century by
landslips, or c/apicrs, but not being fed by glaciers, its volum3 varies much
according to the seasons. And the same may be said of the other rivers rising
in the foot-hills of the Alps ; they are mere torrents, almost dry in summer, but
carrying destruction before them after heavy rains.
Very different from these are the rivers which cross the fertile plains of Car-
pentras and Avignon, for they are fed from subterranean reservoirs in the lime-
THE EHONE AND OTHER RIVERS.
95
stone hills, and their springs do not dry up, even in the height of summer. Fore-
most amongst these rivers is the Sorgues of Vaucluse, which rises a considerable
river from a cavern surrounded by barren precipices. Flowing past a monument
dedicated to Petrarch, it debouches upon the plan, and ramifies into numerous
canals, which carry fertility wherever they go. Formerly the plain lying between
the mountains and a range of limestone hills separating it from the Rhone valley
was covered with lakelets and swamps, but drainage works have transformed it
into a most productive district,.
The proximity of the mountains of Vivarais and of the Cevennes to the western
bank of the Rhone has prevented the formation of long rivers, but the torrents
which rise in these mountains rival even the Mississippi in volume when flooded.
Fig. 69. THE SOEOUBS OF VAUCLUSE.
Scale 1 : 260,000.
| 3- 3u' E. ulF.
2 Milea.
M. Marchegay has calculated that on the 10th of September, 1857, the Doux, the
Erieux, and the Ardeche, all of them lying within the limits of a single department,
discharged every second 494,000 cubic feet of water into the Rhone. This is more
than the discharge of the Ganges and Euphrates combined. Fortunately the floods
occurring on both sides of the Rhone valley never coincide, for the western slope of
the Alps is sheltered from the moisture-laden winds which precipitate torrents of
rain upon the Mediterranean slopes of the Cevennes. If this coincidence existed
the lower valley of the Rhone would be converted into a pestilential swamp. As
it is, the damage done by inundations sometimes amounts to millions, and in 1840
the whole of Camargue and the plains on both banks of the Rhone were converted
into a fresh-water lake 2-~> miles wide.
The erosive power of these torrents is wonderfully great. The Ardeche more
9(5
FRANCE.
especially, rising seventy and more feet when, in flood, has done marvels in that
respect. At one spot it has abandoned its ancient bed, forcing itself a fresh
passage through a wall of rock. This is the famous Pont d'Arc, or the " Arch," one
Fig. 70. PONT o'Auc
Scale 1 : 400,000.
1 Mile.
of the curiosities of the valley, which boasts, moreover, of columns of basalt and of
remarkable canons.
The valleys of the Ceze and the Gard, or Gardon, likewise abound in natural
beauties. The latter disappears for a short distance between the rocks. Where it
debouches from its gorge it is spanned by a beautiful Roman aqueduct, which
formerly supplied Nimes with water. It is a work of imposing grandeur, but
the modern railway bridges and viaducts, close by, need not dread comparison
with it.
THE RHONE AND OTHER RIVERS. 07
The Durance, which joins the Rhone a short distance below Avignon, is sup-
posed by geologists to have formerly emptied itself into the Bay of Fas, to the east
of the mouths of the Rhone. Subsequently it excavated itself a passage, severing
the Leberon from the Alpines ; and this much is certain, that the canal of the
Alpines is an ancient bed of it. The Durance, like the Isere, is a sou of the Alps,
and though its head-stream, the Clairee, is not fed by glaciers, several of its
tributaries are. These glaciers, however, are not very extensive, and the river,
Fig. 71. PONT u'Aitc (
down to its mouth, has the character of a torrent, reduced at one time to a thin
thread meandering amongst craux, or fields of shingle, at others more voluminous
than all the rivers of France together. The geological work performed by this
river has been immense. Amongst the ancient lake beds now silted up, that
extending from Sisterou to the mouth of the Verdon is one of the most remarkable,
because of its earthy slopes of Mees, curiously carved into obelisks and pillars. In
spite of its length of 215 i miles and an average discharge of 12,260 cubic feet per
43
gs FRANCE.
second (maximum 326,000, minimum 1,906 cubic feet), the Durance is not navi-
gable. During the Middle Ages vessels were able to proceed up to Pertuis, and we
may conclude from this that there then existed lakes or barriers in its upper course
which regulated its flow. But though not navigable, the Durance is invaluable
for purposes of irrigation. The 18,000,000 tons of mud annually carried down it
are computed by M. Herve-Mangon to contain as much assimilable nitrogen as
100,000 tons of the best guano, and as much carbon as could be supplied annually
from a forest 121,100 acres in extent. On leaving the gorge of Mirabeau, where it
is spanned by a bridge only 490 feet in length, the Durance enters upon a broad
Fig. 72. THE ROMAN AQUEDUCT OVER THE GAHD.
valley, which would be scorched by the sun if it were not for the fertilising
waters derived from it.
One canal, that of Marseilles, taps it near Pertuis, and crossing the valley of
the Arc at Roquefavour on a magnificent aqueduct, irrigates the gardens of
Marseilles before entering the Mediterranean. Another canal, that of Crapponne,
leaves the river lower down, and ramifies into numerous branches. It was
excavated in the sixteenth century, and has converted the whilom barren tracts
through which it leads into one of the most productive districts of France. A third
canal skirts the Alpines on the north, and a fourth extends north in the direction
THE RHONE AND OTHER RIVERS.
99
of Carpentras. On an average these four canals absorb about 2,440 cubic feet of
water every second. Quite recently, in 1875, the Verdon, one of the principal
tributaries of the Durance, was tapped, and now supplies Aix with 210 cubic feet
of water every minute. It passes through two tunnels, the one 13,000, the other
16,000 feet in length. Several dams have been thrown across the gorges of the
Upper Durance and Verdon to regulate the floods, and the conversion of the small
Lake of Allos, near the source of the Verdon and at an elevation of 7,200 feet, into
a huge reservoir, has been talked about. Next to the huertas of Spain and the
Fig. 73. THE CRAC AND THE CAXAL OF CKAPPONNB.
Scale 1 : 630,000.
.E.oTGr.
5 Miles.
plains of Lombardy, the valley of the Lower Durance is even now the best-irrigated
district of Europe.
By means of these canals, planned by Adam de Crappnnne, the whole of the
stony desert known as Crau might be converted into fertile land in the course of
three hundred and twenty years. This district, about 131,000 acres, is completely
covered with flints, some of them embedded in hardened mud. Six-sevenths of
these flints have been deposited by the Rhone, the remainder by the Durance. The
pudding-stones upon which they rest are of marine origin, and the Crau has
100
FRANCE.
altogether the appearance of an ancient bed of the sea. Formerly this waterless
waste was visited only by bay/ei, or herdsmen, but the canals which now traverse i
are skirted by trees and cultivated fields. Some of the rain which falls upon this
tract finds its way through subterranean channels to the vicinity of the sea, and
there reappears again in plenteous springs. More than three hundred such gush
forth to the north of the lagoon of Galejon. They are known as La.tron, a name
frequently given to springs in other parts of France.
At some future time the Rhone itself may be utilised for purposes of irrigation,
more extensively than at present. This river, owing to its rapid current, is
of but little use as a navigable high-road, and since the completion of the railway
from Lyons to Marseilles the sixty-two steamers which formerly navigated it
Fig. 74. THE CANAL OF THE VEKDON.
Scale 1 : 240.000
have dwindled down to six or eight. It is a pity that this great natural high-road
should be thus deserted, and works to render it navigable throughout the
year for steamers of 300 tons have actually been begun, and are to be completed
in 1882. Vessels will then be able, by making use of canals, to proceed from
Havre through the centre of France to the Mediterranean.
It has likewise been proposed to utilise the Rhone for purposes of irrigation
by carrying a huge canal along the left bank of the river from Vienne to Mornas,
where it would cross to the right bank by means of a gigantic siphon, aad after
having irrigated the districts of Nimes, Montpellier, and Beziers, terminate at
Narbonne, in the basin of the Aude. The total length of this canal would amount
to 280 miles, and, besides supplying the towns and villages along it with water, it
would suffice for the irrigation of 494,000 acres.
THE RHONE AND OTHER RIVERS.
101
At Fourques (the Forks), 8 miles below the bridge of Beaucaire, the Rhone
bifurcates and its delta commences. The Little Rhone flows south-west across the
alluvial soil of the ancient Gulf of Beaucaire, whilst the Great Rhone flows straight
to the south, and constitutes the principal high-road of commerce. The former is
supposed to have been the main branch in bygone ages, and as far south as the
saline swamps near Montpellier do we meet with flints of Alpine origin, carried
thither by the river. Even during historical times the branches of the river have
undergone numerous changes. Ancient authors speak of two, three, five, or even
seven mouths ; but if we include all grans, or minor channels, we may arrive afc the
latter number even now. Pliny enumerates three mouths, the main or Massa-
liotic branch being in the east, as at present. The western branch was known as
Hispatiiense, or " Spanish arm," because it flowed in the direction of Spain ; and
Fig. 75. THE DELTA OF TUB KHONE.
even during the Middle Ages there existed a navigable branch which led into the
lagoon of Thau. M. Emilien Dumas has pointed out that each ramification of the
river led to corresponding changes in the coast-line. When the Rhone first
bifurcated at the Forks the beach extended to what is now the northern part of
the deltoid island of Camargue. Since that time the fauna of the Mediterranean
has undergone some changes. The Paiwpcra AMrorandi, which is now found only
on the coast of Sicily, was then common on the Lion Gulf, and the Pecten maximm,
at present very rare, abounded.
The delta formed by the two main branches of the river wholly consists of an
alluvial deposit of mud. It covers an area of 185,000 acres, about one-half of
which is included in the island of Camargue, dusty in summer, half drowned
in winter, and almost without inhabitants. If we may judge from the Roman
102 FEANCE.
ruins discovered there, the country was formerly more salubrious. The embank-
ments which now confine the Rhone are probably the cause of this insalubrity, for
they prevent the drainage of the stagnant, fever-breeding pools in their rear,
besides preventing the deposition of fresh alluvium. In the northern portion of
this island there are a few fields, cutlivated by peasants who brave the fever,
besides extensive pasture grounds, roamed over by white horses, half- wild cattle,
and manades of buffaloes (Bos bubnlus), which figure on the racecourses of the
towns of Southern France. The " Little Sea," or lagoon of Vaccares, in the south,
with its fringe of marshes and tamarisk thickets, is an ancient arm of the sta, from
which it is separated now by a chain of dunes. Near it are saline tracts (san-
i>ouires) void of all vegetation, and rarely visited by man, but the resort of num-
berless migratory birds. Even flamingoes are occasionally seen, and the beavers
which have built their lodges in the embankments lining the Little Rhone are not
interfered with. A beautiful tree, resembling the aspen, grows on the more
elevated sites of the Camargue, and the canals that traverse its northern portion
are fringed with willows, poplars, and elms, but the forests which anciently covered
the whole of its interior have disappeared. Scarcely one-fifth of the area of the
Camargue is under cultivation now, and although the cold mistral interferes
with the success of certain plants, the delta of the Rhone might nevertheless be
converted into a region equalling in fertility the delta of the Nile. No less than
27,500,000 cubic yards of alluvial soil are annually swept into the sea, instead of
being utilised, and a bar closes all access to the river by large vessels. An artesian
well near Aigues-Mortes, in the Little Camargue, though bored to a depth of
330 feet, only passed through such alluvial soil, without reaching the solid rock.
The delta of the Rhone has gained upon the sea ever since the time of the Romans.
A watch-tower built at the mouth of the Great Rhone in 1737 now stands five
miles above it, thus showing that the annual rate of growth since that date has
amounted to 175 feet. Altogether between 80 and 120 square miles of land have
been added to the delta of the Rhone since the Gallo-Roman period.
We have seen above that the mouths of the Rhone are obstructed by bars, the
formation of which is promoted by the almost entire absence of tides, the flood
in the Lion Gulf only rising 16 inches. The embankments which have been
constructed have failed to remove the obstacles to navigation, and vessels drawing
more than 10 feet can scarcely ever venture to enter the river, even though the
wind should be favourable. In the time of the Romans Aries communicated with
the sea by a chain of lagoons and canals constructed by Marius, and hence known
as Fossw Marianas. But the canal of Aries, which replaces this ancient water- way, is
navigable only for small vessels. At length, in 18b'3, thanks to the persever-
ing advocacy of M. Hippolyte Peut, a ship canal 20 feet deep was constructed
between the tower of St. Louis and the Gulf of Fos. This canal leads into a huge
basin covering 3 1- acres, by the side of which a new commercial town is
springing into existence, and a railway will soon establish rapid communications
between this new port and the remainder of France. In spite of the vicinity of the
marshes the mortality at St. Louis is not greater than at Aries, and might be very
THE RHONE AND OTHER RIVERS.
103
much reduced by a proper attention to sanitary laws ; and if the place has not
prospered hitherto, this is due to the jealousies of Marseilles and of the powerful
railway company, the one dreading the loss of its monopoly, the other the develop-
ment of an important river traffic. One danger, however, threatens the prosperity
of this canal the Gulf of Fos is gradually being silted up ; but this danger
might be removed by diverting the waters of the Great Rhone into the " Grau,"
or lagoon, of Roustan.
The changes in the course of the Little Rhone are historically as important as
those of the Great Rhone. St. Gilles, accessible now only to canal boats, was
Fig. 76 THE CANAL OF ST. Louis.
formerly one of the great ports of Southern France, at which most of the pilgrims
going to Palestine embarked during the twelfth century. Aigues-Mortes, lower
down on the same branch of the river, sprang into existence subsequently. But
about the middle of the sixteenth century the Little Rhone took a more easterly
course, and it now enters the sea through the Grau of Orgon, near which is the
fishing villiige of Saintes- Maries, separated by vast sands and swamps from all
other centres of population. There, as well as farther east, at the lighthouse of
Faraman, the sea is gaining upon the land.
The town of Aigues-Mortes. thus called on account of the stagnant waters
10-1
FRANCE.
which surround it, has frequently been cited in proof of a remarkable encroach-
ment of the sea, but erroneously in our opinion. The local guides point out the
spot at which St. Louis is said to have embarked for the. Holy Land, though it
has been proved conclusively that he did so at a point five miles to the south-west of
the town. The vessels which were to convey the crusaders cast anchor at the spot
marked A upon our plan, close to the mouth of an old canal, still known as Grau
Louis. The remains of embankments and the vestiges of a crusaders' burial-
ground enable us to trace the direction of this canal, which anciently connected
pig. 77. THE LAGOONS OF AIOUES-MORTES.
Scale 1 : 100.000.
Etantf
. . ,-OO, "Si '
'/.;
dvl v ' "^ V4. H :*
c,. aii "-,. ..--;; -,. ./ V^^j^
4?fa ieaL-xtte '*. ,\Kej>auss?t/ . . . ll&^p ''!&
*^ " L-; ; -f.ti' ' *^*~~
~ZA \ ' i "O. ,'. " - V . >
I \ [ v : lj . ''ifl
"" V: 10 E.of Gt
A A. " Foreign " Koads'eaJ where tlie ciusaders embarked.
B. Site of Port in thirteenth century. C. Site of Port, thirteenth to eighteenth century.
1 H le.
the town with its port at Grau Louis. Since then the lagoons have undergone
many changes, partly owing to the alluvium deposited by the Rhone and other
rivers, partly in consequence of the construction of a new canal by Louis XV.,
which enters the sea at the Grau du Roi. If any further proof were wanted in
support of the assertion that the sea along that part of the coast has not encroached
upon the land, it would be furnished by the existence of four lines of dunes, which
mark as many conquests of the land over the sea. The town of Aigues-Mortes
undoubtedly occupies a site which was anciently covered by the floods of the
THE RHONE AND OTHER RIVERS.
105
Mediterranean. The outermost of these lines of dunes, that of Boucanet, only
supports a few tamarisks, but the innermost is covered with a forest of maritime
Fig. "8. THE DELTA OF THE AUDE.
Scale 1 : 225,000.
6 Miles.
pines, which impart a character of mournful grandeur to the landscape. This
Sylve Godesque, however, has been reduced to very small dimensions in our
day.
106 FRANCE.
A careful examination of this portion of the coast-line enables us to assert that
it will remain stahle for centuries to come. The Little Rhone annually carries
about 5,232,000 cubic yards of sediment to the sea, but nearly all this is deposited
near the lighthouse of Espiguette, to the east of the Gulf of Aigues-Mortes ; and
supposing this point to continue to encroach upon the sea at its present rate, no less
than two thousand years will have to elapse before the gulf is converted into a
lagoon. The roadstead at Aigues-Mortes is, moreover, sheltered from the dangerous
south-easterly winds, and the construction of a harbour of refuge at the Grau du
Hoi has consequently been advocated by competent engineers. Aigues-Mortes,
which now hardly imports anything but the oranges of Valencia and of the
Balearic Isles, might then become an important seaport.
The rivers which flow from the slopes of the Cevennes into the Mediterranean
may be considered as belonging geologically to the basin of the Rhone. Even the
Aude, the first river to the north of the Pyrenees, bears a certain family likeness
to the torrents of the Rhone valley, although only its northern tributaries rise in
the Cevennes. Like all other Mediterranean rivers born in these mountains, the
Aude presents all the features of a torrent, its volume fluctuating according to the
seasons between 180,000 and 106,000 cubic feet per second. On leaving the gorges
of Capsir and the forest of Sault the Aude flows due north until, below Carcassonne,
it is joined by the Fresquel, when it curves round to the east. The delta of this
river is proportionately moro extensive than that of the Rhone, for it covers 50,0(>0
acres, and between its two arms is enclosed the ancient mountain island of La
Clape. No less than 2,224,000 cubic yards of mud are annually carried down the
river, most of which is deposited upon the inland swamps, the mountain barrier at
the mouth of the river preventing it from being carried into the sea. In the time
of St. Louis there were salt-pans on the swamp of Capestang. It is now sepa-
rated from the sea by 9 miles of solid land. The swamp of Montady has been
converted into dry laud since the middle of the thirteenth century. The site of
Lake Rubrensis, which extended to the walls of Narbonne, is now occupied by
fields ; and the lagoons of Gruissan and Bages, which formerly were one, are
now separated by a strip of alluvial land.
The Canal du Midi, or Great Southern Canal, with its branches no less than
339 miles in length, accompanies the Aude during the greater part of its course.
Its supply of water is principally derived from the Alzau, Lampy, and other small
rivers rising in the Cevennes. These are intercepted by a canal (Rigole de la
Montagne) leading into the lake-like reservoir of St. Ferreol, holding 6,254,000
tons of water, whence another Rigole leads down to the navigation canal. Unfor-
tunately, this great work of the seventeenth century, which connects the Rhone
with the Garonne, has fallen into the clutches of the Great Southern Railway
Company, 'and is but little used for the conveyance of merchandise.
The Orb enters the sea to the east of the Aude. It discharges its waters
through a single mouth now, that of Grande Ma'ire having almost become oblite-
rated, and dwindles down into an insignificant stream during summer. The Herault,
THE RHONE AND OTHER RIVERS.
107
its neighbour, and the most important river between the Aude and the Rhone, on
the other hand, is fed by plenteous springs rising in wild limestone gorges. The
river is navigable for sea-going vessels throughout the year as far as Agde, and
Richelieu began the construction of a breakwater at its mouth, which has never
been completed, the engineers having since then devoted the whole of their
energies to the creation of an artificial harbour at Cette.
Amongst the small rivers between the Herault and the Rhone the Lez is the
best known, because it flows past Montpellier, but the Vidourle is far more typical
of the torrents descending from the Cevennes. During the dry season it does not
Fig. 79. RlGOLES OF THE CANAL DU MlDI.
Scale 1 : 820,000.
5 Miles.
even reach the Mediterranean, but when in flood its volume exceeds that of the
Seine at Paris thirty times, and the inhabitants then utilise it for irrigating the
reed-banks of the lagoon of Repausset, near Aigues-Mortes, the produce of which
is converted into manure or used for covering chairs.
The Argens is the only French river to the east of the Rhone which can
fairly claim that epithet. Like many other rivulets in that limestone region, for a
portion of its upper course it passes underground, but long before it fulls into the
shallow Bay of Frejus it becomes a placid stream, maintaining a fair volume
throughout the year. There are several underground rivers along this Provencal
coast, which only rise as springs beneath the waves of the Mediterranean.
108
FRANCE.
Perhaps the most remarkable of these is the spring of Port-Miou, near Cassis,
which originates in the ancient Lakes of Aubagne and Gemenos, drained by King
Rene, and gushes forth with sufficient violence to create a veritable current.
The Var, which for a long period formed the boundary between France and
Italy, though longer than the Argens, remains a current down to its embouchure,
being reduced at one time to a mere streamlet, at others rushing down with such
violence as to overflow its embankments, though these are 2,600 feet apart.
Fig. 80. THE MOUTH OF THE HEKAULT AND CAP D'AGDE.
Scale 1 : 70,000.
Over S Fathoms
1 M ilc.
COAST-LINE A-SD LAGOONS.
THE difference between the configuration of the coast on both sides of the
Rhone delta is most striking. In Provence we meet with bold cliffs and promon-
tories, whilst to the east of the river we find ourselves in the presence of a beach
formed of sand carried down from the granitic mountains in the interior of the
country. 'In Provence the cliffs sink down almost precipitously into the sea,
and molluscs are found there only in a few sandy creeks, whilst on the coast of
Languedoc the sea deepens gradually. This difference of physical configuration
accounts to a great extent for the history of the two provinces. In the one case
COAST-LINE AND LAGOONS.
109
towns were built close upon the sea, in the other they are remote from it, and
Languedoc thus possesses the characteristics of an inland country rather than of a
maritime one.
In its details the beach of Languedoc is not without beauty. It is broken up
by mountains, hills, or masses of rock into a number of sections. One of these
Fig. 81. LKfCATE AND THE ROADSTEAD OF
Scale 1 : 55,000.
0|lo'E.ofPin
t O/
._ fj - ^~==a .of
., j
o-l /,
I'/t-f
J-/0
- 1 Mile.
Ovtr 1o fathamt
extends between the Point of Collioure and Cape Leucate ; a second sweeps round
from the latter to the Cape of Agde ; a third reaches thence to Cette ; whilst the
fourth and last stretches from Cette to the sandy flats of the Rhone delta. The
promontories afford some shelter to vessels endangered by the dreaded tempests of
the Lion Gulf, but the most secure anchorage along that coast, that of Franqui, to
110
FRANCE.
the north of the peninsula of Leucate, has not yet been converted into a port,
although possessed of special facilities for the construction of one.
With the exception of the Cape of Agde, which is an extinct volcano, the
ancient rocky islands along that coast, now joined to the mainland by alluvial
deposits, are composed of cretaceous or Jurassic limestone. The ancient crater of
Agde has been converted into a vineyard. Streams of lava extend from it in all
directions. A few minor volcanoes are near it.
The ancient coast, such as it existed before the volcano of Agde had become a
portion of the mainland, can still be traced by following the contours of the hills
Fig. 82. THE LAGOON OF THAU.
5 Miles.
bounding the alluvial plains. Lagoons, or etangs, extend along the whole of
the coast, fiom the very foot of the Alberes ; and where no sediment-bearing rivers
flow into them, they are of considerable area and depth. That of Leucate is a case
in point. No river flows into it, hut close by, at the foot of a limestone rock, rise
the remarkable springs of Salses, now known as Font-Dame and Font-Estramer,
discharging streams of water having nearly the same chemical composition as that
of the ocean. At the side of the Font-Estramer grows a species of T^APhrag-
mites f/iy/n/tfa \\-hich is not met with anywhere else in Europe.
The lagoon of Thau (Taphrus), between the volcano of Agde and the hills of
COAST-LINE AND LAGOONS.
Ill
La Gurdiole (774 feet), is the most important of all, on account of its great depth
and the towns which line its shores. This little sea of 18,500 acres is sepurated from
the Mediterranean by a narrow strip of land. A narrow channel, furnished with
locks, and forming the eastern termination of the Great Southern Canal, connects it
with the open sea. Another cunal, nearly 40 miles in length, places it in communica-
tion with the delta of the Rhone. The lagoon is thus of considerable importance
to navigation. Its waters are as salt as those of the sea, except after heavy rains
and near the mouths of some of the rivers which enter it. A bounteous spring,
Fig. 83. BIONOMICAL CONDITION OF TTTB T.ITTORAL REGION OF H^RAULT.
The circles ind cite proportionally to what extent the mean age at death i inferior to that
throughout France.
The asterisk deno'.ea a locility where the mean age is liigher than the average throughout France.
known as the " Ahize " (abyss), rises from the bottom of the lagoon in the north,
and not far from it there is an intermittent spring which discharges fresh water
during winter, up to April, but swallows up the water of the lagoon, a phenomenon
similar to what has been noticed at Argostoli, on the island of Cephalonia. The
lagoon of Thau is public property, and supplies annually 40,000 worth of
h'sh and shells. Oysters are said to have abounded in it formerly, and an old
bed has been discovered at a distance of -500 yards from the modern beach, but an
attempt to breed oysters there has failed signally.
There can be no doubt that these lagoons might easily be drained and converted
112
FEANCE.
into fertile fields. Experiments on a small scale, which were made at Narbonne
and Vic, have been attended by the most perfect success. This is not merely a
question of converting 60,000 acres of lagoon, at present producing only fish,
willows, and reeds, into productive arable land ; it is still more important in its bear-
ings upon the salubrity of the climate. M. Regy has calculated that these swamps
shorten the lives of the people who reside near them to the extent of ten, fifteen,
and even nineteen years. More than half the children at Mireval and Vias die before
they have attained their sixth year, and strangers who settle in the country ; Imost
Fig. 84. E'TANG DE BEKBE.
Scale I : 320.000.
MARSKIU
. 5 Miles.
invariably suffer from marsh fever. Those lagoons which nro over 3 feet in
depth do not injuriously affect the health of the people who live near them, and
the mortality at Cette and other places on the lagoon of Thau is hardly greater
than in the rest of France. But when the water, owing to its shallowness, attains
a temperature of 82 F., it becomes dangerous to health. These shallow lagoons
ought, therefore, either to be suppressed, or be made to communicate freely with
the open sea. In the case of the lagoon of Mauguio the latter has already been
done, and the same treatment would prove efficacious with those of Vic and
COAST-LINE AND LAGOONS.
118
Frontignan ; but M. Regy is of opinion that all others, being very shallow, should
be converted into poMers without loss of time.
The changes in the configuration of the lagoons have led, within the historical
period, to a displacement of the principal towns. Astruc, more than a century
ago, observed that the names of the towns on the hills were Celtic, whilst those
near the coast invariably bore Greek or Latin appellations. It may fairly be
inferred from this that the coast became habitable only at a comparatively recent
epoch. The encroachment of the land upon the sea enabled the inhabitants to
found quite a chain of new towns, including Agde, Cette, Frontignan, and Aigues-
Mortes. Maguelone, however, which formerly stood upon an island, now joined
to the mainland, appears to be of ancient foundation. It was a busy place of
commerce as long as the Saracens held it. After their expulsion by Charles
Martel it again rose from its ashes, but having become a place of refuge of the
Fig. 85. THE CAXAL OF CAHONTE.
Scale 1 : 88,000.
, 1 Mile.
Protestants, it was finally destroyed by order of Louis XIII., and there now only
remains an ancient church, forming a prominent object in the midst of the sands.
The only lagoons to the east of the Rhone which originated in the same
manner as those on the Lion Gulf are those of Valduc, Engrenier, and several
others, which formerly communicated with the sea through a channel, now closed
by a bar, and known as the lagoon of Estomac (Stoma-Limne). As to the lagoons
of Valduc and Engrenier, they are shut off from the Mediterranean altogether,
and, owing to an excess of evaporation, their level, on an average, is about
30 feet lower than that of the sea. They are miniature Caspians, and yield a con-
siderable amount of salt.
The large inland sea known as Etang de Berre is not a lagoon, but a gulf,
separated from the Mediterranean by a rocky ridge. The Romans had a port on
this gulf, but it is now only frequented by a few fishermen, and not a single town
44
114
FRANCE.
rises from its shores ; and yet, by deepening the canal of Caronte, which joins it to
the Mediterranean, this great natural harbour might be rendered accessible to the
largest vessels. If the Etang de Berre belonged to England, it would long ago
have been converted into a great commercial and naval depot. Vessels at anchor
within it are not only beyond the reach of an enemy's guns, but, being hidden by
the coast range of Estaque, they are actually out of sight. The owners of the
fisheries, or bordigucs, are bound to dredge the canal of Caronte to a depth of
39 inches. Were they to neglect doing so, it would quickly become choked,
and the Etang de Berre shut off from the sea.
Klo"
E.
CLIMATE.*
HOWEVER striking the differences between the littoral regions on both sides of the
Rhone, they enjoy the same climate, always excepting the fever-stricken neigh-
bourhoods of the swamps. This
Fig. 86. THE PHEVAILINO WINDS AT AIOUES-MOBTES. climate differs essentially from
what is met with in the remain-
der of France, for land winds
predominate here, whilst sea
winds prevail in all the depart-
ments beyond the Cevennes and
the wide valley of the Rhone.
The air is drier, and it rains less
frequently, though, as a rule, in
heavy showers.
No visitor to the south of
France can have failed to notice
the gusts of north-westerly wind
which blow from the Cevennes,
and are produced by local causes.
This violent wind is known as
" mistral " (magis traou) or
" master," and it fully deserves that epithet, for its velocity sometimes equals that
of a hurricane. Strabo tells us that this " black norther" lifted men off their cars
and carried away their clothes, and in our days it has overturned railway trains.
Not a tree in the plains of Avignon and on the islands of the Rhone but exhibits
traces of its violence. The originating cause of this wind must be looked for in the
great contrast between a sandy beach scorched by the rays of the sun and a snow-clad
mountain range. The heated air above the former rises, whilst the cold mountain
air rushes down the hillsides to establish an equilibrium. The greater the
difference between the temperature of these two atmospheric strata, the greater the
violence of the wind. In the night, when the beach has cooled down by radiation,
On the rains in Herault see a paper by M. Ch. Martins, in Mem. de 1'Ac. de Montpellier, viii. 1872.
AUDE. 115
there is a lull, and at some distance from the land it is hardly felt at all. In
spite of the dread it inspires, the mistral is a welcome visitor, for it purifies the
air of the towns, which are not always remarkable for cleanliness.
The contrasts existing between the coast regions and the mountains, and the
winds resulting therefrom, account for the frequency of thunder- storms in the low
lands. As long as the mistral and the sea wind are not engaged in a conflict, the
clouds drift towards the mountains, and there descend in rain. But when the
mistral, blowing in the higher strata of the atmosphere, is met by the cloud-laden
sea breeze, an exchange of electricity takes place between them, and the rain
descends in torrents. As a rule the rainfall increases as we proceed from the coast
towards the mountains, and is most copious in autumn. There are, however,
many exceptions to this rule, and there have been years when it rained most
heavily in February, and scarcely at all in autumn. This capriciousness of the
climate appears to be reflected in the character of the " Gavaches " of the Cevennes
and the " Franciaux " of Dauphine. They, too, have their bursts of passion, but
quickly calm down, being not unlike, in this respect, to the mistral or to a
thunder-storm.
TOPOGRAPHY.
AUDE. This department, named after its principal river, is eminently a land
of passage, bordering upon the Mediterranean, but partly lying within the basin
of the Garonne. It is almost exclusively an agricultural country, manufactures
existing only in the towns and in the upper valley of the Hers. Less than one-
third of its area is under cultivation, and although its vineyards are of some
importance, the population is far from dense.
Castelnaudary (7,628 inhabitants), on the water-shed between the Mediter-
ranean and the Atlantic, has played a great part during the civil wars ; but the
frequent sieges which it has undergone have prevented it from becoming a great
commercial town. Windmills now occupy the sites of its ancient forts, it is the
busiest ship-yard on the Canal du Midi, and manufactures coarse cloths, like most
other towns of that part of Languedoc. Belpcch (978 inhabitants), Ste. Colombe,
and Chalabre (1,792 inhabitants), all of them to the south, on the Upper Hers,
are likewise noted for their cloths and linens.
The river Aude enters the department through the terrible gorge of Car-
canieres. Lower down it flows past Qitillan (2,286 inhabitants), a busy place,
with saw-mills supplied with fir-trees from the forest of Sault, in the Pyrenees.
There are several noted mineral springs in the vicinity, including the sulphur
springs of Ginoles, in the south-west ; the ferruginous springs of Rcnncs-lest-BaiHS,
in the valley of the Sals, to the north-east ; and those of Couiza and Alct, on the
banks of the Aude. Alet was the seat of a bishop during the Middle Ages, and
its ancient episcopal pulice still overt-iwers all its other houses. Still following
the Aude, we arrive at Limoux (6,037 inhabitants), on the white hills of which
is grown a wine known as blanquvttc. Its manufactures of cloth and felt are
116
FBANCE.
of little importance now. Carcassonne (23,517 inhabitants), the capital of the
department, occupies a favourable site at the elbow of the Aude, and on the
high-road connecting the Mediterranean with the Atlantic. The medisoval " city "
occupies a hill, and its walls and towers, erected between the fifth and the four-
teenth centuries, as well as several remarkable old buildings, still remain to it.
The lower town, however, is by far the most populous. Its fortifications have
been razed to gain space for houses and manufactures. Carcassonne, besides
manufacturing much cloth, carries on a considerable commerce with wines and
agricultural produce, and also exports the fine marbles of Cannes (1,998 inha-
bitants).
Narbonne (18,325 inhabitants), the maritime capital of the department, was
of far greater importance during the dominion of the Romans, when it boasted
Fig. 87. THE PORT OF LA NOUVELLE.
Scale 1 : 3,000.
1,000 Yards.
of 80,000 inhabitants, and of magnificent public buildings, of which only few
traces exist now. The church of St. Just is the most remarkable amongst
its mediaeval buildings. The geographical position of Narbonne is excellent,
but, owing to the silting up of the lagoons and canals, it no longer enjoys the
advantages of a maritime city. The canal which connects it with its port of
La Nouvelle is only navigable for fishing-smacks, and possesses no importance
whatever. The environs of the city, however, have been brought under cultivation,
and there is a busy trade in wine.
The most important towns of the arrondissement of Narbonne are Lezignan
(4,402 inhabilants), with numerous distilleries, and Sigcan (3,510 inhabitants), on
a hill overlooking the lagoon and its salt works. Gruissan (2,382 inhabitants) is
hardly more than a village of salt-makers and fishermen, whilst Coursan (2,507
inhabitants), in the valley of the Aude, stands in the most fertile district of the
(4
i
1
I
HERAULT. 117
department. Armissan, in the mountains of La Clape, has limestone quarries
which have yielded the fossil bones of saurians and batrachians, which lived
here at an epoch when a vast lake occupied the greater portion of southern
Languedoc. The village of Bizc, in the denies of the Cesse, has become famous
through its caves, in which bones and stone implements have been found. Durban,
in the hills of the Corbieres, noted for their honey, has a few coal mines.
HERAULT is one of the wealthiest departments of France. Its coal mines are
annually increasing in importance ; its lagoons are more productive than any
others along the Mediterranean ; its vineyards supply between 4,000,000 and
7,000,000 gallons of wine annually ; and railways traverse it in all directions.
Unfortunately the ravages of the phylloxera threaten destruction to one of the
great sources of wealth of the department. In some of the invaded districts the
peasants have taken to the cultivation of Javanese hemp, a plant said to yield
a fibre " finer than cotton, stronger than flax, and as brilliant as silk." The
density of population is about equal to the average throughout France, although
the barren mountains in the north are only thinly peopled by " Gavaches," who
leave their homes in the autumn to assist in the vintage.
The village of Minerce has given its name to the entire region drained by
the Cesse and by other tributaries of the Aude. The romantic spot at which the
Cesse is joined by the Brian was formerly dedicated to Minerva, and although
the heathen deity has since been superseded by St. Rustique, her name still
lives in the village and in the castle which commands it. This castle was
captured in 1210 by Simon de Montfort, who had its defenders burnt alive.
St. Pons (3,358 inhabitants), the chief town in the eastern portion of the
department, lies at the mouth of a much-frequented gap of the Cevennes. Like
its smaller neighbours, Rials (1,121 inhabitants) and St. Chinian (2,690 inha-
bitants), it carries on the manufacture of cloth, an industry which likewise forms
the chief support of Bedarieux (7,372 inhabitants), on the Upper Orb. The latter,
however, has also cotton-mills, dye works, tanneries, paper-mills, and glass works.
Near it are the coal-pits of Graissessac (2,632 inhabitants), yielding nearly 300,000
tons a year. Copper and argentiferous lead are found in the neighbouring hills,
and close to the town, in the valley of La Malou, there are hot and cold springs,
similar to those of Vichy.
Besiers (36,928 inhabitants), on the Lower Orb, is one of the historical cities of
France. Its inhabitants still call themselves " Biterrois," from Baeteme, the old
name of their town. The latter has frequently been burnt down, but has always
risen from its ashes, and is now one of the great wine and brandy marts of France.
There are scarcely any traces of Roman buildings, but amongst the mediaeval
churches is that of the Madeleine, in which took place, in 1209, an indiscriminate
massacre of heretics, whose wives and daughters were divided amongst the
Aragonese soldiery. Of modern structures the most remarkable is the aqueduct of
the Canal du Midi.
The basin of the Herault can boast of no town the equal in population and
commerce to Beziers, but it abounds in factories. Loctece (10,198 inhabitants), on
118
FRANCE.
the Ergue, has huge cloth-mills, much of the wool used being grown on the neigh-
bouring plateau of Larzac and on the heaths of the Cevennes.
Clermont-l' Herault. (5,685 inhabitants) and several other places lower down on
the same river are likewise engaged in the woollen manufacture. Ganges (4,345
inhabitants), on the Herault, and close to the frontier of the department, has silk
and cotton mills. The river thence passes through a picturesque gorge abounding
in natural curiosities. At Aniane (3,457 inhabitants), with its old abbey converted
into a penitentiary, and Gignac (2,653 inhabitants), with an old chapel much fre-
quented by pilgrims, we enter upon the region of vineyards. Pezenas (7,570
inhabitants), on the Lower Herault, has been known from the time of the Romans
for its excellent woollen stuffs, but it has also many vinegar works, distilleries, and
Fig. 88. THE HAHBOUR OF CETTE.
Scale 1 : 36,380.
l'11'Ja'.E otP.
cooperies, and almost monopolizes the trade in acetate of copper, a substance much
used in the manufacture of colours.
Agde (7,728 inhabitants), the natural outlet of this industrial district, might
have become a great emporium if its harbour had afforded better facilities. It is
more remarkable now for its black houses, built of blocks of lava, than for its com-
merce, which has deserted it in favour of the modern town of Cctte (28,152 inha-
bitants). This town stands on a channel connecting the lagoon of Thau with the
Mediterranean. It is the terminus of the Canal du Midi, and although it has not
realised the expectation of its founders, it has become one of the great ports of
France. Its exports consist mainly of salt procured from the neighbouring
lagoons, wine, coal, and ores. There are numerous factories, but not a single
GAED. 119
building of note, and owing to the absence of trees, the aspect of the country is far
from inviting. Marseillan (3,885 inhabitants), Mese (6,501 inhabitants), Bouzigues,
a fishing village, and Balaruc, with hot mineral springs, lie on the lagoon of Thau,
and constitute outposts of Cette. Frontignan (2,910 inhabitants), famous for its
muscatel grown on the slopes of Gardiole, lies to the north of Cette, and is joined
to it by an embankment.
Montpellier (51,838 inhabitants), the most populous town of the department, the
head-quarters of the civil and military authorities, was known in Gallo-Roman
times as Sextantio, and then stood on the left bank of the Lez, on a site now
occupied by the village of Castelnau. After the destruction of this ancient town
by Charles Martel its inhabitants established themselves on the Mons Pestulanus,
on the other bank of the river. Montpellier may justly boast of its schools, its
museums and scientific collections, and its botanical gardens, the oldest in all
Europe, in which Tournefort and A. de Jussieu created their systems. Its phy-
sicians became famous in the twelfth century, thanks to the influence exercised in
Languedoc by the Moors. The names of Nostradamus, Rondelet, Bauhin, and De
Candolle are associated with its schools, and there was a time when Montpellier
rivalled Paris as a seat of learning. There is a citadel, but no enciente hems in
the town, and from the delightful walks of the Payrou the eye ranges freely over
the whole of the country from the Cevennes to the sea, and looks down upon the
noble aqueduct which conveys to this the waters of the springs of Boulidou.
Blankets, soap, and candles are manufactured, and there is a considerable trade in
wine. The town, unfortunately, has no port of its own, for the Lez is navigable
only for barges, and Palacas, at its mouth, is accessible only to fishing-smacks.
Formerly the town exported its products through Lattes, on the lagoon, or
through Jtffiguelone, on the Mediterranean, but at present it avails itself of the
facilities afforded by Cette. Amongst the smaller towns near Montpellier may be
mentioned St. Georges d'Orques and Liuiel (8,024 inhabitants), both of which
produce excellent wines.
GARD. This department is named after the river Gard, or Garden, which flows
through its centre. It extends from the Rhone to the crest of the Cevennes, and
even beyond, and borders upon the Mediterranean only for a small distance. The
natural resources of Gard are very considerable. It produces coal, iron, and salt,
as well as silk (about 5,000,000 Ibs a year), but its vineyards have been almost
destroyed recently by the invasion of the phylloxera. The number of Protestants
in the department is still very considerable, for the Cevennes afforded them a place
of refuge in times of persecution. Religious animosities are not yet dead, and in
periods of political excitement they still come to the surface. Even at Nimes, where
the Protestants constitute rather more than a fourth of the population about the
proportion throughout the department they inhabit a separate quarter of the
town, and Meyerbeer's Huguenots has never been heard there.
Le Vigan (4,340 inhabitants), the capital of that portion of the department
which belongs to the basin of the Herault, carries on the manufacture of gloves
and silk caps, as does also its neighbour, Sumene (1,972 inhabitants), and owns
120
FRANCE.
coal-pits and quarries of lithographic stones. The towns in the valley of the
Vidourle and of the plains of Vaunage, which extend thence towards Nimes such
as St. Hippolyte-k-Fort (3,960 inhabitants), Same (2,070 inhabitants), Sommieres
(3,588 inhabitants), and Gallargites (1,947 inhabitants) are for the most part
inhabited by Protestants engaged in the manufacture of woollen, cotton, and silk
stuffs. Sauve is known for its wooden forks, and Gallargues, until quite recently,
prepared wrappers for Dutch cheeses by a very nasty process, happily superseded
through the discovery of aniline.
La Salle (1,934 inhabitants) and Anduze (4,250 inhabitants), on the Western
Gardon, have some manufactures, but the great industrial centre of this portion of
Fig. 89. THE PUOTF.STANT CONGREGATIONS IN THE SOUTH OF FKANCE.
the Cevennes lies between Alais (16,726 inhabitants) and Grand' Combe (5,342
inhabitants), where coal abounds, and iron works, foundries, lead and copper works,
machine shops, glass and chemical works, have sprung into existence. Another
coal-field lies to the north, in the valley of the Ceze, its centres being Besxeges
(7,953 inhabitants), Eobiac (4,290 inhabitants), and St. Amlroix (3,410 inha-
bitants). The coal won in these two districts is already competing with English
coal in the ports of the Mediterranean. Alais, moreover, is one of the great raw-
silk marts in France.*
The arrondissement of TJzes, which comprises the valleys of the Lower Ceze and
Gardon, and extends in the east to the Rhone, has a few silk-mills and other manu-
* In 1875 the department produced 1,692,000 tons of coal, and 85,800 tons of pig-iron.
NIMES. 121
factories, hut is chiefly noted for some remarkable buildings. Uzes (4,8G5 inha-
bitants) has an old cathedral ; at Semonliat there is a remarkable Roman
aqueduct over the Gard ; and Pont St. Esprit (3,882 inhabitants) is famous for its
bridge over the Rhone, which is 2,756 feet in length, and was constructed
between 1*65 and 1309. Baynolt-sur-Ceze (3,868 inhabitants) is a busy place of
commerce.
Nimcs (60,804 inhabitants), next to Marseilles and Toulon the largest town of
Southern France, lies in an arid plain far away from any navigable river. It
arose probably around the sanctuary of Nemausus, a god of the ancient Celts, to
whom the Romans likewise subsequently raised altars. Formerly, before a canal
supplied the town with water from the Rhone, the city was dependent for its water
upon a single " fountain " yielding only sixteen pints a minute, and the washer-
women then travelled every morning to the Rhone, 15 miles distant, to clean their
linen. But in spite of want of water, Nimes, owing to its being situated on the
high-road between the Rhone valley and the western shore of the Lion Gulf, has at
all times enjoyed a considerable amount of prosperity. It abounds in Roman
remains, but with the exception of a temple of the age of Augustus, now used as a
museum, and of a huge amphitheatre occasionally visited by Spanish toreros, the}'
are in ruins. Nimes is a busy manufacturing town. About the middle of last
century it was noted for its silks ; but most of its workmen are engaged now in
the production of shawls, velvet-pile carpets, and silk pocket-handkerchiefs. The
industry of the town has suffered, however, through the loss of tho American
market, and the competition of Aubusson and Beauvais, and living is no longer as
cheap there as it used to be, mainly in consequence of the destruction of the vine-
yards. Efforts are, however, being made to create fresh industries. Chinese
bamboos have been acclimatized with success, and are converted into funcy furni-
ture, which already forms an article of export to Great Britain.
Beaucaire, the ancient Ugernum (7,956 inhabitants), at the head of the Rhone
delta, and united with its sister town of Tarascon by a suspension bridge, is the
commercial port of Nimes. Raymond VI. of Toulouse did well when he built a
fort at that place in 1217, and established a fair there, which formerly attracted
as many as 300,000 strangers from Italy and every part of France. This fair is still
held annually, but it is attended by pleasure-seekers rather than merchants, and its
business transactions have declined from 1,200,000, in 1836, to 80,000 in 1874.
St. Gilles (5,705 inhabitants), on the Little Rhone, was a busy port during
the twelfth century, but the canal which connects it with the sea is only navigable
now for barges, and its streets wear an aspect of desolation. Aiyitcz-Morfes (3,167
inhabitants) is actually the only maritime port of Nimes and of its wealthy neigh-
bour Vaurert (3,935 inhabitants), but it is even more forsaken than St. Gilles. '
On looking at its crenellated walls, we might fancy ourselves transplanted to
another age. These walls, however, frequently protect the town against being
invaded by the floods of the Rhone. The inhabitants of Aigues-Mortes depend
mainly upon their fisheries, their salt works, and the cultivation of reeds, for there
is hardly any foreign commerce.
45
122
FRANCE.
ARDECHE lies to the north of Gurd, between the Rhone and the Cevennes, and
almost corresponds with the ancient province of Vivarais. Nearly all its rivers flow
to the Ardeche, or direct into the Rhone, but Mont Gerbier de Jones (5,092 feet),
which gives birth to the Loire, rises within its limits. Geographically the depart-
ment consists of two regions, separated by the limestone range of Coiron. The
basin of the Ardenhe resembles Gard as to its aspect, productions, and indus-
tries, whilst the northern portion of the department, traversed by the Erieux, the
Doux, and their numerous tributaries, recalls Forez and the Lyonnais. Ardeche,
Fig. 90. BEAUCAIKE AND TARASCON.
Scale 1 : 80,000.
1 Mile.
the native country of Olivier de Serres, the agriculturist, is one of the best-culti-
vated districts of France. Even its mountain slopes are laid out in terraces, whilst
the high slopes are covered with chestnut forests. This department, too, has
suffered from the ravages of phylloxera and from disease amongst its silkworms.
Laryentiere (2,374 inhabitants), the capital of the western arrondissement, has
lost every importance since its silver mines have become exhausted, and A/ibenas
(5,082 inhabitants) is at present the leading town of the valley of the Ardeche.
The neighbourhood produces much silk, and there are silk-mills, paper-mills, and
tan-yards. About 5 miles to the north of that town, and close to the extinct
ARD&CHE.
128
volcano of Vivarais, are the mineral springs of Vah (1,785 inhabitants;, which
have recently become very popular.
Viriers (2,053 inhabitants), on the Rhone, the ancient capital of the Vivarais,
and still the seat of a bishop, has now only a magnificent cathedral and fortifica-
tions to remind us of its days of grandeur. At Aps, a village in the valley of
the Escoutay, which debouches at Viviers, are Roman ruins, and the site has
Fig. 91. THE INVASION OF THE PHYLLOXERA
Plague, in. 166$
:,.._ '/' :
;/i
Plague
been identified with Alba Augusta of the Romans. Bourg Si. Andeol (3,800'
inhabitants), below Viviers, has a few mills propelled by the water of the fountain
(jf Tournes, and Freil (1,771 inhabitants), above it, exports annually thousands of
tons of hydraulic lime.
Following the Rhone upwards, we pass the old castle of Rochemaure, and,
turning off to the left, arrive at Prica* (5,932 inhabitants), the capital of the
124 FRANCE.
department, with silk and cloth factories, tan-yards, and other manufactures. At
Chomei-ac (1,131 inhabitants), close by, there are limestone quarries, and near
the village of St. Pric*t most productive iron mines. The ore procured
there is conveyed to the iron works of La Voultc (3,982 inhabitants) and L<'
Poiiziu (2,611 inhabitants), both on the Rhone. Again following the river, we
reach Valence, the capital of Drome, opposite to which are the magnificent ruins
of Cnmsol, as well as the vineyards of St. Pert/;/ (1,762 inhabitants), the growth
of which is frequently sold as " Ermitage." Tournon (4,947 inhabitants), higher
up on the river, which is there spanned by the oldest suspension bridge in France,
is close to the hill which produces veritable Ermitage.
Annonay (13,738 inhabitants), in the north of the department, is one of the
great manufacturing towns of France. Goat-skins are dressed there in vast
numbers, and felt, silk stuffs, and paper are manufactured, the motive power being
supplied by a canal fed by a huge reservoir. It was from this town that Mont-
golfier ascended in a balloon, and an obelisk has been erected to commemorate the
event.
BOUCHES-DY -RHONE (" Mouths of the Rhone "). This department comprises
the delta of the Rhone and the country to the west of it. It is the natural outlet
of the entire Rhone valley, and Marseilles, its capital, has thus become one of the
great commercial centres of the world. In other respects, however, the depart-
ment is not favoured by nature. There are extensive stony wastes, the hills are
for the most part barren, and about one-third of the area is unproductive. Irriga-
tion, however, is carried on successfully, and in addition to olives, grapes, and other
products of horticulture, the department yields salt, coals, and lignite, engages
successfully in manufactures, and carries on a most extensive commerce. These
sources of wealth account for the relative density of its population.
JIttrseilles (234,690 inhabitants), the leading commercial port of the Mediter-
ranean, has during all periods of its history maintained its pre-eminent position-
Greek and Roman authors credit the Phocians of Asia Minor with having
founded the city, though ancient remains prove that the Phoenicians preceded
them. Marseilles became in course of time the most flourishing of all Greek
colonies, and down to the present day it has preserved the municipal feelings so
characteristic of ancient Greece. Its geographical position has prevented it from
becoming the centre of a political system, but it is nevertheless the true capital of
Southern France, and whilst Paris looks to the north and the west, Marseilles
keeps its eyes upon the south and the east.
Ancient Marseilles, or Massilia, occupied the hilly peninsula to the north of the
old port, which then extended farther inland, whilst the cliffs facing the sea have
been gnawed away, since the days of Caesar, to the extent of 820 feet. Its port
would have been silted up long ere this, if dredging machines were not kept
constantly at work. It now covers an area of 60 acres, its average depth being
20 feet
The sanitary condition of Marseilles was deplorable in former times, for there
was neither water nor proper drainage. Every stranger who settled in the town
MARSEILLES.
125
had to pass through a dangerous period of acclimatization, and the plague was a
frequent visitor. The canal, which supplies the city with the water of the
Durance, has proved a real blessing to the inhabitants, for it suffices not merely
Fier. 92. MAHSEILLKS.
'Id city in the 'ime
nf Julius Cif-s-ir ;iml
in thethirieenth
century.
Extent of he city in
lucicase up to 1872.
. 1 Mile.
for domestic purposes, but has also converted thirsty fields into productive
gardens, and supplies the manufactories of the town with a cheap motive power.
Other improvements on a vast scale have been carried out. The ancient
fortifications have fallen, and the city has expanded in every direction. New
126
FRANCE.
docks have been opened, and the construction of a huge breakwater is under con-
sideration. The islands of Ratonneau and Pomegue afford, however, some shelter
to vessels making for Marseilles, and it is there the quarantine has been established.
Near them, on a small island, stands the castle of If, famous as a state prison.
The city has not only been pierced by huge avenues, but many buildings with
some claim to architectural merit have been erected, and the Marseillais can no
longer be reproached with concentrating all their attention upon the soap and the
oil they deal in. One of the most characteristic of these structures is the Museum
Fig. 93. THK ROADSTEAD OF MAHSF,TT.T.F<!.
S]i7 K.f Gr. 5|iB
'f^f--- X
if l-VE.iit Paris ^S
2S.
-4
V 1
1 Mile.
of Longchamp*. The best view of the city is obtained from the tower of the
Byzantine church of Notre-Dame, which crowns the most elevated hill to the south
of Marseilles. The public promenades, including the Prado, lined with magnificent
trees and numerous villas, and the Corniche, which follows the sinuosities of the
coast, are a great ornament to the town, and afford magnificent prospects of the
harbour and the picturesque promontories which bound it.
Marseilles, besides being a great commercial town, may boast of numerous
manufactories. In its metallurgical establishments the ores imported from abroad,
and more especially lead ores, are smelted. There are huge corn and oil mills and
MARSEILLES. 127
tanneries. Provisions are preserved and salted for the use of the navy. The
manufacture of soap (1,620,000 cwts. in 1875) equals that of the whole of the
remainder of France. The sugar refineries, too, are of great importance.
The merchants of Marseilles own a fleet of 783 vessels (including 210 steamers),
measuring 194,500 tons, most of these being built at Ciotat, La Seyne, and even
at Genoa. In 1875 8,757 vessels of 2,527,200 tons burden entered the harbour,
the imports were valued at 34,781,000, and the exports at 35,485,120.
Cereals constitute the principal articles of import, and next to them cattle, cotton,
wool, and iron ores from Algeria, Spanish wines, tea, silk, petroleum, timber,
hides, guano, sugar, coffee, and oil seeds. Unfortunately most of the vessels are
obliged to leave in ballast, for the high tariffs of the railway companies prevent
Marseilles from exporting the coal of the Cevennes and the building stones of the
Alps.
Marseilles, in spite of the competition of Brindisi and Trieste, still remains the
great intermediary for the conveyance of passengers and costly merchandise
between the north-west of Europe and the East. This superiority, however, it is
sure to lose whenever Saloniki and Constantinople become connected with the
railway systems of the rest of Europe It will then have to seek compensation
for this loss elsewhere. In this respect Algeria holds out much promise for the
future. In 1874 Marseilles imported thence 400,000 tons of ore, 200,000 tons of
corn, 50,000 tons of alfa, and 1,000,000 head of cattle. At the same time it will
be necessary to develop the railway connections of this great port, which is at
present dependent upon a single line for its communication with Paris, and has no
direct intercourse at all with either Cette or Bordeaux.
The smaller towns in the neighbourhood may almost be looked upon as suburbs
of the great city. Cawis, beyond Cap Tiboulen, produces the best wine of Pro-
vence, but likewise manufactures muscatel for exportation. At Ciotat (8,104 inha-
bitants), a little farther in the same direction, are the ship-yards of the Messa-
geries Maritimes, which usually employ 3,200 workmen. Aubagne (5,087 inha-
bitants), an inland town, has cement works ; whilst Auriol (2,453 inhabitants),
Roquetaire (1,749 inhabitants), and Peypin, in the upper valley of the Huveaume,
have coal mines, plaster works, potteries, and soap works.
Crossing the hill known as La Viste, to the north of Marseilles, we reach the
valley of the Arc, the only important town in which is Aix (23,407 inhabitants),
the residence of a sovereign during the Middle Ages. Aix, in spite of its ancient
Academy, its Court of Appeal, and an archbishop, is a decaying place. It may
carry off the honours, but Marseilles has possessed herself of the wealth of Pro-
vence. The famous springs are no longer fashionable. The town, nevertheless, is
most interesting on account of many of its ancient buildings, including the Roman
baths of Sextius ; it carries on a considerable commerce ; and the olives grown in
its plain, irrigated by a canal derived from the Verdon, furnish an oil of world-wide
reputation. In the upper valley of the Arc, at Gardanne (2,268 inhabitants),
Furi'ini (2,253 inhabitants), and Tret a (2,094 inhabitants), there are coal mines
yielding above 300,000 tons annually.
liid FRANCE.
An ancient Roman road conducts us from Aix to Salon (5,085 inhabitants), on
the margin of the Crau, the fields of which are irrigated by the canal of Crapponne,
and thence to Aries (15,563 inhabitant*), after Narbonne the most ancient Roman
Fig. 94. THE MAUSOLEUM AT ST. REMY.
"
colony on Gallic soil. The position of this town at the head of the Rhone delta
insures its prosperity. It attained the height of its power in the thirteenth cen-
tury, when its Hag was seen in all the ports of the Mediterranean, but dissensions
amongst its ruling families led to its fall. The town is rich in Roman remains,
AELES.
129
including an amphitheatre, and in mediseval buildings, and its women are famous
for tbeir beauty and good taste. Aries carries on a considerable commerce in agri-
cultural produce, cattle, horses, and sheep. A bridge connects it with the suburb
of Trinquetailles, in the Camargue, a district formerly described as the " granary
of the Roman army," but now a region of pestiferous swamps. In this district is
the hamlet of Saintet-Mariee, before the church of which stood formerly two marble
Fig. 95. KING RENT'S CASTLE AT TAKASCON-.
lions, in allusion to which the neighbouring gulf is said to have been named Lion
Gulf (Golfe du Lion).
Like Arlei, the neighbourhood abounds in ancient remains. At Foiiteirlle (2,237
inhabitants) there are huge artificial caverns, which served as places of sepulchre
in prehistoric times, fiauj; on the Alpines, has an old baronial castle hewn' out
of the solid rock, and St. Rent// (3,490 inhabitants), beyond that range of beauti-
fully contoured hills, boasts of a fine mausoleum of the age of Caesar.
Tarawon (7,777 inhabitants), the sister city of Beaucaire, has at all times been
a great place of traffic. Up to the thirteenth century it stood upon an island, but
180
FRANCE.
when King Rene built the castle, the massive proportions of which challenge
admiration, the channel separating this island from the left bank of the river had
been filled up.
VAR, most absurdly called after the river Var, which lies outside its boundaries,
might more appropriately become known as Argens, from a river flowing right
through its centre. It is a mountainous country, half of its area being covered
Fig. 96. TOULON.
Scale 1 : 128,000.
. 2 Miles.
with forests. The most flourishing towns lie on the coast, but those in the interior
likewise manufacture cloth, felt, paper, and earthenware.
Toulon (61,382 inhabitants) enjoys the double advantage of having an excel-
lent port and of lying on the high-road connecting France with Italy. The
excellent shelter afforded by its port has caused Toulon to be chosen as the
great naval station of France in the Mediterranean. The arsenal and dock-
yards, begun by Vauban in the seventeenth century, cover an area of 667
acres, and have cost no less than 6,400,000, although much of the work was per-
TOULON.
181
formed by convicts. Forts occupy every point of vantage, and render Toulon one
of the strongest fortresses in Europe. In commerce and industry, however, it
ranks very low, in spite of its excellent harbour, on the western side of which are
Fig. 97. HYERES.
Scale 1 : 100,000.
o-S
Over SS FaOumt
1 Mile.
the busy ship-yards of La Seyne (8,152 inhabitants), employing several thou-
sand workmen. 67. Nnznii-r (1,0^7 inhabitants) and Bandok, to the west of Cap
Sepet, may be looked upon as outposts of Toulon : they export agricultural
182
FRANCE.
produce, and at the former of these villages there is a tunny fishery. Every town,
like every individual, appears to have its destiny. Toulon became a place
of war, but failed to attract visitors like its neighbours, Nice, Cannes, and
Mentone, although its climate is equally delightful and its environs abound in
picturesque sites.
Hyeres (6,797 inhabitants), up to the fourteenth century, was more important
than its neighbour Toulon. The river Gapeau facilitates communication between
its fine roadstead and the fertile fields of Ctiers (3,683 inhabitants) and Sol/ies-
Pont ('2,239 inhabitants). It was formerly a favourite winter residence, but being
separated from the sea by salt marshes, and exposed to the mistral, it is now some-
what neglected in favour of its rivals of the Alpes-Maritimes. The gardens sur-
rounding the town produce peaches, almonds, and a great variety of exotic plants.
Fig. 98. THE GULP OF ST. TROPEZ.
Scale 1 : 155.000.
SFatftoms JfPatiwms^ 27falAome SSFalkoms.
, 2 Miles.
A few palm-trees flourish, and early vegetables are exported. As to the pic-
turesque islands of Ilyeres Porquerolles, Port-Cros, and Le Titan they support
only a few inhabitants, and are scarcely ever visited.
St. Tropez (3,236 inhabitants) occupies a delightful spot near the eastern
termination of the mountains of the Moors. It exports timber, cork, and chestnuts,
supplied by the villages in its vicinity, amongst which Garde-Freinet (1,947 inha-
bitants) enjoys some reputation as having been one of the great strongholds of the
Moors or Saracens.
The valley of the Argens, to the north of the mountains of the Moors, affords
the easiest communication between the east and west of Provence. Since the
terrible day on which the Teutonic hosts, about to cross over from the valley of
the Arc, were annihilated at I'tiitrrirrrx, that valley has frequently been traversed
by armies. St. Maximin (3,150 inhabitants), near its head, is the point of con-
FEEJUS.
138
vergence of many roads, and the relics in its fine Gothic church formerly attracted
numerous visitors. Brignolles (5,164 inhabitants), farther east, has tan-yards, silk-
twist factories, distilleries, and brick-kilns. Le Luc (3,148 inhabitants) and
Viduubon (2,415 inhabitants), on the railway, are flourishing market towns.
Lorgufn (3,030 inhabitants), embosomed in elms, has cloth factories, and at Drn-
guignan (8,029 inhabitants), the capital of the department, there are numerous
factories, the motive power being furnished by the Nartuby, a tributary of the
Fig. 99. NICE.
Argens. The town itself is void of curiosities, but its neighbourhood abounds
in picturesque sites.
Frtjm (2,791 inhabitants), the Roman Foro Juliensis, near the mouth of the
Argens, is a decayed town. Its famous port, which sheltered the fleet of Actium,
is now dry land, and the town has never been able to recover from the disasters
of war which have overtaken it. Close by, on a hill, there are Roman ruins,
which testify to its former importance, and the aqueduct which conveyed
hither the water of the Siagnole is the most considerable ruin of that class in all
France.
134 FEANCE.
ALPES-MARITIMES. The greater portion of this department was ceded by Italy
in 1860. French is spoken in the valleys of the Var and Tinee, Italian in the
basin of the Roya and as far as Nice, whilst the local dialect of that town is a
curious jumble of Provensal French and Italian. The entertainment of visitors
is the great business of the department. Oil, wine, fruits, and scents are exported,
but upon the whole agriculture is in a very backward state.
Nice (Nizza, 46,683 inhabitants), the " Victorious," founded by the Phocians
of Marseilles in commemoration of a victory won over the Ligurians, is one of the
most characteristic cities of France. On a high, rocky eminence, an ancient island
now attached to the continent, may still be seen the remains of the walls ot
what was formerly one of the strongest fortresses on the Mediterranean seaboard.
One quarter of the town lies in the plain to the east of that rock, but the veritable
Nice lies to the west of it, being bounded by the torrent of the Paillon, beyond
which extend the modern suburbs, with wide streets intersecting each other
at right angles. Numerous villas peep out from the verdure-clad slopes of the
surrounding hills, and cover the terrace of Cimies, upon which stood the Roman
town of Cemenelum. The climate of Nice has been extolled in all ages. The
mountains in the north shelter it against cold winds, and the temperature only
rarely descends below freezing point. At the same time Nice is exposed to violent
gusts of wind. In early spring the mistral whirls up clouds of dust ; the damp
sirocco, blowing from the south-east, produces a feeling of languor; and the
westerly winds formerly carried thither the miasmata bred in the swamps of the
Lower Var. Since these have been drained this wind has lost its danger, besides
which the plantations of eucalyptus and other trees now form a screen around the
town, which up to the beginning of last century was frequently invaded by the pest.
As we journey along the coast to the east of Nice the country becomes more
and more picturesque. Crossing the promontory bounding the Bay of Nice, we
descend to the fine roadstead of Viilcfranclie (Villa Franca, ],93:{ inhabitants),
where, sheltered by the encircling cliffs, exotic plants luxuriate. We traverse the
olive groves of Beaulieu, pass through numerous railway tunnels, and roach
Mon'ico (1,200 inhabitants), perched on an isolated rock at the foot of the cliffs of
La Turbie. This, too, is an old Greek colony dedicated to Hercules. The sove-
reign rights of its prince have been respected, and he has availed himself of them
to establish a gambling hell in the delightful grounds of Monte Carlo, lioqiie-
hnuic is merely a village ; but Maitone (6,891 inhabitants) is a town of importance,
and the rival of Nice, the " pearl of France." Lemons, oranges, and other exotic
plants grow near the shore, olives on the slopes of the hills, and pines on the
mountains which shelter the town in the north. Its houses are dotted over the
hills, and are frequently accessible only by stairs ; its climate is mild and equable.
To the east of Mentone, on Italian soil, are the famous caverns of Baoime-Rottsse,
in which human skeletons and stone and bone implements have been discovered.
To the west of Nice there are other favourite winter resorts. At Antibes (5,546
inhabitants), an old fortress, the charming promontory of La Gurouppe projects
into the Mediterranean, and beyond it opens the small Bay of Jouau, where
CANNES.
185
Xapoleon landed after his escape from Elba. Vallaurts ('J,956 inhabitants), the
" golden vale," lies a short distance inland. Cannes (13,519 inhabitants) lies
beyond ; its hotels and houses extending to the river Siagne. It enjoys a mild
Fig. 100. VlLLEFHANCHE.
Scale 1 : 44,400.
.
^BHBSflf
3J2o'E.of 6r.
ova- 55 Fathems .
1 Mile.
climate, and though its vegetation is less luxuriant than that of Nice, its serene
sky and distant horizons render it a most delightful residence. The isles of Lerins
he off its bay, the largest of them, that of Ste. Marguerite, being famous on
account of its prison-fort, from which Marshal Buzaine effected his escape, as the
13 g FRANCE.
" Iron Mask " had done before him. On St. Honorat are the ruins of a monas-
tery which was destroyed by the Moors in 725. Cannes, in spite of its shallow
harbour, is next to Nice the busiest seaport of French Liguria. It is the port of
Grasse (9,673 inhabitants), lying about 10 miles inland, the vicinity of which
produces the best olives of Provence, besides roses, jasmines, and other flowers.
The manufacture of perfumery and liqueurs has one of its great centres at Grasse.
Fig. 101. THE CAVERXB OF BAoussE-Roussfi.
These seaside towns of the Alpes-Maritimes possess immense advantages as
summer resorts, and might be converted into sanatoria for the whole of France.
They are supplemented by mountain villages, such as St. Martin- Lantosque
(1,956 inhabitants), Roquebilliere, and others, within easy reach of the coast, and
admirably suited for summer stations
VAUCLUSE, though lying inland to the north of the Rhone delta, is essentially
one of the Mediterranean departments of France. Its western half consists of an
AVIGNON.
1ST
alluvial plain intersected by numerous canals, very productive, and abounding in
industrious towns.
Avignon (33,189 inhabitants), at the confluence of the Durance and Rhone,
was a prosperous town in the time of the Romans, and as an independent common-
wealth it ranked amongst the first cities of the south during the twelfth century.
The religious wars of the thirteenth century destroyed its wealth. Between 1309
and 1376 it was the residence of the popes, and from that epoch in its history date
its most striking buildings, its turreted walls, its cathedral, and its fortress-like
palace on the rock of the Doms, or " lords." From that rock we look down upon
the verdant plain, with its plantations of olive and mulberry trees, its towns and
villages, and upon the swiftly flowing waters of the Rhone, spanned here by a
Fig. 102.
According to M. Riviere. Scale 1 : 3,000.
CD larlh.
E3 Ear-Uty Slontl
E3 Rock,
E53 A
ES Caverns
... , Bone
SS Railroad.
I 1 Lasted yrand. RocJu
, 100 Y;uiU.
suspension bridge, which replaces an old stone bridge built by the "Devil and
St. Benezet" in 1188, but destroyed by a great flood in 1669. Avignon remained
the property of the Pope until the great Revolution ; but though it abounded in
monasteries, grass grew in its streets, and industry was a stranger to it. But
since it has belonged to France it has become one of the busiest towns of the
south spinning the silk grown in the neighbourhood, manufacturing agricultural
machinery, and colours from madder, and extending its commerce to the highest
valleys of the Alps. The department has not only suffered much from the invasion
of the phylloxera and the disease of silkworms, but its cultivation of madder is
jeopardised through the invention of aniline colours.
The towns and villages lying at the foot of the Leberon and of the hills of
46
138
FBANCB.
Vaucluse are surrounded by verdant fields. Cawillon (3,906 inhabitants) is
environed by gardens irrigated by canals derived from the Calavon and the
Durance. L'Isle (3,795 inhabitants) and Thor (1,667 inhabitants) are supplied
with water from the fountain of Vaucluse ; Pernes (2.S01 inhabitants), Monteux
(2,262 inhabitants), and Carpentras (8,127 inhabitants), have likewise their canals
of irrigation. The latter, though proverbially a dull provincial town, is in reality
Fig. 103. CANNES AND THE ISLFB OF L^KINS.
Scale 1 : 60,000.
EcheDe de 1:60000
o 5.
5-y,
2j-i5o, Ooer i
1 Mile.
a bustling place, supporting a library and museum, and proud of its Roman
triumphal arch, its modern town-hall, and its aqueduct*.
Orange (6,782 inhabitants), the ancient Arausio, and formerly the capital of a
county, is the rival of Carpentras in trade and industry, and boasts a Roman
amphitheatre and a triumphal arch, which are amongst the finest ruins of that
kind ia France. Vciinon (3,330 inhabitants) has a Roman bridge over the Ouveze,
HAUTES-ALPES.
139
and is partly built with the stones of Gallo-Roman buildings. JIalauc&ne (1,610
inhabitants) has a Roman aqueduct; Bolltne (3,168 inhabitants) has potteries,
and Valreas (4,705 inhabitants) carries on a considerable trade in raw silk. Both
these towns are surrounded by old walls. Pertuis (4,905 inhabitants), thus called
because of its situation near the gorge, or pertuis, of the Durance, has a few
factories, but the mountain region beyond it is very thinly inhabited. Apt (4,278
inhabitants), the only town in the mountains, has sulphur mines and pits of plastic
clay, from which its potteries are supplied.
HAUTES-ALPES. The two departments on the Upper Durance constitute the
Fig. 104. AVIONON AND THE PALACE OF THE PoPES.
poorest and most desolate district of France. Hautes-Alpes, though enjoying the
advantage of more extensive forests and pasture grounds than its neighbour
Basses- Alpes, ranks, nevertheless, very low as to its agricultural produce ; and its
resources not being sufficient to support its population, many of the inhabitants
annually descend to the plains in search of work.
Brian<;on (2,321 inhabitants) defends, with its seven forts, the road over the
Mont Genevre, and is the most inhospitable garrison town in France. Descending
the Durance, we pass the mountain fort of Mont Dauphin and Embrun (3,287 mha-
140
FRANCE.
bitants), likewise a fortress, the most prominent building within which is a prison.
<l,n> H *4!) inhabitants), the only large town of the department, and its capital,
lies about 6 miles to the north of the Durance. The ores and marbles which
abound near it have not hitherto been worked.
BOSSES- AI.PES is a country of naked mountains, lying almost completely within
the basin of the Durance. It is the least-populated department of France, but by
planting forests its resources might be considerably developed.
Barcelonnette. (1,921 inhabitants), on the Ubaye, and at the foot of the Col de
Fig. 105. COL DE LARCHE.
Scale 1 : 80,000.
16-55 E I Or
1 Mile.
Larche or of Argentiere, is the chief town of the most elevated arrondissement, but
otherwise insignificant. Sisteron (3,768 inhabitants), lower down on the Durance,
is a picturesque town, with an old citadel. Manosque (5,162 inhabitants) enjoys a
southern climate, carries on a considerable trade in wine, oil, and fruits, works a
coal mine, and has several manufactories. It is the most important town of the
department, superior by far to Forcalquier (1,816 inhabitants), the capital of the
arrondissement within which it lies, and even to Digne (5,540 inhabitants), the
departmental capital. This latter lies on a winter torrent, the Bleonne, 2,098 feet
DR6ME. 141
above the sea, but nevertheless produces excellent fruits, which its confectioners
convert into confitures. There are likewise efficacious sulphur springs.
Colmars and Castellanne, on the Verdon, are of no importance whatever. At
Riez (Colonia Augusta Reiorum, 2,370 inhabitants) and at Valensoles (2,182 inha-
bitants), both on tributaries of that river, and at Greoulx, near its mouth, Roman
ruins have been discovered, and at the latter there are sulphur springs.
Fiir. 106. SISTEKON.
DROME * has been cut out of ancient Dauphin^, and is named after a river that
flows through it towards the Rhone, which forms its western boundary. Its
climate and productions are similar to those of Ardeche, on the other side of the
Rhone ; but Drome is the more mountainous of the two.
NIJOIIS (2,462 inhabitants), the capital of the southern arrondissement, lies at
the mouth of a gorge, from which a cold wind, known as pontias, blows every
* Scipion Gras, " Statistique minerale de la Dr6me."
142 FRANCE.
night. Its olive-trees perished in the cold winter of 1829, and the vineyards then
planted have recently been attacked by the phylloxera, which has likewise invaded
the lowland district of Tricastin, of which St. Paul (1,657 inhabitants) is the
capital.
Moiitelimar (9,512 inhabitants), at the confluence of Jabron and Roubion, and
not far from the Rhone, carries on a brisk trade in agricultural productions and
the manufactures of the Protestant town of Dieu-le-Fit (3,072 inhabitants), on the
Upper Jabon. To the south-west of it, on the Lez, rises the sumptuous castle of
Griynaii, known as the residence of Madame de Sevigne.
Crest (4,848 inhabitants) is the most important town on the Drome. Its old
castle has frequently seen Protestants and political offenders within its walls. Die
(3,427 inhabitants), higher up the river, carried on considerable industry before
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes.
Lit ran (1,874 inhabitants) and Loriol (2,181 inhabitants), at the mouth of the
river, are indebted for their prosperity to the railway.
Valence (20,476 inhabitants) maintained its municipal liberties until the thir-
teenth century, and with its suburb, Bourg-les-Valcnce (2,574 inhabitants), is now
the seat of a considerable textile industry. Chabeuil (1,300 inhabitants), near
it, has likewise a few factories, but Romans (11,024 inhabitants), on the Isere, and
its suburb, Bourg-de-Peage (4,151 inhabitants), are at present the great industrial
centre of the department, where cloth, silks, cottons, felt, and leather are being
manufactured.
Tain (2,381 inhabitants), on the Rhone, lies close to the granitic hill which
yields the famous " Ermitage," and an acre of which is worth 1,000. St. Vct/lier
(3,035 inhabitants) and the railway junction of St. Rambert are in the extreme
north of the department.
ISERE, named after its principal river, was formed out of the northern portion
of the Dauphine. It is essentially a mountain country, the soil capable of cultiva-
tion being confined to its western half, descending in terraces towards the Rhone.
About half the area of the department consists of cultivated land, one-fifth of
heaths and barren rocks, and nearly the same proportion of woods. The breeding
of cattle and manufacture of cheese are carried on extensively in its Alpine portion ;
there are coal and iron mines, and even gold mines were worked not long since.
Industry is increasing, and the paper-mills are the most important of France
(produce in 1873, 105,650 cwts.).
Allerard (2,015 inhabitants) is the only town in the interior of the department,
and is indebted to its sulphur springs for the position it holds. Grenoble (43,1*54
inhabitants), at the confluence of the Isere and Drac, occupies the centre of a mag-
nificent amphitheatre of mountains. It is the focus of much intellectual activity,
with colleges, libraries, and museums, and the seat of a considerable industry,
the manufacture of gloves alone occupying 20,000 hands in the town and the
neighbouring villages.
Vizille (3,539 inhabitants), on the Romanche, has numerous factories, but is
better known in connection with the refusal of the delegates of the towns of
a
S3
W
O
u
H
H
n
o
'
ISERE.
143
Duuphine, in July, 1788, to pay taxes not voted by Parliament. Bourg-d' 'Olsons
(1,400 inhabitants), higher up on the Romanche, is the centre of one of the finest
Alpine districts of France. The monastery of the Grande Chartreuse, in the hills
to the north of Grenoble, is famous throughout the world for its liqueur.
Fig. 107. VALENCE.
Scale 1 : 75.000.
At Voiron (7,909 inhabitants), to the north of the elbow of the Isere, as well as
at the neighbouring villages of Hires (1,471 inhabitants) and La Cote St. Andrt
(3,496 inhabitants) there are numerous paper-mills, steel works, and tan-yards, and
most of the peasantry engage in linen-weaving. The towns on the Isere, Tullim
(3,398 inhabitants), Vinaij (1,692 inhabitants), and St. Marcellin (2,839 inha-
144
FRANCE.
Intents), are indebted for their prosperity to the fertile fields which surround
them.
Vicnne (22,950 inhabitants), on the Rhone, was a very important place in
Roman times, but had dwindled down to 11,000 inhabitants in 1789. Since then
the population has increased rapidly, and thousands find employment in the cloth
factories, silk-mills, paper-mills, foundries, glass works, and other industrial esta-
blishments which have sprung up here, being supplied with coal from the mines of
St. Etienne. A temple, a pyramid, several aqueducts still in a serviceable
condition, and other ruins recall the age of the Romans. Bourgoin (4,309 inha-
bitants, inclusive of Jaillon), to the north -east of Vienne, manufactures cards for
Fig. 108. GRENOBLE.
Scale 1 : 60,000.
1 Mile.
combing flax and other articles. Near it are productive turf pits. La Tonr-ilti-
Pin (2,731 inhabitants) is remarkable only as the capital of an arrondissement.
SAVOIE (Savoy). This department only includes a portion of the old duchy of
Savoy, ceded in 1860 to France. It consists of three geographical regions, viz.
Savoy proper, including Chambery and the Lake of Bourget ; the Tarentaise, or
valley of the Upper Isere ; and the Maurienne, or valley of the Arc. Only about
one-third of its area is under cultivation, but fine pasture grounds extend from the
valleys up to the barren rocks and snow-fields. Agriculture and cattle-breeding
are the principal occupations. There are a little industry and much traffic, pro-
duced by the international tunnel of Mont Cenis, but the country is nevertheless
SAVOY. 145
incapable of supporting its population, and thousands of Savoyards annually
leave their mountain valleys in search of work, generally returning in winter with
their savings.
Chambery (16,486 inhabitants) is the only town worthy of the name. It boasts
of an academy and other scientific institutions, but to strangers its chief claim to
notice consists in its delightful environs. Silk-spinning is carried on there, and at
the neighbouring village of Cognin. At Chalks there is a mineral spring con-
taining iodine and bromine, but its fame is eclipsed by that of the thermal sulphur
springs at Aix-les-Bains (2,689 inhabitants), on Lake Bourget.
Following the railway up the valleys of the Isere and the Arc, we pass
Fig. 109. PASSES OVER THE ALPS BETWEEN THE GE.VBVRE AND COL DK FREJUS.
Scale 1 4S3.000.
& Miles.
Mdnlmelian, an old fortress ; St. Pierre-tf Albigny ; St. Jean, the capital of the
Maurienne (2,623 inhabitants) ; Mod-fine (1,322 inhabitants), at the entrance to the
tunnel ; and Lanx-lc-Bonry, at the foot of the pass leading over Mont Cenis.
The Tarentaise is less sterile than the Maurienne, but the stature of its inha-
bitants is less than in any other part of Savoy, and they are supposed to be the
descendants of the Ceutrons, a southern tribe mentioned by ancient authors. The
principal towns are Albert? ille (3,835 inhabitants) and Moutierx (1,946 inhabitants),
the latter with salt works yielding annually 3,500 cwts. of salt. Higher up, in the
side valley of the Doron, are the sulphur springs of Brides, in the midst of mag-
nificent Alpine scenery.
146
FKANCK.
HAUTE-SAVOIE consists of several districts known by local names. The Gt'm--
vois includes that part of Savoy which slopes down to the Rhone ; Fauciyny com-
prehends the high Alps, traversed by the Arve, and dominated by Mont Blanc ;
while Chablais extends along the Lake of Geneva. Only one-half .of the area of the
department consists of fields and pasture lands, but agriculture, the breeding of
cattle, the making of butter and cheese, and industrial pursuits suffice to support a
population more dense than that of France at large.
Thones (1,059 inhabitants) is the only town on the Fier which flows through
Fig. 110. THOXON.
Scale 1 : 125,000.
2 Miles.
the southern portion of the department. Annccy (10,360 inhabitants), the capital,
stands on the Thioux, a tributary of the Fier, and at the foot of the lake named
after it. It is an ancient city, carrying on the manufacture of textile fabrics, hats,
paper, and iron. Rumilly (2,916 inhabitants), on another tributary of the Fier,
manufactures woollen stuffs ; and near Farerges (1,537 inhabitants) there is a large
silk-mill belonging to a Lyons company. Formerly that place had iron and
copper works.
SAVOY. 147
There are no towns in the valley of the Arve. Chamonit (Chamouni, 491 inha-
bitants) is merely a village of hotels, and St. Gervais a huge bathing establishment.
At Sallanches (1,594 inhabitants) one of the finest views of Mont Blanc may be
enjoyed. At duties there is a school for watchmaking, and many of the inha-
bitants of Bonnecilk (1,842 inhabitants) and of St. Julien (1,250 inhabitants), the
latter in reality a suburb of Geneva, are engaged in watchmaking.
T/ionon (3,953 inhabitants), the capital of Chablais, occupies a magnificent site
on the banks of the Lake of Geneva, and to the west of the alluvial delta of the
Dranse. The castle of Ripaille is close to the town, whilst Evien (2,028 inha-
bitants), a favourite spa embosomed in woods of chestnut and walnut trees, lies to
the east of the Dranse. Still farther east the greyish cliffs of the Meillerie rise
boldly above the lake. Most of the houses are built of stone quarried there.
CHAPTER IV.
THE JURA AND THE BASIN OF THE SAONE.
FKANCHE-COMTE AND BURGUNDY.
[ HE boundaries of this region of France are more or less conventional,
for though the parallel ridges of the Jura and the valley of the
Saone are well defined, there are also included in it several outlying
districts. The valley of the Saone is essentially a country of
transit. In the south it leads to the Rhone, which it joins at
Lyons ; in the north-west numerous passages through the Cote d'Or connect it
with the basin of the Seine ; in the north-east the gate of Belfort opens commu-
nication with the Rhine ; and intercourse with the Loire in the west meets with no
obstacles. The climate and vegetation of Northern and Southern France become
blended in this valley, and whilst the pine forests in the Jura are quite "northern
in their aspect, the bleached rocks of Cote d'Or, on the other side of the valley,
recall the foot-hills of the Cevennes and the Alps. Even the inhabitants, a mixture
of Celts, Ligurians, Romans, and Teutonic Burgundians, exhibit the strength and
earnestness of men of the north, in combination with the passionate temper of men
of the south.
The ranges of the Jura belong geologically to the same orographical system as
do certain mountain masses of the Dauphine and of Savoy. They at first extend in
a northerly direction, but by degrees curve round to the north-east, until they pass
over into Switzerland. The Jura, very unlike other mountain systems, consists of
a series of parallel ranges, rising from a platform sloping down towards the west
and north-west. Looked at from an elevation, they resemble a series of parallel
waves approaching a coast, Each of these ridges is intersected by one or more
transverse gorges, or clitses, and there are also combes, or valleys of erosion, at the
bottom of which lie sparkling lakes or rivulets.
The strata composing the Jura have been folded by exterior pressure, the ridges
being formed of anticlinal, the valleys of synclinal folds. Denudation, however,
has so much affected the surface of the country that out of one hundred and sixty
ridges there are but thirty the tops of which consist of Jurassic limestone, this
having been carried away, exposing the lias and trias which underlie it. The
TiiE JURA. AND THE BASIN OF THE SAONE.
149
limestones of the Jura are rich in fossils, and even ancient atolls have been dis-
covered.
The Jura abounds in forests : that of Chaux, covering nearly 50,000 acres, lies
at the foot of the Jura, and consists principally of oaks and beeches. Firs cover
the superior slopes; and in the woods of Haute-Joux trunks 100 feet in height
and over 3 feet thick abound. The moisture of the atmosphere, as well as the
calcareous nature of the soil, promotes the growth of grass and herbage, and
Fig. 111. THE JURA.
Scale 1 : 845.000.
10 Miles.
cattle-breeding and the making of butter and cheese are carried on with much
profit. The cows of the same district always pasture together, and co-operation is
practised in the making of cheese.
The numerous rivulets of the Jura supply motive power to a host of manufac-
tories, besides which the mountaineers engnge largely in sedentary industries, such
as watchmaking.
The emancipation of the peasantry during the French Revolution and the con-
struction of roads have wonderfully aided the material prosperity of the Jura.
150
FRANCE.
Not very long ago there existed no carriage roads at all, but at the present day no
less than three railroads and twenty carriage roads, soma of them raisterpieces of
engineering, facilitate intercourse between the opposite slopes of the mount uns.*
LAKES AND RIVERS.
THE lakes of the French Jura are much inferior to those of Switzerland, but
geologically they are full of interest. A few of them occupy the longitudinal
valleys ; others are bounded by the steep walls of the cluses, these being the most
picturesque ; others, again, occupy the combes referred to above.
Fig. 112 THE FOKEST OF CHAUX.
Scale 1 : 320,000.
j".l T.. of Fans
3? U-0 E of Co-
. 10 Miles.
The Ain is the most characteristic river of the Jura. Born of plenteous springs
issuing from mysterious caverns, the river winds through narrow denies and
cluses, and frequently disappears between the masses of huge rocks which have
tumbled down from the surrouhding precipices. Being bounded for the most
part by two parallel ridges of the Jura, the Ain receives only a few tributaries, but
these, being the effluents of lakes, are more abundant than might be expected.
Amongst the tributaries are the emissary of the Lake of Chalin, the Bienne, and
the Oignon, rising in the Lake of Nantua. Of the numerous waterfalls of the
* Heights in the Jura : Grande Colombier, 5,033 feet; Credo, 5,-"45 feet; Reculet, 5,644 feet; Cret
de la Xeige, 5,657 feet ; Pass of La Faucille, 4,356 feet ; Col des Verriei es, 3,084 feet.
LAKES OF THE JURA.
151
Ain that near the bridge of Poitte is one of the most considerable. It is 52
feet high, and its tumultuous waters supply the iron forges of La Saisse with
motive power. Champagnole is the only town in the narrow valley of the Ain,
which only widens out as it approaches the Rhone, near which the river winds
through the fertile and populous district of Vdlbonne, an ancient lake basin.
In most mountain countries the water-shed runs parallel with the mountain
ranges. Not so in the Jura, the ridges of which gradually decrease in height as
we travel north or south from the culminating summits on the frontier between
France and Switzerland. In the Jura the line which parts the waters flowing to
Fig. 113. THE LAKE OF ST. POINT.
Scale 1 : 115,794.
I-:, of C.r.
Ulile.
the Mediterranean from those wending their way to the north runs transversely
across the whole system of ridges. Even the Doubs, which finally finds its way
to the Mediterranean, appears to have formerly flowed to the Rhine, and if a barrier
were to be placed across the defile of Ste. Ursanne it might possibly do so
again. Historically and geologically the Saone is the main artery of the valley of
the Rhone, and if its volume equalled that of the latter, its name would prevail
down to the Mediterranean. The Doubs, however, though spoken of as a tribu-
tary, is in reality the main branch of the Saone. It flows at first in a north-
westerly direction. Having traversed the Lake of St. Point, it enters the narrow
gorges of Pontarlier, where mills occupy every available spot. At the small Lake
FRANCE.
of Chaillcxon the river reaches the Swiss frontier, which it follows for a consider-
able distance. It there gathers itself up, and then leaps over a precipice 89
feet in height, forming the famous Falls of the Doubs. The course of the river
Fig. 114. THE LAKE OF CHALIN.
- Scale 1 : 83,000.
is most erratic, but at length it. turns abruptly to the west, piercing one chain
of the Jura after the other. Below St. Hippolyte the river turns to the north,
forcing itself a passage through the mountains of the Lomont, and approaching
Fig. 115. THE LAKES OF THE CLUSE OF NANTUA.
Scale 1 : 80,000.
E. "f Gr.
Is-so -' "f P.-
1 Mile.
the gap of Belfort, through which runs a canal connecting the Doubs with the
Rhine. Thenceforth the general course of the river is south-westerly until it joins
the Saone, but it winds about much, passing alternately between steep precipices
THE SAONE.
153
and over undulating valley plains. The course of the Loue, which is the principal
tributary of the Douhs, is almost equally erratic. At Pontarlier the Doubs in
summer was formerly swallowed up in sinks, and flowed underground. But the
mill-owners, who were much inconvenienced by this occasional disappearance, have
built walls around the mouths of these sink-holes, and the water power furnished
by the river is now available throughout the year.
Many of the tributaries of the Suone likewise flow for considerable distances
Fig. 116. THE LOWER VALLEY OF THE AIN.
Scale 1 : 160,000.
5* E of Paris
S'\io E of Or
, iMile.
underground. Near Vesoul there are several rivulets of this kind. They reappear-
again in the spring of Champdamoy, and when the subterranean channels are full
to repletion, a supplementary spring, about a mile higher, begins to flow.
The Saone rises in the chain of the Faucilles (" sickle mountains "), and having
received numerous tributaries from the Vosges and the plateau of Langres, it flows
47
154
FRANCE.
in a direction parallel to the hills which produce the famous wines of Burgundy.
The canal of Burgundy connects the Saoue with the Seine ; that of the Centre
with the Loire. The Saone, for 407 miles out of a total of 732, has a fall of only
5-67 inches a mile, and is therefore excellently suited for navigation. Below
Chalons it flows through the silted-up basin of an ancient lake, which towards the
close of the tertiary epoch extended from the foot of the Jura to the promontories
of Charollais and Beaujolais.
To the east of the Lower Saone lies the remarkable clayey plateau of the
Dombes, abounding in cavities filled with stagnant pools, and surmounted by a
few isolated hillocks locally known as poipes, or paps. Most of these pools are
of recent origin, for in the fourteenth century the greater portion of the country
was under cultivation. But feudal wars led to the desertion of entire villages, the
Fig. 117. THE GKEAT DEFILE (PERCEE) OF THE DOUBS.
Scale 1 : 3,750,000.
channels of the rivulets became obstructed, and the stagnant waters occupied every
depression in the soil. Subsequently a peculiar system of rotation got into vogue,
which consisted in alternately inundating and draining the fields, which neverthe-
less yielded but poor harvests, whilst the fevers bred by the numerous swamps
annually decimated the population. At length, about a quarter of a century ago,
the reclamation of this forsaken part of France was taken in hand. A railway
and roads were constructed, and up to 1870 no less than half the swamps, or
25,000 acres, had been drained. The effect upon the health of the inhabitants
was almost immediate. The population in twenty years has increased 30 per
cent., and the mean age is now thirty-five years instead of twenty-five as before.
The Saone, to the west of the plateau of the Dombes, continues its peaceable
course for some distance longer, and the peasants say with unconscious pride
" From Villefranche to Anse the finest mile in France."
THE SA6NE. 15b
But soon afterwards the progress of the river is stopped by a range of hills.
Fig. 118. THE FALLS OF THE DOUES.
Twisting about to the east, the Saone is swallowed up by the gorge of Rochetaille'e,
widened, it is said, by liomun engineers, and finally joins the Rhone at Lyons.
156
FRANCE.
On an average the Saoiie discharges 8,830 cubic feet every second, the discharge
of the Rhone at Lyons amounting to ^3,000 cubic feet. The Saone is usually in
flood after the autumn and winter rains, whilst the Rhone, fed by the ice and
SHOW of Switzerland and Savoy, carries the greatest volume in summer, a circum-
stance most advantageous to the Lyouese.
Fig. 119 THE DOMBKS IN 1834.
Scale 1 : 160,000.
. -2 Milts.
INHABITANTS.
THE men of the Jura are the tallest of all France. The pure race of Franche-
Comte only exists on the Jurassic plateau, and is distinguished by a short trunk,
broad shoulders, long arms, and long legs. Families are numerous in the villages,
and emigration goes on steadily, Comtois being met with in every town of
France. Formerly, when Franche- Comte formed a part of the vast domains of
AIN. 157
Charles V., no less than 20,000 of them lived at Madrid, and at Rome they occu-
pied by themselves the so-called Burgundian quarter.
Powerful, silent, and circumspect, the mountaineers of Franche-Comte' have
at all times heen distinguished for their industry and their spirit of independence.
Until crushed by Louis XIV., who conquered the country and converted its
peasants into serfs, they enjoyed the privileges of self-government. Franche-
Comte only became truly French through the Revolution, but since that time has
contributed more than its proper share to the work achieved by the entire
nation.
TOPOGRAPHY.
AIN. This rectangular department, enclosed between the Rhone and Saone,
has been named after the river Ain, which runs through it from north to south.
It comprises a level region in the west, and a mountainous tract in the east. The
former includes the districts of Bresse and the Dombes, the latter abounding in
small lakes and marshes. The district of Bugey lies on the French slopes of the
Jura ; that of Gex beyond these mountains, to the north of Geneva. Agriculture,
cattle-breeding, and the manufacture of cheese are the leading occupations.
Gex (1,469 inhabitants) is but a small place, but to those who first behold it on
descending the Pass of Faucille it will for ever be identified with the marvellous
panorama of the Lake of Geneva. On that same route lies Ferney, associated with
Voltaire ; and to the north of it is Nitoime, with its hydropathic establishments.
Tracing the narrow valley of the Rhone downwards from the Lake of Geneva,
we pass CollongcK, the fort of L' Eel use and Bellegarde (p. 89), and Seyssel, known
through its asphalt.
Bclky (4,105 inhabitants), the old capital of Bugey, not being either on a
river or on a railway, is doomed to decay, whilst Amberieu (1,770 inhabitants), a
railway station at the mouth of the valley of the Albarine, St. Rinnbert-de-Joux
(1,571 inhabitants), and Tenay (2,459 inhabitants), higher up in that valley, are
instinct with life. Naiitna (2,940 inhabitants) is the only place of importance in
northern Bugey, and carries on some trade with the cheese of Valromey and the
lithographic stones of the Forest of Montreal.
Bourg (14,289 inhabitants), the old capital of Bresse, is actually the capital of
the entire department. The mausoleum of the Dukes of Savoy, built in the six-
teenth century, is its most remarkable building. Bourg is a busy mart for agri-
cultural produce. It was the birthplace of Lalande and Edgar Quinet, and Bichnt
was born in a neighbouring village. Pont-dc-Vaux (2,910 inhabitants), lower
down on the Reyssouze, the river of Bourg, is a small manufacturing town, the
inhabitants of which differ essentially from those of the surrounding country, and
are believed to be descended from Saracens. Trevoux (2,217 inhabitants), the old
capital of Bresse, had its own Parliament formerly, as well as a mint, now repre-
sented by a few jewellers' shops, and is mentioned in the history of literature as
the place where the Jesuits printed their famous Dictionary and other works.
Sathonay (3,958 inhabitants) is a military camp rather than a village. It was
158
FRANCE.
here the battle of Lyons was fought in 197, which gave the dominion of the world
to Septimius Severus.
JUKA. This portion of the old Franche-Comte is occupied to the extent of one-
half by ridges of the Jura, but these are by no means the most elevated in France.
It is one of the wealthiest districts of the Jura. More than a third of its area is
covered with forests, and it has iron works and other industrial establishments.
Fig. 120. THE MOUNTAINS OP MOUEZ AND ST. CLAUDE.
Scvile 1 : 147,125.
1 5-50' 1. <>lr.
2 Miles.
St. Claude (6,632 inhabitants) is a mountain town at the foot of the Pass of
La Faucille, the inhabitants of which depend on wood-carving and lapidary's
work for their existence, and export the cheese known as " Septmoncel," from a
village in the neighbourhood. The old abbey has disappeared, but on a plateau
to the north may still be traced the ruins of a Gallo-Roman city. Morez (5,375
DOUBS. 159
inhabitants), higher up in the same valley, depends solely upon its manufacture of
watches, jewellery, glasses for spectacles, &c.
Lons-le-Sannicf (11,265 inhabitants), at the foot of the first terrace of the Jura,
exports the produce of its vineyards and gardens, wood and cheese procured from
the mountains, spectacles, articles in copper and iron, and textile fabrics manufac-
tured in the town. At Montmorot, close by, are brine springs yielding annually
nearly 10,000 tons of salt. Excellent building stones are quarried in the vicinity,
as also at St. Amour (1,911 inhabitants), half-way to Bourg-en-Bresse.
The terrace lying to the east of the cliffs bounding this terrace of the Jura
abounds in ancient remains. At Orgeltt there are barrows and stone walls of
defence ; on the road thence to St. Claude a Roman bridge spans the Ain, and
pile dwellings have been discovered on the small Lake of Clairraux. Voiteur and
Poligiiy (4,783 inhabitants) occupy sites analogous to that of Lons-le-Saunier,
and Poligny, like its more populous neighbour, has its vineyards, quarries,
and brine springs Arbois (4,809 inhabitants) is noted for its wines, but the
best growths of the department are the white wines of Chateau-Chalons, below
Voiteur, and the red ones of the hills of Arsures, near Mouchard. Safins (5,577
inhabitants), in a mountain gorge and on the banks of a river, appropriately called
La Furieuse, is best known on account of its springs of brine, a portion of which
is conveyed to the salt works of Arc and Senans. In addition to wine, salt, and
cheese, Salins exports iron ore, plaster of Paris, lime, building stones, and timber.
At Champagnole (3,342 inhabitants), about 13 miles to the south, there are iron-
mills and manufactures of tools.
Dole (12,009 inhabitants), on the Doubs, occupies the extremity of a range of
hills, and commands an extensive plain. It was the old capital of Franche-Comte,
the seat of a university and of a Parliament, and valiantly defended its ancient
liberties against the armies of Louis XI. It is in every respect a more important
place than Lons-le-Saunier, possessing not only libraries and museums, but also
numerous industrial establishments, including corn and saw mills, machine shops,
and manufactories of agricultural implements. On the Upper Doubs, at Ram and
Fraisans, there are important iron works.
Doriis. Nearly the whole of this department drains into the Doubs. It is
essentially a mountain country, the inhabitants of which depend largely upon
watchmaking and other industries for their subsistence. Excellent " Gruyere "
is made in the upper valleys.
Poiitarlier (5,163 inhabitants), the highest town on the Doubs, enjoyed its
municipal liberties until 1678. It is mainly indebted for its prosperity to its
trade with Switzerland, with which two lines of railway connect it. Near it, on a
precipitous rock, stands the fort of Joux, within the walls of which Toussaint-
Louverture, the negro patriot, perished from cold and misery. Morteau, about
20 miles lower down, and near the famous Fjlls of the Doubs, is the centre of
French watchmaking, and a school has been established there to encourage this
important industry. The vicinity of this busy hive abounds in natural curiosities,
savage defiles, caverns, and waterfalls.
160
FRANCE.
Where the Doubs emerges from the gorges of the Jura the aspect of the coun-
try changes, and we enter upon a region of hills sloping down towards the great
gap of Belfort. All along the river, at Pont-de-Roide (2,363 inhabitants) and
Vig. 121. THE FIRST TEKRACE OF THB JURA, BETWEEN LONS-LE-SAUNIEK ANI> SALINS.
Sen IP 1 : 2*1000.
5 .Miles.
Audincourt (4,258 inhabitants), factory succeeds to factory, until we reach Montbt-
liard (7,62o inhabitants), the natural centre of this busy region, where textile
manufactures and watchmaking constitute the leading industries. Montbeliard,
up to the French Revolution, belonged to Wiirtemberg, and this circumstance
BESANCON.
161
accounts for its large Protestant population. The strong castle has been converted
into a prison, but the town, for all that, has lost none of its ancient strategical
importance. A monument has been erected to Cuvier, the most famous of its sons.
Near it are ruins of a Roman city.
Below Montbeliard the Doubs enters a second defile, within which is situated
the small town of Baume-les-Dames (2,497 inhabitants), thus named after a convent
occupied by ladies of noble birth, whose fare in Lent has passed into a proverb.
Bvsanqon (42,808 inhabitants;, the largest town in Franche-Comte, stands on
Fig. 122. BE8ANON.
Scale 1 : 45,000.
r.
3tt' E.ofPans.
1 Mil.'.
one of those sites marked out by nature as a place of strength. A rock 410 feet
in height rises boldly from the narrow neck of the peninsula occupied by the town.
It is crowned by a citadel, and detached forts placed upon the surrounding hills
render Besanfon a formidable fortress even when attacked by modern artillery.
Amongst the public monuments of the town are a Roman gate, a cathedral, a
mansion built by Granvelle, the famous chancellor of Charles V., but now devoted
to the objects of the numerous scientific societies of the town. There are colleges,
a rich library, a gallery of paintings, and several museums. The town has at all
162
FRANCE.
times been jealous of its liberties, and only surrendered to Louis XIV. on his pro-
mising to maintain its municipal institutions. Victor Hugo, Charles Fourier, and
Proddhon are natives of it. Watchmaking is the great industry of Besancon :
in 1875 419,984 watches were manufactured there, and in the French Jura, and
only 2,050 in all the rest of France. But there are also important metallurgical
establishments, and iron forges are numerous on the Doubs and its tributary, the
Loue. At Miserey, to the north of the town, there are brine springs. Oman*
(3,033 inhabitants) on the Loue, is a manufacturing town, and the cherries
Fig. 123. BESAN^ON, AS SEEN FROM LA MOUILLERE.
grown in its orchards are converted into a favourite li|iieur. Near it, in the pic-
turesque valley of the Lison, are the ruins of the Roman city of Alcxia (Alaise),
where Caesar is believed to have finally overthrown the forces of the Gauls.
BELFORT. The gap between the Vosges and the Jura is defended by the
fortress of Belfort, which offered so valumt a resistance to the German besiegers.
French is spoken in three out of the four cantons depending upon the town ;
German and French in the fourth, that of Delle. Belfort has lost somewhat of its
strategical importance since Metz has become a German fortress, but it still closes
one of the great gateways of France. Its citadel was built by Vauban, and other
HAUTE-SAONE.
163
fortifications of more recent date crown the surrounding heights. The only
remains of mediaeval works of defence are the " Citizens' Tower," in the town itself,
and the " Stone" of La Miotte, on the summit of a hill, occupied by one of the
modern forts. Military rule, as usual, has prevented the growth of industry, and
the only manufacturing place of the territory is Giromagny (3,058 inhabitants), on
the Upper Savoureuse, where there are cotton-mills.
HAUTE-SAONE comprises nearly the whole of the upper basin of the Saone.
From the granitic " Ballons " of the Vosges the department slopes down towards
Fig. 124. BRLFOKT.
Scale 1 : ]
2 Miles.
the south-west. Nearly one-third of its area is wooded, and the villages are
embosomed in orchards. There are no large towns, but though agriculture is the
chief pursuit, we meet also with coal, iron, and salt mines, iron works, potteries,
and other industrial establishments.
Hericourt (3,402 inhabitants) is the only town in that portion of the department
which lies within the basin of the Doubs. It is mostly inhabited by Protestants
engaged in the cotton industry.
Lure (3,896 inhabitants), near the Ognon, the capital of the eastern arrondisse-
ment, is a place without importance, surpassed in industry by Ronchamps (1,895
164
FRANCE.
inhabitants) and Champagney (2,080 inhabitants), occupying a valley of the Vosges,
and surrounded by coal mines yielding 200,000 tons annually. Luxeuil (4,047
inhabitants), a famous watering-place, not yielding to Plorubieres in the abun-
dance of its springs, lies to the north-west, in the midst of a delightful country.
Near it is Fougerolks (1,282 inhabitants), a large village embosomed in cherry
gardens.
Vesoul (9,097 inhabitants), the capital of the department, lies in the verdant
valley of the Durgeon, and being the junction of four railways, is a bustling place,
Fig. 125. BELFORT, FROM THE FORT LA MIOTTE.
. nig*
though exceeded in that respect by its rival, Gray (7,345 inhabitants), which, in
addition to railway communications, possesses the advantage of lying upon a
navigable river, the Saone. Gray is a great corn market, and has numerous corn-
mills.
COTE-D'OR. The department named after the range of hills producing the
famous wines of Burgundy is one of the most important countries of passage in
France, belonging partly to the basin of the Saone, and partly to those of the
Seine and the Loire. The whole of it formerly constituted a portion of the pro-
vince known as Burgundy (La Bourgogne), and consists geographically of several
COTE-JTOR.
165
well-defined divisions. The granitic hills of the Morvan, with their woods, ponds,
and sparkling rivulets, form one of these. The plateau of the Auxois, farther east,
intersected by numerous deep river valleys, is another. The plateau of Lungres
extends thence in the direction of the Vosges. It, too, is wooded, but the most
extensive forests are met with on the limestone plateau of Cbatillonnais. The
most fertile region of the department lies to the east of the famous range known as
Cote-d'Or. The department, in addition to its wines, exports iron and marble.
On the Saone, which flows through the plain in the south-west of the depart-
ment, there are no large towns. Auxonne (4,964 inhabitants), an old fortress,
Fig 126. VESOUL.
Scale 1 : 50,000.
. Half a Mile.
carries on some trade in agricultural produce ; but St. Jectn-de-Lnznc, at the
mouth of the canal of Bourgogne, and Seurre (2,514 inhabitants), lower down,
exceed it in activity.
l>ijn (45,607 inhabitants), the old capital of Burgundy, is most favourably
situated for commerce. The canal of Bourgogne connects it with the Saone and
the Seine, and it is the principal town on the road between Paris and Lyons. It
carries on a considerable trade in corn, possesses a variety of manufactures, and
its mustard, gingerbread, and sweetmeats enjoy a wide reputation. Dijon is one of
16G
FRANCE.
those provincial towns which have not taken Paris for their pattern. It has produced
many men of eminence St. Bernard, Bossuet, Rameau, Guyton de Morveau,
Jouifroy, and Rude ; and its scientific establishments, its schools of art and music,
its libraries and museums, are amongst the most important of France. The old
Fig. 127. THE WINE DISTRICT OF CoTE-i/On.
Scale 1 : 320,000
lii .Miles.
ramparts have fallen, but there still remain many fine old churches and mansions,
which impart originality to the town. The old palace of the Dukes of Burgundy,
erected in the fifteenth century, is now used as a town-hall and museum, the
guard-chamber containing the tombs of Philip the Bold and John the Fearless,
SAONE-ET-LOIEE. 167
and other works of art. In the old Charter- house are preserved the statues of the
prophets, the work of Claux Stutter, a sculptor of the fourteenth century. The
public park was laid out by Le Notre.
The famous white slopes of Cote-d'Or begin almost immediately to the south of
Dijon. In succession we pass here the hills of Chambertin, Chambolle, and the
famous " clos " Vougeot. The best wines are produced on Oxford clay, and they
have undoubtedly influenced the temperament of the people who drink them. As
Stendhal says, " Logic alone does not suffice to make superior men ; a fiery tem-
perament, too, is requisite ; " and that temperament the wines of Burgundy are
supposed to give. Nnits (3,503 inhabitants) is the farthest point reached by the
Germans during the late war. In the monotonous plain to the east of it stands
the old abbey of Citeaux, upon which formerly depended three thousand convents
and monasteries, but which has been converted into an agricultural penitentiary.
Bcaune (10,696 inhabitants), the second town of the department, the seat of a
Parliament before Dijon, and long its rival, is an interesting old town, with a
hospital built in the fifteenth century by Flemish workmen, and famous, too, on
account of its wines, Pommard, Volnay, Montrachet, and Meursault (2,550 inha-
bitants) being near it. Nolay (2,355 inhabitants), the birthplace of Carnot, is the
last place noted for its wines, for to the west of it hardly any vineyards are met
with.
Chatillon-sur-Seine (4,894 inhabitants), the principal town of the northern
arrondissement, was a place of some importance formerly, but its schools exist no
longer, and the manufacture of cloth is of very little note now. There exist, how-
ever, important iron works. One of these, near the village of Ste. Colombe, is
surmounted by Mont Lassois, upon which Gerard of Roussillon, one of the heroes of
romance, built himself a castle.
Commercially the valley of the Oze is far more important than that of the
Upper Seine, for the railway from Paris to Dijon runs along it, passing Mont Auxois,
upon the slope of which stands the village of Alise Ste. Reine, which has been
identified with Alesia, where Vercingetorix offered his final resistance to the legions
of Caesar. A colossal statue of the Gallic chief has been erected here, although the
learned are by no means agreed as to the site of ancient Alesia. In a side valley
close by, near the village of Bmsy-le-Grand, there is a famous castle. Soon after
the Brenne and the canal of Bourgogne join from the south. At Montbard (2,427
inhabitants) the mansion in which Buffon was born is pointed out. Below Mont-
bard the Brenne joins the Arman5on, and proceeding up the valley of the latter,
we reach Sewiir (4,022 inhabitants), a curious old town, with a castle perched
upon a rock of granite, and an ancient Gothic church. Saulieu (3,113 inhabitants),
the ancient Sidolocus, farther south, lies upon the granitic plateau of Morvan. It
exports timber, cattle, and wine casks.
SAONE-ET-LOIRE. This department lies partly between the two navigable
rivers after which it has been named. The plain to the east of the Saone is a
continuation of that of La Bresse, and ascends gently towards the foot of the Jura.
A more varied country lies to the west of the Saone, being bounded by the hills of
168
FRANCE.
Autunais and Charollais, which form the water- shed between the Atlantic and the
Mediterranean. The wooded mountains of Morvan rise to the west of Autun, and
the valleys of Briounais, sloping down to the Loire, are occupied by magnificent
meadows. The department ranks high as an agricultural country, and the coal
mines around Autun have led to the creation of flourishing manufactures.
Lou/tans (3,498 inhabitants) is the only town to the east of the Saone, the
great centres of population having sprung into existence on the banks of that
navigable river. Chalom-siir- Saone (20,571 inhabitants) is the most important
Fig. 128. LE CREUSOT.
Scile 1 : 23,000.
11,-lf a Mile.
town of the entire depirtment historically, and only cedes in population to the
modern upstart, Le Creusot. Formerly a great river port, and a station of a
Roman adminil, it is now a most important railway centre, and exports corn, iron,
and wines. There are ship-yards, and barrels in large numbers are made. Chagui/
(3,950 inhabitants), on the Canal du Centre, which joins it to Chalons, has recently
developed into a busy place of traffic.
Travelling down the Saone, we pnss Toiiriiiix (4,412 inhabitants), the birthplace
of Greuze, and reach Macon (10,57!) inhabitants), the capital of the department.
In the upper town, formerly inhabited by priests and nobles, Lamartine was born.
LE CKEUSOT.
169
In the lower town there are manufactories and huge wine vaults, in which the
famous growths of Thorin* and Romaneche are stored. St. Laurent, a suburb
on the other side of the river, is famous on account of its fairs. The country
around Macon abounds in places of interest. Archaeologists will seek out the
village of Sohctre, where the fossil skeletons of a hundred thousand horses have been
discovered. The castles of Montceau-les-Mines (4,375 inhabitants), Mil/y, and
St. Point allure the admirers of Lamartine's poetry, whilst the famous abbey
of Cluny (4,007 inhabitants) must ever attract historians and artists.
Autun (11,358 inhabitants), in the north-western angle of the department, the
Augustodunum of the Romans, has fallen from its high estate, and its buildings
now hardly cover two-thirds of the area enclosed by its ancient walls. Its Roman
ruins are of small importance, some of the most interesting amongst them having
been utilised in the construction of modern buildings. The Middle Ages are
represented by the fine church of St. Lazarus, with one of the best pictures of
Fig. 129 LB CKEUSOT.
Ingres. Mont Beutray (2,660 feet), one of the highest summits of the Morvan,
rises about 12 miles to the west of Autun. Upon its summit may be seen
the remains of an ancient city, identified with the Bibracte of the Romans
but evidently of much older date, as is proved by cromlechs and entrenchments.
Annually in May a fair is held on the summit of this mountain.
The country to the west of Autun is purely agricultural, but to the east of
that town lies one of the great manufacturing centres of France. At Epinac
(1,670 inhabitants) there are coal mines, yielding annually about 150,000 tons,
and bottle works. Couchn-fa-Mina (1,597 inhabitants) produces iron, lime, and
gypsum ; but the great centre of industry lies still farther south, near the old
Charbonniere. This is Le Cn-mot (26,43'2 inhabitants). A cannon foundry,
glass works, and iron works existed there at the close of last century, but it is only
since 1837 that the place has rapidly ^rov.n into importance. Its coal mines now
extend to a depth of 1,390 feet, and their produce is utilised in innumerable iron
48
170
FfiANCE.
works, forges, and locomotive workshops, a considerable portion of the iron ore and
coal consumed being imported from abroad. Other places to the south of Le
Creusot participate in its industrial prosperity. Montc/ianiii-les-Mincs (3,334
inhabitants) has vast brick-kilns. S/anzi/ (1,886 inhabitants) has the most
productive coal mines of the district. Montceau (4,375 inhabitants) has iron
mines.
Charolhs (?,969 inhabitants), a sleepy town, is the capital of Charollais. That
district, as well as Brionnais, adjoining it on the south-west, is engaged in the
Fig. 130. LYONS.
Scale 1 : 80,000.
fattening of cattle. Chauffailles ( 1 ,993 inhabitants), in that part of the country, is
becoming of importance on account of its coal mines. Dif/oin (2,721 inhabitants),
on the Loire, carries on a considerable commerce. Bonrbon-Lancy (1,604 inhabit-
ants) has been noted from immemorial times for its saline springs. Paray-le-Honial
(2,895 inhabitants) has an abbey modelled after that of Cluny, and has recently
become known through the \isions of Marie Alacoque, which led to the " worship
of the Sacred Heart." *
In 1874 the department produced 1,110.000 tons (if coal. Le Creusot. in 1872, employed 15,500
persons, and produced 350,000 tons of iron and sUel, 308 locomotives, &c., valued at 620, OJO.
LYONS. 171
RHONE. This department includes the slopes of the hills of Lyonnais and
Beaujolais (3,320 feet), and is bounded hy the rivers Saone and Rhone on the east.
It is one of the smallest departments of France, but owing to its industry, the
great centre of which is Lyons, one of the wealthiest.
Lyons, or Lyon, as it is called by the French (322,612 inhabitants), occupies a
most favourable position at the confluence of the Saone and Rhone, and is marked
out as a natural intermediary between north and south. The surrounding heights
offer excellent sites for forts. The great advantages of Lyons have been recognised
from the earliest times. L. Munatius Plancus planted a Roman colony upon the
height overlooking the confluence of the two rivers ; and Litgduiieiisis is spoken of
by Strabo as the " heart of Gaul." It remains to this day the primatial city of all
France, and the wealthiest society for propagating the Catholic faith has its seat
there. The force of tradition still exhibits itself in the veneration with which
the Lyonese regard the hill of Fourvieres and its old church, built upon the site
of the old Forum (Fore tie ax) of the Romans. Another church, that of Ainay in
the lower town, is partly constructed from the materials of the temple which sixty
tribes of Gaul constructed in honour of Augustus.
The lowest quarter of the existing city, that of Perrache, only dates from the
last century, and bears the name of the engineer who converted its site into dry
land. It suffers more from floods than any other part of the town, and the fogs
are densest there. In it are situated the arsenal, a huge goods station, gas works,
and the docks for vessels navigating the Saone. Every one of the other quarters
of the town has a distinctive character. The centre of the town, around Place
Bellecour, is the seat of wealth and luxury. The business quarter lies at the foot
of the hill of La Croix-Rousse, itself occupied by the dwellings of the workmen.
Brotteaux, to the east of the Rhone, is inhabited by clerks and tradesmen, and
adjoins the beautiful park of Tete-d'Or. La Guillotiere, to the south of it, is a
workmen's quarter. Vaise, beyond the Rhone, abounds in manufactories. Suburbs
extend in all directions. The traces still existing of the dominion of the Romans
are limited to the remains of three aqueducts, baths, amphitheatres, and other
structures. The Palace of Arts, one of the most sumptuous buildings of modern
Lyons, abounds not only in Roman antiquities, but contains likewise a valuable
collection of paintings, a library of 70,000 volumes, and a natural history collec-
tion. The busts of celebrated men born in the town, including those of Ampere,
Bernard de Jussieu, Fhindrin, Delorme, and others, have been placed within it.
The Exchange and Merchants' Hall contains an industrial museum modelled upon
that of South Kensington. Public monuments abound. Science is represented by
colleges and schools, by a public library of 180,000 volumes, and by numerous
societies, including one of agriculture, which possesses a model farm on the heights
of Ecully.
Lyons is one of the great industrial centres of the world. There are machine
shops, chemical works, and manufactories of paper-hangings ; but the town is most
famous for its silks. The latter industry was introduced by Italians, whom
Louis XL encouraged to settle in the town. The revocation of the Edict of
172
FRANCE.
Nantes threatened destruction to this industry, but it survived the blow then
inflicted, and, in spite of wars and revolutions, Lyons has maintained its pre-
eminent position. In 1872 there were 120,000 looms in the department, 240,000
persons were employed in the silk industry, and the average value of silk stuffs
produced annually is estimated at nearly 20,000,000 sterling. Most of the
weavers work at their own homes, and their demeanour and character differ very
favourably from those of ordinary factory hands. At the same time the solitary
Fig. 131. THE ENVIRONS OF LYONS.
Scale 3au,ooo
Id Miles.
life which most of them lead nourishes a sp'rit of mystical exaltation which rises
to the surface whenever there is a revolution.
Formerly nearly all the weavers lived in the town, but the manufacturers,
desirous of weakening their unions and of obtaining cheaper labour, have trans-
planted the silk industry to most of the neighbouring towns and villages. Villeur-
bnnne (8,163 inhabitants), Vcnissieux (1,943 inhabitants), Ste. Foy (4,337 inha-
biVants), Ottilias (4,886 inhabitants), St. Gents (2,246 inhabitants), Caluire ct Cuire
(7,207 inhabitants), and Neuville (3,207 inhabitants) are inhabited to a large
LYONS. 173
extent by weavers. Nay, the great industry of Lyons extends far beyond the
limits of the department, for the looms of Chambery, in Savoy, work on account
of Lyonese houses.
L'Arbresle (3,091 inhabitants), to the west of the hills of Lyons, has quarries,
lime works, and, at St. Bel, almost inexhaustible deposits of pyrites, which supply
nearly all France with the material required for the manufacture of sulphur and
sulphuric acid. The village of Chcuisy-les-Mines, close by, was formerly important
on account of its copper mines. Tarare (13,563 inhabitants), on the railway to
Roanne, enjoys a high reputation for its muslins and embroidery, its plush and
velvets. Amplepuis (4,047 inhabitants), Thizy (3,179 inhabitants), and Cours
(3,897 inhabitants), near it, are likewise manufacturing places.
Beaujeu (3,043 inhabitants), which gives its name to the district of Beaujolais,
Villffranche (11,994 inhabitants), and Belleville (2,691 inhabitants), have some
manufactures, but agricultural pursuits predominate in that portion of the depart-
ment. The wines of Beaujolais enjoy a high reputation, the most famous growths
being produced on porphyritic granite.
Givors (10,856 inhabitants), on the Rhone, to the south of Lyons, is a dependency
of St. Etienne rather than of the city just named. Its iron works, glass works,
and brick-kilns are supplied with fuel from the neighbouring coal mines. The
famous wine known as Cote-Rotie grows on the slopes of sunburnt Mont Pila,
close by.
CHAPTER V.
THE PLATEAU OF CENTRAL FRANCE.
GEVAUDAN, VELAY, AUVERONE, ROUERGUE, LIMOUSIN, PERiooiin, MARCHE, BOURBONNAIS.*
THE CEVENNES.
I HE granitic protuberance in the centre of France, whence the rivers
radiate towards the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, has not inaptly
been called a " pole of divergence," from which the people emigrate
in all directions, and more especially towards the basin of the Seine,
within which lies the "pole of attraction." The plateau under
consideration covers an area of 31,000 square miles, and interposes a barrier 190
miles in length between the north and south of France. Its heights had to be
scaled before the people dwelling on its opposite slopes became one, and although
this national fusion was not accomplished without wars and bloodshed, it led in
the end to the common enjoyment of the blessings of civilisation.
The plateau, as a whole, slopes down gently towards the north-west, and is
bounded in the south and east by steep mountains. The Cevennes constitute the
most important portion of the semicircular chain of mountains which envelop the
plateau on the south-east, and form the water- shed between the Mediterranean and
the Atlantic. They begin with the Montagne Noir (" black mountain," 3,970 feet),
to the east of the gap of Revel, through which runs the railway connecting Castel-
naudary with Castres. The valley of the Thore. tributary to the Tarn, separates
these Black Mountains from the mountain rampart of Espinouze (4,198. feet),
rising almost precipitously above the valleys of the Jaur and Orb, but sloping
down gently towards the north-west. In the east this portion of the Cevennes
terminates in a savage mountain mass, where granites and sedimentary strata
intermingle in strange confusion, and which has been pierced in several places by
volcanic eruptions. It almost appears as if a subterranean lake of lava extended
in former times from the dome-shaped mountain of Auvergne to the shore of the
Mediterranean ; that is, along a line where the contrasts between north and south
are most striking. On one slope of the mountains we have rivulets, meadows, and
* Poulett Scrope, "Volcanoes of Central France;" Rames, " Geosenie du Cantal;" A. Jullien,
" Des Phenomenes Glaciaire dans le Plateau Central de la France ; " Burat, " Geologic de la France."
THE CEVENNES.
175
forests ; on the other, stony torrent beds, odoriferous herbs, and rare trees. The
contrast between the inhabitants is equally great, and the dweller in the plain,
proud of his ancient civilisation, looks with disdain upon the Gavache inhabiting
the plateau, though the latter does not yield to him in industry.
In the east of the Orb the Garrigues thus named from the kermes oaks, or
garrus, which cover their slopes form the southern edge of a series of lime-
stone plateaux known as causses, from the Latin calx, lime. The most southern
of these is that of Larzac (2,980 feet), but the most typical is the Causse of Mejean
(4,260 feet), a huge mass of limestone 100,000 acres in extent, and bounded on
all sides by steep precipices. There can be no doubt that these causses were
formerly continuous, though separated now by deep canons, which excite the
Pig. 132. THE MOUNTAINS OF ESPINOUZE.
Soole 1 : 240,000.
o?so-E. <ii Paris
6 Miles.
admiration of geologists. No running streams are met with on these limestone
"tables," the rain disappearing almost immediately beneath the surface. The
inhabitants carefully collect the rain-water in cisterns ; and in summer, when the
supply fails them, they are obliged to descend into the canons in search of it.
Springs of sparkling water abound there ; and the shrubs and trees which flourish
near them contrast most strikingly with the barren rocks around. The causses
are covered with herbage, and the inhabitants, very few in number, confine them-
selves to the cultivation of oats, barley, and potatoes. The herbage, however,
scanty as it is, supports thousands of sheep, which furnish excellent wool, and
from whose milk is manufactured the famous cheese known as Roquefort. In
winter, when these plateaux are covered with snow to the depth of several feet, and
176
FRANCE.
most of the inhabitants have deserted them, it is sometimes dangerous to cross
them.
Dolmens abound on these limestone plateaux, whilst scarcely any are met with
in the crystalline region which adjoins them. It has been concluded from this
circumstance that the ancient inhabitants of the plateau differed in origin and
religion from their neighbours. Even at the present day the dwellers on the
limestone plateau of the Lozere differ in many respects from the men inhabiting
the district of granitic hills which slopes down westward in the direction of the
Aveyron, and culminate in the Levezou (3,785 feet). On the one hand we have
sweet herbage, a little barley, and oats ; on the other the granitic slopes are covered
Fig. 133. THE CAUSSE OF MEJEAN.
Scale 1 : 316,000.
K <.f P.
'3?20-E.ofC
. Sffliles.
with shrub, and rye-fields, or seyalas, extend along their foot. The peasant of the
causses, or Caussenard, who eats bread made of barley or oats, and drinks clear
water, is tall and bony, and far stronger than his neighbour of the granitic
district, who lives upon rye and chestnuts, and drinks cider.
To the east of these Jurassic limestone plateaux lies the principal mass of the
Cevennes, surmounted by the Esperon (4,658 feet) and the superb granite dome of
Aigoual (5,141 feet). This is one of the wildest districts of France; but the bears,
stags, and wild boars which formerly inhabited its forests have disappeared, and
there now remain only wolves.
A rugged granite region, anciently known as Gevaudan, occupies the south-
eastern corner of the department of Lozere, and expands farther north into a
THE VOLCANOES C
*
Champ*
r ,ik x. *
Granite
Lara
Carbonifiero-us
Sc
NEW
CENTRAL FRANCE.
E Paris
Y
**
f-y*-'' "N;
-Jfet^r
^ n -Jf^^ aid
en ^ !*
) -,^ < o j f f Jk
^** fa
f ,'. ;
^J^'
ly
~PO
Tn
ChalU
AlUrvijnu
|
MEZENC AND VIVAEAIS. 177
dome-shaped mass of granite 116 square miles in extent, and attaining in Mont
Finieils a height of 5,638 feet. The limestone, which to all appearance formerly
covered this plateau, has been removed by denudation. Even the crystalline rock
has been subjected to erosive action. We meet with huge blocks of granite, and
every cavity is filled up with shingle or coarse gravel. There are few villages, and
their inhabitants are very poor.
Whilst the south-eastern portion of Lozere is diversified by mountains, that
part of the department which lies to the north of the Lot is one of the most
desolate regions of all France, consisting of barren plateaux traversed by a few
sparsely wooded granitic ridges, such aa the hills of the Goulet (4.918 feet), the
forest of Mercoire (4,925 feet), the mountains t>f La Murgeride (5,098 feet), and
the region derisively called " King's Palace " (4,212 feet).
MEZENC AND VIVARAIS.
THE volcanic region of Mont Mezenc and Coiron, to the east of this granitic
plateau, separates the southern Cevennes from the northern prolongation of that
mountain chain, terminating in the pyramid of Mont Pila (4,703 feet), from the
summit of which the view extends across the Rhone valley to the snowy heights of
Mont Blanc. The diversified eastern slopes of the Cevennes, with their mulberry
plantations, vineyards, and chestnut forests, contrast most strikingly with the
elongated slopes stretching towards the north and west.
The first volcanic cones are met with immediately to the north of Mont Tanargue
(4,785 feet), a buttress of the plateau of Vivarais. The southernmost of these
extinct volcanoes is that of Jaujac, the slopes of which are for the most part covered
with chestnut trees, which here, as in Italy, flourish most on disintegrated basalt.
Streams of lava extend from the old " cup," or crater, northwards into the valley
of the Lignon, which flows between cliffs of basalt and granite. Lower down on
that river, where it joins the Ardeche, rises the " Gravenne " of Souillols. The
village of Thueyts, higher up in the valley of the Ardeche, stands upon a stream
of lava terminating in a magnificent range of basalt 160 feet in height. Close by
rises the regular cone of the Gravenne of Montpezat, surrounded with fields
of lava, through which the Ardeche and its tributaries have cut themselves
a passage. The crater, or cup, of Aizac (2,126 feet), which rises in solitary
grandeur in the valley of the Volane, is better known than any other of the
volcanoes of Lower Vivarais, owing to its proximity to the cold mineral springs
of Vals. Springs discharging mephitic gases have been discovered further
west.
But these six old volcanoes lying at the foot of the granitic plateau of Vivarais
are very insignificant in comparison with the volcanic mountain range which forms
the water-shed between Rhone and Loire, and in the centre of which rise the three
"teeth" of Mont Mezenc (5,755 feet), surrounded by subsidiary cones, amongst
which the Gerbier de Jones (5,124 feet) is remarkable as giving birth to the river
Loire. The phonolithic lava of Mont Mezenc must have burst forth in a high
49
178
FRANCE.
state of fusion, for it spread rapidly over the granitic plateau, and the height of
the volcanic cones here is less than that of the Cantal and Mont Core, although
the latter rest upon a much lower basis. Mr. Poulett Scrope even thinks that the
lava currents extended as far north as the phonolithic cones of Meygal (4,717 feet).
These lava beds would thus overspread an area of 154 square miles, their average
thickness being 390 feet. They are now for the most part clothed with forests of
Fig 134. THE DEFILE OP THE ARDECHE, NEAR ROOMS.
oak and firs. Other streams of lava flowed towards the east, covering the granitic
hills of Coiron (3,380 feet), and even descending into the valley of the Rhone.
This latter, since the last eruption of lava, has been scooped out to a depth of
nearly 1,000 feet, whilst the hills of Coiron, protected by their cap of lava,
offered a greater resistance to the destructive action of geological agencies ; but
they, too, are gradually being destroyed, and huge blocks of basalt sometimes
slide down into the valleys, the castle of Rochemaure being built upon one
VELAY.
179
of them. These hills, are remarkable, moreover, on account of their promon-
tories formed of columnar basalt, and resembling the castles of an ancient race of
giants.
VELAY.
THE deep valley of erosion scooped out by the Loire separates the volcanoes of
Mezenc from the volcanic plateau of Velay, covered with basaltic lavas vomited
from at least a hundred and fifty craters, most of which can scarcely be distin-
guished now. Streams of lava have frequently blocked up the valley of the
Fig. 135. THE HII.LS OF COIRON.
Scale 1 : 200,000.
ft Mik-n.
Loire and of the Allier, but these rivers have scooped themselves out new
channels, frequently laying bare magnificent columns of basalt. One of the
grandest of these defiles is that of the Loire at Chamalieres, excavated in
granite and basaltic lava to a depth of 980 feet. The volcanic formations in
the vicinity of Le Puy (2,050 feet) are better known than any others in this
region. They include columnar basalt, sheets of lava, and dykes. Close to the
black houses of the town the " Needle " of St. Michel, an obelisk of lava, and the
rock of Corneille (2,484 feet), raise their heads. Beyond the dismantled walls of
Polignac, in the north-west, we reach the columns of basalt of La Denise, known
as the " Cross of Straw " and the " Organ " of Espaly. It was here M. Aymard
180
FRANCE.
discovered the fossil remains of animals which roamed over this region when the
surrounding volcanoes were yet in a state of eruption. Two human skeletons have
likewise been discovered, dating back, in all probability, to the same epoch. The
flora of the country does not appear to have changed since then. Fine garnets
and sapphires abound in the basalt of Espaly.
Around Le Puy every available spot is covered with vegetation, but the plateau
which extends thence to the south is of grievous uniformity. It consists of a wide
Fig. 136. LE PUY.
Scale 1 : 60,000.
plain covered with turf or stunted trees, over which are scattered the black
cones of extinct volcanoes, the largest amongst which, that of the wood of
L'Hopital (4,663 feet), rises but little above the general surface. A cavity pro-
duced by the escape of a prodigious bubble of gas is occupied by the Lake of
Bouchet (3,926 feet). The Lake of Limagne, farther north, is supposed to have
originated in the same manner ; but the old Lake of Bar (3,828 feet), now drained
and converted into a beech wood, occupied the crater of an extinct volcano.
THE VOLCANOES OF AUVERGNE. 181
THE VOLCANOES OF AUVERGNE.
A THIRD volcanic region, that of Auvergne, lies to the east of the deep valley
of the Allier and of the granitic spur of Margeride. The volcanic nature of this
region has at all times been known to the peasants living there, and many of
the mountains are called by them Peyre Arse ; that is, " burnt mountain ; " but
Guettard, in 1751, was the first who revealed the existence of these French
volcanoes to the world of science. The southermost volcanic group of the
Auvergne occupies the granitic plateau of Aubrac (4,825 feet), rising steeply
above the valley of the Lot, and covered for the most part with pasture grounds,
which support in summer about 30,000 cows and 40,000 sheep. Dolmens, locally
known as " fairy bowers " or " magicians' castles," are scattered over the plateau,
but the only human dwellings met with are the clusters of btirons inhabited
by cheese-makers. The people of this remote part of France have preserved
their ancient manners, and even something of their ancient religion. On the
second Sunday of July, as in the time of Gregory of Tours, they walk in procession
to the Lake of St. Andeol, bathe in its turfy waters, and throw into it the
clothes of the sick and propitiatorv offerings. The extinct volcanoes of Aubrac
possess no special features, but to the north of them rise the hot springs of Chaudes-
Aigues, yielding a supply of water amply sufficing for all domestic purposes as
well as for heating most of the houses in winter. The principal of these springs
lias a temperature of nearly 180 F., and the soil in the neighbourhood is so warm
that in spite of the elevation of the town (2,130 feet), snow never remains on the
ground.
Crossing the valley of the Truyere, we reach the most considerable volcanic
group of France, that of Mont Cautal, which can fairly compare with Mount
Etna and other great volcanoes. The various summits of the Cantal form
collectively an isolated cone 95 miles in circumference, and resting upon a
base of granite. Up to the tertiury epoch the centre of this granitic base was
occupied in part by huge fresh-water lakes. The first eruptions took place in
the miocene age, the last and most terrible of all during the quaternary period.
The lava then ejected enveloped all the cones which existed at that time ; it over-
whelmed the forests, converting them into a thin lnyer of coal, and filled up the
valleys to a depth of nearly 400 feet. The old volcano probably rose to a
height of 8,200 feet, but there remain now only the shattered and worn
fragments of its semicircular ridge, the most elevated points of which are the
Plomb du Cantal (6,025 feet), the Puy Mary (5,803 feet), and the Puy Cha-
viiroche (5,722 feet). Valleys, scooped out by ancient glaciers, some of which
had a length of nearly 20 miles, and by torrents, radiate in all directions
from the central heights. Those of Cere and Alagnon are connected near their
summits by the two tunnels of Lioran, which pierce the mountain at a height
of 3,870 and 3,800 feet respectively, and are traversed by a road and a rail-
way. These deep valleys lay open the geological structure of the mountain,
and exhibit beds of gravel, carboniferous sandstones, and granite, subsequently
182
FRANCE.
covered by currents of basaltic lava. The slopes of the Plomb du Cantal, and
especially those exposed to the moist westerly winds, are covered with forests of
beeches and firs. In the east the forests are confined to the valley bottoms. The
currents of lava there form a monotonous treeless plateau known as Planeze, and
terminating in promontories of columnar basalt, upon one of which is perched
the old capital of Upper Auvergne, St. Flour (2,903 feet). The Alagnon separates
Fig. 137. THE PUY DE L'AIGULLLIER, MONT DOME.
the Planeze from another basaltic plateau to the north of it, which terminates
likewise in curious columnar formations.
The basaltic plateaux of Cezallier, stretching from the Dordogne to the Allier
in the east, separate the Mont du Cantal from the most ancient and conspicuous
volcanic mass of Auvergne, that of Mont Dore. Though covering a smaller area than
its neighbour of Cantal, it is here that the highest mountain of Central France,
the Puy de S.iney (6,180 feet), raises its head, surrounded by other peaks hardly
inferior to it in altitude, such as the Puy Ferrant, the Puy de PAiguillier (5,076
THE VOLCANOES OF AUVERGNE.
188
feet), and the Cacadogne. No regular crater can now be traced, but one probably
existed in the vicinity of Mont Doie (3,:i30 feet), a trachytic cone, near which
the Dordogne and the Couze of Chambon take their rise. The beds of lava
descend from this mountain, often in uninterrupted sheets, until they reach and
spread themselves round its base. At a later period Mont Dore had its cap of ice,
and glaciers descendid from it to a distance of 25 miles.
When the great central volcano of Mont Dore Lecame extinct, other vents
Fig. 138. THE PUT OF SANCY AND THE LAKE DISTRICT.
Scale 1 : 80,000.
opened in its vicinity, and amongft these Mont Tartaret (3,156 feel) discharged
its lavas, now covered with beeches and pines, rijjht across the valley of the
Couze, and, by drawing up the waters of that river, led to the formation of the
Lake of Chambon (2,887 feet), the most delightful sheet of water in Auvergne,
surrounded by meadows and trees, and having several biuall wooded islands.
184
PRANCE.
Fig. 139.-
CHAIN OF THE PUT DE DOME.
Scale 1 : 100,000.
10137' E i P.
^~ '. 1 F""' r ^'^KW I t'-T
The plateau to the north of Mont Dore is covered with volcanic cones
of comparatively recent origin. Two of these, the Montsineyre (4,372 feet)
and the Montchal (4,628 feet), are mirrored in small lakes, the one formed by the
damming up of a rivulet, the other occupying an old crater. Amongst the many
other lakes which fill depressions of this plateau, that of Pavin (3,925 feet) is dis-
tinguished by its aspect of solemn grandeur. The inhabitants formerly dreaded
it as the seat of evil spirits, but having been
stocked with trout, it has lost its terrors..
Its depth is 308 feet, and it is fed by sub-
terranean streams.
Thermal and mineral springs abound in
this region, those of Mont Dore and of La
Bourboule, near the source of the Dordogne,
being the most frequented. The springs of
St. Nectaire are the best known of those
on the eastern slope, their water resembling
that of Ems. Altogether there are no less
than 200 springs, carbonate of soda asso-
ciated with chloride of sodium predominat-
ing in the hot springs, whilst the cold ones
are almost without exception charged with
carbonic acid.
A chain of volcanic pays rising from
the granitic plateau bounded by the valleys
of the Allier and Sioule forms the termina-
tion of the volcanic region of Central France
towards the north. Some of these puys
are dome-shaped, others have the appear-
ance of truncated cones ; and craters and
old lava currents, or c/ieires, can still be
distinguished. The Puy de Dome (4,805
feet), a dome-shaped mass of trachyte, is
not only the highest summit of the whole
range, but, on account of its regular
shape and commanding aspect, is the most
famous. A temple dedicated to Mercury
formerly stood upon its summit, and a
physical observatory has recently been
erected there. Immediately to the north of it lies the crater of the Little Puy de
Dome, locally known as the " Hen's Nest." The Puy de Come (4,116 feet), near
Clermont, has two distinct craters on its summits, from which broad streams of lava
have poured down into the valley of the Sioule, filling the ancient river channel for
the distance of more than a mile. The Sioule, thus dispossessed of its bed, has
worked out a fresh one between the lava and the granite of its western bank. Its
4 Miles.
THE VOLCANOES OF AUVERGNE.
185
neighbour, the Puy de Pariou, is remarkable on account of the sharpness of the
brim of its crater. Farther north lies the dome-shaped Sarcouy, the clinkstone
of which is used in the manufacture of filters and glass. But the most curious
volcano of that region is the Puy Chopine, a dome rising from a crater formed
of scoriaD, and consisting of granite placed " like the ham of a sandwich " between
layers of basalt and trachyte. The range terminates in the north with two great
volcanoes, the Puys of Louchadiere and Nugere, from both of which immense
sheets of lava extend to the east or west. At Volvic there are vast quarries,
from which the towns in the neighbourhood procure most of their building
stones.
Most of the cones to the south of the Puy de Dome have craters on their
summits. The combined lava streams of the Puys of Lassola, de la Vache,
and Vichatel have dammed up the valley of the Veyre, forming the Lake of
Aydat (2,710 feet), upon the borders of which stood Avitacum, the residence of
Sidonius Apollinaris. Amongst old volcanoes farther south are the Gravenoir
Fig. 140. VOLVIC.
Scale 1 : 70,000.
. iMflo.
(" black gravel "), thus called from the colour of its ash, and the Tazanat, the crater
of which is occupied by a lake. Near Aigueperse there is a " poison spring"
discharging carbonic acid.
Numerous traces of volcanic activity are met with between the eastern slope
of this range and the plain of the Allier ; amongst others, the famous basaltic
plateau of Gergovia (2,440 feet), the ancient capital of the country, defended by
Vercingetorix against the legions of Julius Caesar.
The integrity of many cones of the Auvergne is aue, according to Sir Charles
Lyell, to the loose porous nature of the soil, which instantly absorbs all moisture,
and thus prevents the formation of rills. The water thus absorbed is discharged
lower down as bounteous springs, some of which are valued for their medicinal
properties, whilst others cover the rocky surfaces over which they flow with a
coating of calc-taff, and incrustate all objects exposed to their action. The most
famous of these is that of St. Allyre at Clermont, which has built itself an aqueduct
250 feet in length, terminating in a superb arch thrown across the rivulet of Tire-
186
FRANCE.
taine. Lecoq and other geologists trace the existence of limestones and gypsum in
Auvergne to the action of this and other calcareous springs. They have con-
tributed, too, towards the formation of the fertile plain of the Allier known as
Limagne. This plain, during the miocene age, was a vast fresh-water lake, but
long before the volcanoes surrounding it had ceased their activity this lake had
been drained. The calcareous and other springs then deposited lime, silica, and
gypsum, but it is to a layer of volcanic ashes that Limagne is indebted for its
marvellous fecundity.
Amongst the mineral productions of the Auvergne are argentiferous lead,
which is mist abundant on the western slope of Mont Dome, and coal, the car-
boniferous strata extending along the western foot of the volcanoes, from Mauriac
to Moulins and Montlu9on, being bedded with surprising regularity.
Fig. 141. THE MEANDEHINQS OP THE LOT.
Scale 1 : aiU.000.
. 5 Miles.
LIMOUSIN.
THE granitic platform of Auvergne penetrates like a blunt wedge between the
Jurassic and tertiary rocks in the west, and forms a series of sterile plateaux or
terraces, the most elevated of which is that of Mille Vaches ("thousand cows,"
3,2^8 feet), in which the Vienne, the Vezere, and the northern tributaries of the
Dordogne take their rise. The range of hills which thence extends to the west
is even less elevated. These hills and plateaux have for the most part been
robbed of their forests, and their sole covering consists of shrubs and heather, but
the valleys which pierce them are often delightfully beautiful and of great
fertility. Potter's earth abounds, and has given rise to much industry ; metallic
veins traverse the granite ; and beds of coal are met with occasionally along a line
M
1
o
I
3
LIMOUSIN.
187
separating the crystalline rocks from the sedimentary ones. The western prolonga-
tion of the plateau consists almost exclusively of Jurassic limestones and chalk.
The limestone region lying between Figeac, Cahors, and Montauhan resembles in
every respect the causses of Aveyron (page 175), though, owing to its smaller
elevation, it enjoys a milder climate. The hilly district farther north, traversed
by the Dordogne and its tributaries, is very different in aspect. The sinuous
course of the rivers traversing these secondary strata clearly marks out the
difference between them and the granite. The Lot, flowing in a deep ravine
excavated in Jurassic limestone, abruptly twists to the right and left, whilst
Fig. 142. THE RAPIDS OP LALINDE.
Scale 1 : 160,000.
a Miles.
the Dordogne and other rivers, taking their course between gentle hills, wind
about them in a more placid fashion.
Of all the rivers rising in Central France the Dordogne is the one which for
the greatest part of its course belongs to the plateaux, differing in that respect
essentially from the Loire and the Allier, which even in their upper course
traverse ancient lake basins. The Dordogne, on the other hand, is confined
within a narrow ravine until it debouches upon the lowlands of Aquitaine. At
Bretenoux it escapes from the region of granite, and then winds about amongst
limestone hills, its bed being frequently obstructed by rocks. One of these rapids,
that of Lalinde, occurs only a few miles above Bergerac, and even below that
188 FRANCE.
town navigation is interfered with by rapids. Though rendered navigable for a
distance of 250 miles above its tidal head for barges drawing 12 inches, the
Dordogne, owing to these rapids, is very little used as a commercial highway.
FOREZ, ^BEAUJOLAIS, CHAROLLAIS.
THE surface of the granitic plateau to the east of the Allier is far more
varied than that to the west of the river, and more especially in the hills of
Forez (5,380 feet) we meet with landscape scenery quite Alpine in its character,
the bottom of the valleys being covered with meadows, and their slopes wooded.
One of the most delightful valleys of this part of France, the scene of the pastoral
plays of Honore d'Urfe, is that of the northern Liguon. Beyond this valley
porphyry enters largely into the structure of the hills, including the Bois-Noirs, or
" black forest" (4,238 feet), and the range of La Madeleine (3,820 feet).
The wide valley of the Loire and the coal basin of St. Etienne, one of the
most productive of France, separate the heights of Forez from the ranges form-
ing the northern continuation of the Cevennes, and constituting the water-shed
between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. Granites predominate in these
ranges, but are associated with a great variety of other rocks. The heights
usually known as those of Lyonnais (3,293 feet) consist of granite and meta-
morphic rocks. The mountains of Beaujclais (3,320 feet) are composed of lime-
stones, marls, and sandstones, pierced by porphyries which , form picturesque
promontories along the Saone, and extend westward across the valley of the
Loire until they join the porphyries of Forez. In the hills of Charollais (2,540
feet) granite plays but a subordinate part, most of the area being occupied l,y
Jurassic limestones and still more recent formations abounding in fossils. There
are several coal basins, the best known amongst them being that of Le Creusot.
The Canal du Centre, which joins the Loire to the Saone, passes across a depression
in this range (1,100 feet) which completely severs the outlying porphyritic and
granitic mountains of Murvan (2,9b'0 feet) from the great ceniral plateau of
France.
INHABITANTS.
STERILITY of soil, an inclement climate, and remoteness from the great high-roads
of commerce sufficiently account for the sparse population of the central plateau
of France. Only the fertile plains of Limagne and of the Loire and the mining
districts can boast of a population exceeding the average of France. In the coal
basins of the Loire the population has doubled since the beginning of the century ;
but though the cattle breeders inhabiting the regions of pasturage have been
benefited by this increase, the country, nevertheless, is not capable of supporting
the whole of its children, and emigration to the more favoured regions of France
is continuing steadily. Auvergnate canvassers are met with throughout France,
and even in some of the neighbouring countries, and many of the new buildings
in Paris have been constructed by masons imported from Correze, Haute- Vienne,
and Creuse. The emigration from Cantal to Spain, first called into existence by
LOZKRE. HATJTE-LOIRE. 189
the pilgrimages to the holy shrine of Compostella, where the monks of Aurillac
had a church, has not yet ceased. The peasants of Ytrac and Crandelles, two
villages to the west of Aurillac, are those who visit Spain most frequently, and this
familiarity with the countries lying beyond the Pyrenees is said to be reflected in
their customs, and even physique.
In former times the Auvergnates regularly returned to their homes to enjoy
the fruits of their thrift. They kept aloof from strangers when abroad, and
though honest, their love of gain supplanted all other feelings. They were
hospitable and straightforward only when dealing with their own countrymen. In
our own days, however, many Auvergnates never return to their native home, and
become merged in the general population of modern France.
TOPOGRAPHY.
LOZEKE. This is one of the poorest regions of France, and its popular designa-
tion as Gevaudan that is, country of the Gabales is involuntarily associated in
our mind with a barren, storm-beaten plateau. The rivers Lot and Tarn drain
most of the department into the Garonne, only a small portion of it being drained
by the Allier and the Ardeche, the former a tributary of the Loire, the latter
of the Rhone. There are profitable lead mines (produce 435 tons of lead), but
hardly any industry.
Mende (6,239 inhabitants), lying at a height of 2,460 feet above the sea, is
looked upon as a place of exile by the functionaries who are stationed here.
Coarse woollen stuffs are manufactured, and many strangers pass through the
town in summer on their way to the sulphur springs of Bagnols, in the valley of
the Lot. Marrejoh (4,C38 inhabitants), in a side valley of the Lot, manufactures
coarse woollens. To the north of it, near the Truyere, lies Javols, the old capital
of the Gabales, and still farther north the small town of St. Alban (1,148
inhabitants). Florae (1,845 inhabitants), near the Tarn, and in one of the canons
bounding the Causse of Mejean, und Calas (584 inhabitants), near which are lead
mines, are the only places of any importance in the south, where Protestant
Camisards and the dragoons of Louis XIV. waged a bloody war. Chuteauneuf-
Ranilon recalls the death of Duguesclin in 1380. The principal town on the rail-
way which runs through the east of Lozere, up the valley of the Allier, is
Linnjfiijite (ti,'<>28 inhabitants).
HAL'TE-LOTRE includes the whole cf ancient Velay, together with some adjoin-
ing districts, and though much of its surface consists of sterile granitic plateaux
and sheets of lava, its population is relatively dense, for there are mineral
treasures, fine pastures, and manufactures of ribbons and point-lace, known as
(lenti'llcH <lu PHI/.
Le Pny-en-Veldff (19,010 inhabitants) was a great place of pilgrimage during
the Middle Ages. The houses of the old town cluster round a venerable cathedra],
a colossal statue of the Virgin surmounts the rock of Corneille, whilst an old chapel
crowns the neighbouring Aiguille, or needle. The new town lies at the foot of
1'JO FRANCE.
these hills, and contains the Government buildings, a museum rich in local
antiquities, and several public monuments of merit. The manufacture of point
and blond lace is the great business of the town, and indeed of the entire depart-
ment. Fortunately the population is not wholly dependent upon this fluctuating
branch of industry. Cattle are bred for the Lyons market, mules are exported to the
Pyrenees, and the peasants of Velay thus come into contact with the outer world,
and they no longer ostentatiously throw their knife upon the table when entering
an inn. The neighbourhood of Le Puy abounds in natural curiosities, savage
defiles, and fields of lava. The castle of Polignac, with its old well, 272 feet in
depth, occupies a hill to the north-west of the town, and farther away, in the same
direction, near St. Pan lien (1,458 inhabitants), there are numerous caverns, and
the romantic castle of Roche-Lambert, admirably described by Georges Sand.
Other caverns, formerly inhabited, lie to the south-east of Le Puy, near the old
hamlet of La Terrasse.
Yssinyeaux (3,716 inhabitants), St. Didier (2,219 inhabitants), and Nonistrol
(2,299 inhabitants), in the eastern half of the department beyond the Loire, lie
within the sphere of the great manufacturing town of St. Etienne, and, in
addition or instead of lace, they manufacture ribbons, taffety, paper, cutlery, and
cotton twist.
Brioiidc (4,643 inhabitants), on the Allier, is the capital of the poorest arron-
dissement of the department, which nevertheless possesses considerable resources in
its argentiferous lead mines (at Paulhaguet) and coal (near Langeac, 3,530 inha-
bitants). A great part of this district formerly belonged to the famous abbey of
Chaise-Dieu.
AVEYROX is the modern representative of Le Rouergue. Its principal rivers-
Lot, Avej'ron, and Tarn discharge their waters into the Garonne. The greater
portion of the surface consists of sterile segalas, or rye-fields ; but mineral treasures
abound, and in 1875 there were produced 741, (>00 tons of coal, 75,000 tons of
iron and steel, and 2,350 tons of zinc.
Millau (14,482 inhabitants;, on the Turn, is the largest town of the department,
and some of the spirit of enterprise peculiar to the Protestants who inhabited it
until the revocation of the Edict of Nantes survives to this day, and, in addition to
agricultural produce, its inhabitants export leather gloves, dressed skins, cloth, and
silk stuffs. St. Affrique (5,572 inhabitants), on a tributary of the Tarn, has played as
important a part during the religious wars as Millau, and its linens and leather
enjoy a high reputation to the present day. Roquefort, a village in the neigh-
bourhood, has been famous since the eleventh century for its cheese, which owes its
excellent qualities to its being placed in natural caverns of equable temperature
to " ripen." In 1876 the milk of no less than 350,000 ewes was converted into
10,000,000 Ibs. of cheese. " Bastard" caverns have been excavated elsewhere in
the Cevennes, but the cheese placed in them does not acquire the properties of real
Roquefort.
Rodcz (12,881 inhabitants), on the Aveyron, with a Gothic cathedral, from the
tower of which may be obtained a magnificent view of the surrounding country, is
TARN.
191
an ancient city, still enclosed within mediaeval walls, and supplied with, water by
means of a Roman aqueduct only discovered in 1856. A most productive coal
basin lies to the north-west of that town, extending to the river Lot and beyond,
its principal centres of population being Aubin (2,472 inhabitants) and Dccazeville
(5,968 inhabitants). The coal, unfortunately, is of inferior quality, but in spite of
this, iron works, forges, foundries, machine shops, and glass works have sprung
up near the mines, contrasting curiously with the ruined castles crowning the
neighbouring heights. At Cransac there are mineral springs. The coal near this
place took fire centuries ago, and still keeps burning.
Villtfranche (7,819 inhabitants) is a curious old town, charmingly situated on
the Aveyron, near the western frontier of the department. The north, including
Fig. 143. ROQUEFORT.
Scale 1 : 160,000.
the valleys of the Lot. the Bourdon, and the Truyere, is equally noted for its
picturesque scenery, though rarely visited. The principal towns there are St.
Geniez (3,167 inhabitants), in the "country of Olt," and Expnlion (2,580 inhabit-
ants). Conyuet and Buzonh are delightful villages in the valley of the Dourdou.
TARN, the ancient Albigeois, embraces a mountainous crystalline region in the
east, and a fertile hilly region in the west, the latter a productive agricultural
district, the former more adapted for the breeding of cattle and sheep. The coal
basin of Carmaux, yielding about 2oO,000 tons a year, lies within the department.
Two towns in the picturesque valley of the Cerou, which traverses the northern
portion of the department, contrast strangely with each other, the one, Carmaiu:
(5, -384 inhabitants), having but recently grown from a small village into an impor-
192
FRANCE.
tant town, owing to its vicinity to productive coal mines ; whilst the other,
Conies (2,115 inhabitants), perched upon its high rock, has retained all the charac-
teristics of a town of the thirteenth century.
Albi (15,874 inhabitants), the principal town on the Tarn, the birthplace of
Fig. 144. DECAZEVILLE.
cale 1 : 90,000. The Coal Basin is shaded.
.44"
UK tie btaiimom
1 Mile.
J.apeyrouse, and the original seat of the Albigenses, upon which the hand of the
northern crusaders weighed heavily, abounds in curious old buildings, including a
cathedral built in brick, a fortified archiepiscopal palace, and a remarkable bridge
LOT. 193
over the Tarn. Near it are many old castles. At Lescure there is an old church
said to have been built by the Albigenses, and still farther to the east a series of
rapids, known asSaut-de-Sabo, stops the navigation of the Tarn. The lower valley
of that river is noted for its fertility. Gaillac (6,099 inhabitants) was the great
centre of the wine trade during the dominion of the English, whilst L'Isle d Albi
(1,743 inhabitants) and Habastens (3,108 inhabitants), in addition to vineyards,
have a few manufactories.
Castres (20,520 inhabitants), the great manufacturing centre of the department,
occupies a favourable position on the Agout, which is joined here by the There.
The manufacture of cloth is carried on there on a large scale, and there are also
dyeing-houses, tan-yards, paper-mills, and machine shops. Mazamct (10,770 inha-
bitants), on the Thore, has likewise grown into an important manufacturing town,
and there as well as at St. Amans-Sottlt (2,084 inhabitants), the birthplace of
Marshal Soult, in the same valley, similar industries are carried on as at Castres.
Ascending the Agout, we pass Roqiiecourbe and Vabre, two manufacturing villages,
and finally reach Lacauite, where there are marble quarries and manufactories of
spurious Roquefort cheese. Laraur (4,937 inhabitants), the principal town on the
Lower Agout, has silk and cotton mills, whilst Graulhet (4,435 inhabitants), in a
lateral valley, engages more especially in the dressing of hides.
Soreze (1,390 inhabitants), near the southern boundary of the department, to the
south of Castres, has become famous through its college, founded in the thirteenth
century by Benedictine monks.
LOT is the old province of Quercy, and consists for the greater part of com-
paratively sterile limestone plateaux, traversed by the river after which it has been
named. Only its north-eastern portion is mountainous.
Fiyeac (5,660 inhabitants) is the natural centre of this mountain region, but
although three lines of railway connect it now with the rest of France, it has quite
preserved its mediaeval aspect. The smiling valley of the Dor ogne contrasts
most pleasantly with the barren mountain region extending to the north of Figeac.
It abounds, too, in historical remains. At Mnrtel (1,617 inhabitants) there are
tumuli and mediaeval ruins, and Puy d'Issoli disputes with other places the honour
of being the site of ancient Uxellodunum. Rocamndour, in a side valley of the
Dordogne, is one of the most renowned places of pilgrimage in France, its origin,
like that of the neighbouring town of Gramat (2,040 inhabitants), dating back to
a very remote age. At Gramat there are mineral springs and a remarkable
swallow somewhat like the " fountain of Italy," near Alatri, and known as Le
Gouffre de Bede.
Ascending the heights immediately in the rear of Gramat, we find ourselves
upon the barren causse, or limestone plateau, of the Lot, the chief town of
which is Goitrdon (2,688 inhabitants). La Batstide, a poor village, was the birth-
place of Murat. The curiosities of this plateau include sinks, grave-hills, and
dolmens.
Culmr* (12,190 inhabitants), the Divona "fountain" of the ancient Gauls, is
named now after the tribe of the Cadurci, whose capital it was. It is the principal
50
194 FBANCE.
town on the Lot, and boasts of Roman ruins and remarkable mediaeval buildings,
including a cathedral and a -fortified bridge. In the time of the Romans Cahors
exported linens and mattresses ; it is now a great centre of the wine trade. The
valley of the Lot is one of the most productive wine districts of France, and from
Cajarc in the east, to Puy-fEveque (1,241 inhabitants) in the west, vineyard
adjoins vineyard. Castles abound in this portion of the country ; and Lusech has
been fixed upon by a scientific commission appointed by the late emperor as the
site of ancient Uxellodunum. Valuable deposits of phosphate of lime have been
discovered in the hills near Cahors.
CANTAL, which adjoins Lot in the east, is covered with forests, barren plateaux,
and mountains. Its inhal itants, to judge from their physique, are the purest of
Celts. The population is decreasing, for thousands leave their homes annually in
search of work, many of whom never return. The breeding of cattle and sheep
is of considerable importance, and so-called Dutch cheese is manufactured in the
filthy cabins, or burons, scattered over the plateaux.
Anrillac (10,399 inhabitants) the capital, lies at the foot of the old volcano of
Cantal, in the picturesque valley of the Jordane, which, a few miles below the
town, at Arpajon, joins the valley of the Cere. Aurillac was a place of impor-
tance as early as the ninth century. The most remarkable monument of the Middle
Ages is the old abbatial castle, which the citizens captured and partly razed to the
ground in 1233. The environs are delightful, more especially the valleys of the
Jordane and the Cere. Vic-mr-Cere, in the latter, was the capital of the barony
of Carlades during the Middle Ages, and is much frequented now for its mineral
waters. The baronial stronghold of Carfut, on a high basaltic rock to the south,
was destroyed by order of Henri IV. Naurs (1,949 inhabitants), on the road
to Figeac, has important fairs. The arrondissement of Mauriac lies wholly
within the basin of the Dordogne, and, consisting for the most part of upland
forests and pastures, is dependent upon cattle-breeding and the manufacture
of cheese. Salem, otherwise of no importance, is famous on account of its
peculiar race of cattle, and Mauriac (2,357 inhabitants) carries on a brisk trade
in cattle, mules, horses, and sheep, besides exporting home-made linens and
wooden ware.
The eastern slope of Cantal is inferior in natural beauties, but upon the whole
very fertile. The Planeze, an uninviting plateau, is known as the granary of
Auvergne. The rounded hills of La Margeride, Luguet, and Cezallier offer but
little variety, but in the valleys of the Truyere and the Alagnon we meet with
many picturesque promontories of basult. One of these is crowned by the old
city of St. Flour (4,848 inhabitants), the most widely known place of Upper
Auvergne, with potteries, manufactures of blankets and of the textile fabrics known
as maregues, but not of brazier-ware, as is popularly supposed. Murat (2,854
inhabitants) and Massiac (1,251 inhabitants), on the line of rail which connects
Bordeaux and Lyons, enjoy a favourable position for commerce. Near Pierre/ort,
an old stronghold commanding a tributary of the Truyere, lies the experimental
farm of M. Richard ; and Chavagnar, to the north of Murat, was the birthplace of
PUY-DE-D6.ME.
195
Lafayette. Antiquities of prehistoric age, including cave dwellings and dolmens,
abound in this part of Cantal.
Puy-DE-DoMK includes the greater portion of Lower Auvergne, and is not only
one of the largest departments of France, but the wide and fertile valley of the
Allier and its mild climate enable it to support a comparatively dense population.
Clermont (37,074 inhabitants), the capital, occupies a slightly elevated platform
rising in the midst of an amphitheatre of mountains, the most elevated of which is
the Puy, which has given its name to the department. Clermont, the Nemetum
of the Romans, was a populous town in the time of the Gallo-Romans, when its
Fig. 145. CLEKMOXT AND MONTFEKKANU.
Scale 1 : 4U.OOO.
temple of Mercury proved a great focus of attraction. The Franks, and after them
the Saracens, destroyed the town, and Philip the Fair established the royal courts
in the neighbouring Montferrand. The latter, however, lost these advantages
when the courts of law declared Clermont to be the property of the Crown.
Montferrand, since that time, has been deserted, and life pulsated all the more
briskly throu<jh the streets of Clermont. Most of the houses are built of black
lava, and their sombre aspect contrasts strangely with the smiling country around.
There are several remarkable buildings, including a magnificent Gothic cathedral
and the Byzantine church of Notre- Dame, near which the stone upon which sat
Pope Urban II. when presiding over the Council of Nemetum is pointed out.
196
FRANCE.
The town is noted for its semolina and other farinaceous preparations, its confec-
tionery and apricot patties. Cutlery, wooden ware, and textile fabrics are likewise
produced, and a brisk trade in agricultural products carried on. At the same time
Clermont has not forgotten that it gave birth to Pascal, and there are several fine
museums. The environs are highly interesting to geologists. An incrusting
spring rises in the suburb of St. Alyre, the thermal springs of St. Mart are
above the town, and old volcanoes and currents of lava are met with in every
direction.
Riom (10,004 inhabitants), formerly the second capital of Lower Auvergne,
occupies a site very much like that of Clermont, and is likewise built of
sombre lava. It is famous on account of its law school, and has given birth to
Fig. 146. THIERS.
Scale 1 : 40,000.
some of the most illustrious lawyers of France. The environs are delightful.
Volcic (2,265 inhabitants), which supplies Riom with building stone and water,
is commanded by the ruined castle of Tournoel, whence the eye ranges over the
verdant plains of La Limagne, and as far as the town of L'Aiyueperse (2,410
inhabitants), in the north-east, the wooded heights of Montpensier, the castles of
Effrut and Randan, and the busy little town of Maringues.
Thiera (11,182 inhabitants), in the valley of the Durolle, and suspended, as it
wore, upon the steep slopes of the Hill of Besset, is mainly engaged in the manu-
facture of coarse cutlery, but there are also paper-mills, &c. (Jhuteldoii, the old
centre of industry in this part of the country, hus dwindled down into an insignifi-
cant village, visited only for the sake of its cold mineral springs.
C
o
a
. \ . .
*WS " '. ""'
|v^\':
' \- 'A
CORREZE.
197
Ambert (3,882 inhabitants), the old capital of Livradois, is the only town in
the upper valley of the Dore, and engages in the manufacture of linen, cloth, and
paper. Arlaitc (1,8-10 inhabitants) and several other villages in that valley
likewise manufacture coarse linens and lace. There are no towns whatever in the
hilly district lying between the valleys of the Dore and the Allier, for Billom,
which had its own mint during the Carlovingian age, and a famous school in the
thirteenth century, has dwindled down into a poor village.
Insoire (6,089 inhabitants), the principal town on the Allier, was almost
levelled with the ground dur.ng the religious wars, and the Duke of Alen^on
erected a column inscribed " Here stood Issoire ! " The town has now recovered
from these disasters, but is principally known on account of the natural curiosities
met with in its vicinity, and more especially in the valleys of the Couze-Pavin, the
Northern Couze, and the Veyre, all of them rising in the volcanic region in the
west, and descending to the Allier. Brasxac, on the Allier, close to the western
frontier of the department, has become known through its coal-fields.
Another mineral district lies in the north-west, being intersected by the valley
of the Sioule. At Pontgibaud there are argentiferous lead mines ; at St. Gervais
Fig. 147. SECTION OF THE CAHHOXH I:IH s STRATA OF ST. ELOV.
coal mines ; at Iff nut deposits of tripoli ; at C/idti-fiitnenf numerous mineral springs,
cold and warm ; and at St. Eloy coal mines. The valley of the Dordogne, in
the south-west, is visited principally on account of its famous hot springs of Mont
Dore and Boui-bonk, the latter being richer in arsenic than any others discovered
hitherto.
CORKE/.E lies almost wholly within the basin of the Dordogne, of which the
Correze is merely a tributary. Its eastern portion consists for the most part of
elevated granitic plateaux affording scant pasturage to herds of cattle. Umul
(2,822 inhabitants), its principal place, is known rather on account of its claiming
to be the representative of ancient Uxellodonum than for its woollen stuffs, which
are also manufactured at Mci/>nac (1,570 inhabitants) and other villages, and
exported from Hurt (2,298 inhabitants), on the Dordogne, here bounded by
columns of basalt. At Aryriitnt (2,094 inhabitants) the Dordogne becomes navi-
gable for barges.
Tulle (11,038 inhabitants), on the Correze, in the centre of ihe department, is
198
FRANCE.
mainly indebted for its prosperity to its being the seat of a government small-arms
factory employing 1,500 workmen. The manufacture of the kind of lace named
after this town has ceased long ago. The neighbourhood abounds in wild gorges
and picturesque waterfalls, amongst which are those of Montane and Gimel.
Brtie (9,417 inhabitants), also on the Correze, is by far the most pleasant town
of the department, its fine cathedral, ancient walls, and reddish hills presenting a
delightful ensembk. The castle of Turenne, to the south, is the ancestral home of
the famous captain of that name.
The valley of the Vezere, which joins the Correze a few miles below Brive,
abounds in picturesque sites. Ascending it, we pass Allassac (1,338 inhabitants),
Fig 148. TAYAC ANT> LES EYZIES, ON THE YEZEHE.
Scale 1 : 90,000.
i Hilt.
an ancient village; Uzcrche (2,146 inhabitants), one of the towns claiming to be
the ancient TJxellodunum ; and Treiynnc (1,772 inhabitants), where the manu-
facture of arms is carried on. A stud for breeding horses has been established
close to the old castle of the Marchioness of Pompadour, in the west.
DOROOGNE includes nearly the whole of the old province of Perigord, together
with portions of adjoining districts. The rivers which traverse it divide it into
several distinct regions. The granitic plateau of Nontronnais, in the north, is
barren ; in the south there are extensive forests, and between the Isle and the
Dordogne also heaths, now gradually being brought under cultivation. There are
HAUTE-VIENNE. 199
iron mines, iron works, and piper-mills, but Perigord no longer monopolizes the
trade in truffles.
Sarlat (4,521 inhabitants), the capital of the south-eastern arrondissement, is an
old city carrying on some export trade through Vitrac, on the Dordogne. Close
to the latter are Domme, a picturesque old village, and the mediaeval castle of
Beynac. The principal places in the valley of the Vezere are Tcrrasson (2,586
inhabitants), Montig/iac (2,561 inhabitants), and Le Bugue (1,685 inhabitants),
which export iron, wine, and truffles. The environs of Le Bugue are famous for
their caverns, which have yielded prehistoric remains of the highest interest, and
some of the more remarkable of which are near the villages of Tayac and Les
Eyzies, on the Vezere.
Descending the Dordogne, we pass Lalinde (857 inhabitants), and reach Bcryerac
(10,610 inhabitants), which exports wines, but is merely a shadow of what it was
before the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In the vicinity there are several
mediasval castles, including those of Montaigne, the birthplace of the famous writer
of that name.
Periguenx (23,290 inhabitants), the capital of Perigord, stands on the Isle. It
abounds in Roman and mediaeval ruins, but its glory is the church of St. Front, a
huge basilica, built in the tenth century, in the purest Byzantine style. Coach-
building, the manufacture of cloth, the casting of iron, and other industries are
carried on at Perigueux, as well as a brisk commerce ; but the other towns and
villages of the valley are hardly remarkable for anything but ruins and historical
associations. Hqiitefort is commanded by the castle which Bertrand de Born, the
warrior and troubadour, inhabited. TAiriers (2,114 inhabitants) exports cattle and
cheese, and manufactures earthenware. The lower valley of the Isle is one of the
most productive agricultural districts of France. The most important towns there
are Mussidan (1,886 inhabitants) and Montpont (1,697 inhabitants).
Brantome (1,292 inhabitants), with the ruins of an abbey; Bourdvillcs, with
two old castles and curious grottoes ; and Blberac (1,818 inhabitants), the capital
of the forest district known as La Double, are the principal places in the pictu-
resque and well-cultivated valley of the Dronne, which forms the boundary
between French and the Romaic dialect, known as Pe'rigourdin.
At Nontron (2,378 inhabitants), in the extreme north of the department, are
forges and cutlery works, in which knives with box-wood handles and movable
copper ferrules are manufactured.
HAUTE-VIENNE includes a portion of Upper Limousin, and lies wholly upon a
granitic plateau, having an average elevation of 1,600 feet, and intersected by the
river Vienne and its numerous tributaries. The soil, however, is not very
favourable to agriculture, and the breeding of cattle, pigs, and horses is the chief
occupation. Chestnuts form the principal food of thousands of the population.
Excellent kaolin and potter's earth are found.
St. Yrieix (3,5*2 inhabitants), a town founded in the sixth century, in the
extreme south of the department, has potteries, supplied with raw material from
the clay pits in its vicinity. The south-western portion of the department abounds
200 FRANCE.
in feudal castles, from one of which, near Chain* (1,425 inhabitants), was shot the
arrow which mortally wounded King Richard Cceur do Lion in 1109. Rochn-houart
(1,754 inhabitants) likewise boasts of a magnificent custle, rebuilt in the fifteenth
century.
The Vienne flows past Eymoutiers (2,228 inhabitants), St. Leonard (3,464
inhabitants), where Gay-Lussac was born, and the industrial village of Pont-de-
Noblat, and having been reinforced by the Thaurion, it washes the foot of the
prominent hill upon which rise the houses of Limoyes (55,097 inhabitants), the
most important town on the western slope of the granitic plateau of Central
France. Originally the town owed its rapid growth to its favourable geographical
position on the high-road connecting Orleans with Bordeaux ; but not being a
great railway centre, nor having the disposal of a navigable river, it has somewhat
lost its ancient importance. Only very few traces of Roman age exist now, but
mediaeval buildings abound, the most noteworthy being a Gothic cathedral and a
bridge. Amongst the old " rows " still existing, that of the Butchers is the most
curious, its stone houses being ornamented with wood carvings. Limoges is
famous for its ceramic industry. It no longer produces such fine enamelled
metal-work as in the Middle Ages, but several thousand workmen are now engaged
in the manufacture of china, besides which there are cotton, woollen, linen, and
paper mills.
The towns lower down on the Vienne are equally industrious. Passing the
picturesque valley of the Briance, which opens on the left, and leads to Pierre-
buffiere, the native village of Dupuytren, we reach A/xe (2,328 inhabitants), where
there are mills and tan-yards; and still lower down, 67. Junien (5,736 inhabitants),
with paper and oil mills, and manufactories of china.
The north of the department is sparsely populated, but abounds in pictu-
resque scenery, notably in the valley of the Gartempe. The principal towns there
tire Bellac (3,252 inhabitants) and Dorat (2,322 inhabitants).
CREVSE, thus named after a river flowing through a deep ravine carved into the
granitic plateau, includes the greater portion of the old province of Marche. It is
by no means a fertile country, but cattle-breeding is carried on with fair results,
and its coal mines have given rise to a certain amount of industry.
Bourynneuf (2,745 inhabitants), on the Thaurion, carries on the same industries
as Limoges, its manufactories being supplied with fuel from the neighbouring coal
mines of Botmoreau. Here are the ruins of an old priory with a Moorish tower,
in which Zixini, a brother of Bajazet II., was kept a prisoner.
Atibtotson (6,427 inhabitants) is the principal manufacturing town on the Creuse.
It is said to have been founded by the Saracens, and has been famous ever since for
its carpets, the designs for which, in the present duy, are supplied from Paris.
Fcllctin (2,913 inhabitants), a little higher up on the same river, likewise manu-
factures carpets. The elevated table-land on both banks of the Creuse abounds in
cromlechs. Ahun (1,047 inhabitants) and Lacarcix (3,617 inhabitants) are the
centres of a productive coal district, which yielded 277,000 tons in 1875.
Guerct (4,973 inhabitants), on a plateau between the Creuse and the Gartempe,
ALLIER.
201
is the capital of the department, but not otherwise remarkable. The whole of this
district of the old province of Marche abounds in prehistoric and mediaeval remains,
the vicinity of La Soutcrraine (2,869 inhabitants) being especially rich in them.
Boiissac (990 inhabitants) is the only place of note in the valley of the Little
Creuse, and about Q miles to the south of it, near Toitlx St. Croif, may still be
traced the triple enceinte of an ancient city of the Celts.
The valleys of the Tardes and Cher, which rise in the eastern portion of the
department, delight by their verdure ; but the plateau through which they flow is
arid, and yields only a poor return to its cultivators. One of the many revolts of
the peasantry originated here, and it is supposed that the name of croquants, by
which its participators were designated, is derived from the village of Crocq.
Cliamlion (1,4.'{3 inhabitants) is the principal place in the valley of the Tardes.
Near it is Erauj- (1,611 inhabitants), with sulphur and ferruginous springs.
ALLIER includes the old province of Bourbonnais, and is named after the
fine river which intersects it from north to south. The Cher crosses the western
Fig. 149. THE COAL MEASURES OF BEZENET (COMMENTBV).
100 Yards.
portion of the department ; the Loire washes its eastern boundary. There are
mountains in the south, but the greater portion of Bourbonnais lies beyond the
limits of the granitic plateau, and the valleys of the Allier and the Loire are of
considerable width. Up to the middle of this century the department was almost
wholly agricultural, but the development of its coal and iron mines has wrought a
remarkable transformation.*
Monf/iifon (21,904 inhabitants), on the Cher, has quadrupled its population in
the course of a single generation, and aspires to become the Manchester of
France. The old feudal city, perched on a rock, is environed by the fine streets
of the modern town. The plate-glass manufactory of St. Gobuin is the most
considerable establishment of the town. Montlu9on is supplied with fuel from the
neighbouring coal basin of Commciitry (9,789 inhabitants), one of the most produc-
tive of all France. Near the village of Bezenet the COM! seams are 45 feet in
thickness. They caught fire in 1816, aud burnt until 1840, when a rivulet was
diverted from its cnursc and soon inundated the mines. Neris (2.190 inhabitants),
In 1875 the department produced 944,500 tons of coal und 1JO,800 tons of iron and steel.
202
FBANCE.
close to Montlucon, is the Aquae Neri of the Romans, and its hot springs still
attract many visitors.
Eln-citil (2,206 inhabitants) and -Si!. Pour fain (3,465 inhabitants) are the
principal towns in the valley of the Sioule, which joins that of the Allier a few
miles before the town last named. Gannat (5,042 inhabitants), on the Andelot,
another tributary of the Allier, is the capital of the whole of this district, which
abounds in Byzantine churches and castles, and enjoyed a certain reputation in
former times for its wines.
Vichy (6,154 inhabitants), on the Allier, is one of the fashionable watering-
places of Europe, boasting of no less than 25,000 visitors a year. Some of the
Fig. 150. VICHY.
Scale 1 : 80,000.
. 1 Mile.
springs are hot, others cold, and they all contain bicarbonate of soda. Ctixset
(5,087 inhabitants), close to Vichy, has similar springs, and the time is not far
distant when both these towns will form but one. Checked cotton stuffs are
manufactured at Vichy. The vicinity of these towns abounds in picturesque
scenery, and amongst old castles are those of Bourbon-Busset and Montgilbert.
As we descend the Allier the character of the country changes gradually until we
enter upon a broad vale, swampy in part. At a point where this vale contracts
stands 3Ionliim (21,122 inhabitants), the capital of the department and the birth-
place of Villars. There are the ruins of the old castle of the Dukes of Bourbon-
ALLIER.
208
nais, a fine Gothic church, and several otlier mediaeval buildings of interest, but
Moulius is nevertheless a town of modern growth. Agriculture has made great
progress in the environs, and vast tracts of heath have recently been brought
Fig. 161. ST. IITIENNB.
Scale 1 : 50,000.
1 Mile.
under cultivation. Souvigiiy (1,081 inhabitants), in a side valley which opens at
Moulins, is the cradle of the house of Bourbon. It was here that Adliemar, the
head of the family, built himself a castle in the tenth century, aud founded an
204 FRANCE.
abbey. In the thirteenth century the family seat was transferred to the neigh-
bouring town of Bourbon, surnamed I' Archambautt (2,452 inhabitants), after one of
the dukes. This town is noted now only for its mineral springs. Lurcy-Ler.y
(1,665 inhabitants), to the north of it, has a manufactory of china, and forges.
La Palisse (1,796 inhabitants), on the Bebre, is the capital of the arrondisse-
ment of the department. Above that town there are carding-mills, dye works, and
other factories, and below it, near Bert, coal mines.
LOIRE, with the adjoining department of Haute-Loiro, forms the easternmost
portion of the plateau, and consists of the old lake basin of the Loire, bounded on
each side by mountains of the most varied geological constitution. It includes
nearly the whole of the old province of Forez. The area capable of cultivation is
of restricted extent, but there are rich coal mines, and these account for the popu-
lation having doubled since the beginning of the century.
Feurs (2,695 inhabitants), the Roman Forus, and old capital of Forez, in spite
of its favourable geographical position on the Loire, is a decayed town. In the
Middle Ages Montbrison (5,959 inhabitants) became the capital, because it oifered
greater facilities for defence; but in our own days St. Etienne (117,537 inha-
bitants) has become the great centre of population. The town is situated on the
Furens, a tributary of the Loire, and close to a gap in the mountains through
which runs the road connecting the river just named with the valley of the Rhone.
The coal-fields, to which the town is indebted for its prosperity, cover an area of
50,000 acres, yield over 3,000,000 tons a year, and contain 577,000,000 tons,
sufficient for 175 years' consumption at the present rate. The physiognomy of
St. fitienne resembles that of some of the manufacturing towns in the north
of England, the atmosphere is filled with coul dust, and the houses and streets
are covered with it. There are an art school and a public museum, but the most
striking objects in the town are its huge factories, amongst which those of ribbons,
lace, and small arms hold the first rank.
The towns in the vicinity of St. fitienne carry on important manufactures.
Ricamarie (3,269 inhabitants) and Le Chambon (3,928 inhabitants) have forges and
foundries; Firminy (10,010 inhabitants) manufactures steel and hardware; and
Fouillouse, in the north-west, manufactures ribbons and small arms. On the road
to Lyons one manufacturing town rapidly succeeds the other. At Terrcnoirf
(2,856 inhabitants) the first Bessemer steel was manufactured in France ; St.
Chamond (14,420 inhabitants) is noted for its lace; Rire-de-Gier (14,518 inha-
bitants) has glass works, and machine shops in which locomotives are constructed.
Other manufacturing towns on the Gier are St. JnHeii-cn-Jnrrct (4,553 inhabitants),
67. Paul-en-Jarrct (1,753 inhabitants), Grand Croix (3,434 inhabitants), and
Lorette (3,751 inhabitants).
As we descend the valley of the Loire we leave this manufacturing district
behind us, and enter an agricultural country. At St. Rambert (1,319 inha-
bitants) and Andrrsieux the barges navigating the Loire take in their cargoes
of coal. In the side valley of the Bonson, which loads to St. Bonnet-le-Ch&teau
(2,351 inhabitants), the peasants spend their leisure hours in the manufacture of
LOIEE. 205
point-lace. At Man frond the river Coise joins the Loire from the right. Ascend-
ing it, we reach St. Galmier (1,996 inhabitants), famous for its cold effervescent
springs, and higher up the small industrial town of Chazelles-sur-Lynn (4,694
inhabitants), a dependency of Lyons, as its name implies. Roanne (21,472
inhabitant?), the principal town in the north of the department, has cotton-mills,
and carries on a considerable commerce, facilitated by the navigable Loire and the
railways which converge upon it. Paiiissieres (2,332 inhabitants), in the north-
east, engages in the manufacture of linen and embroidery.
Montbrinon (5,959 inhabitants), the old capital of the department, occupies the
summit of a volcanic hill to the west of the broad valley of the Loire, and offers
a curious contrast to the busy manufacturing towns on the east of that river.
Its most curious edifice is the so-called Room of Diana, ornamented with 1,500
coats of arms of the ancient nobility of Forez. Several of the old volcanoes of this
region are now surmounted by villages or the ruins of castles or abbeys. Boen
(2, '^04 inhabitants), on the north-west, is the chief town of the picturesque district
of Urfe.
CHAPTER VI.
CHARENTE AND VENDEE (ANGOUMOTS, SAINTOKGE, AUNTS, POITOTI).
GENERAL ASPECTS. HILI.S.
HE geographical region which forms the physical and ethnological
boundary between the basins of Loire and Garonne is only of
small extent, for it is confined to the three departments of Poitou
and the two of the Charente. But in spite of its small extent
this is one of the most interesting portions of France, whether we
look at its history or its physical geography. Its subterranean rivers and the
changes continually going on along its seaboard are full of interest. The tran-
sition from north to south is exhibited in the vegetation, and a traveller proceed-
ing from the valley of the Vienne almost feels as if he breathed another atmo-
sphere. The gap between the central plateau and the heights of northern Poitou
has been fought for on many occasions by the men of the North and the South.
The Franks passed through it when warring against Aquitaine and the Visigoths ;
Christians and Moslems have struggled there for the possession of Gaul ; and the
French of the north there fought a terrible battle against the English, who held
possession of Guyenne. The Protestants here made a stand against the Catholics,
and still more recently the Vendee was the scene of a struggle between Royalists
and Republicans.
The rounded ridges which ramify from the mountains of Limousin are devoid
of almost every picturesque feature, and to a great extent consist of barren uplands,
but the valleys which intersect them delight by their transparent streams and
verdure, and on the banks of the Gironde these chalk hills terminate in bold cliffs,
equal in beauty to those on the English Channel.
Of very different aspect are the granitic hills of the Gatine, in the centre of
Poitou, and on the Upper Sevre of Niort. Being covered only with a thin layer
of vegetable soil, they are for the most part barren, but sparkling rivulets inter-
sect their numerous valleys. They culminate in Mont Malchus that is, Mercury
(935 feet) named probably after some now forgotten deity, for in this poor district
of Gaul the worship of the old gods maintained itself longer than elsewhere, and
cromlechs abound.
RIVERS.
207
The hilly district of Bocage lies to the east of the Gatine, and is charac-
terized hy numerous trees, shady lanes, and hedges. The country in the
north is wild and varied in the extreme, and its hedges and trees rendered it
eminently suited for partisan warfare as long as there existed no ready means
of communication. It was here the Vendeans resisted most obstinately the
progress of the Republican armies. In the Middle Ages a "march," or border
district, separated Poitou from Brittany. Contending armies were forbidden access
to it, and its inhabitants paid neither taxes nor excise dues. At the present time
this march no longer differs from the adjoining districts, and the introduction
of cattle-breeding is gradually changing the physiognomy of the country and
enriching its inhabitants. Every peasant proprietor keeps a cow, a pig, and a pair
Fig. 152. THE HEAD- WATERS OP THB TOUVRB.
Scale 1 : 640,000.
10 Miles.
of draught oxen, which he incites to labour by chanting soft and persuasive
melodies.
RIVERS.
THE Charente is the only large river between the Loire and the Garonne.
It rises on the granitic plateau of Limousin. At first it flows in the same direc-
tion as the Vienne, from which it is separated by a narrow ridge, but soon it
swerves abruptly round to the south-west, and, having pierced the plateau which
up till then barred its course, it enters upon a wide valley covered with pastures
and poplars. A little above Angouleme its crystal waters are reinforced by those
of the Touvre, one of those curious rivers which flow for a considerable portion of
their course through subterranean channels. This river is fed by the Tardoire
and the Bandiat, both of which rise on the granitic plateau of Central France,
208
FRANCE.
but almost entirely disappear whilst passing through a fissured and cavernous
limestone region. The greater portion of their water seems to find its way to
the Touvre, a river which, close to its source, sets in motion the paper-mills
of Ruelle. Engineering works have converted the Lower Charente into an
important high-road of commerce. It takes its course through a wide valley
bounded by hills, and covered with woods or vines. The tide makes itself fell
nearly as high up as Cognac. Small coasters can ascend the Charente as far as
Saintes, a short distance below its confluence with the Seugne or Sevigne. Below
Fig. 153. THE OLD COAST OF VENDEE, EXTENDING TO ROCHEBONNE.
Scale 1 : 1,200,000.
Over 5i Vathomt
Rochefort the estuary of the river is bounded by mud-banks, and its mouth is
closed by a bar having but 2 feet of water at low ebb.
The other rivers of Saintonge and Poitou, such as the Seudre, the blue Sevro
of Niort, and the Lay, are very inferior to the Cliarente. The Seudre, indeed, is
hardly more than a creek, but it was the great naval station of France on the
Atlantic up to the time when the ports of Brest and Rochefort were created.
THE COAST.
THE geological agencies which have severed Cornwall from Armorica and reduced
Brittany to its existing dimensions have been active likewise all along the
THE COAST.
209
coast from the Loire to the Gironde. Submerged rocks extend to the west of
Oleron, of the island of Re, and of the entire coast of Vendee, and join the
island of Yeu by a submarine " bridge," or isthmus, to the mainland. These
rocks are nothing else but the platform which supported the ancient coast, sup-
posed to have extended as far as the rocks of Rochebonne, 30 miles to the west
of Re.
But within this ancient coast-line we are able to discover traces of one which
has been swallowed up more recently. The island of Oleron was undoubtedly a
portion of the mainland in former times. The arm of the sea which now separates
it from the continent is hardly 1,600 feet wide at low water, and in the fourteenth
Fig. 154. NolRMOtTTIER.
Scale 1 : 320,000.
F i
p- f **
i-4-s
M-a- S
. 5 Miles.
century it was narrower still. No vessel could pass it then, but a frigate might
sail through it with confidence now, if it were not for its irregular currents and
sand-banks.
The island of Re, too, u nothing but a detached portion of the mainland, first
hoard of in the eighth century. Its Jurassic limestones are of the same age as
those of. the neighbouring coast, and ledges, or platiiis, of rocks extend far into
the sea, more especially near the lighthouse known as the " Whalers' Tower."
Tradition speaks of a city of Antioch which formerly stood upon the west coast of
the island, and whose houses reveal themselves occasionally to a fisherman Houting
upon the " Savage Sea " which has swallowed them up.
51
210
FRANCE.
The island of Noirmoutier, on the northern coast of the Vendee, presents the
same features as that of Oleron. The narrow channel which separates it from the
mainland can he crossed dry-shod during low water. Geologically this island
no doubt attaches itself to the mainland, but its separation must date back to a
very remote epoch ; for insects, a snail, and several Crustacea not known on the
mainland, are found on it ; whilst the viper, so common throughout Poitou, is
unknown there. The strait certainly was wider and deeper formerly, and no one
would have ventured to cross it up to 1766. Erosion and deposition always go
hand in hand. Thus, in the case under notice, the debris of the north-western
Fig. 155. SILTED-UP BAYS ON THE COAST OF AUNIS.
Scale 1 : 650,000.
3l3o' W of Paris
r^ -,i Marine, AUzEDVUns hfrl^i FTxtmtUile. AHaoiivns
- lOJffles.
portion of Noirmoutier has to a great extent been deposited in the Gulf of Le
Fain, which is gradually being silted up. Other instances of the land gaining
upon the sea have been noticed, and geologists are of opinion that they can only
be accounted for by our assuming a gradual upheaval of the land. The creek of
Aiguillon was of great extent formerly, and the Sevre debouched into a gulf of
the sea which has completely disappeared. Traces of marine erosion have been
discovered at a considerable distance inland. At St. Michel, in Herrn, there are
old oyster beds at an elevation of 30 feet above the sea. The old port of Talmont,
where Henry IV. embarked his artillery, has become dry land.
The emerged lands of Rochefort and the Marennes consist of clay carried
THE COAST. 211
thither by sea, for the neighbouring hills of Saintonge are composed of limestone.
These new lands may therefore be fitly described as " gifts of the ocean."
Submerged and recently formed lands frequently exist in close proximity to
each other. Thus the isthmus which formerly joined the island of Aix to the
mainland has been washed awav, and the towns of Montmeillan and Chatelaillon,
farther north, have disappeared beneath the waves. On the other hand, many of
the marshes to the south of the Charente were bays of the sea formerly, and are
still known as " ports." The old port of Brouage, of great importance during the
Middle Ages, and possibly identical with Ptolemy's Portm Santonum, is now at a
considerable distance from the sea. In this instance, however, man aided the
work of nature, for in 1586 the citizens of Rochefort sank twenty vessels laden
with stone at its mouth.
Dunes fringe nearly the whole of the coast from the Gironde to the Loire.
Those of Arvert cover an area of 300 square miles, and rise to a height of 210 feet.
Fig. 156. TUB ANCIENT GULF OF POITOU.
Scale 1 : 800,000.
M Alilea.
They differ from those of the Landes by their richness in carbonate of lime and
shells; but like them they march, and many a town has been overwhelmed by
them within historical times. Many of these dunes have recently been planted
with pines.
Man has taken possession of many tracts formerly invaded by the sea. The
whole of the ancient Gulf of Poitou, 150 square miles in extent, has been drained
and converted into pastures and fields. The towns and villages surrounding this
ancient gulf are built upon hillocks formerly washed by the sea. The cottiers
inhabiting the }M)/([cr$ never travel without a leaping pole, enabling them to
clear the ditches which separate their fields. Similar reclamations have been
made opposite to the island of Noirmoutier and elsewhere.
In former times, when salt was dearer than it is now, the inhabitants along the
coast established numerous salt-pans, which have now been deserted. These old
pans, however, can be made to yield a rich harvest of hay and herbage, but
212
FKANCE.
care must be taken to prevent the mixture of fresh with brackish water. To a
disregard of this sanitary law must be traced the endemic fevers which formerly
decimated the vicinity of Rochefort and of Marennes. It is due mainly to the
energy of M. Le Terme that this source of danger to life has been suppressed, and
since 1832 the annual death rate has been reduced 1'rom 48 to 27 per thousand
inhabitants.
The sea adds in more than one respect to the wealth of the inhabitants. Oyster
parks, fish-ponds, and mussel farms have been established, and the islanders collect
seaweed with which to manure their fields.
Fig. 157. ANGOUL<ME.
Scale 1 : 80,000.
1 JiUe.
TOPOGRAPHY.
CHAUENTF. has been formed out of portions of Poitou, Marche, Saintonge, and
Angoumois. The Charente is the principal river, but the north-western portion
forms part of the granitic plateau of Central France, and is drained by the Vienne.
The Jurassic limestone region in the north is to a great extent covered with forests.
The cretaceous districts in the south are by far the most productive.
Coiifo/fiia (-2,37 4 inhabitants), the principal place on the Vienno, and Ruffec
(3,155 inhabitants), on the Upper Charente, are the only towns of importance in
CHAEENTE.
213
the north-western portion of the department, the latter being noted for its partridge
and truffle patties.
Angouleme (28,665 inhabitants), the capital, occupies a scarped hill on the
western bank of the Charente. Its old ramparts, now converted into public walks,
afford magnificent prospects over the surrounding country. Its position on a
great navigable river, and in the midst of a fertile country, is exceedingly favour-
able. The most prominent buildings are a cathedral of the twelfth century and a
Fig. 158. THE BRANDY DISTRICTS OF CHARENTE.
Scale 1 : 640,000.
.1 'U'.of !>;:
<,"j*oW.,ri,r
modern town-hall of noble proportions, which contains also the town library and a
museum. Of the dominion of the Romans there exii t but few traces. The manu-
facture of paper is the great industry of the city, the annual produce amounting to
7.1,000 tons, valued at nearly 400,000. The quarries in the vicinity yield an
excellent white stone, which hardens on being exposed to the air, and forms on
important article of export. On the Touvre is a Government cannon foundry.
Amongst places in the vicinity of interest to the archaeologist are La Couroinic
inhabitant*), with a pictures-quo old abbey; St. Aniant de Bolxe, with a
214
FRANCE.
Romanesque church ; the old town of Montbron (1,416 inhabitants) ; and the castle
of Rochefoucauld (2,378 inhabitants).
In its course to the west the Charente flows past Chatcaitncuf (2,691 inhabit-
ants), Jarnac (4,390 inhabitants), and Cognac (13,811 inhabitants), before entering
Saintonge. Cognac owes its great wealth to the brandy trade. The "Cham-
pagne," with its spongy soil overlying chalk, yields the best qualities of brandy,
that produced in the other district being known as Cru des Bois that is, of the
woods from the patches of forest still existing. All the brandies produced in the
two departments of Charente are known as Cognacs, whatever their quality.
Cognac has an old Romanesque church and the ruins of an ancient castle. In the
vicinity there exist a few remarkable cromlechs, including that of St. Fort.
Barbezieux (2,958 inhabitants) is the principal town in the southern part of
the department. Other places are C/talais, Montmoreau, and Attbeterre, all of them
Fig. 159. ROCHEFORT AND THE LOWER CHABENTB.
Scale 1 : 240,000.
, 5 Miles.
with old castles. St. Eutrope, a village nenr Montmoreau, is inhabited by a-colony
of Limousin potters, who have retained their dialect.
CHAKENTE-INFERIEURE (Lower Charente) includes nearly the whole of Sain-
tonge, with portions of Poitou and Aunis. It is divided into the hilly district of
Bocage ; the lowlands along the Gironde and the Atlantic, still known as
" marshes," though for the greater part drained ; and the two islands of Oleron
and Re, which constitute a little world apart. It is one of the richest agricultural
departments of France, producing excellent vegetables and fruits, wines, and
cattle. The sea yields fish, oysters, and salt, and there is also some industry.
Commercially it is dependent upon Bordeaux. The population is decreasing.
The southern portion of the department consists of wooded hills and extensive
landes, which are gradually being brought under cultivation. Jonzac (2,446
inhabitants) and Pons (3,440 inhabitants), both on the Seugne, the latter town
CHAKENTE-INFERIEURE.
215
having an old castle now used as town-hall, school, and prison, are the principal
places in that part of the country.
Saintes (11,150 inhabitants), the ancient Santones, on the Charente, is the capital
of Suintonge. A triumphal urch and a huge amphitheatre recall the Roman age.
Other remarkable buildings are the Gothic cathedral, a vast crypt in the suburb
of St. Eutrope, and a museum rich in antiquities. Saintes has potteries, with
which Bernard Palissy's name is honourably connected, and carries on a brisk
trade in brandy. Following the course of the Charente, we pass Tuillcbourg, where
St. Louis defeated the English ; the castle of Crazannets, and the busy port of
Fig. 160. LA ROCHELLB.
Scale 1 : 30,000.
Wrfp.ru,
. 1} Miles.
St. Sfirinifii fl,4oS inhabitants), near which are famous quarries; and finally reach
Rnchefort (25,454 inhabitants), the largest town of the department, and one of the
five great military ports of France. The foundation of the town hardly dates
back two centuries. It is regularly built, has fine public gardens, but no remark-
able buildings except those connected with naval or military matters, including an
arsenal, dockyard, and huge hospital. The navigation of the Lower Charente is
intricate, but men-of-war ure nevertheless able to proceed up to the town, where
they are safe from every hostile attack. The i nadstrad is dd'rndod by several forts,
and well sheltered. Toiutny-Charente (2,203 inhabitants), only 3 miles above
216
FEANCE.
Rochefort, is a commercial port, much frequented by English vessels in search of
brandy.
Mareniies (1,863 inhabitants), in the marshes to tbe south of Rochefort, was
famous in former times for its salt-pans, which yielded as much as 100,000 tons,
but this industry has disappeared almost entirely, and the salt-pans have been con-
verted into pasture-grounds, fish, or mussel ponds. Commerce, too, has nearly
deserted the town ; and the tower of its church, 256 feet in height, no longer servee
as a landmark to the mariner. The fattening of oysters, however, is carried on
now with considerable success here, as well as at the neighbouring La Trentblade
Fig. 161. LA ROCHEIXE.
(2,568 inhabitants), no less than 30,000,000 being sold annually. La Trem-
blade likewise attracts a few visitors, but the great seaside resort of the depart-
ment is Royan (4,198 inhabitants), at the mouth of the Gironde. A few miles
inland from that place is Saiijon (2,209 inhabitants), with a Roman obelisk (Pire
Longe) 72 feet in height.
The island of Oleron has grown rich since the introduction of the vine, the
value of land having quadrupled in the course of forty years. The principal
towns on the island are St. Georges (99!) inhabitants), Le Chateau (1,578 inla-
bitants), and St. Pierre (1,545 inhabitants).
CH ARENTE - HSTFERIEURE.
217
La Rochelle (19,030 inhabitants) is the principal commercial port of the depart-
ment, and its capital. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the town was one
of the great ports of France, and on the eve of St. Bartholomew its Protestant
citizens forced the royal army to retire, after a siege which cost it 20,000 men.
Fifty years later Richelieu compelled the surrender of the town, after nearly the
whole of its population had died of hunger. From this disaster the place has
never completely recovered, but its citizens are still noted for their public spirit,
and there remain in it many buildings dating back to the Middle Ages. There
Pig. 162. AHS-EN-RE.
are "rows" (porches) as at Chester, an old town-hall, and four huge towers, 'one
of which was formerly used as :i lighthouse. The commerce of the town has
considerably increased since railways connect it with Paris and Bordeaux, and it
is proposed to construct docks capable of receiving trans -Atlantic steamers.
The island of Re, close to La Rochelle, supports a dense population, who
cultivate the soil, grow wine, fish, and make salt. Their wine, however, like that
of Oleron, has the flavour of the seaweed with which they manure their vine-
yards. The principal towns on the island are 67. Mtirtin (2,64-3 inhabitants), Ars
(1,954 inhabitants), and La Flottf (2,241 inhabitants).
218
FRANCE.
The breeding of mussels is carried on most extensively on the mud-banks of
the Bay of Aiguillon, where nearly 10,000 acres are enclosed by stockades,
upon which the mussals grow in clusters. Each of these enclosures has an
opening for the admission of fish. The fishermen, when they cross these mud-
banks, rest with one knee upon a miniature wherry, and propel themselves with
the disengaged leg. This curious apparatus was invented by an Irishman named
Walton, who was shipwrecked on this coast in 1246.
Marans (3,217 inhabitants), on the Sevre, which enters the Bay of Aiguillon, is
the centre of a highly productive corn district, and carries on a considerable corn-
Fig. 163. THE GULF OF AIOUILLOX.
Scale 1 : 125 noo.
merce. Surgeres (3,246 inhabitants) and St. Jtan d'Agely (6,309 inhabitants) are
inland agricultural towns.
VIENNE includes the eastern half of the old province of Poitou, and, in addition
to the river after which it is named, is drained by the Charente and the Dive.
It is by no means a wealthy department, and has hardly any industry.
Civray (2,210 inhabitants), on the Charente, is the centre of an agricultural
district. The environs abound in prehistoric remains, and at Charroux there are
lloinuu ruins. Crossing a height of land, we enter the picturesque valley of the
DEUX-SEVB.ES. 219
Clain, which is tributary to the Vienne. Passing Vivonne (1,180 inhabitants), and
leaving Lusignan (1,332 inhabitants) far on our left, we reach Poitiers (31,892
inhabitants), the capital of Poitou, perched on a plateau, and of imposing appear-
ance. Its streets are narrow and tortuous: churches and monasteries abound, the
Jesuits occupying an immense block of buildings. The Byzantine cathedral
of Notre-Dame is one of the most original edifices in France ; the baptistery,
usually called the Temple, one of the most ancient. In another church, that of
Ste. Radegonde, are shown the footprints of God Almighty. There are schools of
law and arts, but intellectual life can scarcely be said to exist, nor is there much
industry. The battles of Poitiers, so called, were not fought at that place. It was
between that town and Tours, perhaps at Ste Maure, that Charles Martel annihi-
lated the army of Abd-el- Rahman in 732, whilst King John was made prisoner
by the Black Prince near the town of La Cardinerie, formerly called Maupertuis,
about 5 miles to the north of the city.
A railway connects Poitiers with the small manufacturing town of Ncuvillc
(1,833 inhabitants) and with Loudun (3,986 inhabitants), the chief place in the
north-western portion of the department. Near the latter is the kistvaen of
Pierre-Folle, 56 feet in length and 15 wide. The neighbouring castle of Afoucon-
tour recalls a defeat of the Protestants (1569).
Chdtellerault (15,244 inhabitants), on the Vienne, a few miles below its con-
fluence with the Clain, is the industrial centre of the department, where cutlery,
hardware, and small arms are manufactured. Clutuviyny (1,911 inhabitants), on
the Upper Vienne, has valuable stone quarries and a curious old church. At
Montmoritton (4,126 inhabitants), on the Gartempe, in the extreme east of the
department, there are lime-kilns and manufactories of agricultural imple-
ments.
DKUX-SEVRES has been formed out of portions of Poitou, Sjintonge, and Aunis.
Of the two rivers after which it is named, the Sevre of Niort flows direct into
the ocean ; the other is a tributary of the Loire. The hilly district of Gatine is
not particularly well adapted for agriculture, but the breeding of horses and mules
is carried on with much success. The lowlands in the south are more fertile.
Industry is almost confined to the currying of skins and to weaving. About
one-ninth of the inhabitants are Protestants.
The level tract of country drained by the Boutonne, a tributary of the Charente,
cannot boast of large towns, for Mella, its chief place, has only 2,221 inhabitants.
It is known for its Byzantine church and for its mules. La Mothe-St. Ileraye
(1,932 inhabitants) and Sf. Mfiixcnt (4,259 inhabitants), both on the Upper Sevre,
are the centres of the Protestant population of the department, and engage in the
manufacture of woollen stuffs, as well as in the breeding of horses. Niort (20,336
inhabitants), lower down on the same river, is the capital of the department, and
commercially as well as industrially a busy place, where the preparation of skins
and horsehair, glove-making, cotton-spinning, and the manufacture of agricultural
implements are actively carried on. The produce of its marsh gardens enjoys a
high reputation. A Gothic cathedral and the ruins of a vast castle built by the
220
FRANCE.
Englisn rise high above the houses lining the river, and pleasant walks surround
the town, which was the birthplace of Madame de Maintenon.
Partheiiay (4,212 inhabitants), the principal town on the Thouet, which flows
north to the Loire, has an old Byzantine church, and manufactures woollen stuffs.
Lower down, at Airvault, the river is spanned by an ancient bridge of eleven
arches, the oldest structure of that kind in France. T/iouars (3,468 inhabitants),
still farther north, on a cliff overhanging the Thouet, has an enormous castle built
in the seventeenth century, and now used as a prison.
Bressuire (3,214 inhabitants), the capital of the northern arrondissement, has
become a great railway centre. Its huge castle, with forty-eight towers, is in
ruins, as are other buildings ; for the town suffered much during the Vendean
wars, and was captured and recaptured repeatedly.
Fig. 164. LES SABLES-D'OLONNE.
Scale 1 : 62,000.
, 1 Wile.
VENDEE is named after a tributary of the Sevre of Niort, although its principal
river is the Lay. The dep irtment includes the region of granitic hills (Bocage), a
region of calcareous lowlands, and an alluvial region extending along the sea. The
islands of Yeu and Noirmoutier belong to it. Agriculture and cattle-breeding are
the principal occupations.
Fontenay-le-Comte (7,309 inhabitants), on the navigable Vendee, is an ancient
city, the inhabitants of which manufacture cloth, and carry on some commerce. At
Voutant and Faymoreau, in the hills, there are coal mines of no great importance.
The ancient episcopal city of Mtiillrzn!*, on a hillock surrounded by old marshes,
lies to the south-east. Luyon (0,026 inhabitants) is the seat of a bishop, and has
a Gothic cathedral. A canal 10 feet deep connects it with the sea, and its export
of agricultural produce is considerable.
VENDEE. 221
Chantonnay (1,593 inhabitants) and Pot'Zauges (1,405 inhabitants) are the only
towns in or near the valley of the Lay. Roche-sur-Yon (9,021 inhabitants), on a
high rock on the Yon, as its name implies, was founded by Napoleon on the site
of an old castle. It possesses no attractions whatever, its importance being
entirely due to its being the seat of the departmental authorities. Until recently
it was known as Napoleon- Vendee.
Sablrs-d' Olonne (9,188 inhabitants) is the principal maritime town of the depart-
ment, and its fine beach attracts thousands of visitors during summer. The
mariners of this town are renowned for their boldness. Many of them engage in
the sardine fishery. The neighbouring country is rich in cromlechs and kistvaens,
the finest being that of Frebouchere, beyond Talmont, in the south-west. This
block of granite, supported by two rows of stones, must have been conveyed hither
from a considerable distance, but nevertheless it weighs 60 tons. Travelling north
along the coast, we pass St. Gilles-Hur- Vie, the port of embarkation for the island of
Yeu, St. Jean de Mont, Beaiicoir-snr-Mer, and Sonin, of which only the last has
over 1,000 inhabitants. Noirmoufier (2,080 inhabitants), on the island of the
same name, is the most populous town of this north-western corner of the depart-
ment, and carries on a brisk trade in the products of the fields.
In conclusion should be mentioned the famous windmills on the Butte-aux-
Alouettes, or Larks' Hill (758 feet), between the towns of Herbiers and Mortagne-
mr-Seere (2,080 inhabitants), on the north-western frontier, by means of whose
arms the Royalist millers signalled the movements of the Republican troops.
CHAPTER VIT.
THE BASIN OF THE LOIRE.
GENERAL ASPECTS.
HE vast area drained by the Loire belongs to three distinct regions,
geologically as well as physiognomically and historically. In its
upper course the river, as .far as the " Bill" of the Allier, is shut
in by the rocks of the central plateau ; in its lower course it
traverses the granitic region of Poitou and Brittany ; whilst its
middle course leads in a wide curve through the sands, clays, and marls of the
tertiary lake basin of Paris.
The river, in spite of its course of more than 600 miles, has not been powerful
enough as a geological agent to combine these three regions into a whole. Nor
is the importance of the river as a commercial highway as great as might be
expected, for, owing to its ever-changing volume, it is navigable only during a
portion of the year. Neither does the Loire coincide with any of the great his-
torical high-roads of Europe, for its sources lie in an inaccessible mountain
region, and it discharges itself into a remote part of the Atlantic. The high-road
from Northern Europe to Spain follows the Loire from Orleans to Tours, but this
very fact proves that the river is indebted for its importance, as an international
high-road, to the position it occupies with reference to the adjoining river basins.
Touraine and the country on the Middle Loire generally have done more
towards the birth and development of the French nation than any other part of
France. Being sheltered in the south-east and west by the sterile plateau of
Central France, the hills of Morvan, and the granitic heights of Poitou, this region
was without natural defences only on its northern frontier. But in that direction
the inhabitants of Lorraine, Champagne, Picardy, and the Isle de France formed
a formidable barrier against intended invasions. It was less troubled by wars than
other parts of France, and its development consequently went on at a more rapid
rate. The inhabitants of Touraine speak the purest " langue d'oui," and they
possess in harmonious combination the common sense and gaiety, the wit and
earnestness, which distinguish the inhabitants of other parts of France.
For many years the landscapes of Touraine were looked upon as the most
THE LOHIE.
228
charming in all France. More extensive travel has brought them somewhat into
disrepute, but if it is borne in mind that our forefathers preferred a quiet and serene
landscape to inhospitable and pathless mountains, we cannot deny the,palm to
" la belle Touraine." Verdant hills, gently undulating, bound the horizon, spark-
ling rivulets wind between elms and poplars, clumps of trees give variety to fields
and meadows, a castle peeps out from behind a screen of foliage, whilst in the
distance glitter the silvery waters of the great river. Can we imagine a land-
scape of more gentle aspect ? and was not Torquato Tasso right when he spoke of
the valley of the Loire as
" La terra molle e lieta e dilettoaa ? "
Fig. 165. THE " BILL " OP THE ALLIKR.
Scale 1 : 160,000.
50 E df Paris
|310' de C*
' par fr-hord-
. 5 Miles.
THE LOIRE.
THE Loire rises in the Cevennes, and after a course of 270 miles is joined by its
twin river, the Allier, a few miles below Nevers, at the so-called " Bee," or Bill,
the volume of the Loire being but slightly superior to that of the Allier. From
its junction as far as Orleans the Loire flows to the north and north-west in the
direction of the Seine, from which it is separated by land of moderate elevation
(200 feet). Conformably to the impulsion given to its waters by the rotation of
the earth, they press upon its right bank, gnawing away the land. The right
bank, consequently, is usually steep, whilst the left is flat.
224
FRANCE.
At Orleans the Loire sweeps round to the south-west. The Loiret, which joins
it below that town, can hardly be called a tributary, for it is fed from the Loire
itself through subterranean channels. The principal rivers which enter the Loire
on the left, far below Orleans, are the Cher, the Indre, and the Vienne, all of them
having their sources on the central plateau. Lower down still, the Maine flows
into the Loire from the north. It is formed by the junction of the Sarthe and the
Mayenne with the Loir. Each of the three head-streams traverses a distinct
geological region, whilst the united river has excavated itself a channel through
the schists of Angers, quarried for slate.
The Maine and the other tributaries of the Lower Loire, which flow through
crystalline or palaeozoic formations, join almost at right angles, whilst the rivers
Fig. 166. THE Ai THICK.
Scale 1 : 410,im"
2*5WoParis
. 5 Miles.
winding through the tertiary formations of Orleanais and Touraine sometimes flow
for considerable distances in the same direction us the river which they are about
to join. The Cher, the Indre, and the Vienne are instances of this kind, not to
speak of minor rivers. Lateral channels, enclo>ing willow-clad islands, form a
distinctive feature of the alluvial valley of the Loire. One of these extends for 30
miles below the confluence of the Cher; another, known as the Authion, accom-
panies the left bank of the Loire for a distance of 40 miles.
These parallel channels, which extend from Blois to Ancenis, must be looked
upon as the result of the frequent inundations of the Loire. The river, when in
flood, undermines the hills bounding its valley, and thus creates lateral channels,
THE LOIRE.
225
into which its tributaries subsequently empty themselves instead of flowing direct
into the main channel. Moreover, the immense quantity of alluvium brought
down by the river tends to the elevation of the tongues of land which separate its
tributary rivers. It has been computed that 9,000,000 cubic tons of sand are
carried past the confluence of the Loire and Allier annually, travelling down the
Fi^. 167. LA SOLOQNE
Scale I : 640,000.
W. P
E.of Or
10 Miles.
river at a daily rate of 8'5 feet in summer, and of 30 feet in winter. This inces-
sant denudation and deposition explain the physical aspect of the valley of the
Loire.
If we look upon that river in summer, when it rolls on sluggishly between
banks of sand, we can hardly conceive it possible that it should occasionally rise
twenty and more feet above its usual level, and, breaking through the embankments
62
226
FRANCE.
Fig. 168. THE ERDRE.
Scale 1 : 100,000.
thrown up along it, flood the plains beyond to the extent of miles. These floods
are due partly to the small height of the mountains from which the river is fed,
and partly to the impervious nature of the rocks which compose them. The former
prevents the formation of glaciers which could feed the river during summer ; the
latter causes the rain to run off rapidly. The volume of the river below its con-
fluence with the Allier varies, according to the seasons, between 30 and 10,000
tons a second.
Embankments for the protection of the towns and villages were thrown
up as early as the ninth century, and perhaps
earlier, and the river has not changed its bed during
the historical epoch. The embankments, however,
which lined the Loire between Orleans and Angers
up to the seventeenth century were only 10 or 12
feet in height, and the floods frequently swept over
them. They have been heightened and strengthened
since that time. A double barrier, 23 feet in height,
was completed in 1783, and extends from the " Bill "
of the Allier downwards along the whole of the
Middle Loire. These embankments suffice as a rule,
but the disastrous floods of 1841, 1856, and 1866
prove that they do not meet exceptional cases. The
river has been imprudently confined to a channel only
c^20 to 980 feet in width. When the river begins to
swell it very soon fills up this narrow channel, and
frequently overflows or breaks through the barriers
erected to confine it. As a rule the embankments on
the upper part of the river give way first. The water
then pours through them into the lateral channels of
the river, and the perils of inundation, therefore,
diminish in proportion as we descend the river, and
below the Maine they need not be dreaded at all.
There can be no doubt about the urgent necessity
of reconstructing the river defences, a work of no
small difficulty, as it would interfere with innumerable
conflicting private interests. The channel enclosed
between embankments must be widened so as to
enable the river, when flooded, to spread over a larger
surface ; and an interior line of dykes must be constructed to meet ordinary
freshets. In addition to this, dams should be built across the head-streams of
the Loire, in order that their water may be stored up, and its discharge regulated.
Only one dam of this kind exists as yet, above lloanne, and its effect is satis-
factory in every respect. It is believed that if dams of this kind were to be
thrown across every one of the valleys the Loire might be rendered navigable
during the whole of the year.
Miles.
THE LOIRE.
227
The aspect of the lake districts of Sologne and Brenne amply proves that the
basin of the Loire is passing through a state of geological transformation. The
plains of Sologne were formerly covered with a dense forest which absorbed the
moisture. The forests have been destroyed, and the district converted into a
region of pestilential swamps and lakes similar to theDombes, described on p. 154.
The work of draining and planting is, however, being proceeded with rapidly.
The Brenne, a similar district farther south, is likewise being drained.
In the crystalline and palaeozoic region on the Lower Loire several of the
rivers are still in a state of transition. The Erdre, for instance, which joins the
Fig. 169. THE LAKE OP GRAND LIEU.
Scale 1 : 25J.WO.
. 5 MUes.
Ijoire at Nantes, may be described as a lacustrine river. To the south of the Loire
the Lake of Grand Lieu occupies a cavity in the granite. This Like is fed not only
by rivulets which fall into it, but also by the Loire, the level of which, at high
water, is about 3 feet higher than that of the luke. The channel which con-
nects the latter is consequently alternately an affluent and an effluent. Nay,
tradition tells us that the lake owes its existence to an irruption of the Loire, and
superstitious fishermen occasionally hear the bells of St. Herbadilla, a village now
228
FRANCE.
buried beneath it. The lake covers an area of 17,000 acres, and, as its average
depth does not exceed 6 feet, it might easily he drained.
Another lake, near the mouth of the river, that of Grande Bnere, is now
completely silted up. Some geologists look upon this bog as an old gulf of the
sea with which it communicated formerly through Ptolemy's Brivates Portus,
Fig. 170. LA GRANDE BRIEHB.
Scale 1 : 160,000.
2 Maes.
whose name survives in the river Brive. In reality, however, this is a spongy
morass, similar in all respects to the bogs of Ireland, and formed in the same
manner. The peasants around it, known as " Brierons," cut about 20,000 tons of
turf annually, which is exported to all the towns of Western France, and a con-
siderable portion of which is converted into manure.
THE LOIRE.
229
The tide ascends far beyond Nantes, but the maritime estuary can be said to
begin only at Pellerin, about 9 miles below that town. The river thence varies
in width between 1 and 3 miles, and is obstructed by numerous ever-shifting
sand-banks and islands. Some of these latter have, in course of time, been attached
to the mainland, the most remarkable instance being that of the fete, or "head,"
upon which rises the town of Pen-Bo (" bullock's head "), called Paimboeuf in
French.
The narrows between St. Nazaire and Mindin separate the estuary from the
outer bay of the river A bar, covered with 12 feet of water at the ebb, lies
off the mouth of this bay, the navigation of which is, moreover, obstructed by
Fig. 171 PAIMBCEUF.
Scale 1 50.000.
D^tfi 10 > F*n CJ * gS
^^^ 1 Mile.
numerous islands and sunken rocks. The tide rises 17 feet, and the largest
vessels can consequently enter the river if they bide their time.
The northern coast of this bay has been subjected to considerable changes. In
the east, for a distance of 8 miles, the land has been washed away by the seu,
there remaining only a line of cliff*, beyond which the sea has invaded the land,
forming a vast gulf surrounded by shifting dunes, which in 1779 overwhelmed the
village of Escoublac. In the west an inverse process has been going on, and the
old islands of Pouliguen, Batz, and Le Croisic are now attached to the mainland,
the arm of the sea which separated them having gradually been conveited into a
brackish swaTnp.
The inhabitants of Batz claim to be of Saxon or Scandinavian descent, but in
reality they do not differ from their neighbours on the plateau of Guerande either
in dress, customs, or language. In both districts we meet with a number of tall,
fair, blue-eyed men. They both spoke Breton up to the close of the seventeenth
230
FKANCE.
century, a language at present restricted to a small village near Batz. The
isolation, however, in which the islanders of Batz lived for centuries gave birth to
a strong local patriotism. Their young men never looked for wives beyond their
" island," and all the inhabitants are cousins. Out of a population of 2,750
persons, nearly one-half belong to eight families, and there is one family which
can boast of 490 members. Under these circumstances family names and surnames
do not suffice, and nearly every individual is known by some sobriquet. No ill
consequences have resulted from these consanguineous marriages, either physically
or mentally. Morally, likewise, the inhabitants of Batz enjoy a high reputation,
Fig. 172. THE MOVTH OF THE LOIRE.
Scale 1 : 280,000.
E3L! Depth f fatfwma
. 6 Miles
and a local proverb says that " no bowl can be thrown in the village but stops in
front of an honest man's house."
TOPOGRAPHY.
NIEVHK, thus mimed after a little river entering the Loire at Nevers, is the
modern representative of Nivernais. It is within this department that the Loire
first assumes the character which it retains throughout its middle course. The
crystalline heights of Morvan in the east are drained into the Seine. The soil is
not very fertile, but carefully cultivated. There are mineral springs, iron and coal
NIEVBE.
281
mines, clay pits, and manufactories of china, cutlery, and hardware. The iron
industry of the country dates back to a very remote age, and the remains of Gallo-
Roman forges are met with by hundreds. The population, owing to the hilly
nature of the department, is not dense. Of late years it has decreased.
Decize (3,547 inhabitants) occupies an island of the Tipper Loire, and has
several iron works, supplied with coal from the neighbouring mines of La Machine
(3,091 inhabitants). Nerers ('20,601 inhabitants), the capital, occupies a favour-
able site near the junction of the Loire and Allier, and is the centre of a busy
manufacturing district. It enjoyed some importance in the time of Julius Caesar,
but its finest edifice is the old castle of its dukes, now used as a court of justice.
The manufacture of china was introduced by the Gonzagos of Mantua, who were
proprietors of the town in the sixteenth century, and still flourishes, but the
Fig. 173. LE CROISIC AND BATZ.
Scale 1 : 150,000.
2Milo.
largest establishment is the Government arsenal for the manufacture of cannon
and artillery carriages. At Imphy (1,437 inhabitants), above Nevers, are iron
foundries; at FonrcJnnnhinilt (5,686 inhabitants), below, iron works and a foundry;
and at GiiMgny (1,870 inhabitants) the Government foundry of La Chaussade. .
Travelling down the Loire we pass Poiigues, with its steel springs ; the
old monastic city of La Cliarife (4,776 inhabitants), with an old abbey, a
" daughter " of that of Cluny, and exceedingly wealthy in the eleventh and twelfth
centuries ; Poirilly-xur-Loire (1,939 inhabitants), with famous vineyards planted by
the monks of La Charite ; and Come (5,711 inhabitants).
St. Amnnd (1,443 inhabitants), in Puisaye, at some distance from the Loire,
has potteries, while Douzy (2,560 inhabitants), to the south of it, is known for its
hardware.
232 FRANCE.
Chateau-Chilian (2,593 inhabitants), the old capital of Morvan, in the eastern
portion of the department, occupies a most picturesque site overlooking the Yonne
and the wooded heights beyond it. Descending the river just named, we reach
the'busy little town of Clamecij (4,663 inhabitants), which carries on a considerable
trade in timber.
CHER includes about one half of Berry and a small portion of Bourbonnais.
It is bounded by the Loire in the east, whilst the Cher, with its tributaries, Yevre
and Auron, traverses its western portion. T.he department produces corn, hemp,
and sheep, the latter noted for their fine wool. Its iron mines, yielding 274,000
tons of ore annually, are of considerable importance.
Sancerre (2,830 inhabitants) is the only town of importance on the Loire. It
has become known through the heroic siege which its Protestant inhabitants sus-
tained in 1573. Proceeding up the Aubois, we pass Gtterche (1,837 inhabitants)
and Sancoins (2,970 inhabitants), and following the canal of Berry, reach the valley
of Auron, the richest iron district of the department. The town of Dun- le-Roi
(4,357 inhabitants) occupies its centre.
Boiirges (31,102 inhabitants), the old capital of Berry, occupies a low site at the
confluence of the Auron with the Yevre. It is the Avaricum of the Romans, and
a council was held here in 1225, which led to Louis VIII. taking the field against
the Albigenses. The most remarkable buildings of the town are a cathedral of the
thirteenth century ; the mansion of the silversmith, Jacques Coeur, a masterpiece
of the Renaissance, now used as a court of justice ; and the Hotel Cujas, converted
into police barracks. A vast arsenal, including a cannon foundry, a laboratory,
stores, and artillery ranges, occupies a considerable area to the east of the town.
Passing Mehun (5,256 inhabitants), with its manufactories of china, and a
castle in which died Charles VII., we reach Vierzon (10,053 inhabitants), at the
confluence of the Yevre and Cher, the most important manufacturing town of the
' department, where china, glass, cutlery, textile fabrics, and agricultural machinery
are produced.
St. Amand- Mont Bond (7,719 inhabitants) is the only town of importance on
the Cher. Near it are Roman ruins, including a temple, a theatre, baths, and an
aqueduct. A castle of the Duke of Mortemart, sumptuously restored, lies to the
north of the town, in the forest of Meillant.
INDRE forms a portion of the old province of Berry. The river Indre traverses
its centre, whilst its north and south are respectively drained by the Loire and the
Cher. The south of the department is occupied by granite mountains, but the
greater portion of it consists of Jurassic limestone or tertiary plains. In these
latter three districts are distinguished, viz. the Brenne, a tract abounding in punds,
woods, and heaths ; the Bois-Chaud, a pebbly tract covered with forests ; and
the Champagne country, a limestone district, not exactly distinguished for its
fertility. The iron industry, which was of great importance formerly, is declining
steadily.
Issoudim (11,293 inhabitants), the largest town in the basin of the Loire, and
one of the oldest in France, has suffered much through the revocation of the Edict
LOIBET.
283
of Nantes, but still engages in the manufacture of leather and of woollen stuffs,
drawing most of its raw materials from the surrounding country. The valley of
the Theols, as well as the country to the west of it as far as Vatan (2,045 inha-
bitants) and Lerroux (3,293 inhabitants), abounds in prehistoric remains . and
mediaeval castles. One of these latter is at Vaknyay (1,842 inhabitants), and
within its walls Napoleon confined King Ferdinand VII. of Spain.
La Chat re (4,3P4 inhabitants), on the Upper Indre, has important markets.
Near it is the village of Nohant, where Georges Sand resided. Chateauroux
(16,980 inhabitants), lower down on the Indrc, and the capital of the department,
has manufactories of tobacco and army cloth. It was founded in the tenth century,
but for a long time remained inferior to the abbatial city of Deok (2,334 inha-
Fig. 174. ORLEANS.
Seal" 1 : 100,000.
' "' f'
iMUe.
bitants), on the opposite bank of the river. The other towns on the Indre are
/inz'in^ain (3,470 inhabitants) and C/idtil/oit (2,123 inhabitants).
Aryetiton (5,003 inhabitants), on the Creuse, is an important town, having
tan-yards, cloth factories, paper-mills, and brick-kilns. Le Blanc (4,724 inha-
bitants) has cloth factories. At Ncuvy St. Sepulcre (1,292 inhabitants), in a side
valley of the Creuse, there is a curious old church imitated from that of the Holy
Sepulchre at Jerusalem.
LoiiiKT, named after a subterranean river which rises to the surface near
Orleans, includes the greater part of old Orleanais. It occupies that portion of
France where the valleys of the Loire and the Seine approach nearest to each
other. The valley of the Loire, with its fertile fields and populous towns, traversse
the centre of the department. To the north of it lie the forest-clad hills of
Puisaye ; the Gatinais, partly wooded ; the forest of Orleans ; and the corn-fields
of Beauce. To the south of the river are the sterile sands of Sologne.
53
234 FRANCE.
Briare (3,970 inhabitants) is the first town met with on descending the Loire.
Its position at the mouth of the canal which connects the Loire with the Seine
enables it to carry on a profitable commerce. Gien (6,493 inhabitants), a few
miles lower down, has potteries. We then pass Sully (1,980 inhabitants), with an
old castle of Henri IV.'s duke ; and St. Benott, a very important town in the
time of the Carlovingians, with the remains of an old abbey ; Chateauneuf (2,799
inhabitants), an old residence of the Kings of France ; and Jargeau (1,558 inha-
bitants), where Joan of Arc was wounded during the siege of Orleans.
Orleans (49,896 inhabitants) is one of the great historical towns of France,
and has played a part quite out of proportion to its population. " Upon the
fate of Orleans frequently depended that of all France; the names of Caesar, Attila,
Joan of Arc, and De Guise record the sieges which it has sustained." Amongst its
ancient buildings are a tower captured by Joan of Arc during the memorable siege
of 1429 ; an old town-hall, converted into a museum ; several churches, including
a cathedral erected in the seventeenth century ; a fine town-hall of the Renaissance ;
and several noteworthy private houses. Woollen stuffs are manufactured, but the
town is prominent rather for its commerce than for its industries. The vicinity
abounds in nurseries and market gardens. Lower down on the Loire are St. Ay,
noted for its wines; Hcung (3,122 inhabitants), an old town; Clery (1,225 inha-
bitants), with a church containing the tombs of Louis XI. and Dunois; and the
picturesque town of Beaugency (3,901 inhabitants), frequently mentioned in mili-
tary history. Con/miers, where a battle was fought in the last war, and Patay,
where Talbot was taken prisoner by Joan of Arc, are north of the latter.
Pithiriers (4,899 inhabitants), in Beauce, exports almond cakes and lark patties-
Passing thence through Bcaune la Rolande, a place mentioned in connection with
the events of 1870, we reach Montargis (9,175 inhabitants), the chief place of
Gatinais, built upon several islands of the river Loing. Lorris (1,438 inhabitants),
an old town to the south-west of the latter, has become known through a code of
laws collected in the twelfth century, and for a long time in force throughout the
surrounding districts.
LOIR-ET-CHER is named after two rivers, which intersect its northern and
southern portions, separated by the valley of the Loire. In the north are the
corn-fields of Beauce, but the verdant hills lining the southern bank of the Loire
soon merge into the dreary plains of Sologne. About one-tenth of the area is
covered with forests, an equal area consists of heaths, and there exists but little
manufacturing industry.
Mer (3,467 inhabitants), on the Loire, has a few vineyards. At Suevres may
be seen " sacred " stones and the remains of an ancient city ; Mcnars boasts an old
castle ; and St. Denis has mineral springs similar to those of Spa. B/ois (18,188
inhabitants) is beaut fully situated upon hills overlooking the Loire. Historically
it abounds in interest. It was here the Estates of France met between 1576 and
1588, the Duke of Guise was assassinated, and Catherine de Medicis breathed her
last. The fine old castle in which these events took place has been carefully
restored. Amongst the famous children of Blois was Denys Papin, the physician,
LOIR-ET-CHER.
235
whom intolerance drove out of the country. The vicinity of Blois abounds in old
parks and castles. The old palace of Chambord, erected by Francis I., one of
the finest specimens of the Renaissance, is one of the most remarkable amongst
them. The castle of Bcaureyard, near Heitrron, is noted for its portrait gallery.
The castle of Chaumont, below Blois, surpasses all the above on account of its
picturesque site.
Romorantin (7,436 inhabitants), the principal town of the Sologne, had impor-
tant manufactories formerly, but is of little note now. On the Cher are Selles
(3,259 inhabitants); St. Aignan (2,59? inhabitants), with mills and tan-yards;
Fig. 175. CHAHTRES.
Scale 1 : 40,000.
. 1 Mi.-.
T/ie'zee, noted for its red wines ; and Motitrichard (2,881 inhabitants), with a fine
castle. The houses of this town are constructed with a stone known us " toph of
Saumur," which is procured from the quarries of Bourre, near the Cher.
Vi'iirldme (7,800 inhabitants), on the Loir, is the only town of note in the north
of the department. Up to the time of the Reformation it boasted of tan-yards,
woollen and glove manufactories, but its industry is nearly gone. Its fine Gothic
tower and huge castle are quite out of proportion to the number of its inhabitants.
Mtmtoire (2,654 inhabitants), lower down on the Loir, has an old castle, and the
vicinity of both these towns abounds in Roman and prehistoric remains, including
a subterranean town, in part still inhabited.
236 FRANCE.
EuRE-KT-LoiR, named after its two principal rivers, includes the greater part
of Beauce, and is almost void of natural beauties. The western districts of Dunois,
Drouais, Thymerais, and Perche offer more varied scenery. The department is
one of the granaries of France, and famous for a fine breed of horses known as
Percherons.
Chateaudun (6,061 inhabitants), on the Loir, is the old capital of Dunois, and
boasts of an ancient castle. The other old places of note on that river are Bonneval
(2,373 inhabitants) and Cloyes (1,759 inhabitants).
Nogent-le-Rotrou (6,569 inhabitants), on the Huisne, has an old castle built by
the Counts of Perche, and manufactures textile fabrics. The villagers in the
neighbourhood engage extensively in baby-farming, and the mortality amongst
their little charges is extraordinarily large.
Chartres (20,067 inhabitants), on the Eure, the old city of the Carnutes, and
the capital of the department, has a magnificent cathedral, the two steeples of
which are visible for miles around, and several other interesting churches. The
ancient fortifications have been converted into public walks, and only one of
its fortified gates now remains. Descending the Eure, we pass Maintenon, with
an old castle. Dreux (7,087 inhabitants), in a side valley of the Eure, is an old
seat of royalty. It contains the mausoleum of the Orleans family. In the vast
forest extending to the north of it lies the castle of Anet, which Phil'bert Delorme
built for Diana of Poitiers.
INDRE-ET-LOIRE includes nearly the whole of the old province of Touraine.
It consists of several well-marked districts, viz. the sterile tertiary plateau of
" Gatine," to the north of the Loire ; the rich alluvial tract of Varenne, between
Loire and Cher ; the elevated tract of La Champeigne, between the Cher and the
delightful valley of the Indre ; the sterile plateau of Ste. Maure, beyond the
valley ; and the cretaceous district of Veron, which extends along the Loire,
between it and the Lower Vienne.
On the Loire rise several magnificent castles, amongst which are those of
Amboise (4,475 inhabitants), a favourite residence of the kings during the sixteenth
century ; of Poet ; and of Clos-Luce, within the walls of which died Leonardo da
Vinci in 1519. Another castle equally famous rises upon an island of the Cher,
at Chenonceaux, one of the finest examples of the Renaissance, where Farmer-
General Dupin gathered around him the most famous representatives of the litera-
ture of the eighteenth century.
Tours (48,325 inhabitants) occupies a site on the narrow tongue of land lying
between the Loire and the Cher. This fine town transmits to us the name of the
old tribe of the Turoncs. Its Roman remains are restricted to a few remnants of
the old walls and to the foundations of an amphitheatre. The Middle Ages are
represented by a cathedral, the towers of St. Martin's Church, and the ruins of a
palace built by Louis XI. Amongst modern structures the fine bridge over the
Loire, which connects Tours with its suburb of St. Symphorien (2,169 inhabitants),
is the most remarkable. A statue of Descartes has been erected upon it. Tours
is one of the most pleasant towns of France, and its library, museum, and scientific
INDRE-ET-LOIRE.
287
societies afford intellectual resources, but its commerce and industry are far less
than might be expected from its favourable geographical position. In the time of
Louis XI. it had a population of 80,000 souls, but its prosperity was destroyed by
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. There are railway works, silk-mills, woollen
factories, tan-yards, and manufactories of glazed china. Candied prunes are amongst
the delicacies for which " Fat " Tours is celebrated.
Voutray (1,394 inhabitants), to the east of Tours, produces a superior wine.
Met tray (1,875 inhabitants), to the north, has a reformatory founded in 1859.
C/idteaurenault (3,487 inhabitants) is the largest town in that part of the depart-
ment which lies to the north of the Loire. Its tan-yards and leather manufactures
are of considerable importance.
Descending the Loire, we pass several fine castles, including those of Liiynex,
Veretz, Ciitq-Mars (St. Medard), and Langeais, the latter one of the finest examples
of the military architecture of the fifteenth century. Bourgueil (1,711 inhabitants),
Fig. 176. TOUKS.
Scale 1 : 260,000.
5 Miles.
on the north of the Loire, has vineyards, but the red wines grown there do not
keep.
Loches (3,689 inhabitants) is the principal town in the valley of the Indre.
In addition to a huge castle, now used as a prison, it boasts of several mediaeval
buildings, including two royal castles. Montbazon and Azay-le-Rideau (1,335
inhabitants), lower down on that river, are likewise noted on ac:ount of their old
castles.
C/iinon (4,536 inhabitants), on the Vienne, is one of the historical towns of
France. From the time of Clovis to that of the religious wars it was one of the
Tiiost coveted fortresses. The Norman Kings of England frequently resided here,
and Charles VII. of France here assembled the Estates of his kingdom. Fearful
scenes have taken place within its walls, and a spot is still pointed out where one
hundred and fifty Jews were burnt for poisoning the wells. Rabelais was born in
the neighbourhood. Ascending the Vienne, we reach L'l&k Bouchard, with
238
FRANCE.
cement works, and La Ha,/r, the birthplace of Descartes. At Grand Piwigny,
near the latter, M. Leveille, in 1863, discovered a rich store of flint implements
Ste. Maure (1,684 inhabitants) lies on the steiile plateau to the north of the
Vienne. Richelieu (2,328 inhabitants), in a side valley of that river, was the birth-
place of the famous cardinal of that name. Of the magnificent palace which he
built himself there exist now only a few insignificant ruins.
MAINE-ET-LOIBE, named after the two rivers which join below Angers, includes
the most important portion of the old province of Anjou. Crystalline rocks
predominate in the east, sedimentary ones in the west, and these two zones conse-
Fig. 177. ANGERS.
Scale 1 : 120,000.
la Sauloie \rBoir* Croissant fb
_ U ./
quently differ in their physiognomy, vegetation, systems of husbandry, and the
material used in building houses. In the east forests of some extent still exist,
but upon the whole the department is carefully cultivated, and wine, corn, fruit,
and cattle form important articles of export.
We begin travelling down the valley of the Loire. The first town we reach is
Saumur (13,403 inhabitants), with a fine old castle, numerous church steeples, and
excellent quays along the river. The town is the seat of the great cavalry school
of the French army, almost monopolizes the manufacture of chaplets, and carries
on much trade in agricultural produce. The vicinity abounds in antiquities. The
SARTHE. 289
cromlech of Bctyneux, within a mile of the town, is the finest of all Anjou. At
Doue-hi-Fontaine (3,194 inhabitants), farther to the south-east, are several other
cromlechs ; but far more famous than these are the remains of a magnificent
abbey at Fontevrault (2,651 inhabitants), now used as a house of detention.
The villages below Saumur, such as Treves, CuiMult, Gennes, La Men it re, and
St. Maur, are remarkable on account of their ruins of ecclesiastical or other old
buildings. Les Pontx-de-Ce (1,876 inhabitants), on an island, is strategically
important, as the passage of the Loire can easily be effected here. The Authion
(see Fig. 166) joins it below that town, the principal places in its fertile valley
being Longue (1,876 inhabitants) and Beaufort-en- Vallee i2,680 inhabitants), both
centres of the linen industry. The best hemp of France is grown there.
A few miles below Ponts-de-Ce, at La Pointe, the river Maine joins from the
north. Still travelling down the Loire, we pass Chalonnex (2,449 inhabitants) and
its coal mines ; the village of Cltamptoce (762 inhabitants), where Marshal Gilles
de Retz, the legendary Bluebeard, had his castle ; and the picturesque little town
of St. Florent-le-Vieil (958 inhabitants), with David's mausoleum of the Vendean
partisan, Bonchamps. Retracing our steps to tbe mouth of the Maine, we ascend
that river for 5 miles, and reach Angers (53,366 inhabitants), the capital of the
department, named after the Gallic tribe of the Andecaves, and next to Nantes
the most important town in the basin of the Lower Loire. Boulevards enclose the
old city, built around a magnificent cathedral, and suburbs stretch out beyond
them in every direction. The castle built by Louis IX. occupies the summit of a
bold rock, and there are many other mediaeval buildings which impart a character
to the town. There are scientific societies and colleges, a school of art industry,
and museums, amongst which that containing a collection of the works of the
sculptor, David of Angers, is perhaps the most interesting. Comtmrcj and
industry flourish. There are foundries and linen and sail-cloth manufactories. The
nurseries and market gardens in the neighbourhood are famous throughout France,
and the vineyards of St. Barthelemy, Rochtfort, St. Georges, and Serrant enjoy a
high reputation. The slate quarries (ardoisidrets), to the east of the town, are the
most important in France, yielding about 200,000,000 slates annually.
tirtjre (2,212 inhabitants) and Baugt (3,318 inhabitants) are the only towns of
any importance in the north of the department.
Cholet (12,335 inhabitants), in the south-west, on a tributary of the Sevre,
suffered much during the Vendean war, but recovered rapidly from its disasters.
It is now one of the centres of the linen and woollen industry of France, besides
which it carries on a brisk trade in cattle. The surrounding villages are dependent,
in a large measure, upon the manufactories of Cholet, as are also Beanpreau (2,579
inhabitants), on the Evrc, and Chemillc (3,073 inhabitants).
At Tlioiiiircf, on the Layon, are Roman ruins ; whilst Jirixxar, on the Aubance,
boasts of a sumptuous castle built in the seventeenth century.
SAKTIII. includes portions of the old provinces of Maine, Anjou, and Perche.
The Sarthe, which flows west through a hilly district, and the Loir, the valley of
which is bounded by low chalk cliffs, drain the department into the Loire.
240
FRANCE.
Jurassic limestones, chalk, and tertiary formations predominate. Agriculture is
the principal occupation, the land being cultivated for the most part by farmers.
Its geese, pullets, and capons are famous throughout France.
Fisr. 178. THE SLATE QUARRIES NEAR AXOERS.
Le Mam (45,709 inhabitants) occupies an elevated site at the confluence of the
e with the Sarthe. It is a prosperous town. Roman towers and a magnifi-
cent cathedral attest its antiquity, but its numerous factories prove that it is
SART1IE.
241
abreast of modern times. Hardware, agricultural implements, linens, and other
textile fabrics are manufactured. Frvsnay-le-Vicomte (3,010 inhabitants), on the
Upper Sarthe, at the foot of a tottering fortress, manufactures linens, whilst Sabtt
(5,334 inhabitants), on the Lower Sarthe, has marble quarries, manufactories of
farinaceous preparations, and cattle fairs. Within a couple of miles of it is the
famous abbey of Soksmes, founded in the thirteenth century.
Sille-le-Gt<ilt<inme (2,995 inhabitants) and Loue, two small towns to the west of
the Sarthe, engage in the manufacture of linen, an industry likewise carried on
Fig. 179. LE MANS.
Scale 1 : 50,UOO.
i Mile.
in the picturesque town of Nrtmers (5,147 inhabitants), and at Botinttable (3,185
inhabitants), to the east of that river.
La Fci-ti'-Bcrnnnl ('2,034 inhabitants) is the principal town in the beautiful
valley of the Huisne. At Dinicfin, near it, may be seen a remarkable cromlech.
La F/i-che (7,468 inhabitants), on the Loir, is the seat of a military school
occupying, the old Jesuit college in which Descartes was educated. Higher up on
that river are Lc Liule (2,720 inhabitants), with a fine modern mansion ; Chateau-
<l-Loir (2,527 inhabitants), inhabited by clog-makers, quarrymen, and tannere ;
242 FRANCE.
and Chartre, where there are several subterranean habitations. North of the Loir
are Ecommoy (1,841 inhabitants), Mayct (1,631 inhabitants), and St. Calais (3,000
inhabitants).
MAYENNE lies almost wholly within the basin of the river whose name it bears,
and which, lower down, is known as Maine. Geologically it forms a part of
Brittany. There are slate quarries, coal mines, and lime-kilns. The linen
industry is of importance, but more so the cultivation of the soil and the breeding
of cattle.
Mayenne (8,826 inhabitants) is the chief town in the north of the department,
The manufacture of linen occupies several thousand workmen in the town and the
villages near it, and there are also cotton-mills, flour-mills, and lime-kilns. Ernee
(3,866 inhabitants) and Chailland (518 inhabitants), both on the river Ernee, which
enters the Mayenne from the west, are likewise engaged in the linen industry.
Jublain*, a village to the south-east of Mayenne, is the old capital of the Aulerci-
Diablintes, and, in addition to a magnificent caatellum, possesses other Roman ruins
of the highest interest.
Laval (25,110 inhabitants) is a delightful city on both banks of the Mayenne,
surrounded by shady walks and fine gardens. Ambroise Pare, the " father of
French surgeons," was a native of the place, and a monument has been erected in
his honour. Several thousand woi-kmen are engaged in the manufacture of fancy
ticking, and there are also marble works and lime-kilns. Coal is worked at
Germanchieres, to the west of Laval ; whilst the rocks of Coevrons, above the fine
old city of Evron (3,433 inhabitants), yield porphyry, granite, kaolin, and man-
ganese. Ste. Suzanne, a village near Evron, still possesses its mediaeval castle and
walls.
Chateau-Gonticr (7,218 inhabitants) on the Lower Mayenne, is a great agricul-
tural mart, and its ferruginous springs attract a certain number of visitors. Cnion
(3,874 inhabitants), to the west of it, was the birthplace of Volney. It is famous
for its pigs and its breed of horses. Coal mines and slate quarries are near it.
LOIRE-INFERIEURE is intersected by the Lower Loire and its estuary. Historically
and geologically it belongs to Brittany, but the peasantry have long ago discarded
the use of the Breton tongue, and commercial interests have alienated the country
from Brittany. The department is rich in horses and cattle, agriculture and
gardening are carried on with much success, while industry and commerce flourish.
Nantes (116,093 inhabitants), one of the great commercial towns of France,
dates back to a time far anterior to that of the Romans, and bears the name of the
Gallic tribe of the Namnetes. Its position, at a point where the rivers Erdre and
Sevre join the Loire, is exceedingly favourable for commerce, especial!}' as sea-
going vessels can reach its fine quays with every tide. Its most remarkable
buildings are a castle on the river bank, a Gothic cathedral, and modern palatial
edifice, beneath the roof of which have been brought together the library,
museum, and art collections of the town. The public park is one of the finest.
Historically the name of the town is connected with the Edict of Nantes, promul-
gated by Henri IV. in 1598, but revoked by Louis XIV. in 1685. As a maritime
LOIRE-INFEKIEURE.
248
port the town is losing ground since the introduction of larger vessels, for only
those drawing less than 10 feet of water can safely venture up the river. At the
same time it must not be forgotten that the commerce of St. Nazaire, at the mouth
of the river, is carried on almost exclusively by Nantes firms. In former times
Nantes supplied the French West Indies with slaves, taking sugar in return, and
up to the present time its intercourse with these colonies is very active. It is the
great colonial depot of the valley of the Loire, and its sugar refineries only yield
to those of Paris and Marseilles. Iron foundries, lead and brass works, oil-mills,
Fig. 180. NANTBS.
Scale 1 : 66,000.
. 1 Mile.
soap works, machine shops, a tobacco manufactory, ship-yards, and other industrial
establishments give employment to thousands of workmen. Other thousands
work in the granite quarries above the suburb of Chrtntenay (8,490 inhabitants).
The preservation of food annually increases in importance. The valleys of the
Erdre and Sevre abound in fine old castles and modern country mansions, the
latter more especially around Cfixxon (2,241 inhabitants).
Ancfiiix (4,608 inhabitants) is the only town on the Loire above Nantes.
Descending the river, we pass Indre (2,229 inhabitants) and the island of Indret,
244
FRANCE.
with an old castle and a Government manufactory for marine engines ; Coueron
(1,063 inhabitants) and its lead works; and reach Sacenny (1,703 inhabitants), a
small town built on a bluff to the north, affording a magnificent prospect over the
estuary of the Loire. Paimbceuf (2,473 inhabitants) lies opposite, but its harbour
is hardly ever now visited by merchantmen since docks have been excavated at St.
Nazuire (14,761 inhabitants), at the mouth of the river, and 30 miles below
Fig. 181. ST. NAZAIBE.
Scale 1 : 30,000.
Nantes. This town has sprung up rapidly since 1856 around a Breton village,
and packet steamers connect it with the West Indies and other parts of the world.
In reality, however, it is merely an outport of Nantes, to which most of the mer-
chandise is forwarded immediately after it has been landed. Its environs consist
of barren heaths, and the town is very much in want of good drinking water.*
* Value of imports (1875) at St. Nazaire, 13,240,000; at Nantes, 2,800,000; of exports at St.
Nazaire, 2,680,000, at Nantes .',200,000.
LOIRE-INFERIEURE. 245
The district to the west of St. Nazaire, with its primitive inhabitants, its ever-
changing coast, and its salt swamps, yielding about 36,000 tons of suit a year, is
one of the most interesting in France. Its principal towns are Croisic (1,981
inhabitants), much frequented by seaside visitors, and Guerande (2,415 inhabitants),
still surrounded by turreted walls. On the wide bay to the south of the Loire, in
the district of Retz, are Bourgneuf (817 inhabitants) and Pornic, a rising seaside
resort, with numerous pretty villas.
Chateau briant (4,082 inhabitants) is the only place of importance in the north
of the department, its old walls and gabled houses offering a curious contrast to
its modern court of justice and manufactories. Agricultural progress, too,
changes the face of the country, and large tracts of heath in the vicinity of the
agricultural school of Grandjouan have been converted into productive land.
CHAPTER VIII.
BRITTANY (BKETAGNE).
GENERAL ASPECTS.
RITTANY and Cotentin, the two peninsulas of Western France,
are geologically of the same origin, and, together with Poitou
and Cornwall, are the principal remaining portion of a huge
granitic island, which also included Poitou and Cornwall, and was
separated from the continent by an arm of the sea extending to
the Vosges and the plateau of Central France. An irruption of the Atlantic
severed the French portion of this ancient island from that lying beyond the
Channel. The ocean incessantly lashes the broken coast of these peninsulas, but
their granitic rocks are better able to resist its onslaughts than is the calcareous
soil of Normandy and Saintonge.
The climate and physical aspects of these two peninsulas are the same, but
their political history has been very different. The Bay of St. Michel completely
separates Brittany from Cotentin ; and the latter being too small of extent to lead
an independent life, and moreover easy of access, very soon cast in its lot with that
of the population of Northern France. Brittany, on the other hand, offered a
stubborn resistance to every attempt at assimilation. Thanks to its remoteness
far away from the great high-roads of nations it was able to maintain its old
customs and its Celtic tongue. The stubborn resistance offered by the Bretons to
foreign encroachments was maintained for centuries. The English, though masters
of Anjou and of Normandy, never succeeded in firmly establishing themselves in
Brittany ; and long after that province had become French it maintained its
ancient customs, and down to the present day it is distinguished for many pecu-
liarities.
Rocks, tortuous valleys, heaths, and forests separate Brittany from the rest of
France, and the readiest access to it is afforded by the sea. Its many fine harbours
facilitated the creation of a mercantile marine, and the frequent wars between
England and France afforded an opportunity to the Bretons for exhibiting their
prowess at sea. The rivalry between them and the "Bretons" on the other
side of the channel fed their local patriotism, whilst frequent intercourse with
GENERAL ASPECTS.
247
other maritime districts of France created amongst them a French national
feeling.
In its general features, Brittany consists of two hands of granite, gradually
approaching each other in the west, the triangular space between them being
occupied by ancient sedimentary formations.
The crystalline, fern-clad heights to the west of the Lower Loire, known as the
Sillon (" furrow ") of Brittany, may be described as the edge of a plateau rather
than a chain of hills. The Vilaine has excavated itself a passage through the
grunitic heights, which farther west form the range known as the Landes of
Lanvaux (574 feet). The granites finally give place to schists, which form the
Black Mountains of Brittany, thus called after the forests which formerly covered
them. They culminate in the bold Menez-Hom (1,083 feet), on the peninsula of
Crozon.
The northern granitic range of Brittany is far more complicated in its structure
Fig. 182. THE LANDES OF LANVAUX.
Scale 1 : 650,000.
than that of the south. From the plain intersected by the canal of the Ille the
country gradually rises to the heights of Le Mene' (1,116 feet) ; but beyond these
extends a vast ledge of granite, until we reach the fine range of Arree and its
sandstone peak of St. Michel (1,284 feet), the most prominent hill of Brittany.
The vale enclosed between these granitic heights is traversed by several rivers,
communication between which has been established by means of a canal, which
connects the Lower Loire with Brest, but has now been superseded by railways.
Brittany generally gives an impression of monotonous grandeur ; and Brizeux,
a native poet, addresses it as the ' land of granite and of oaks." But the country
is not without landscapes more pleasing to the eye heaths and fields, shady lanes,
tranquil rivulets, half-hidden lakelets, and old walls covered with ivy. On the
seashore other sights greet the eye, and nothing can be more impressive than the
billows of the Atlantic rushing upon the cliffs of Finistere. With a lowering sky
the physiognomy of the country is sombre in the extreme, but the sun imparts to
248
FRANCE.
it an aspect of quiet cheerfulness impossible to describe. The Bretons themselves
yield completely to these impressions, and home sickness is frequent amongst them
when abroad.
THE COAST.
ANCIENT Armorica, the " Land of the Sea," fully merits its Celtic appellation, for
to the sea it is indebted for its climate and for most of its resources, and the sea
has shaped the temper of its inhabitants. Off the western promontories of Brit-
tany the gulf-stream encounters the secondary ocean current, which sweeps the
Fig. 183. MORBIHAX.
Scale 1 : 240,000.
. ii Miles.
shores of the Bay of Biscay. The tides are violent and irregular, and the sea is
perpetually in motion down to its very bottom. A powerful under-current running
along the northern coast sweeps the granitic sea-bottom, piling up the sand and
mud in the east. Some of the rocks forming these are but ill adapted to resist the
action of the sea, and enormous blocks of rock have tumbled down from the cliffs
In the west, where sediment iry strata intervene between the two bands of granitic
rocks, the encroachments of the sea have been most considerable. The roadsteads
of Brest and Douarnenez penetrate deeply into the land, and almost resemble
Norwegian fiords, half obliterated by alluvium brought down by the rivers which
enter them. To the west of the estuary of the Vilaine this contest between the
THE COAST.
249
elements has given birth to a land-locked bay known as the Morbilian, or "little
sea.' ; Islands are scattered over it, some of them inhabited, and all subject to
continual changes. M. E. Desjardins is of opinion that this inland bay is of corn-
Fig. 184. THK PENINSULA OP QUIBERON.
Scale 1 : 100,000.
5" 'SO' Wo Pri
i' llO'W of Cr
I Mile.
pitrutivcly recent creation. A subsidence of the land has certainly taken plstce
there, for cromlechs have been discovered which do not even uncover at low
water. The numerous islands at the mouth of this bay indicate the direction of
54
250
FRANCE.
the old coast, and farther off a still more ancient coast-line may be traced in the
islands lying between the Points of Croisic and of Quiberon. These islands, as
well as the elongated peninsula of Quiberon, certainly murk the extent of Brittany
in some bygone age. As to the peninsula mentioned, a causeway and sands sub-
merged by each flood alone attach it to the mainland.
The island of Groix and the small archipelago of Gleiian mark the extent of
the old coast to the west of Quiberon. Tradition tells us that the nine islets of
Glenan are the fragments of a larger island. As to the large island of Belle-He,
or Guerveur, farther off the shore, it is, with the island of Yeu and the sunk rock
of Rochebonne, the only remaining witness of a coast-line even more ancient than
those noticed above.
Doubling the bold headland of Penmarch, or the "horse's head," we enter the
Fig. 185. TUB HEADLAND OF COKNOUAILLE.
Scale 1 : 400,000.
.. Miles.
desolate Bay of Auclierne. Not a tree grows upon the heights which surround it,
and no traces of cultivation greet the eye. The headland of Cornouaille (Cornwall),
to the north of that bay, juts far out into the sea. Standing upon its summit, no
less than 26'2 feet above the sea, we are not beyond the reach of the spray, and the
ground is felt to shake beneath our feet. The waves dash into the Enfer (hell) of
Plogoff, at its foot, creating a sound like thunder, and at the neighbouring Bay of
Trepasses the superstitious mariner fancies he hears the voices of the drowned
rising above the howling storm and the roar of the waves. To our ancestors this
uproar sounded like the voice of a god, whom nine Druid virgins sought to pro-
pitiate by leading a life of devotion upon the weather-beaten island of Sein. If
tradition can be believed, many a town has been swallowed up by the waves in
that part of the country. The Bay of Douarnenez is said to mark the site of the
THE COAST. 251
ancient city of Is ; and a causeway of Roman construction, leading to some place
now submerged, may still be traced near the Bay of Trepasses.
The island of Ouessant occupies a position analogous to that of Sein, with
reference to the headland of Leon. This cliff-bound island is cultivated, but not a
tree, not a shrub grows upon it. Mariners dread to approach it, for rocks abound,
the tides and winds are most irregular, and dense fogs prevail. But though the
passages separating Ouessant and the neighbouring islets are full of danger, they
give access to the maguifieent road of Brest, where four hundred vessels find a
secure shelter.
Several small islands and rocks on the north coast of Brittany enable us to
trace the old line of coast. The dreaded granitic headland, known as " Swords -of
Treguier," near Brehat, has offered a powerful resistance to the waves, but the
coast farther east has been encroached upon in many parts. In the Bay of
St. Brieuc alone no less than 120 square miles of land have been swallowed up
since the fifth century. Traces of ten Gallo- Roman buildings have been discovered
at various spots on the beach, and the old walls on the Cape of Erquy, which
bounds the bay on the east, are supposed to be the remains of the town of Reginea
mentioned on Peutinger's Table. The island of Cezembre, at the mouth of the Bay
of St. Malo, formed a portion of the mainland in the twelfth century, and even
more recently. Submerged forests and bogs are met with at different points of
this coast, and the recovery of the trees buried for centuries beneath the sands
of the beach occupies many of the poorer inhabitants of St. Malo. The remains of
buildings discovered in the Bay of St. Brieuc prove, however, that the encroach-
ment of the sea is not exclusively due to its erosive action ; a subsidence of the
land has evidently contributed to that result.
If tradition and old chronicles are to be believed, the encroachments of the sea
have been formidable indeed. The archipelago of Chausey is stated in the " Lives
of the Saints " to have formed part of the mainland in the beginning of the eighth
century, the area now covered by the sea being then occupied by a vast forest
known as Scisciacum nemm. Thus much is certain that a forest formerly covered
what is now the beach of the Bay of St. Michel. The names of villages which
stood in that forest have been handed down to us, and at low water traces of them
may sometimes be seen. Nowhere else in the world, the estuary of the Severn
and the Bay of Fundy alone excepted, does the tide attain so extraordinary a
height as in the Bays of St. Malo and St. Michel, where it rises 40, and even
"<<> feet. In the course of six hours it invades the beach of the latter bay, con-
verting the rock of St. Michel, with its picturesque castle, into an island. Man,
however, has undertaken not only to put a stop to the further encroachments of the
-ca, but also to recover some of the land already swallowed up by it. The
interesting hill of Dol, with its numerous remains of prehistoric animals, formerly
stood in the midst of the sea, but 3,500 acres surrounding it have been converted
into productive land. Embankments 30 feet in height, and constructed since
the eleventh century, now extend for a distance of 30 miles along the southern
shore of the Bay of St. Michel, and the recovery of the sandy beach lying beyond
252
FRANCE.
them is not considered a hopeless enterprise. The greatest obstacle to this recon-
quest is not offered by the sea, but by the rivers which flow into the bay, and for
which an outlet must be provided.
Elsewhere on the coast of Brittany man has had to guard against an invasion
of moving sand-hills. The dunes of St. Pol-de-Leon are the most formidable, but
having been planted with trees, they no longer cause anxiety. The sand com-
posing these and other dunes in Brittany is unusually rich in carbonate of lime.
Fragments of shells and seaweed enter largely into their composition, and the
traes, or calcareous sand, carried thither by the winds actually constitutes an
element of wealth, being most useful as manure.
Seaweeds are collected all along the coast, to be applied to the fields ; and in the
bogs of Cancale and St. Michel the peasants annually take up 500,000 tons of
Fig. 186. THE BAY OP ST. MICHEL. '
Scale 1 : 500,000. '
I'M'
;3o r
. 5 Jliles.
mud mixed with fragments of shells, which they spread over their fields. These
fertilising agents are all the more appreciated as the crystalline and palaeozoic
rocks of Brittany contain hardly any lime at all.
The fishing grounds of Brittany are amongst the most productive of France.
The peasants of Quimper and Chateaulin formerly almost lived upon salmon, and
farm-labourers objected to their being required to eat it more than thrice a week.
Thousands of men are engaged in the coast fisheries, yielding herrings, sardines,
mackerel, lobsters, and oysters ; and Breton fishermen, inured to the hardships
of a seafaring life, annually visit the fishing grounds of Newfoundland and
Iceland. Many amongst them work in the fields during winter, or collect sea-
weed, but early in spring engage themselves as suilors on board the vessels
proceeding to the Arctic regions. The four departments of Brittany supply the
mercantile marine of France with one-fifth of its sailors.
B
~
INHABITANTS.
253
INHABITANTS.
THE inhabitants of Brittany differ from those of the rest of France in language,
manners, and social condition.
Fig. 187. BRETON PEASANTS.
In Armorica, a remote region but little visited, ancient customs maintained
themselves longer than in the more accessible parts of France, and the Druids
enjoyed most power. The modern Bretons are no doubt, to a large extent, the
254
FRANCE.
descendants of these ancient Armoricans, but kindred Celtic tribes, driven from
Great Britain through the invasion of the Anglo-Saxons, settled amongst them-
These new arrivals founded the towns of St. Brieuc, St. Malo, and others. Being
superior in intelligence to the aboriginal population, they soon gained a prepon-
derance, and Armorica became Brittany, or Little Britain. The descendants of
these immigrants still differ from other Bretons. They are tall, fair, and blue-
eyed, these features boing most prominent on the islands of Batz and Ouessant.
The 'Bretons living to the south of the northern coast range are less tall, brovvn-
complexioned, and have round heads ; but they, too, have dark blue eyes. Some
of the inhabitants of the islands and of remote districts are said to be of a different
Fig. 188. APPROXIMATE EXTENT OF THE BKETON TONGUE.
origin. As a rule the Bretons bear a striking resemblance to the Limousins and
other inhabitants of the plateau of Central France. They have even been likened
to the Kabyls of Algeria. Dr. Bodichon, himself a Breton, says that " the Breton
of pure blood has a thick skull, a palish yellow skin, a brown complexion, black
or brown eyes, a squat build, and black hair. He, like the Kabyl, is stubborn
and indefatigable, and his voice has the same intonation."
The Celtic, or Brrizad, spoken by the Bretons, is akin to Welsh. There are
four dialects, those of Treguier, Leon, Cornouaille, and Vannes; and considerable
jealousies exist between those who speak them, as is proved by uncomplimentary
expressions like these: " A thief like a Leonard ! " "a traitor like a Tregorrois ! "
INHABITANTS.
255
" a blockhead like a Vannetais ! " and " a brute like a Cornouaillais ! " The litera-
ture of Brittany is poor, and cannot compare in antiquity or wealth with that of
Fig. 189. WOMEN OP CAKCALB.
Ireland or Wales. Only one weekly paper is published in Breton French is
spoken in Brest and the towns generally, and i.s gaining ground rapidly amongst
the peasants, most of whom can converse now with the " gentlemen " whom
256 FRANCE.
formerly they bated so much. Still the boundary between the French-speaking
Bretons, or " Gallots," in the east, and the Bretons proper, has changed but little
since the twelfth century. An examination of a map almost enables us to draw
the line dividing the two languages. On the one side we meet with French
names, or with Breton ones accommodated to French tongues ; on the other,
with pure Breton names only, such as begin with aber (mouth), cone (port, conch-
shell), car, caer, or ker (fortress, manor-house), coat, or coet (wood), Ian (conse-
crated ground), loc (place, hermitage), lea (court of justice), mene (hill), mor (sea),
pcnn (head), pie, pleu, or ploic (people, tribe), ros (coast), &c.
The manners of the Bretons, though peculiar in many respects, do not essen-
tially differ from what may be met with in other remote localities of I^rance. Brit-
tany, in fact, presents us with a fair likeness of mediaeval France. As Michelet
says, " The Bretons have only been estranged from us because they have adhered
most faithfully to what we were originally ; they are not much French, but very
much Gaul."
Old pagan customs still survive, and the peninsula of Pontusval, in Leonais, has
been known as ar payaniz, or the " land of the pagans," down to the present time.
But there are many other parts of the province where fountains and large trees
remain objects of veneration, and the mistletoe has lost none of its pristine virtue.
The ancient sanctuaries have been converted into chapels, but the old divinities
survive under other names. Our Lady of Hatred, the patroness of a chapel
near Treguier, is the Christian representation of a ferocious Celtic deity, whom
women invoke to destroy a detested husband, and to whom children pray for the
death of aged parents. St. Ives the Truthful, on the other hand, is appealed to
as the defender of orphans and widows, and to redress all wrongs.
Dolmens, or cromlechs, are revered as the tombstones of powerful men, and
raised stones, which no peasant passes by without crossing himself, abound through-
out the country. The peasants near Auray, when suffering from rheumatism, lie
down on an altar, invoking the aid of St. Julienne. Elsewhere they rub the
forehead with "sacred" stones when suffering from headache. Young people
still dance around the dolmens, and married couples furtively touch one of these
stones in order thai their posterity may prosper. The great grave-hill near
Carnac, 140 feet in height, is visited by sailors' wives to pray for their husbands.
In 1G-58 the Breton clergy solemnly declared that the devil alone could profit
from food offerings placed upon those dolmens : since that time many of them
have become objects of superstitious fear instead of veneration.
TOPOGRAPHY.
MORBIHAN is richer in ancient stone monuments than any other department of
Brittany, and its towns are more original in their aspect. Breeding cattle
is of great importance. Heaths occupy a vast area even now, and most of the
peasants keep bees. Rye, buckwheat, fish, and shell-fish constitute the principal
articles -of food.
MOEBIHAN.
257
The eastern portion of the department lies within the basin of the Vilaine and
its tributary, the Oust. Roche-Bernard is a small port near the mouth of the
Fig. 190. LORIENT AND PoRT-LoUI8.
Scale 1 : 150,000.
j' ' H'W..f Pru
s ww..f o.
1 Mile.
Vilaine, here spanned by a bold suspension bridge, which offers no obstacle to
sailing-vessels proceeding up the river to Redon. Ploermel (2,790 inhabitants)
258 FRANCE.
is the principal town in the valley of the Oust, with remains of ancient walls and
a church of the sixteenth century. Jossclin (2,522 inhabitants), higher up on the
Oust, is commanded by a fine castle. A pyramid, half-way between these towns,
marks the site of the " Battle of the Thirty," fought in 1531, between the
champions of Beaumanoir and Bamborough. Rohan, with ruins of a castle, has
given its name to one of the most powerful families of France.
Vames (15,716 inhabitants), the capital of the department, on a creek of the
Bay of Morbihan, resembles a large village rather than a town, but boasts of a
museum rich in local antiquities. Away (4,335 inhabitants), on another creek of
the bay named, is famous on account of its oyster beds. The sardine fisheries
occupy many of the inhabitants, and annually, at the commencement of the fishing
season, a nautical procession is formed, headed by the priests, who solemnly bless
the sea. A chapel near the town is much visited by pilgrims. In the neighbour-
hood was fought the battle which terminated the Breton war of succession (1364).
Port-Naralo and Locmariaker .are two villages at the mouth of the Bay of Morbihan.
Near the former rises the artificial hill of Tumiac, 66 feet in height, and the
latter boasts of a remarkable dolmen (see Fig. 8). Other dolmens of note are met
inland, near the villages of Elren (756 inhabitants) and Grand Champ (668 inha-
bitants), as well as on the peninsula of Ruis, remarkable, moreover, for its mild
climate. Around Sarzeau (840 inhabitants), the birthplace of Lesage, laurel-trees,
camellias, myrtle-trees, and pomegranate-trees grow in the open air.
The western portion of the department is drained by the river Blavet, rendered
navigable as far as Pontiry (6,402 inhabitants), formerly known as Napole'on-
ville, and consisting of a Breton quarter, with quaint houses, and the military
blocks adjoining it. Vessels of 200 tons ascend the Blavet as far as Henncboiit
(4,844 inhabitants), 6 miles above Lorient (31,000 inhabitants), the largest town
of the department, and its busiest port. The harbour of Lorient is accessible to
vessels of the largest size ; and in the beginning of the eighteenth century, whilst
the French East India Company existed, its commerce exceeded that of every
other port of France. The company failed in consequence of the progress made by
the English in India, and its ships, dockyards, and arsenal became the property of
the State. It is still one of the five great military ports of France. The inha-
bitants are much interested in the sardine fishery. Port-Louis (3,262 inhabitants),
at the mouth of the Blavet, is a dependency of Lorient. Its citadel has frequently
served as a prison of state, as has also that of Le Palais (2,823 inhabitants), the
capital of Belle-Ile-on-Mer.
FINISTEKK, or " Land's End," is the westernmost department of France. To
its moist and mild climate it is indebted for its fertility, and plants grow luxu-
riantly wherever there is soil to root in. The coast district, known as the
" Golden Belt," is carefully cultivated by small proprietors, but many of the large
estates in the interior consist of barren heaths. Agriculture and the breeding
of cattle and horses constitute the wealth of Finistere. There are also quarries of
granite and slates, but the argentiferous lead mines are no longer worked. The
fisheries are of considerable importance.
FINISTERE.
259
Quimperle, a pretty town of 4,080 inhabitants, is the first place met with on
crossing from Morbihan into Finistere. Its port is accessible only to small coast-
ing vessels. Then follows the village of Pont-Acen, with numerous windmills.
Fig. 191. CONCAHNEAU.
Scale 1 : 33,000.
t '/*
s ..
.cT...
\\ Miles.
('<>ii<-<iriii'tiii (4,014 inhabitants), on the wide Bay of Fouesnant or Forest, is one of
the great fishing towns of Brittany. Its maritime fauna is exceedingly rich, and
an aquarium lias been established to enable scientific men to study it.
Quimjjer (1-3,879 inhabitants), the capital of Cornouaille, has a tidul harbour,
230
FRANCE.
and boasts of a highly venerated cathedral, dedicated to St. Corentin. An
agricultural college and a drainage and irrigation school have been established
there. Quimper was the birthplace of Kergueleu, the navigator, and of Laennec,
the physician. The surrounding country abounds in natural curiosities, and the
manners of the inhabitants are very primitive. Bi-iec (482 inhabitants), a village
to the north, is noted for its " double nags," which amble naturally. Pont I' Abbe
(3,827 inhabitants) is one of the most old-fashioned towns of Brittany, and at the
village of Penmarch we meet with the ruins of a considerable town. Audierne
(1,627 inhabitants) is likewise a decayed city, but Douarnenez (8,687 inhabitants)
has become one of the principal quarters of the sardine fishery, which employs
800 boats and several thousand men. The wide Bay of Douaruenez is bounded in
Fig. 192. BREST.
the north by the peninsula of Croson (824 inhabitants), beyond which a narrow
gullet leads into the magnificent roadstead of Brest.
Brest (66,828 inhabitants) is the most populous town on the Atlantic seaboard
between Havre and Nantes, and next to Toulon the greatest naval arsenal of
France. Its aspect, however, is very different from that of the delightful city of
Provence. It is almost sinister, and from afar only uniform ramparts and cannon
are visible. The estuary of the Penfeld, hardly more than 300 feet wide, forms
the port of the town. On its right rises a castle of the thirteenth century, very
much older than the modern fortifications built by Vauban. The shabby buildings
on the left contain marine stores. Passing beneath a swing-bridge, the estuary
winds for more than a- mile between stores, workshops, and ship-yards. Hugo
basins have been excavated in the solid rock, and a breakwater nearly a mile in
length has recently been constructed. Steamers connect Brest with New York,
but the commerce of the town is not of much importance.
COTES-DU-NORD. 261
The vicinity of Brest and of its industrial suburb of Lambezcllcc (2,243 inhabit-
ants) abounds in remarkable sites. Ascending the Elorn, we have Plougastel-Daoulas,
with its orchards and market gardens, on the right, and reach Landerneau (6,965
inhabitants), with a large linen-mill, and St. Martyre, famous on account of its
horse fairs. The river Aulne, which likewise enters the road of Brest, leads past
Le Faou and Port-Launay to Chateau/in (2,211 inhabitants), near which are slate
quarries. On the Aven, a tributary of the Aulne, stands Carhaix (2,296 inha-
bitants), the Roman Vorganium, where seven roads meet. Passing through the
narrow gullet which connects the road of Brest with the open Atlantic, we notice
Camaret, an old outport, on the left, and the small creek of Minou, the terminus
of an Atlantic cable, on the right. Doubling Point St. Matthieu, surmounted by
the ruins of a church, we pass in succession Conqnet, a favourite bathing- place;
Aber-Ildut, where there are granite quarries; Aber-Benott ; and Abcr- Wrach.
Lesnn-en (2,437 inhabitants), near which is the church of Folgoet, much frequented
by pilgrims, lies some distance inland.
Morlaix (13,519 inhabitants), on the Dossen, has a tidal harbour, and vessels of
several hundred tons are able to anchor close to the stores and manufactories which
line both banks of the river. The most remarkable building of the town is a rail-
way viaduct, which, at a height of 190 feet, passes over the river and the houses
of the town. Moreau was born at Morlaix in 1763, and the traveller Lejean is a
native of Plouegat-Guerrand, near Lanmeur, to the north-east of the town.
Descending the river, we pass the castle of Tuureau, on an island at its mouth, built
in the sixteenth century as a defence against the 'English, but now used as a prison.
St. Pol (3,503 inhabitants), the old capital of Leonais, has two magnificent
churches, but has otherwise lost all importance. The environs, protected by
embankments, are exceedingly fertile. Roscqft' (1,282 inhabitants), the old harbour
of Leonais, is known on account of a fig-tree, which has grown to extraordinary
proportions. The vegetables grown around it are exported to Paris, London, and
Rotterdam. The sea abounds in fish, and a zoological station, similar to that at
Concarneau, has been established.
CoTES-DU-JfoRD, "north coa&t," is for the greater part carefully cultivated by a
multitude of small proprietors. Agriculture and cattle-breeding are the leading
occupations. A manufacturing industry can hardly be said to exist,. and there are
no great commercial ports.
Lottdenc (2,091 inhabitants) is the principal town in the southern portion of the
department, which drains into the rivers Blavet and Yilaine, and is covered to a 
