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THE

EARTH AND ITS INHABITANTS

EUROPE.

LISEE KECLTJS.

EDITED BY

E. G. RAVENSTEIN, F.E.G.S., F.S.S., ETC.

VOL. IIL

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, GERMANY, BELGIUM,
AND THE NETHERLANDS.

ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENORAVINOS AND MAPS.

NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,

1, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET.

JUN 7 1956

CONTENTS.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

CHAP. PAOI

I. GENERAL ASPECTS .... 1

II. THE GERMAN ALPS (TYROL, VORARLBERO, SALZBURG, CARINTHIA, AND STYRIA) ... 5
General Aspects, p. 5. Glaciers, Rivers, and Lakes, p. 12. Climate, p. 15. Productions,
Industry, and Lommerce, p. 22.

Topoyruphy. Styria, p. 25. Carinthia, p. 26. Salzburg, p. 27. Tyrol, p. 27. Vorarlberg,
p. 29.

III. AUSTRIA ON THE DANUBE (AUSTRIA PHIIPEB) .........

General Aspects, p. 30. Inhabitants and Towns, p. 32.

IV. THE ADRIATIC PROVINCES (GOHIZIA, TRIESTK, ISTRIA, DALMATIA)

General Aspects; Mountains, p. 39. Rivers and Lakes, p. 43. The Coast ; Islands, p. 47.
Climate, Flora, and Fauna, p. 52. Inhabitants, p. 54. Towns, p. 67.

V. THE COUNTRIES OF THE SOUTHERN SLAVS (CARNIOLA, CROATIA, SLAVONIA) ....
General Aspects, p. 63. Inhabitants, p. 68. Towns, p. 71.

VI. HUNGARY AND TRANSYLVANIA (MAGYARS AND RUMANIANS)

General Aspects ; Mountains, p. 73. Rivers and Lakes, p. 81. The Plain of Hungary,
p. 89. Climate and Flora, p. 90. Inhabitants, p. 91. Agriculture, Mining, and Com-
merce, p. 101. Towns, p. 105.

VII. GiLICIA AND BUKOVINA (AUSTRIAN POLAND AND RfTHENIA)

i..n.-ral Aspects, Mountains, and Climate, p. 114. Inhabitants, p. 116. Agriculture and
Mining, p. 121. Towns, p. 122.

VIII. THE UPPER BASIS OP THE ELBE AND THE MOR*VA (BOHEMIA, MORAVIA, AND AUSTRIAN

General Aspects, Mountains, and Rivers, p. 125. Inhabitants, p. 130. Agriculture,
Mining, and Industry, p. / 34.
Toic/it. Bohemia, p. 137. Moravia, p. 142. Silesia, p. 142.

IX. STATISTICS OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY . . . . 144

Population, p. 145. Agriculture and Mining, p. 145. Manufactures, p. 147. Commerce,
p. 149. Education, p. 151.

X. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION ......... . 152

114

125

GERMANY.
I. GENERAL ASPECTS 157

II. THE REGION op THE VMSOES (ALSACB AND GERMAN LOKRAINK) 168

General Aspects, Mountains, Rivers, and Climate, p. 168. Inhabitants, p. 173. Agriculture,
Mining, and Industry, p. 173. Towns, p. 177.

III. THE RHINE AND THE MOSELLE (BADEN, HESSE- DARMSTADT, FRANKFURT, NASSAU, PALA-

TINATE, RHENISH PRUSSIA) 184

General Aspects; the Rhine, p. 184. Mountains, p. 191.

Towns. Baden, p. 196. The Rhenish Palatinate, p 200. Hesse and Nassau, p. 201. Birken-
Jeld, p. 205. Rhenish Prussia, p. 206. Westphalia, p. 214.

IV. THE SwAHIAN .Il'RA AND THE VALLPY OF THE NECKAH (WuRTTBMDERG AND HoHENZOLLERN) 216

General Aspects, Mountains, and Rivers, p. 216. Inhabitants, p. 220. Towns, p. 221.

V. THE UPPER DANUBE AND THE MAIN (BAVMUA AND DANUBIAN WCRTTKMBERO) . . 225
General As].' its; Mountains, p. 22.J. Lakes, Bogs, and Rivers, p. 230. Inhabitants,
p. 237. Towns, p. -23S.

CONTENTS.

v'l. TlirUIXOIA AND THB HA11Z (HES3E-CASSBL, THURINOIA, ERFURT, SOUTHERN IlAXOVF.ll.ANI.

PAOK

- Ol

BKIXSWKK) .

(MII, ral A>p, rts. Mountains, and Rivers, p. 2.U. Jnlial.itMi.ts, p. 269, I owns, p. 200.

VII. Tm, I'I.AIX* or THE KLIIE AND \\~ESEK, AM. TIIK SIIMKIS OK THE NORTH SEA (LOWER

\VKMI-II\I.IA HAV.VIIK. U[.i>FNiirii<;, LnwtR BHI-XSWICK) . . . . .269
(M-M, i-.-.l Aapeoto; i;<> u ., ami Heaths, ]>. 2UU. The Littoral Region, p. 274. Inhabitants,

Town*'. The Basin of the Lippe (Westphalia), p. 281. The Basin of the Ems, p. 281. The
Basin of the Jade, p. 282. The Basin of the Lower Weser, p. 283. The Basin of the Elbe,
p. 288.
VJII. THE BASIN OF THB MIDDLE ELBE (SAXONY) .......... 29

General Aspects, p. 290. Inhabitants, p. 292. Towns, p. 293.
IX. THE PLAINS OF THE ELBE, ODER, AND VISTULA (OLD PRUSSIA, ANHALT, LAUENBURG,

HAMBURG, LUBECK, MECKLENBURO, AND PRUSSIAN POLAND) ... . 300

General Aspects ; Hills and Plains, p. 300. Lakes and Peat Bogs, p. 303. Rivers and
Lagoons, p. 305. Amber, p. 311. Inhabitants, p. 315.

Towns. Prussian Saxony and Anhalt, p. 319. Brandenburg, p. 323. Hamburg, p. 329.
Liibeck, Mecklenburg, and Northern Pomerania, p. 332. Prussian Silesia, 335. The
Basb of the < Mn- to the North of Silesia, p. 339. Eastern Pomerania, p. 343. Prussia to
the East of the Basin of the Vistula, p. 346.

X. THE CIMBRIAN PENINSULA (SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN) ........ 349

General Aspects, p. 349. Inhabitants, p. 352. Towns, p. 353.

XI. GENERAL STATISTICS .............. 357

Population, p. 357. Agriculture, p. 358. Mining, p. 361. Industry, p. 362. Commerce,
p. 363. Education, p. 365.

XII. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION ........ ... 367

Central Authorities, p. 367. State Governments, p. 369 ; Local Government, p. 369 ;
Religion and Education, p. 371. Courts of Justice, p. 372. Army and Navy, p. 372.
Finances, p. 373.
Tabular View of the States composing the German Empire, p. 375.

BELGIUM.

I. GENERAL FEATURES; HILLS, PLAINS, AND RIVERS; CLIMATE ..... . 377

The Ardennes, p. 377. The Loam Lands of Central Belgium, p. 379. The Campine, p. 380.
Flanders, p. 382. Polders and Dunes, 382. Rivers, p. 383. Climate, p. 390.

II. FACNA, FLOKA, AND INHABITANTS ....... ..... 392

Animals, p. 392. Cave Dwellings, p. 393. Wallons, p. 395. Flemings, p. 396.

III. MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONS; TOWNS ............ 399

Origin of Municipalities, p 399. Towns in the Basin of the Meuse, p. 403. The Basin
of the Schelde, p. 410. The Western Maritime Rtgion, p. 425.

IV. STATISTICS OF BELGIUM ..... ....... . 429

Population, p. 429. Agriculture, p. 431. Mining and Industry, p. 434. Commerce,
p. 436. Education, p. 439.

V. GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION ..... ..... . 442

Local Authorities, p. 442. Central Government, p. 443. School and Church, p. 443.
Army, p. 444.
Tabular Statement of Area and Population, p. 446.

THE GRAND DUCHY OF LUXEMBURG ......... 447

THE NETHERLANDS.
I. GENERAL FEATURES; HILLS; Boos ........... 450

II. HYDROGRAPHY ; CLIMATE .......... 455

Rivers, p. 455. Irruptions of the Sea. p 4')7. Subsidence of the Land, p. 460. Dunes,
p. 462. Dykes, p. 463. Polders, p. 467. Climate, p. 470.
III. INHABITANTS . .......... 47j

Animals, p. 471. Prehistoric Man, p. 471. Frieslanders, p. 471. Saxons, p. 473 'Hol-
landers, p. 473.

IV. Tol'NIUlAPHY ....... ,75

Limbmy. ,,. !7.v North Brabant. 475. Zealand, p. 475. 'south Holland! p. 477. North
'.Hand p ISO. 1 ti-erht. p. 485. Geldcrland, p. 486. Overyssel, p. 487. Drenthe,
fnesland, Griimngen, p. 487.

V. STATISTICS OF THE NETHERLANDS . . . 488

Population, p. 488 Agriculture, p. 488, Industry, p. 490. Commerce, p. 490. Canals
p. 4..1. Kailways. ,,. iw. Kduration, p. 493. Government and Administration, p. 494
labular Statement of Area und Population, 496.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

MAPS PRINTED IN COLOURS.

1. Germany and Auslria . . .

2. Vienna and its Environs .

3. The Rhine from Mayence to Coblenz

PAOE

33
204

4. Dresden and Saxon Switzerland

5. Berlin and its Environs .

6. Hamburg and its Environs

PAOE
296
326
329

PLATES.

The Gross Glockner and the Pasterze

Glucier To face pagt 9

The Dachstein and Ihfi Lake of Gosau .. . 12

Graz 25

Sulzbtirg 27

Innsbruck and the Valley of the Tnn . . 28

Vienna: the " Graben " 35

Hallatatt 38

Tin- ' Mouths" of Cattaro . . 60

Tiiesto . .v . .68

Eagusa 62

The Fish Lako, or Ryby Stav ... 77
The Iron Gate below Orsova . 81

Buda-Pest 106

Cracow 123

Strassburg . . . . . . .178

Melz 183

Heidelberg Caslle 199

Frankfu-t-on-Main : the " Romer " To face page 202

Treves : Porta Nigra 207

Coblenz and Ehrenbreitstein .... 208

Culogne Cathedral ...... 209

The Danube between Weltenburg ard Kd-

heim 242

Nlirnberg: the Castle 248

Saxon Switzerland : ProbiRcher Iv gel . . 291

Berlin 325

Hamburg. . . .

N;imur

Ghent : the Coi n Quay ....
Antwerp: Town-hall ....
Luxemburg, as seen from Fort Dumoulin
Scenery around Middelburg
Rotterdam : the Old Port
Amsterdam : the Kalkmarkt .
Utrecht: the Old Canal ....

331
405

419
423
447
476
478
481
485

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS.

Fin.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

54.

no.

PAGE

55.

56.

2. The Orteler and the Sulden Glacier

57.

58.

4. The Gross Glockner ....

59.

5. The Vernagt and other Oetzthal Glaciers

60.

61.

7. Isothermal Zones of Austria .

62.

8. Rain Map of Austria ....

63.

9. The Limits of German and Italian in the

64.

65.

10. TheTerglou . . ...

11. TYROLFBE PEASANTS ....

66.

12. The Mining Districts of Eisenerz and

67.

Vordernborg .....

68.

13. KLAUSEN, ox THE BRENNEU ROAD .

69.

14. Roads over the Alps ....

70.

15. Klagfiifurt and the Lake of Worth .

71.

72.

73.

18. The Danube at Grein ....

74.

19. Geological Map of the Upper Danube

Valley

75.

20. Linz ......

76.

21. The Growth of Vienna ....

77.

22. Ancient Arms of the Dmube at Vienna .

78.

23. The Rectification of the Danube

79.

24. The Sinks of Pola

80.

25. The Vellebic

26. The Isonzo and the Timavo

81.

27. The Ombla, Gravoea, and Ragusa .

28. The Narenta

82.

29. The S ; nk of Pago ....

30. The Kerka

00.

84.

31. The Boeche di Cattaro ....

85.

32. THE BOCCHE DI CATTARO

33. Mehida ....

ft?

34. San Clemente . . .

O ( .
QQ

35. Trieste .......

Oo.

36. Pola

37. Fiume ....

ou.

38. Roadstead and Port of Lussin Piccolo

90.

39. Spalato and the Seven Castles

91.

40. Zone of Inundation of the Save

92.

41. The Caverns of P.iKtoina (Adelsberg)

42. TheLakeofZi.knitz .

43. The Plain ol Laibach

93.

44. A VIEW ON THE MILITARY FRONTIER

94.

l.i. Sfinlin and Belgrad

95.

46. The Parallel Valleys to the East of Lake

>n . .

96.

17. Tin Hungarian Gate

97.

48. The Tfitra ....

98.

i:>. The 1 ' ss of the " Red Tower "

99.

60. The Defile of Visegrad ....

100.

61. The Drave and the Danube .

101.

:>>. 1 h- Tis/a (Theiss) .

i n 1 )

.;:;. M' ;unl. Hugs and "Cuts" of the Tisza

tU2i

PA OK

The "Iron Gate" 85

FORT ELIZABETH 86

Lake Balaton ...... 87

The Lake of Xeusiedl .... 88

A VIEW IN THE PUSZTA .... 93

Tvrts AND COSTUMES OP HUNGARY . 94

Linguistic Map of Transylvania . . 96

The Slovaks in Hungary ... 97

The Servians in Hungary ... 99

The Vinexards of Hungary . . . 102

The Auriferous Districts of Transylvania 104
A VIEW IN THE MINING DISTRICT OF

KREMNITZ . . . . . . 105

The Coal Basin of the Upper Sil . . 106
Debreczen . . . . . .107

Buda-Pest 108

A VIEW OF THE SAUHSENSTEIX . . 109
Novisad (Neusutz) . . . . .111
The Carpa'hians . . . . .115
PEASANTS AND JEWS OF GALICIA . .117

The Distribution of the Poles in Galicia . 118
The Distribution of the Ruthenians in

Galicia 119

The Jews in Hungary and Galicia . . 120
Cracow and Wielic?k>i .... 122
The Mountains of Bohemia . . . 126
The Pass of Taus (Domaflice) . . 127
The Vi'lcainc Hills in Northern Bohemia 129
The Lake Region in Southern Bohe-
mia 130

THE RUINS OF SCHRICKENSTEIN, near

Al'8810 131

A Large Estate in Bohemia . . .135
The Coal Basins of Western Bohemia . 136
Prague and its Environs . . . .137

THE KARLSBRUCXE AT PRAGUE . . 138
Carlsbad . . . . . . .140

Reichenberg and iis Environs . . .141
The Density of Popnlaiion in Aiistria-

Hung-iry 146

Diagram exhibiting the Increase in the

Production of Coal .... 147
THE SOHI.ERGRUND, OR PLAIN OF ZOLYOM 148
THK VIADUCT OF KALTKINNE (SKMMEHIXO) 149
The Railways of Austria-Hungary . . 150

GERMANY.

93. Hypsographical Map of Germany . . 159

94. The Isothermal Lines of Gei many . . 160

95. The True Mean Annual Temperature of

Germany . . . . .161

96. Rain Map of Germany .... 162

97. Linguistic Map of Germany . . .164

98. The Gap of Zabern (Saverne) . . . 169

99. THE RUINS OF ST. ULRICH . . .170

100. The Basin df the Til 171

101. ALSATIAN PEASANTS 174

102. Dicuze, Chate;m-Salins, anl the Pond of

Indre 15

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Vll

no.

PAGE

FIO.

103. Strassburg

179

162.

Io4. STRASSBURO CATHEDRAL ....

180

163.

105. Worth and Reichi<hofen ....

181

164.

106. Metz

182

165.

10i. The Density of the Population along the

Rhine ......

186

166

108. The Rhine hetween Germersheim and

167.

Speyer ......

187

168.

109. THE MorsE AND ST. GOAR

188

169.

110. The Vineyards of the Rhine .

189

170.

111. The Pass ot the (Jutach .

192

171.

112. Andornach and the Lake of Laach .

194

113. The Si-bengebi.ge (Seven Hill.) .

195

172.

114. The Lake of Coni,tanz (Bodensee) .

197

173.

115. Karlsruhe . . . . .

199

174.

116. Heidelberg and Mannheim

200

175.

117. Frankfurt-on-Main .....

203

176.

118. Siarbiucken

2'..7

177.

119. Treves (Trier) . .

208

178.

120. Crefeld and its Knvirons .

212

179.

121. Ruhrort and its Environs

213

I 1 ' 1 '. ESSEN ... . .

214

180.

123. Tne Hellweg

216

181.

124. The Density of the Populationin Wurttem-

182.

beig

217

183.

125. Urach and Hohen-Urach

218

126 lleilbronn and the " Loops " of Lauffen .

213

184.

127. Stuttg.irt and its Environs

222

185.

128. VIEW OF TUBINGEN. .

223

186.

Ili9. The Konigsee ......

226

187.

130. VlEW OF THE KoNIGSEE ....

227

131. A Region of Moraines in Upper Havana .

229

188.

132 The Danube and its Upper Affltunts

232

189.

133. Augsburg ......

2:32

190.

li>4. Blaubeuren ......

233

191.

135. The Donau-Ried

234

192.

136. The Donau-Moos

235

193.

137. The Swahian Rezat and the "Fossa

194.

Carolina" ......

236

195.

138. ENTRANCE TO THE PORT OF LINDAU

239

139. Ratisbon (Kegensburg) ....

242

196.

140. THIS WALHALLA

243

197.

141. Passau

244

198.

142. Munich

246

199.

143. The Aqueduct of Reichenhall .

247

200.

144. The Stales of Thuriug.a ....

252

201.

145. 'I'll, liennsteig

253

202.

146. The Vogelsberg

255

203.

147. The Brocken and Weinigerode

257

204.

148 SlIKAllIANH OF SAXE- Al TENBUHO

259

216.

149. Casscl and iis Environs ....

261

206.

150. THE WARTBURG

262

207.

151. Clausthal

264

152. Jena

266

208.

153. THE CATHEDRAL AT EUFURT .

267

209.

164. The Peai Bogs ot Cocsleld

270

210.

155. The Morass, or "Moor," of Bourtange .

271

211.

156. Paiienburg ......

273

212.

157. The Coast of East Friesland .

276

213

158. Norderney, Hal: rum, and the Neighbour-

ing Co st ......

277

159. HELIGOLAND

278

214.

H, i. Heligoland

279

215.

161. Emden . . . . . .

283

216.

PAGE

Minden and the Poita Westphaliea . . 284

THE BREWERS' HOUSE AT HUDESHEIM . 286

Bremen and Biemerhafen . . . 287
RAILWAY BRIDGE OVER THE ELBE AT

HARBURO 289

The Density of Population ia Saxony . 291

The Wends in Lusaiia .... 293

Leipzig ....... 295

DRESDEN ....... 297

Zittau and the Villages near it . . 299
The Temperature of January in Eastern

Prussia 301

The Lake District of Masuria . . . 303

The \Vartbe and its Ltkes . . . 304

D minution in the Volume of the Kibe . 305

The Same for each Month of the Year . 306
The Spreewald . . . . . . .307

The Oderbruch 308

Samland and the Delta of the Pregel . 310
The Kuris;-he Haft' aud the Delia of the

Memel 311

The Darss and the Lagoons of Bailh . 313

The Island of Riigen .... 314

THE CLIFFS OK THE KONIGSTUHL ON RUGEN 315
Relative Increase of Germans and Poles

in Posen 317

Halle and its Salt Lake . . . .320

Magdeburg 323

THE GATE OF UENLINGEN AT STENDAL . 324
Comparative Growth of Vienna and

Berlin 325

The Havel and Spree .... 326

Brandenburg 329

A "FLEET" IN HAMBURG . . . 330

VlERLANDERS 332

Lubeck and Rostock .... 333

Towns of Upper Silesia .... 335

THE TOWN-HALL OF BKESLAU . . 337
ENTRANCE TO THE FELSENSTADT, NEAK

WECKELSDORF .... 338

Sprottau and Freistadt . . . 340

Siettin . 341

Swinemunde ...... 342

THE CASTLE OF MARIENBURO . . . 345
The Port of Pillau ... .346

Memel .347

Sylt and Amrum 350

The Basin of the Eider . . . .351

FLENSBURG ...... 354

Alsen and Sonderburg .... 355

Density ol Population in Germany . . 358
Increase of the Urban Population of Ger-
many ...... 359

AUGSBURG ...... 361

Railway Map of Germany . . . 364

Li ; nKc;K 365

THE CASTLE OF HOHENZOLLEKN . . 368

Protestants and Catholics in Germany . 371

Wilhelmshaien 374

BELGIUM.

214. Mont St. Aubert, near Tournay . . 379

215. Hypsographical Map of Belgium . . 381

216. Profile ot Belgium 383

Till

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

no.

PAGE FIG.

217. Tin' L<> - er Si-hi'Me in the Beginning of

248.

tin- 1C i-viMith 1 Vniury

386

218. Flooding of tin l',,lilers during the Siege

250.

of Antwerp. 1585 ....

387

251.

219. The Groins of lllmkcnnrrghe

389

262.

220. Direction of the Winds in Belgium .

390

263

221. A VIEW is THE VALLEY or THE LESSE .

393

254.

222. Linguistic Map of Belgium

394

255.

223. THE BELFHY OF BIUT.ES ....

400

256.

22 1. THE TOWN-HALL or LOUVAIN .

402

225. Namur and the Confluence of the Mouse

257.

and Sambre .....

404

258.

226. The Coal-field of Charleroi

405

259.

'''" Liege .....

407

260.

22S. The Birrage of La Gileppe

409

261.

229. The Battle-field of Waterloo .

412

262.

413

263.

231. THE TOWN-HALL OF BHISSELS

414

232. Mons and the Borinage .

417

264.

233. Ghent

419

265.

234. RABOT GATE AT GHENT ....

420

266.

422

267.

236. ANTWERP CATHEDRAL ....

424

268.

2 17. Bruges and the Old Zwyn

426

269.

238. Ostend

427

270.

239. Increase of the Population of Belgium

430

271.

240. Increase of the Population of Belgium,

272.

184075

431

273.

241. The Coal Production of Belgium

43.3

274.

242. Comparative Increase of the Population

275.

and Commerce of Belgium .

437

276.

243. Canals and Navigable Rivers of Belgium .

438

277.

244. Railway Map of Belgium

440

245. Heath and Camp of Beverloo .

445

278.

THE GRAND DUCHY OF LUXEMBURG.

279.

246. Luxemburg

449

280.

281.

THE NETHERLANDS.

282.

247. Tiie Quarries of St. Pietersberg

451

283.

248. Hypsographical Slap of the Netherlands .

452

284.

The Alluvial Lands and Peat Bogs of the

Netherlands . ... . . 453

A PEAT Boo NEAR D.-KDRECIIT . . 454

The Fork of the Yssel ... 456
The Biesboseh in 1850 . . . .457

Schiermonnikoog 458

The Site of the Biesboseh, in 1420 . . 459
The Peninsula of Holland . . .460
The Coast-line of the Netherlands before

the Peopling of the Country . . 461

The Dyke of "VVestkappel . . . 462

THE WINDMILLS OF ZAANDAM . . 463

The Zuiderpolder formerly . . . 464

The Zuiderpolder now .... 465

The Mere ot Haarlem .... 466

Ameland ....... 467

The Proposed Drainage of the Zuider

Zee 468

The Projected Harbour at Urk . . 469

COSTUMES OF FRIESLAND AND ZEALAND . 472

Bergen-op-Zoom ..... 476

Walcheren ...... 477

Viissingen, or Flushing .... 478

Rotterdam and Schiedim .... 479

The Hague and Scheveningen . . 480

Leyden 481

Amsterdam ...... 482

HAAKLEM : THE AMSTERDAM GATE . . 483

Alkmaar 484

The Helder 485

Monnickendam and Mai ken . . . 486
Density of Population in the Nether-
lands 489

The Principal Canals of the Nether-
lands 490

The Groins near Petten . . . .491

The Canal of the Y 492

Section of the Pier Head of Ynmiden . 492

Canal of the Hoek van Holland . . 493

Railway Map of the Netherlands . . 494

THE VIADUCT AT MOERDYK . . . 495

RULES FOR PRONOUNCING THE GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES CONTAINED IN THIS VOLUME.

THE VOWELS, except where expressly mentioned below, are pronounced as follows: a = a in father;
=einend; t = i in inn or kindle ; o as in English; = u in flute.

(ihitMN : ie = ee in meet ; or ti = y in my ; an = ou in house ; d = ay in may ; o en in French ;
i = <>y in destroy ; = u in Frencli ; g, always hard ; j=\ in yea; s=tz; /* = sh; ch = guttural ch in loch.

iMTen: =u in flute; en and as in French; scl< = sell in school, and at end u f woid=s ; oA = cli in loch;
j=y in yes ; ij = \ in my

MAGYAR: = o; o anil as in German ; randrr = tz; o = ih in cheese; s = sh; sr = s; z* = zh (soft sh) ;
r/i = ch in loch; ic = v ; ///, H y, tij, and gy = 1'ye, n'ye, t'ye, and g'ye (short) ; gy = dy (Magyar, pronounce
-Mailyar).

Si.Af (Bohemia, Croatia, &c.) : y i in in ; I orje = ye ; c = tz ; c = j ; " = ch in cheese ; j = y in yes ;
* = ng in bang; r:= r'sh ; Jf = sh; 2 = zh (sofl sh).

POLISH : a and e = on and en (nasal) ; ie is always separated ; j = y in yes ; e = tz ; t = t'ye (short) ;
te eh in rln , >,. ; ; = z |, ( 8o ft sh) ; * = sh ; d'z and </;=j ; rz=r'sh ; S or *. = sh ; <^ = ch in loch ; the I with a
bar (:) is pronounced with itreat force.

All other letters, or combinations of letters, may be pronounced as in English.

NEW

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL ASPECTS.

USTRIA-HUNGARY ranks third amongst the European states in
area and population, but no common bond of nationality embraces
its inhabitants. If the fetters were to burst which now hold the
diverse provinces of the monarchy together, the name of Austria-
Hungary would be heard no longer, not even as a geographical
expression, as were those of Greece and Italy during centuries of servitude. The
various provinces composing the Austrian Empire belong to distinct natural
regions. The Tyrol, Styria, and Carinthia are Alpine countries, like Switzerland.
Hungary is a vast plain surrounded by mountains. Bohemia, on the one hand,
penetrates far into the interior of Germany, whilst Galicia slopes down towards
the plains of Russia, and the Dalmatian coast region belongs to the Balkan
peninsula. The hills of Austria and the Hungarian plain lie within the basin of
the Danube ; but considerable portions of the monarchy are drained by the Elbe,
the Vistula, the Dniester, and the Adige. The diversity of race adds to the con-
fusion resulting from the forcible grouping together of countries geographically
so distinct. On one side of the river Leitha, which forms the political boundary
between the two great portions of the empire, the Germans claim to be the dominant
race ; on the other, the political power is wielded by the Magyars. But Chechians
and Ruthenians, Poles, Slovaks, and Croats, Dalmatians, Italians, Eumanians,
and others, likewise claim their rights, and object to be sacrificed to the two
dominant races.

Austria- Hungary consists of no less than fifty-six kingdoms, duchies, counties,
principalities, towns, and lordships. This chaotic conglomeration, however, is
not the result of pure chanre, nor has the house of Habsburg brought these
old states under its sceptre by " clever marriages " alone. The necessity in
which the Christians found themselves to combine against their common enemy,
the Turk, has had quite as much to do with it. The general configuration
of the soil, and more especially the great valley of the Danube, must also
72

2 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

be taken account of when inquiring into the growth of the Austro-Hungarian
Empire.

The Danube formed a portion of the boundary of the Eoman Empire, and
remained so for a considerable period. Ths conquests which Trajan made in
the Carpathians, to the north of it, were looked upon as the most convincing
proof of the irresistible power of Rome. The great migrations of nations
all at once changed the geographicjl part played by the Danube. No
longer a barrier dividing nations, it became their greai highway. The Huns,
the Avares, and other Eastern hordes ascended it ; the Slavs, Magyars, and
Turks subsequently took the same route; whilst the Franks and Boioarians
when they colonised Austria, the Crusaders when marching upon Constanti-
nople, and the armies contending with the Turks took the opposite direction.
The Inn is a larger river than the Tipper Danube ; and if the united river
is nevertheless known by the name of the latter down to its mouth in the
Black Sea, this is only because of the part it played in history. The Inn leads
into sterile mountains; the Upper Danube opens a pathway into Bohemia and
Swabia.

When the Danube became a high-road between nations it could no longer form a
political boundary ; and actually not only Hungary and Austria hold both banks
of the river, but Bavaria and Wiirtemberg do so likewise. On the other hand,
some of its tributaries form natural boundaries between states or nations. These
rivers opposed substantial obstacles to the armed hosts which in former times
traversed the valley of the Danube. Many of them, owing to floods or rapid
current, are far more difficult to cross than the Danube itself, and served succes-
sively as lines of defence. In the tenth century the Magyars had the Enns for
their frontier ; they were then driven back to the Erlau, and at present the
Leitha and the Morava form this westernmost boundary. The Inn, with its
tributary Salzach, separates Austria from Bavaria ; the Lech and the Iller,
Bavaria from Swabia.

The grand "struggle for existence" is waged not only on the battle-field, but
perhaps even more frequently it is a contest for ascendancy in matters of
commerce. Ihe great natural highway of the Danube has played a prominent
part in the history of commerce and industry. At a time when there hardly
existed any artificial roads a great portion of Southern Germany became dependent
upon that river. Towns multiplied in its valley, and in consequence it became
also a centre of political power. Germans and Magyars, by taking possession for
a considerable extent of both banks of the Danube, laid the foundations of powerful
states.

The Eastern Alps, likewise, have greatly influenced the historical development
of Austria. The Austrians, once masters of the river, succeeded all the more
easily in gaining possession of the mountain valleys, as these were for the most
part inhabited by men of the same race. The Alps, including of course those of
Switzerland, may be likened to a great citadel, raised in the centre of Europe.
Those who hold it are not only favourably placed fur defensive purposes, but the

GENERAL ASPECTS. 3

surrounding lowlands Upper Italy, Hungary, or South Germany are more
or less at their mercy. A state which held not only this Alpine citadel, but also
the middle course of a river like the Danube, could easily satisfy its hunger after
conquests.

Vienna, which occupies the centre of this incoherent empire, has certainly
exerted a considerable levelling influence upon the various races peopling the
empire. These latter, however, resent the pressure which is exercised by the two
dominant races, and the time is not perhaps very remote when the existing institu-
tions will be replaced by a federation voluntarily organized by the nationalities
inhabiting the empire.

Formerly the Germans were supposed to form the majority of the inhabitants,
and since the empire has taken the title of Austria-Hungary there are some who
believe that Germans and Magyars combined constitute a decided majority.
Such, however, is not the case. They are the dominant races, true ; but amongst
every four Austro-Hungarians there is but one German, and amongst seven only
one Magyar. The Slavs virtually form a majority. Even many of the " Germans"
are merely Germanised Slavs ; but, irrespectively of this, nearly one-half of the
population is Slav by race and Slav by language. As respects nationality, there-
fore, Austria is nearly as much Slav as its two neighbour states of Turkey and
Russia. But the Slavs, unfortunately for the political influence they might exer-
cise, are split up into distinct nations. The northern and southern zones are
inhabited almost exclusively by Slavs, whilst the central zone is divided between
Germans, Magyars, and Rumanians. This central zone, from 150 to 200
miles in width, separates the northern from the southern, or Yugo-Slavs. It
constitutes the most important portion of the empire, for it is traversed by the
Danube, the great commercial highway of the country. If the Ruthenians desire
to hold intercourse with their kinsmen in the south, they are obliged to cross this
hostile zone ; and in reality they scarcely ever come into contact, except perhaps
at some Panslavic congress, when, to the delight of the Viennese, they are com-
pelled to express their ideas in the hated language of the German. The Northern
Slavs belong to three nations speaking distinct languages, viz. Chechians (including
Moravians and Slovaks), Poles, and Ruthenians. No love is lost between the
two latter. The Southern Slavs, including the Slovenes of Curniola and Styria,
the Servians, Croats, and Dalmatians, exhibit greater affinities than their northern
kinsmen ; but, unfortunately for the political influence they might exercise, they
are split up into hostile religious factions, some being Roman, others Greek
Catholics, whilst the Slavs of Bosnia and the Herzegovina are in part
Mohammedans.

Next to Slavs, Germans, and Magyars, Latin nations occupy a considerable
portion of the empire. The Italians of the Southern Tyrol and the coast of Istria
are inconsiderable in numbers, and gravitate towards Italy ; but the Rumanians
in Eastern Hungary and Transylvania occupy a very extended territory. It is
amongst them that most of the gipsies are met with, whilst the Jews are found
in all parts of the empire except in the Alps. Austria, in fact, is largely

4 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

their work, for in the eastern provinces they almost monopolize trade and
industry.*

* Nationalities of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (1869) :

< hrrlmns. Moravians, and Slovaks .... 6,730,000

Kuthcnians 3,100,000

Poles 2,880,000

Northern Slavs .... - 12,710,000

Servians 1,520,000

Croats 1,424,000

Slovenes 1,260,000

Southern Slavs .... 4,204,000

Germans 9,000,000

Magyars 5,500,000

Rumanians 2,875,000

Italians and Ladins 593,000

Jews 1,154,000

Gipsies 156,000

Total .... 36,192,000

CHAPTER H.

THE GERMAN ALPS.
(TYROL AND VORAHLBEHG, SALZBURO, CARINTHIA, AND STYRIA.)

HE German Alps do not yield in beauty t> those of Switzerland, and
the mountain masses are little inferior in height and majesty
to those of the Oberland or of Monte Rosa. Beyond the High
Tauern, however, which rises on the boundary between the Tyrol
and Salzburg, none pierce the zone of perennial snow, and the valleys
are not filled with rivers of ice. The Great Glockner rises like a bleached citadel
at the extremity of the Great Alps. Beyond it the character of the mountains
undergoes a striking change. They no longer rise in separate masses, but form
divergent chains separated by deep valleys. Like a fan, these ramifications
extend toward the plains of Austria and Hungary, and into the Balkan penin-
sula. But in proportion as the mountain system increases in width, so do its
summits decrease in height, until all semblance to the domes and pyramids of
Switzerland disappears.

The highest masses of the Austrian Alps are separated by enormous gaps, a
very rare feature in the orographical structure of a continent. One of these gaps
connects the valley of the Inn with that of the Adige. The small Reschen Lake,
which gives birth to the latter river, occupies the watershed. The slope of the
valley of the Adige is very inconsiderable, and when crossing the Malser Heide
(" heath " above the village of Mais, where the people fought their battle of
Morgarten in 1499) we might almost fancy ourselves in a plain, if it were not for
the snowy summits rising on either side of us.

Another gap joins the valleys of the two rivers farther to the east, and
through it runs the route of the Brenner, the lowest of all the passes which cross
the Great Alps. This depression, or gap, is joined on the east by another even
more considerable, which connects the Rienz, a tributary of the Adige, with the
Sau, or Save, a tributary of the Danube. The watershed between these two
rivers is so feebly indicated that their upper valleys are designated by one name
as the Pusterthal. These two great gaps, viz. those formed by the Brenner and
the Pusterthal, are of vital importance, as facilitating communications in the
Austrian Alps.

AUSTEIA-HUNGAEY.

Fig. 1. THE GAP BETWEEN THE INN AND THE ADIOE,
AND THE MALSEK HKIMK.

Geologically there obtains great variety. The central range, which is upon

the whole of the greatest average
height, is formed of crystalline rocks.
Limestones prevail in the Northern
Alps, whilst the Southern Alps,
abruptly sinking down into the plains
of Italy, exhibit a great diversity of
geological formation. There are
schists, sandstone, black and red por-
phyry, limestone, and, above all, dolo-
mites. The division into Rhaetian,
Noric, Carnic, and Julian Alps origin-
ated with the Romans, and is not a
happy one, for in Austria, as in France
and Switzerland, the Alps are divided
naturally into a number of mountain
masses, forming as many secondary
mountain systems.

The range of the Rhatikon separates
Vorarlberg from the Orisons, and ex-
tends from the Rhine to the valley of
the Inn. Five glaciers descend from
it into the valley of the Montafon, and
the summits in the south rival in
height those lying within the Swiss
frontier.*

The principal mountain group of
Austria, that of the Orteler (12,814
feet), is cut off from the other moun-
tains of the Tyrol by the deep valley
of the Adige, but a ridge, over which
runs the road of the Stelvio (Stilfi-er
Joch, 9,172 feet), joins it to Piz
Umbrail (9,954 feet), in Switzerland.
This group rises to the south of the
central axis of the Alps. It culminates
in a superb pyramid of dolomite, and
glaciers creep down its slopes in all
directions, that of Sulden carrying a
larger quantity of rocks upon its sur-
face than any other in the Alps. The

Scale 1 : 175,000. n . . "

Urteler has frequently been ascended
since the beginning of this century ; but though its beautiful summit is seen to rise

Scesaplana, 9,738 feet; Piz Buin, 10,916 feet; Fluchthorn, 11,143 feet.

THE GERMAN ALPS. 7

above all others when contemplating the Alps from the top of the cathedral of
Milan, it is only within a few years comparatively that it has attracted a large
number of tourists. The view from its summit is incomparably beautiful, whilst
from the Stelvio the Orteler itself presents a most formidable aspect. The
Pass of Tonale (6,155 feet) separates the Orteler from the mountain mass of the
Adamello (11,687 feet), which rises to the south of it. It presents exceedingly
steep slopes towards Italy ; and its glaciers on that side, which formerly were of
vast extent, have nearly melted away. Their old terminal moraines now hide the
Lake of Garda and Verona from an observer standing upon its summit.

The mountains of the Oetzthal, to the north of the Adige, are bounded on all

Fig. 2. THE Guoup OF THE OKTELER AND THE SULDEN GLACIER

. 4 Miles.

sides by deep valleys or gorges, and form a well-defined group of rocky pinnacles.
The Brenner, and the pass above the Malser Heide (see Fig. 1), are the lowest
passages over the Alps between Liguria and Styria, a distance of over 500 miles.
This group of the Oetzthal constitutes the most formidable mountain mass of the
German Alps. The Wildspitze (12,389 feet), its culminating point, yields in
height to the Orteler and the Great Glockner ; but there are at least a hundred
summits which attain an elevation of 10,000 feet, and they rise from a platform
5,320 feet in height. If the summits of the Oetzthal were to be levelled, and
uniformly spread over this platform, the latter would still rise 8,330 feet above the
sea. About one-seventh of the surface of this mountain group is buried beneath

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

glaciers or perennial snow, and it includes among its two hundred and twenty-nine
glaciers that of Gepaatsoh, 7 miles in length, and the most considerable within
Austrian territory. Houses permanently inhabited are met with in the valley of the
Oetz up to a height of nearly 7,000 feet. But though the central portion of this
mountain group may be likened to Greenland, the spurs which descend towards the
Inn and Adige are full of gentle grace, and the valleys which they enclose are most
delightful. Picturesque villages and villas occupy every coin of vantage above
Innsbruck in the north, whilst the upper valley of the Adige, or Etsch, known as

Fig. 3. THE OETZTHAL.
Scale 1 : 35,000.

IT"

10 Miles.

Vintschgau, with the town of Meran and the old castle of Tyrol, is looked upon as
the paradise of the Austrian Alps.

To the east of the Brenner the Alps rise once more, and form the range of the
Hohe Tauern,* which extends east for a distance of over 90 miles, as far as the
Arlscharte (7,230 feet). The orography of that range has been thoroughly
investigated by Herr Sonklar. He has determined the average height of all the
summits rising upon its crest at 9,350 feet, and the average height of the entire
group at G,'J70 feet. The great summits of this range, the very names of which
were not known a couple of hundred years ago, are now annually visited by shoals

| Aeoerfingto Ki. Ur, Tan, moans "towers." All the passes loading over that ran-e are known as
, Bid (!,:,! word has been ivnd,ml by "notches." The Romans knew the inhabitants of the
country as iauimns.

THE GERMAN ALPS. 9

of tourists ;ind artists. Even the formidable snow-drifts of the Great Venediger
(12,055 feet) have proved no obstacle to the ascent of that mountain, whilst the top
of the Great Glockner (12,465 feet) was reached as long ago as 1799, and has
proved accessible to hardy mountain climbers even in the depth of winter. The latter

Fig. 4. THE GROSS GI.OCKNEK.
Scale 1 : 240,000.

.5 Miles.

summit lies to the south of the principal axis of the chain, and the formidable
Pasterze glacier descends from it into Styria.

The ranges to the east of the Arlscharte are generally included amongst the
Tauern, but they ought rather to be looked upon as ramifications of that Alpine
range, for they are far inferior in height, and are crossed by numerous carriage

10 ATJSTRIA-HUNGABY.

roads. Geologically the two ranges which ramify from the Ankogel (10,670 feet),
and enclose between them the valley of the Mur, are composed of the same
crystalline rocks as the Alpine masses to the west of them, but, owing to
their inferior height, the aspects they present are very different. The northern
of these two ranges, though the more elevated of the two, has no glaciers ; the
passes which lead across them do not take us beyond the region of forests ; and,
instead of inaccessible escarpments, we meet with charming valleys, woods, and
verdant pastures. Only in spring, when the snows melt, need avalanches be dreaded.
The southern range, which separates the valley of the Mur from that of the Drave,
is known as the Styrian Alps, but its height is even less than that of the northern.
To the north of Gratz, the river Mur, on its way to the Drave, has forced itself a
passage transversely through this range, which farther east gradually swerves
round to the northward. The Pass of Semmering, famous because of the railway
which now runs through it, has a height of 3,251 feet ; but beyond, between the
Leitha and the Lake of Neusiedl, the mountains gradually subside, and finally
die away in the plain of Hungary. With the humble range of hills seen to the
south of Presburg the Central Alps terminate. The Danube now separates them
from the Little Carpathians, on the northern bank of the river, but a geological
examination of the ground proves conclusively that at some former epoch Alps
and Carpathians formed a continuous range of mountains.

The calcareous Alps occupy a far larger area than the central chain, and some
of their mountain masses do not yield in boldness of contour or beauty to those of
the Oetzthal or the Tauern. The Orteler itself belongs to the southern calcareous
Alps ; and all the summits to the east of it, from the Adige to the Drave, pierce
the snow-line, and are partly covered with glaciers. These Alps vary much in aspect,
for some are formed of porphyry, others of schists or limestone ; but the most
striking features are presented by the dolomitic mountains, with their precipitous
walls, jagged summits wreathed with clouds, and huge fissures filled with snow,
whose whiteness contrasts strangely with the sombre forests at their foot. When
lighted up by the rising or setting sun they shine as if they reflected a vast confla-
gration. The mountains of Val Fassa, to the north-east of Trent, are remarkable,
moreover, on account of their complicated geological structure. Leopold von
Buch refers to them as a " Holy Land, to which all geologists ought to make a
pilgrimage, as the Mohammedans do to Mecca." The principal summits of these
mountains, the Marmolata (11,468 feet), the Marmarola (11,045 feet), and others
rise upon Italian soil. They form the linguistic boundary between Germans and
Italians, and have yielded a retreat to the Ladins, and hence the geographical
nomenclature of the country is rather puzzling. Farther east the confusion is
even worse, for between Carinthia and Carniola we meet with Slav names in
addition to German and Italian ones. The mountain which is popularly, but
erroneously, supposed to mark the boundary between the three races, is the Terglou
(Triglav, Tricorno, or " three-horned mountain," 9,29? feet). Three is a number
equally attractive to the gods as to man ; and the natives of the country are fond
of stating that three rivers rise upon this mountain, of which one joins the Isonzo

THE GERMAN ALPS. 11

and flows to the Adriatic, whilst the two others find their way to the Black Sea
through the Save and the Drave. From the Terglou may be enjoyed the finest
panorama in Austria, the view extending from Venice and the Adriatic to the
snow-clad summits of the Tauern. It is the last mountain in this direction
whose aspect is Alpine, and even a small glacier hangs upon its northern slope.

The Karawaukeii, or Mountains of the Carvates (Croats), beyond it, are less
elevated, but they surprise by the pyramidal shape of the summits and the roseate
or violet hues of their rocks. They culminate in the Grintouz (8,295 feet),
which rises above the amphitheatre of Logar, which bears a striking resemblance
to that of Gavarnie, in the Pyrenees. Numerous cascades leap down from the
precipices which surround it, that of the Krinka clearing a height of 980 feet in
three bounds. These mountains form the eastern termination of the Alps. The
plateaux of Carniola and the Carso (Kaist), to the south and south-east, differ
widely in character from the Alps, of which they are dependencies.

The calcareous mountains of the northern zone of the Alps are exclusively
occupied by Germans. The westernmost mountain mass of this region is known
as the Arlberg. The valley of Montafon, tributary to the Rhine, separates it from
the Rhatikon. The Pass of the Arlberg, through which runs the great high-road
connecting Innsbruck with the Lake of Constanz, crosses it at a height of 5,994
feet. The Kaltenberg attains a height of 9,515 feet, and can boast even a few
small glaciers; but the mountains of Vorarl berg cannot compare with the Alps
of Switzerland in beauty of outline or freshness of vegetation.

The Alps of Algau extend to the north-east of Vorarlberg into Bavaria, and
their gentle slopes contrast strikingly with the abrupt precipices formed of lias
and the white dolomitic rocks.

The mountain chain which extends along the northern bank of the Inn as far
as the gorge of that river at Kufstein is distinguished for its picturesque boldness
and the isolation of its jagged summits, amongst which are the Zugspitze
(Wetterstein, 9,682 feet), the Solstein (8,331 feet), and Karspitze (Karawendel,
9,076 feet). Small glaciers occupy some of the depressions, and the pusses which
lead across the range are sometimes veritable gorges, or Klausen (cluses), as in the
Jura. One of the steep precipices of the Solstein, the Martinswand, has become
famous through an adventure of the Emperor Maximilian I.

The Alps of Salzburg, to the east of the Inn, consist of numerous isolated
mountain masses, presenting, as a rule, a steep wall towards the Tauern, and sloping
down gently towards the north. They abound in shady valleys, charming villages,
blue mountain lakes, and savage gorges, and do not yield in picturesqueness to the
Alps of Switzerland. If we ascend the steep precipices we reach plateaux covered
with chaotic masses of rock, void of all vegetation. One of these plateaux is known
as the Steinerne Meer, or " Stony Sea ; " another, to the east of it, as the Ueber-
gossene Aim, or " Submerged Meadow." The former rises to a height of 8,200 feet,
and is surrounded by jugged peaks, or Zinkcn, the highest amongst which attains
an elevation of 8,092 feet. The Uebergossene Alp (9,644 feet) has a cap of
ice and snow. To the north of these rises the stupendous pyramid of Watzrnaun

12 AUSTBIA-HUXGAKY.

(9,640 feet), a wicked king converted into stone ; and still farther north the Unters-
liiTg (6,790 feet) looks down upon the vale of Salzburg. In its bowels are hidden
palaces, churches, and delicious gardens, and Charlemagne there waits for the
arrival of the millennium.

These limestone Alps increase in height towards the east, in proportion as the
summits of the Tauern grow less. Due north of the Venediger and the Great
Glockner, where they are drained by the Achen and the Saalach, they are mere
foot-hills of the Central Alps ; but in the east, towards the river Enns, the
Dachstein (9,794 feet) rises far above the snow-line, and three glaciers descend
from its flanks, whilst in the Tauern, due south of it, only a few patches of snow
survive the summer. The Dachstein looks down upon a vast plateau covered with
stones, and the valley of the Traun separates it from a similar terrace, known as
the Todtes Gebirge (Dead Mountains). But when we stand upon one of the
summits rising above the plain to the north of these mountains, these scenes of
desolation are hidden from us, and the eye ranges over wooded slopes, verdant
valleys, and blue lakes scattered over the vast plain, which extends north as
far as the mountains of Bohemia. The Schafberg (5,719 feet), which rises
boldly to the east of the Atter Lake, quite deserves to be called the Austrian
Rigi.

The mountains which rise beyond the gorge scooped out by the Enns, on its
way to the Danube, surpass in height those of the central chain. The Ilochschwab
(7,480 feet), the Schneeberg (6,790 feet), and other bold pyramids rise far beyond
the zone of forests, but their lower slopes and spurs are richly clad with verdure,
and upon their foot-hills are perched innumerable towns and villages. From the
top of the Hochschwab the eye ranges from the white pyramid of the Glockner to
the broad plains of the Danube, which lie spread out beneath us like a map. The
sandstone range of the Wienerwald extends from the Schneeberg to the Danube
above Vienna.

GLACIERS, RIVERS, AND LAKES.

THE German Alps only yield to those of Switzerland in the quantity of water
which they convey to the rivers of Europe. Their glaciers, known as Ferner,
Keese, or Vedrette, cover an area of nearly 40 square miles, but owing to the
snow-fall being less, they cannot compare in extent with those of the Monte Rosa
or the Oberland. The largest amongst them is now only 7 miles in length ;
but the rock scratchings and moraines discovered in the lower valleys, and even in
the plains, prove that during the glacial period they were far more formidable.
That of the Oetzthal had then a length of 35 miles, and towns like Innsbruck
and Salzburg are built upon sites which were formerly covered with ice.

The glaciers of the Tyrol have been ascertained to shrink and advance at
regular intervals. During the latter end of the last century and the beginning of
the present one they advanced, covering pastures and old mountain paths. Of late
they shrink, at least in the west. The quantity of ice and snow has grown less
in the Tyrol, and 1'iaundler affirms that between 1866 and 1870 18 feet have

w
i

GLACIERS, EIVEBS, AND LAKES.

melted away on the highest summits of the Stubay. On the other hand, a few
small glaciers have recently formed in the Eastern Tauern.

The Vernagt glacier, in the Oetzthal, is one of those which exhibit the greatest
regularity in their alternate advance and retreat. Five times since 1599 has it
crept down the valley and melted away again. Its advance is usually more
rapid than its decay, and in 1845 its terminal face advanced 150 feet in a single
day. The Vernagt is, however, more dangerous when it retreats, for then the
water pent up in its tributary valleys is freed, and carries destruction to the lower
valleys.

Owing to the friable nature of the rocks, disasters such as this, as well as

Fig. 6. THE VERNAOT AND OTHER GLACIERS OF THB OETZTHAL.
Scale 1 : 120.000.

|10%5* E.Of Gr

>IO45'

- M ill '8.

landslips and floods, are frequent in the Austrian Alps. The Salzach, which rises
in the Tauern and flows past Salzburg to the Danube, has frequently been dammed
up by the masses of detritus brought down by its tributary torrents. In 1798 an
avalanche of mud and stones blocked up the gorge of Oefen, above Hallein, and
two villages, with their fields, were buried beneath 50,000,000 cubic yards of
debris. In the valley of the Adige sloping mounds of detritus constitute a
marked feature, and they sometimes block up the river. The huge accumulation
of stones, mud, and clay, interesting on account of its stone-capped earth pillars,
known as the Salvini di San Marco, is probably the result of a landslip which
occurred in 833, and for a time reduced the Lower Adige to a simple rivulet. Five

AUSTRIA-HUNGABY.

centuries afterwards the summit of the Dobracz precipitated itself towards the
town of Villach, involving ten villages and two castles in ruin. A chapel, the
highest building in Austria (6,690 feet), now marks the spot where the mountain
gave way.

The large lakes which formerly occupied the depressions between the moun-
tain ranges have either been drained or tilled up by alluvium washed down from
the hills. Excepting the frontier Lakes of Constanz and Garda, no lake in
the German Alps has an area of over 15 square miles. The number of small
lakes, however, is very great. Some of them are isolated, as the Achensee, the
Zellersee, or the Caldenazzo, which gives birth to the Brenta ; others form groups,
as in the Sal/kammergut and Carinthia.

The lake district of the Salzkammergut, though its area is only 637 square
miles, includes no less than thirty-five small lakes, all of them within the basin of

Fig 6. THE DOBKACZ.
Scale 1 : 139,000.

. 20 Miles.

the Traun, a tributary of the Danube. Most of them occupy calcareous mountain
gorges. The cavities which they fill have apparently been scooped out by glacial
action. The greater part of them, being fed by clear mountain torrents, do not
sensibly diminish in size ; but others as, for instance, that of Hallstatt, into which
the mud-laden Traun discharges itself shrink rapidly. Between 1781 and 1850
the delta at the mouth of the river has grown 247 feet, although at a short distance
beyond the depth exceeds 300 feet. The depth of these lakes, like that of most
mountain lakes, is considerable, that of the Lake Teplitz being equal to thrice its
width ; but their bottom, as a rule, is perfectly level. Thousands of visitors are
annually attracted to these clear mountain lakes and the verdant slopes which sur-
round them. The Lakes of Carinthia, occupying wide valleys bounded by gently
sloping hills, are for the most part shallow and devoid of picturesque beauty. The

CLIMATE. 15

peat bogs, which have invaded many of the old lake basins, might supply Austria
with fuel for centuries.*

The area occupied by the Austrian Alps is so considerable that the torrents fed
by snow become veritable rivers before they bid farewell to the mountain defiles.
These rivers compensate to some extent for the non-existence of large lakes. Few
river valleys of Europe can compare in beauty with those of the Drave, the Inn,
or the Upper Adige (Etsch). The wide and cultivated valley of the former
separates the snow-clad dolomite peaks on the Italian frontier from the serrated
chain of the Tauern. The valley of the Inn presents us with an astonishing
variety of scenery, due to the fertility of its bottom-lands the picturesque towns
and castles perched upon its sides, the fine contours of its mountains, clad with
sombre woods or verdant pasture-grounds, and contrasting strikingly with the
snow-clad heights above and the deep azure sky. More beauteous still are the
valleys of Eisack and the Adige, to the south of the Brenner. We there breathe
the balmy air of Italy. Vines cover the hill-slopes, white campaniles rise above
groves of trees, and far in the distance we look upon the smiling plain of the Po.

CLIMATE.

THERE exist not only local differences of climate, as is the case in all mountain
regions, but also general contrasts, resulting from the diversion of atmospheric
currents by the mountain masses.

The difference in temperature between the southern and northern valleys is far
more considerable than can be accounted for by difference of latitude. The
mean annual temperature of Linz is 14 less than that of Verona, at the
mouth of the valley of the Adige, although the difference of latitude between the
two does not amount to 3. The rainfall on the southern slopes is far
greater than on the northern, for the Alps intercept the moist winds of the
Adriatic and Mediterranean. Thunder-storms are frequent in the south, but very
rare in the plains of Austria. Moreover, whilst in the south the greatest quantity
of rain fulls during summer, autumn is the rainy season in the north. The Alps
consequently constitute a well-marked meteorological boundary. The fohn of
Switzerland is not known in the Austrian Alps, except perhaps in the Vorarlberg,
which lies within the basin of the Rhine.

Similar contrasts may be observed on proceeding from west to east. In the
east, towards the plain of Hungary, the mean annual temperature is 7 less than

* The lakes of the Austrian Alps (see means lake) :

Height Depth.

Achcnsee 2,947

Zellersee 2,466 623

( Worthersee ,325

CARINTHIA j Osiaehersee ,524 148

( Millstedtersee ,910 394

fAttcraee 490 7^8

| Traunsee ,335 368

I Slondsee . ,822 128

SALZKAMME " G 1 St. Wolf P angssee ,777 374

I Hallstattcrsee 61* 305

2,274 200

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

in the west ; the summers are hotter, the winters more severe. This difference,
however, is not due to the presence of the Alps, for it exists in the plains on
either side of them. Austrian meteorologists affirm that this excessive climate is
gradually extending towards the west. Eastern plants, capable of withstanding
these changes of temperature, are spreading westward, and this accounts for the
differences between the Alpine floras of Austria and Switzerland. These differ-
ences, however, would only strike a botanist, and the general aspect of forests or

Fig. 7. ISOTHERMAL ZONES OF AUSTRIA.

Scale 1 : 15,000,000.

pastures is the same, whether we wander through Styria, the Oetzthal, or Switzer-
land.*

THE PEOPLE.

THE population of the Austrian Alps is far from homogeneous by race and
language. The Germans are now in a majority, but they have absorbed ancient
populations who preceded them, and of whom traces have been discovered in the
Lake of Hallstatt and elsewhere. Pile dwellings, however, appear to have, been
far fewer than in Switzerland.

The Tyrolese more especially are a mixed race, for they have absorbed not

Verona
Laibach
Klagenfurt
Meran .
Trent .
Oratz .
Gastcin
Innsbruck

I -in/

Lat. N.
45 26'
46 3'
46 37'
4(> 40'
46" 41'
47 4'
47=5'
47" 16'
47 18'
48" 18'

Height (Feet).

970
1,446
1,025

695

220
3,250
1,900
1,425

860

Mean Temperature (Fahr.).

January.
37"

July.

79"

22"

32"

73"

57"

6.3

67=

Year.
5!)
48
46
63
63
48
42
49
47
45"

Rainfall.
Inches.
37
71
39
31
43
23
20
29
41
23

THE PEOPLE.

only Celts, but more ancient populations, whose very name only survives in that of
mountains and lakes. Formerly the inhabitants of the country were known as
Interiuli, whence, perhaps, their present name. The Eomans Latinised the Tyrol,
and mediaoval documents mention many landowners bearing Italian names. In
the early Middle Ages " Ladin " was spoken even on the northern slopes, and up
to the sixteenth century that language kept its ground in the Vorarlberg. A
hundred years ago the mountaineers of the Vintschgau, or Upper Adige, still
spoke that tongue, and even -during the present century several Ladin villages
have been Germanised. The only parts of Tyrol where -Romaic dialects were not
spoken formerly are the central portion of the valley of the Inn and the Puster-

Fig. 8. RAIN MAP op AUSTRIA.
According to Von Sonklar and Eelesse.

thai. The names of several villages in the latter prove that the district was
formerly inhabited, in part at least, by Slavs.

Boioarians and Swabians from the north-west, Germanised Slavs advancing up
the valley of the Drave, Goths and Longobards ousted from Italy, gradually
reduced the domain of the Ladins, and they are confined now to the valleys of
Gherdcina (Gardena, or Groden), Enneberg, and Badia, to the east of Brixen.
The " Welsh " spoken there is mixed, however, with many words of German
origin, whilst the German mountaineers make use of Ladin terms. Most of the
inhabitants speak both languages indifferently. The Ladins differ not only in
language, but also physically, from their neighbours, the Germans and Italians.
They are of more slender build than the former; have poor beards, but long
73

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

curly hair descending to the shoulders ; their complexion is brown, like that of
the Italians, but their eyes are less expressive.

Whilst the Romaic dialects have been encroached upon by German, the
Italians in the valley of the Adige appear to be gaining ground. German was
spoken throughout the district of Trent. The Italian peasant, being more active,
thrifty, and abstemious than his German neighbour, resolutely attacks the swampy
lands in the valley of the Adige, which the Germans dread. As high up us

Fig. 9. THE LIMITS OF GERMAN AND ITALIAN IN THE SOUTHERN TYROL.
According to Ficker and Czoernig.

Botzen there exists hardly a hamlet which has not been invaded by these Italians.
In the valleys which enter the Adige on the east many villages have become
Italianised. German influence, moreover, is not much felt to the south of the
linguistic boundary. The Italian spoken at Trent is as pure as that of Genoa or
Milan, and the aspect of the town is altogether Italian. In the Northern Tyrol,
as far as Innsbruck and Salzburg, we are reminded by the style of architec-
ture that Italian influences have been at work there. In 1867 a society was

THE PEOPLE.

established at Innsbruck for the purpose of supporting German schools in all the
frontier villages, which are now threatened by an invasion of Italians.

In the Eastern Alps a similar struggle has been carried on between German
and Slav, and the linguistic boundary has changed frequently in the course of
centuries. Formerly the whole of Southern Austria was held by the Slavs, who
in the seventh and eighth centuries advanced to the Inn and the sources of the
Drave. In several instances the Slavs had even crossed the Alps and descended
into Friuli and the Italian Tyrol. These Slavs were generally known as Wends,
although in reality they were Slovenes or Corutani, a name preserved in Carinthia,
or Karnthen. Pushed back by the Germans, the Slavs retreated to the eastward,
but they left behind them several colonies which preserved their nationality

Fig. 10. THE TEHGLOU AND THE LINGUISTIC BOUNDARY.
Scale 1 : B75,000.

E.of Gr.

10 Miles.

during the Middle Ages. Many valleys and villages, the latter frequently pre-
ceded by the adjective Windisch, were held by them, nor have they been com-
pletely absorbed. The Austrian- Germans betray their double parentage in
features, traditions, customs, and more especially in character. They are Germans,
no doubt, but they differ much from their kinsmen in Western Germany.

The actual frontier between the two races begins at the small town of Pontafel
(Pontebba), close to the north-eastern corner of Italy, where Italian, German,
and Slovene are spoken. It thence runs to the east, passing within a short
distance of the Terglou and Mount Luschari, with its "miraculous" chapel, both
of which lie upon Slovene soil. It then passes to the east of Klagenfurt, a
German town, separating the German district of Gratz from that of Marburg,

20 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

which is principally inhabited by Slovenes. The small German settlements
lying beyond these limits are gradually being absorbed by the Slavs, whilst
German, owing to the advantages it enjoys as the language of Government and
commerce, is gaining ground in the towns.

A very curious feature in connection with the ethnography of the Austrian
Alps is the almost total absence of Jews, so numerous in other parts of the empire.
Up to 1848 the only place where the Jews had a synagogue was Hohenems, on
the Lake of Constanz. Elsewhere the population had most energetically opposed
their settlement, even paying a special tux to be rid of their presence ; and,
although Jews are now met with in the principal towns, they have not yet pene-
trated to the Alpine villages.*

The inhabitants of the Zillerthnl, east of Innsbruck, are probably the finest
representatives of the Germans of the Tyrol. They are Boioarians, whilst tin;
inhabitants of Bregenz, whose women carry off the palm for beauty, are Ale-
manni. Upon the whole, however, the Tyrolese do not deserve the reputation for
manly beauty which they enjoy. In some villages they are positively ugly, but
their ugliness is partly disguised by their pretty national dress. Persons suffering-
from goitre and cretinism are as numerous as in Switzerland and Savoy, those of
the valley of Pulten, in Styria, being most frequently afflicted. In some parts
there exists hardly a family one of whose members is not suffering from cretinism.
The unhappy fex, crouching down near the hearth, is an object of pity to all, for
popularly he is supposed to have been chosen by Providence to expiate the sins of
his relations.

The Tyrolese of the higher valleys, amongst whom Rhcetian and Celtic ele-
ments appear to predominate, are more reserved than their kinsfolk in the plains,
who are full of spirits and gaiety, and passionately fond of music and dancing.
The inhabitants of the Zillerthal more especially are surrounded by a halo of
glory. Their skill as hunters, the bravery with which they have defended their
mountain defiles, and their traditional lore entitle them to a place of honour
amongst their countrymen.

Accustomed to the freedom of the hills, the Tyrolese were permitted to enjoy
many privileges. They are no longer exempted from the conscription, but are
permitted to serve in a local corps of sharpshooters. They are much attached to
existing political institutions, and adore their emperor and the dignitaries of the
Church.

The Cnrinthians do not much differ in this respect from the Tyrolese. There
was a time when these mountaineers most jealously watched over their local
liberties. Up to the fifteenth century the investiture of the dukes took place with
ceremonies intended to symbolize the sovereignty of the people, and they were

Population and races of the Austrian Alps, not including the Salzkammergut (1876) :
m i * ir Germans. Italians. Ladins. Slave.

ryrol and Vorarlberg . . . 530,000 3JO,ooo 15,000

Falzourg 1.12,000

" thia 239,000 105,000

St - vm 712,000 4.,9,'000

Total . . . l,(i. : 3,000 340,000 15,000 554,000

THE PEOPLE.

made to swear to maintain the personal freedom of the peasant and the sanctity of
his house.

At the time of the Reformation many of the inhabitants of the Tyrol and of

Fii?. 11. TYSOLBSE.

Men and Women from the Zillerthal, Brenner, Orodenthal, and Pusterthal.

Oarinthia became Protestants, but they were put down with a strong and ruthless
hand. During the years 1731-'32 no less than 25,000 Salzburgers expatriated
themselves, and sought a new home in other parts of Germany and in America.

22 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

The flourishing industries which the Protestants formerly carried on in Carinthia
and Styria Hod these countries, and many mines were deserted.

Actually the spiritual authorities can boast of no more faithful subjects than
are the Tyrolese, who feel a sort of pride in the fact of the Council of Trent having
sat in one of their towns. Philosophical discussions are stifled in their schools,
and "freemason " is a term of reproach. With the exception of a few Protestant
congregations recently established in the larger towns, the population is Catholic,
the number of priests and other ecclesiastics is large, and their influence in the
more remote valleys all-powerful. In Carinthia and Styria, however, owing to
immigration, the number of Protestants is larger.

The Tyrol has not yet become one huge hotel, like its neighbour Switzerland,
but the number of tourists is annually increasing, railways are multiplying,
and modern ideas are carried into the remotest valleys. Quite as great changes in
the modes of thought of the Austrian mountaineers are being wrought by their
periodical migrations. About one-sixth of the native-born Tyrolese, male and
female, are supposed to live beyond the boundaries of the country, either as
singers and zither-players, or in pursuit of divers trades. The emigrants from
the Vonirlberg deal in woollen stuffs ; those from the Stubay Mountains in iron ;
the natives of the Passeyer valley, on the Upper Adige, trade in cattle ; those of
the Lungau valley, on the Mur, are travelling bone-setters and farriers. In the
last century it was the Zillerthulers more especially who roamed through the
world as itinerant doctors, selling oils, drugs, and essences. About 400 of them
were then engaged in the sale of a wonderful oil, composed of seventy drugs,
and known as " mithridates." At the present day this industry can hardly be
said to exist, and the Zillerthalers are content to deal in gloves, or to gain a
living as singers. During winter many villages are inhabited only by women,
children, and old men. The fine villns which are met with in some of the more
remote valleys are the property of emigrants who have returned home with the
wealth acquired abroad.

PRODUCTIONS, INDVSTRY, COMMERCE.

THE Italian Tyrol is as fertile, and its productions are as varied, as those of
Lombardy ; the great valleys of the Inn and the Drave are fertile agricultural
districts; but in the remainder of the country dairy-farming and cattle-breeding
are the principal occupations. In many districts the small income of the family
is eked out by domestic industries. The men of the Gardena, or Groden valley,
carve dolls, toys, and other articles in wood, whilst the women make coarse lace.

The mining industry is of considerable importance, excepting in the Tyrol.
The mineral wealth increase^ as we proceed east. The country around Salzburg
(Saltborough) abounds in rock-salt ; Carinthia has mines of lead, zinc, iron, and
copper; Styria possesses rock-salt, iron, and lignite. The gold mines of the Tyrol
appear to have been exhausted. In the sixteenth century they employed 30,000
workmen.

Salt and iron are the principal minerals worked at the present day. Hall

PRODUCTIONS, INDUSTRY, COMMERCE.

in the Tyrol, Hallein in Salzburg, and Hallstatt in the Salzkammergut (estate of
the Salt Office) are the principal centres of salt-mining. The saliferous mountains
are perforated by innumerable galleries, whence the brine is conveyed to the evapo-
rating works. One of these salt mountains, viz. the Diirrenberg, near Hallein,
has yielded 10,000,000 tons of salt in the course of the last six centuries.* The
deposits of iron ore in Styria and Carinthia are of enormous extent. The Erzberg
at Eisenerz alone yields about 200,000 tons of ore annually, and will continue to
yield that quantity for a thousand years, f Unfortunately the district where these
ores abound most are dependent upon lignite and peat for their fuel, and even
in Styria the manufacturing industry cannot compare with that of Bohemia.
Vorarlberg has cotton-mills ; Styria iron and steel works, machine shops, forges,

Fi;j. 12. THE MINING REGION OP EISENFRZ AND VOIIDF.RNBERG.

,14' 20' E of Or.

Lignite and coal.

Iron, &c.

and foundries. The latter is more densely inhabited than any other district of
the Austrian Alps.

Formerly the roads which led across the Austrian Alps were few and far
between. In the beginning of the present century there existed but two direct
carriage roads which joined Austria to Italy, viz. that over the Semmering and the
more westerly one over the Brenner. The old Roman road which ran over the

Vif-ld of salt (1872) at Ebensec, Ischl, Hallstatt, Aussee, Hallein, and Hall, 93,980 tons.

t Yield of pig-iron (1872) : 115,629 tons in Styria, 63,873 tons in Carinthia, 5,367 tons in the Tyrol,
and 2,828 tons in Sal/burg.

Yi.-ld of lignite :-l,254,743 tons in Styria, 77,169 tons in Carinthia, 24,932 tons m the Tyrol.

Yield of coal : 6,515 tons in Styria.

In addition th.-r.- MN produced 59,788 cwts. of lead, 305,696 ozs. of gold, 6,646 cwts. of copper,
1,549 cwts. of zinc, besides silver, nickel, arsenic, alum, and vitriol.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Radstiidter Tuucrn was still in use, but it is very circuitous. At the present day
all the old Roman roads have been rendered practicable for carriage traffic, and
the engineers have even carried their operations into the regions of perennial snow.
The road of the Stelvio (Stilfser Joch), close to the Orteler and the Swiss frontier,
is the highest road in Europe. It was constructed for strategical reasons, and after
the loss of Loinbardy it was not thought worth while to expend large sums upon its
maintenance. Even the old carriage roads over the Scunnering and the Brenner
have lost much of their importance since railways run by their side over the
passes. The railway of the Semmering was the first constructed over the Alps,
and was looked upon at the time as a stupendous work of human industry. The
first locomotive travelled along it in 1854, since which time another railway has
pierced the very heart of the Austrian Alps, the engineers availing themselves of

.Fig. 13. KLAUSEN, ON THE ROAD OVER THE BRENNKB.

the comparatively easy gradients leading up to the Brenner. That railway has
become one of the great commercial high-roads linking Germany with Italy, but it
will have to contend against a formidable rival as soon as the railway over the
Pontebba Pass, to the south-west of the Vilhch, shall have been completed. By
means of this new line direct communication will be established between Vienna
and Italy, much to the annoyance of the people of Trieste, who will lose much of
their transit trade.

In addition to the railways which cross the Alps, there are others which

their longitudinal valleys. The two lines over the Semmering and the

nner are thus connected by a line which runs from the upper valley of the

into the Pusterthal. A second junction is effected to the north of the

n ; but a line connecting the Inn valley with the railway systems of Switzer-

STYRIA.

laud and Northern France is still wanting. Its construction will necessitate the
boring of a tunnel through the Arlberg.

No doubt this line would have been built long ago if it could prove of strate-
gical importance, but Switzerland excites no apprehensions. For works of defence
we must look on the Italian slope of the Alps. In opening up the Alpine valleys
by means of railways, care was taken to render them inaccessible to a hostile invader.
Every road, every footpath, has its forts and batteries, the centre of defence being

Fig. 14. ROADS OVER THE ALPS.

15'E.ofR

EofGr ir

The Map is shaded to express the height above the Sea-leveL

placed at the points where the Pusterthal joins the road over the Brenner. This
important strategical position is defended by the Franzensfeste and other works.*

TOPOGRAPHY.

STYRIA. The sites upon which important towns have been founded in the
Alpine regions are clearly marked out by nature. The largest city would naturally
arise beyond the most elevated mountain masses, in a plain affording scope for the
cultivation of the soil, and on one of the great high-roads radiating from the capital
of the empire. Grate (Hradec, 80,732 inhabitants), the capital of Styria, and

Height of passes in the Austrian Alps (in feet) :

Carriage road*: Stclvio, 9,154: Malser Heidc, 4,973; Arlberg, 5,896; Radstiidter Tauern, 5,700

Mii Taurrn, 4,004; Pontebba, -.',600.
Kailroadt :~ -Brenner, 4,4 Jl; Semmering, 3,260; Toblach Field, in the Pusterthal, 3,952.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

the largest town in the Austrian Alpine region, actually occupies such a site in the
wide valley of the Mur, and half-way between Vienna and Trieste. The mines in
its vicinity have contributed to the growth of its industry. It is a cheerful town,
with a fine public park at the foot of a hill formerly occupied by the citadel.
From the summit of this picturesque knoll we see the city spread out beneath our
feet ; we can trace the winding course of the Mur, fringed by poplars, and survey
the wooded heights which bound the valley. Many half-pay officers have settled
at Gratz, because life is cheap and pleasant there, whilst students are attracted by
the scientific collections of its university.

Marburg (13,085 inhabitants), on the Drave and on the junction of the Puster-
thal railway with the Trieste line, is the only other town of importance in Styria.
Cilli (4,203 inhabitants), near Carniola, is the ancient Celleia, of which ruins still
exist. Bmck (2,879 inhabitants), on the Tipper Mur, is one of the prettiest towns
in Austria. Leoben (0,091 inhabitants) is a mining town, where the preliminaries

Fig. 15 KLAGENFURT AND THB L.IKE OF WOKTH.
Scale 1 : 225,000.

E.of Paris

E. of Or.

of the treaty of Campo Formio were signed in 1792. Vordernlerg (2,468 inha-
bitants) is known for its iron works, as are also Eisencrz (3,841 inhabitants)
and Rottenmann. Near the latter is the famous Benedictine abbey of Admont,
with an invaluable library. Jndcnburg (Jewsborough, 3,189 inhabitants), the
ancient Idunum, occupies a delightful position on the Mur. It is not a town of
Jews : on the contrary, the Jews were massacred there during the Middle Ages,
and the modern name appears to be a corruption of the old Roman one. Mariar
zdl (1,200 inhabitants), on the northern frontier, is a famous place of pilgrimage.
Tr/ifitz and Tuffir (Franz-Josefsbad) are well-known watering-places.

CARINTHIA. Klagenfurt (15,200 inhabitants), near the Drave and the Lake of
Worth, is the only town of the province. St. Vcit (2,322 inhabitants), the old
capital, has dwindled into a village, having some iron industry. Feldkirchen (5,316
inhabitants) is a large village. Sleiberg (4,061 inhabitants) has lead mines, and
iron mines and furnaces. Villnch (4,258 inhabitants), to the north

SALZBURG. -TYROL.

of the Pontebba Fass and on the road to Italy, is sure to grow into a place of
importance as soon as the direct railway shall have been opened.

SU./BURG (^0,33,i inhabitants) is, next toGratz,the most populous town in the
German Alps, and undoultedly one of the most interesting cities of all Germany.
Situated upon the Salzach, which there enters the plains of Bavaria, enclosed on
all sides by steep hills covered with trees and houses, and commanding a magnifi-
cent prospect of the Alps, Salzburg has at all times challenged the admiration of
its visitors. A tunnel pierces the hill to the west, and joins the old town to its
suburb, Riedenburg. The ancient seat of an archbishop, the city abounds in
ecclesiastical buildings ; but the Roman ruins of Juvavum, and the caverns which

Fig. 16. SALZBURO.
Scale 1 : 51,000.

1 Mile.

pierce the surrounding heights, are equally interesting. A statue has been erected
to Mozart, a native of the town. The environs are delightful, and the finest
Alpine lakes within easy reach. A little to the south are the salt works of Ha lie in
(3,614 inhabitants) and the picturesque defiles of the Salzach, leading into the
Pinzgau. Visitors to the famous hot springs of Gastein, at the foot of the
Ankogel, usually pass through Salzburg.

TYROL. Innsbruck (16,810 inhabitants'), in the wide and fertile valley of the
Inn, and at the northern foot of the Brenner, is even better placed for commerce
than Salzburg. Its picturesque houses are gaily painted, and two bridges span the
river. One of the churches boasts of the tomb of the Emperor Maximilian, one

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

of the finest works of the Renaissance in Germany. The only other towns on the
northern slope of the Alps are Hall (5,022 inhabitants), known on account of its salt
works ; Sc/ncaz (4,813 inhabitants), famous formerly on account of its silver mines ;
and KuMchi ('2,083 inhabitants), with an old castle, converted into a prison. The

Fig. 17. BOTZEN.
Scale 1 : 150,000.

EofGr.

'20'

-' Miles.

towns on the Italian slope are more animated than those in the north. They
include Briscn (4,:i4! inhabitants), at the junction of the Brenner and the Puster-
tli.il railways; Botzcn (Bolzano, 9,357 inhabitants), at the confluence of the
Kisack and the Adige ; and Trent (17,073 inhabitants), an Italian city, remark-

i
pa

VOEARLBEEG. 29

able on account of its ancient buildings, including^ the church in which sat the
famous Council of Trent (1545 63), and where is shown a picture with portraits
of the 378 prelates assembled. Trent lies at the head of the road which leads by
way of Levico (6,250 inhabitants, famous for its wine) and the valley of Sugana
into Venetia. Roceredn (9,063 inhabitants) does a considerable trade in raw silk ;
Ala (2,686 inhabitants), a frontier town, formerly carried on the manufacture of
velvet ; Meran (4,229 inhabitants), on the Upper Adige, the old capital of the
Tyrol, attracts numerous visitors on account of its mild climate ; but Rica (5,082
inhabitants), on the Garda Lake, is far superior to it in that respect, besides offering
the charms of a more southern vegetation.

In VORARI.BKRG, in the valley of the Rhine, only small towns and villages are
met with. Bludenz (1,451 inhabitants) and DornUrn (8,486 inhabitants) have
cotton-mills and print works. Other towns are Feldkirch (2,568 inhabitants) and
Bregenz (3,600 inhabitants), the latter an Austrian port on the Lake of Constanz.

The principality of LIECHTENSTEIN is an enclave in Vorarlberg. It is an
independent state, formerly a member of the German Confederation, and has for
its capital the small village of Vaduz. Like other states, Liechtenstein rejoices in
representative institutions ; but the army was disbanded, as a superfluous luxury,
after the battle of Sadowa.

CHAPTER III.

AUSTRIA ON THE DANUBE.

jjUSTRIA proper includes the wide Danubian vale between Bavaria
and Hungary and the foot-hills extending in the north to the
Bohemian Forest, and in the south to the limestone Alps of Salz-
burg and Styria. A name first bestowed upon a Bavarian
"march," or frontier district, in 996 has thus become the designa-
tion of the vast empire governed by the house of Habsburg. The nucleus of this
empire occupies a central position, and Vienna more especially is most happily
situated with reference to the other provinces.

The Danube, which waters the two provinces of Austria above and below the
Enns, rises from a modest spring in a retired valley of the Black Forest, but in
its course to the east it assumes proportions far exceeding those of any other
European river, including even the Volga. Having been joined by the Iiin, the
Danube escapes from the table-land of Bavaria and enters the valley of Austria,
where its course has been regulated by costly engineering works. Passing alter-
nately through defiles and over plains, the river reaches the gate of the
Carpathians, through which it debouches upon the vast plains of Hungary.
Nearly two-thirds of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy lie within the basin of
the Danube.

The plateau, from which rises the Bohemian Forest, occasionally forms cliffs
along the northern bank of the Danube. It is intersected by a few tributaries of
no importance. On the south, however, the Danube is reinforced by the snow-
fed rivers which escape from the Alps, whose spurs and foot-hills advance some-
times close to its banks. The right bank thus presents us with a succession of
smiling valleys, backed by lofty mountains clothed with sombre forests or covered
with snow. The Danube between Linz and Vienna, though less frequented by
tourists than the Rhine, nevertheless rivals that river in its picturesque scenery.
The Danubian slopes are richer in verdure, the hills more varied in outline, and
the lateral valleys more numerous. Castles, turreted cities, and villages half
hidden in verdure add to the natural beauties of the river. Sometimes the river
is hemmed in between rocks, at others it spreads out over a wide valley. Below
Grein it flows through a narrow gorge obstructed by rocks and islets. The rapid

AUSTKIA ON THE DANUBE.

at the island upon which rise the ruins of "Werfenstein are known as the Strudcl ;
but the dangerous whirlpools (Wirbet) lower down, which bargemen never
ventured to cross without saying their prayers, exist no longer, the rock which
caused them having been removed in 1859, and its fragments employed in
embanking the river. At the ruined castle of Durreustein, the place of captivity of
Richard Cocur- de-Lion, the Danube escapes from this gorge. It spreads freely
over the plain, enclosing between its branches numerous verdure-clad islands, or
Auen. Some of the old or dead arms of the river have become swamps fringed by
reeds, the favourite haunts of water-fowl. In these parts of the valley man has
not yet issued victoriously from his struggles with the river. Wild animals still
abound there ; and even the beaver, which has disappeared everywhere else in

Fig. 18. THE DANUBE AT GKEIN.
Scale 1 : 112,000.

2Milrs.

Germany, still inhabits these old arms of the Danube. Still considerable progress
has been made. Many of the " dead " arms of the river have been converted into
meadows, embankments have been constructed, and the quiet beauty of these
works of man amply compensates for the savage picturesqueness which it sup-
plants. The alluvial tracts of this plain are of exceeding fertility. The Mann-
hardtsberg, the last promontory of the Moravian plateau, is seen far to the north,
rising above the verdant plain, but the wooded spurs of the Alps on the right
hand approach close to the river ; and just above Vienna the range known as the
Wiener Wald forces the Danube to make a wide detour to the north. Below these
hills the river expands, and traverses an ancient lake basin, upon the margin of
which rises Vienna with its suburbs. The plain which extends to the south of the
Danube is partly covered with shingle, but upon the whole it is well cultivated,

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

and many towns and villages rise upon it. The northern plain, however, known
as the " Marchfeld," abounded until recently in sand-hills, swamps, and furze, but
has now likewise been brought under cultivation. This Marchfeld is one of the
great battle-grounds of Europe, and was allowed to remain a wilderness during
the Middle Ages as a protection to the eastern " marches" of Germany.

INHABITANTS AND TOWNS.

THE population of Austria proper is not so purely German as might be sup-
posed from the language universally spoken. The Germans living here are more
gay and supple of mind than their kinsmen in the north ; their features are
more expressive, their gait freer, and their skulls rounder; and these differences
result from a mixture with other races. Originally the country was inhabited by
a non-Germanic race, and the names of many places are Celtic. After the down-
fall of the Roman Empire it was successively inhabited by Rugians, Huns, and

Fig. 19. GEOLOGICAL MAP OP THE UPPER VALLEY OF THE DANUBE.

Hie* schist, Porphyry

Granite,
Gnciu, tit.

. SCALE UiOOO.OQO .

o 55 OOMILES

HHH {I

Triassic Crtlacmjua Ttrtinry

CZI

Quaternary

Avares. At the same time the Slavs founded numerous colonies, the nnmes of
which survive to the present day. After the destruction of the Avares by Charle-
magne, only Slavs and Germans are mentioned, the former being kept in a state
of cruel servitude.

The terrible devastations of the Hungarians finally led to the complete Ger-
manisation of the country, which was repeopled by the Boioarians and other
German colonists. The Bishops of Passau founded numerous monasteries, around
which sprang up villages of serfs, and their wealth became prodigious. Living in
the midst of these German priests and peasants, the Slavs forgot their origin and
language, and a peaceable mixture of the two nations was thus accomplished.

The population is densest along the right bank of the Danube, and, as in
Bavaria, all the towns of importance rise on that side of the river. This, at first
sight, may appear strange, for the hills on the northern bank are exposed to the
beneficent influence of the sun, and the sites, with the distant Alps bounding the

VIENNA AN

' ^"" s

?-t-?.+-<-L' iiMCSh^L?. :

Seal*

TS ENVIRONS

E.ofOr.

ISO OOO

a 4 S Mil*.

TON &cv

AUSTRIA ON THE DANUBE.

horizon, are more picturesque. But these advantages are more than balanced by
a fertile alluvial soil being only met with in the tertiary hills to the south of the
river, whilst the cultivable area extending along the granitic heights commanding
the left, bank is very sm;ill in extent. The Danube, as appears from Fig. 19, forms a
well-defined geological boundary, separating the crystalline rocks of the north
from the tertiary and recent formations of the south.

Krems (6,114 inhabitants), the only town of importance on the left bank of the
Danube, occupies a site where both banks are of tertiary formation. Linz (30.&38
inhabitants) is very favourably situated near the mouth of the Traun, and at the

Fig. 20. LINZ.
Scale 1 : 165,000.

E.of Par.

E.of 6r.

4 Miles

foot of the gap which separates the Bohemian Forest from the plateau of Moravia.
It exports the salt of Salzburg, and the timber and other products of Bohemia.

Vienna* offers one of the most striking instances of the influence exercised by.
geographical position upon political destinies. Vindobona, in the time of the
1,'nnians WMS the head-quarters of a legion and of a flotilla, but it had no more
importance than Lauriacum (Lorch), at the mouth of the Enns, for the. great
military station of Pannonia was naturally established at the northern outlet of

Vienna, in 1869, had 632,494 inhabitants, or, with its 18 suburbs, 833,855. In 1877 the popula-
tion WHS ,.stii,Mt.-,l at 1,050,000. The principal suburbs are Hernals, Funfhaus, Rudolfsheim, Ottakrmg,
g, Qaadenihaiu, &c.
74

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

the Tyrolcse passes. Still the commercial importance of Vienna's position was
recognised even then, and at Carnuntum, a short distance below the modern town,
theyconstructed a bridge of boats, which facilitated intercourse with the countries
iu the north as far as the Baltic. Upon Vienna converge the roads from the Adriatic,
from Bohemia and Silesia, and for centuries that city was the easternmost outpost
of European civilisation. This exposed position no doubt, had its disadvantages.
Twice in 1529 and 1683 Vienna was sorely pressed by the Turks. But Hungary
and Turkey having now become members of the European family of nations,
Vienna has ceased to be a frontier town, and when the railways which are to

Fig. 21. THE GROWTH OF VIENNA.
Scale 1 : 74,000.

connect it with Saloniki and the East generally are completed, it will become the
centre of the continent, and deserve the epithet of We/tstadt rather prematurely
bestowed upon it.

Vienna is not only one of the most important and nourishing cities of Europe, it
is also one of the most sumptuous. Situated upon a narrow arm of the Danube,
at the mouth of the Wien, nnd close to the main branch of the river, it spreads
over the plain bounded in the east by the wooded heights of the Wiener wald.
The spires and domes of some of its most strikin

g monuments are visible from

AUSTEIA ON THE DANUBE. 85

afar. In the very centre of the old town the spire of the famous cathedral of
St. Stephen rises to a height of 453 feet. The modern Gothic Votive Church forms
one of the principal ornaments of the modern quarter of the town, within which
have likewise been erected the new university buildings, the Town-hall, and the
Exchange. The palatial buildings which line the new boulevards strike the
beholder, and a few statues of martial aspect are not wanting. The great
rotunda of the Exhibition Palace of 1873 remains. Its cupola is the largest in
the world, but size is no beauty.

As a rule the palaces and public buildings of Vienna are somewhat heavy,
but by no means devoid of majesty and beauty. The ground-plan of the city
offers many advantages. The old fortifications have been converted into a wide
street known as the " Ring." An outer boulevard, known as the Giirtel, or belt,
is being laid out on the site of the old " Lines " established in 1704 to prevent an
invasion of the plague. There are several parks and public gardens, including
the Prater, which is the great place of recreation of the Viennese. The hills in
the vicinity are covered with magnificent forests: formerly these forests extended
close to the walls of the town. The stump of an old tree is pointed out in the
Graben, or fosse, now one of the finest streets of the city, as being the only
remnant of the ancient forest. It is covered with nails, for formerly it was
the custom for every journeyman smith, on parting from Vienna, to drive a nail
into it, and is hence known as the " Stock im Eisen." The wooded slopes of the
Thiergarten rise above the fine park of Schonbrunn and the neat Belvedere
built by Maria Theresa. The palace of Schonbrunn has almost become a part of
the growing city. Farther away towards the west we reach the suburb of
Hietzing, the "finest village " of Austria, consisting exclusively of villa residences.
The palace of Laxenburg, with its fine park, lies farther to the south.

Vienna has quite ' recently obtained a supply of pure water from the Alps.
The aqueduct is 56 miles in length, and its discharge varies between 106 and 350
cubic feet a second. It is fed from springs rising on the Schneeberg. Amongst
these springs that of the Alta is the most curious. Formerly it was intermittent,
but its reservoir having been tapped, it has become perennial. This reservoir is
fed by the rain which falls upon the " Steinield," near Neustadt, which acts as a
huge filtering basin.

Scarcely had the Viennese transformed the old fortifications into one of the
finest quarters of the town than they turned their attention towards the
" imperial " river, which flows at a distance of more than a mile from the town,
and to which they had access only by means of a rivulet rendered navigable in
the beginning of last century. The Danube formerly was bounded by swamps
and forests, in the midst of which its numerous arms took their erratic course.
This is the case no longer. A channel, 980 feet in width, has been excavated
to the north of Vienna, through which the river now takes its course, its old bed
having been partly filled up. Five bridges span the new bed of the Danube, a
railway runs along it, and solid quays line it, but the new quarters of the town,
which it was supposed would rapidly spring up along it, are still in embryo,

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

owing' to the financial disasters which have recently overtaken Vienna. A fine
winter haven has been constructed on the peninsula lying between the new
Danube and the branch which flows through Vienna.

Although Austria proper is inhabited by Germans, the crowds which fill the
streets of Vienna are made up in a large measure by strangers from all parts of
the empire and from the East.* The Bohemians constitute the most numerous
foreign element of the population, and next to them come Magyars : Slovaks (most
of them gardeners), Servians, Rumanians, Greeks, Armenians, and other repre-
sentatives of the East are attracted in hundreds. But of all races it is the Jews
who increase most rapidly. Numbering about 60,000, they command the money
market, and by means of the press, which is almost entirely in their hands, they
influence the pol.tical world almost as largely as they do the commercial.

Fig. 22. THE ANCIENT ARMS OF THE DANUBE AT VIENNA.

!4'5\Long E.ofP.

Lat' 46M3'

Lat. 48 13'

16' 25' Long. E:of Gr

U3lOOO:OOO

SMILES

Uim ancient i(jil AUmial soil

Vienna is famous throughout Germany as a t iwn of pleasure. Its gaiety is
proverbial ; nowhere else do the masses so readily contrive to amuse themselves,
and on holidays the parks and gardens of the city resemble vast pleasure grounds.
But Vienna is also a busy hive of industry. Its artisans were famous in
legendary times, for it was there that Attila obtained his nuptial robes ; and they
are so still. Amongst the articles manufactured are silks, carriages, steam-
engines and machinery, pianofortes, and other musical and scientific instru-
ments. The Government printing-office is perhaps the foremost establishment of
that kind in Europe. The Viennese artisans excel in the manufacture of trifles
in ivory, leather, paper, and metal, and although these " articles " may be inferior

In 1870 amongst every hundred Viennese there were 56 German Austrians, 12 non-Austrian
18 Bohemians and Slovaks, 6 Magyars, C Jews, and 2 foreigners.

AUSTRIA ON THE DANUBE.

to those of Paris in delicacy and harmony of colour, they are probably more
thowy and solid.

Formerly, it is said, Vienna was intellectually an idle city. Men of science,
authors, and poets of eminence were rare, and thought was sluggish. Only its
musicians had achieved a world-wide fame. There are writers wlto blame the
climate for this intellectual apathy. The sudden changes of temperature and the
hot winds of the Adriatic, which find their way through breaches in the Alps, are
said to have an enervating influence upon the inhabitants, and, whilst rendering
them unfit for intellectual work, predispose them towards sensual enjoyment.
But this is libelling the climate,* for since the Austrian Government has
relaxed its " paternal " rule there has taken place an intellectual revival in

Fig. 23. THE RECTIFICATION OF THE DANUBE AT VIENNA.

l4'5\Long. E.ofP

Lat.,48'13*

Stadlau

Donaustadtl . '.-

i6"25'L.ong. E.ofq-.

M30000

PnijKjKd Quarter!

public, scientific, and literary life. The publications issued by the scientific
societies of the city are of a high order, and in its educational institutions it
need not fear comparison with its northern rival, the " City of Intelligence." Its
university is the most frequented in all Germany. Its museums, libraries, and
picture galleries abound in treasures, and form centres of attraction to every
student. The gallery of paintings, for the present in the Belvedere, contains
1,700 paintings, all the great masters being represented. The Imperial Library
consists of more than 300,000 volumes, including 12,000 incunables and 20,000
manuscripts. There are several other libraries (among them that of the university,
with 220,000 volumes), a geological museum, a museum of natural history, and
other collections.

Mean temperature, 50 F. ; mean of January, 29 F. ; mean of July, 68 F.

38 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Nearly all the other (owns and villages of Austria proper are dependencies of
Vienna, and their prosperity is materially influenced by that of the capital. The
baths of Ba<hn (5,847 inhabitants), delightfully situated at the eastern foot of
the Wienerwald, are a favourite summer resort of the Viennese. Voslau (2,152
inhabitants), farther south, is famous on account of its vineyards. Wiener-
Neustadt (18,070 inhabitants) is a busy manufacturing town at the northern
foot of the Semmering Alps, and near it is Frohsdorf, the property of a prince
who to other titles adds that of " King of France." Bntck-on-the-Leitha (4,2l)3
inhabitants) and Hamburg (4,178 inhabitants) are commercial outposts of Vienna,
the one on the road to Buda-Pest, the other on the Danube. Klosterneuburg (5,330
inhabitants), on the right bank of the river; Korneuburg (4,256 inhabitants)
and Stockerau (5,018 inhabitants), on its left bank, flourish because of their vicinity
to the great city. From the first of these towns a steep railway takes us to the
summit of the Kahlenberg, a favourite " look-out " of the Viennese. The prospect
from the Leopold sberg, however, is far more attractive, the eye ranging over the
broad plain of the Danube. It was in the vineyards of the Leopoldsberg that
the phylloxera first made its appearance in Austria.

In addition to the towns in the immediate vicinity of Vienna, and of Linz
(30,538 inhabitants) and Krems (6,114 inhabitants), which are indebted for their
prosperity to their position on important highways of commerce, there exist but
few centres of population in Austria. The manufacturing town of St. Polti'n
(7,779 inhabitants), to the west of Vienna, is one of them. Sieyr (3,392 inhabit-
ants), on the Enns, and Waidhofen (3,497 inhabitants), still farther west, on the
Ybbs, are others. The towns named last are the centres of the Austrian iron
industry. A few towns of importance are met with in the picturesque Salz-
kammergut, or "Salt Estate," including Gmunden (1,408 inhabitants), pic-
turesquely seated upon the Lake of Traun ; Ischl (1,999 inhabitants), famous as
a watering-place; and the ancient city of Halktatt (1,300 inhabitants), with salt
mines, worked for more than two thousand years, as is proved by the Celtic tools
and arms occasionally turned up by the miners.

CHAPTER IV.

THE ADRIATIC PROVINCES.
(GoHiziA, TRIESTE, ISTKIA, DALMATIA.)

GENERAL ASPECTS. MOUNTAINS.

HE basin of the Isonzo, the peninsula of Istria, the Dalmatian coast
land and its islands, form part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire,
in spite of watersheds and nationally. The German and the
Magyar are strangers in these Adriatic regions, from which they
are separated by the ramifications of the Alps

" Che Italia chiude e i suoi termini bagna." DANTE, Inferno, canto ix.

Istria and the basin of the Isonzo belong to Cisleithan Austria ; the coasts of
Quarnero and of Fiume, as far as the ridge of Vellebic", or Velebit, are subject to
Hungary. The possession of harbours on the Adriatic is of paramount importance
to the great Danubian empire. Trieste enables German Austria to freely com-
municate with the outer world and to threaten Italy. Fiume affords similar
advantages to Hungary.

But Dalmatia, which stretches far south along the eastern shore of the
Adriatic, is almost beyond the sphere of Austrian or Hungarian influence. Its
boundaries have been fixed in the most arbitrary manner. Geographically as well
as ethnographically it forms part of the peninsula of the Balkans ; and if its
inhabitants declined to throw in their lot with the Slavs, they would naturally
turn towards Italy. The same sea washes the coasts of both, while frequent and
long-continued intercourse has bro'ight about a p-irti'il assimilation in manners
and language. For a long time the Venetians held possession of a great part of
Dalmatia, and republican Ragusa became almost Italian. The chances of war
threw Dalmatia into the hands of France, and later into those of Austria. The
reasons which prevented Dalmatia from asserting its independence lie on the
surface. No material bonds ever united the Slavs of this strip of coast land in
defence of their independence, and they found no support amongst their kinsmen
in the interior, from whom they ure separated by arid mountains. The Illyrian
Republic of Ragusa never enjoyed a period of repose, and ever led a troubled
life.

40 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Dalmatia is the poorest province of the empire, in sp'to of its extent, its many
harbours, and its delicious climate. Its population is thinly sown. In Istria
'and Gorizia, on the other hand, the coast and the plains at the foot of the arid
plateau of the Carso are densely peopled.

A rugged platform, upon which rise ramifications of the Alps, extends from
three-cornered Terglou towards the south and south-east, until it joins the Shar
and other mountain masses of the Thraco- Hellenic peninsula. In Istria, however,
this platform, divided into well-defined plateaux, only supports masses of rocks,
hilly ranges, and a few isolated summits, amongst which the Nanos, or Monte Re
(4,248 feet), thus called because Alboin, King of the Lombards, planted his sword
upon it in sign of conquest, is the most remarkable. This plateau, still known
by its Celtic name of Carso (in German liarst), that is, "land of stones," com-
pletely separates the fertile littoral region from the fields irrigated by the Save and
its tributaries. Only one pass leads across it, that of Ober-Laibach, the Nauportus
of Strabo (1,214 feet). It was through this pass the Roman legions pursued
their way to the north-east, and the Italians still look upon it as forming the
natural frontier of Italy.

The Carso, with its piled-up stones and grotesquely shaped rocks, presents a
unique appearance. No glacier has ever crept across its surface, which is neverthe-
less covered with rocks of all sizes, such as we find in valleys invaded by moraines.
Walls, obelisks, and rock masses resembling uncouth statues, rise above the chaos
of limestone. Once we leave the roads constructed at much expense, progress
through this stony waste becomes difficult, if not impossible. " Sinks " of all shapes
and dimensions abound, some of them presenting the appearance of amphi-
theatres surrounded by rows of seats. These sinks* swallow up all the rain that
falls, when they are converted into temporary lakes, unless the water immediately
disappears in the bowels of the earth. The soil suspended in the water is deposited
upon the bottom of the sink, and these hidden spots are carefully cultivated by the
inhabitants, for upon the open plateau, owing to high winds and arid soil, cultiva-
tion is not practicable.

Sinks are met with in all limestone regions of cretaceous age. A portion of
those of Istria are supposed by some to be due to an irruption of mineral water,
which decomposed the limestone. The red earth, which fills up all the crevices
in the rocks of Istria Itttria Rossa is pointed at in support of this theory. This
earth hardly contains a trace of organic matter, and seems to have been derived
from the subterranean chemical laboratory of nature.

In former times the whole of the Carso was covered with oak forests. At the
close of the last century the Forest of Montona still covered a considerable area in
Central Istria, and smaller woods existed on the heights commanding the western
coast of the Gulf of Trieste. A few remnants of these ancient forests survive to
the present day, the most considerable, near the village of Tomai, being known as
the " Paradise of the Carso." Elsewhere considerable tracts are covered with
heather, mastic, juniper, and turpentine trees, and rock -roses. The flora of the

Called Foi/te by the Italians, Saline by the Slovenes, Inyliititiors by the Friuliang.

THE ADRIATIC PROVINCES.

Carso, though poor in individuals, is extremely rich in species. On the coast
vast tracts are sometimes covered by plants of the same species. On the Carso, on
the other hand, fifty or sixty species are frequently met with upon an area of a
few square yards. It is here the floras of Germany, Italy, and Croatia mingle.

Nearly all the forests have disappeared since the beginning of the century, and
the ravages committed by sheep and goats have prevented nature from recovering.
Several attempts at replanting resulted in failure, sometimes because the vegetable
soil had been carried away by the wind, more frequently through the improvidence

Fig. 24. THE SINKS OP TOLA.
Scale 1 : 36,000.

1 Mile.

of the villagers to whom the work had been intrusted. Others, however, have

succeeded. A beautiful plantation of pines may be seen close to the village of
Uassovizza, right above Trieste, on one of the most arid tracts of the Carso. In
fact, wherever the plateau is protected against sheep and goats, shrubs spring up,
and in the end the oak, too, will reappear.

But not only is it possible to replant the Carso with trees, it is also possible to
cultivate some of its least promising tracts. Fields have been cleared of stones,
and cyclopean walls constructed to protect them against the wind ; and in course

AUSTRIA-HUNG AEY.

of time they yielded harvests. This, however, is an exception. Standing upon
the edge of "the plateau, near Basso vi/za, or on the Opcina (1,294 feet), we are
8truckby the contrast presented by the smiling coast region and the forbidding
plateau. * On the one hand we look upon the blue waters of the Adriatic, upon
sinuous bays fringed by rows of houses, upon towns and villages embosomed in
verdure ; on the other upon a rocky waste, without rivers, springs, or vegetation.
The line separating the verdant slopes from the reddish plateau is clearly

denned.

That portion of the Carso which we see to the north of Trieste, and which
extends to the north-west and south-west, runs parallel with the general axis of

Fig. 25. THE VELLEBK?.
Scale 1 : 110,000.

i!520'E of Gr

'I5'20

2 Miles.

"Western Illyria. The range of hills surmounting the plateau runs in the same
direction. The " Snowy Mountain " (Sneznica, or Schneeberg, 5,893 feet) must
be looked upon as bounding the Triestine Carso in the south, for close to it rises
the river, for the most part subterranean, which drains the stony plateau. The
Snowy Mountain is entitled to that designation, for in some of its crevices
snow is found throughout the year. The " Hungarian Gate " lies to the west of
it, and near by the old battle-field of Grobrick, now traversed by a railroad. Not
far beyond it rises the Monte Maggiore, or Caldiera (4,572 feet), the culminating
point of Istriii, presenting a steep face towards the Gulf of Quarnero.

The limestone plateau to the south of the Snowy Mountain, which M. Lorenz

THE ADRIATIC PROVINCES. 43

proposes to call the Liburnian Carso, is almost as desolate in aspect as the Carso of
Trieste. Amongst its sinks is one of unusual size, an entire village, surrounded
by fields and orchards, occupying its bottom. The range of mountains which rises
upon the Liburuian Carso runs parallel with the coast of Dalmatia. Its average
height is 4,000 feet, whilst the height of its passes varies between 2,300 and 4,533
feet. None of the culminating summits pierce the zone of perennial snow, the
highest amongst them being the Great Kapella (Klek, 5,394 feet) and the Vellebid
(Vaganski Vrh, 5,768 feet). The latter lies on the boundary between Croatia and
Dalmatia, close to the sea, and its summit, tinted in blue, purple, or rose colour,
according to the distance from which it is seen and the time of the day, is visible
from afar. It is the storm-breeder of the Dalmatian mariner. This mountain
forms a good natural boundary, for it presents great difficulties to a traveller, not
so much because of its height, but owing to its formidable precipices.

The deep valleys of the Zermanja and the Kerka separate the range of the
Vellebic" from the Dinaric Alps, thus called from the principal summit, the
Dinara (5,942 feet). Beyond the wide valley of the Narenta the mountains rise
once more, and in the Orion (6,230 feet), on the frontiers of Montenegro, they
attain their greatest height in Dalmatia.

The mountains along the coast of Croatia are partly wooded, but those of
Dalmatia are almost naked. Claudius's Dalmatia frondosa exists no longer. When
Ragusa was founded the Slavs called it Dubrovnik, on account of the surrounding
forests. The Venetians, when they took possession of the country, found all the
timber they wanted, whilst now the wood required even for building the smallest
boat has to be imported. The inhabitants of the country accuse pirates of having
set fire to the forests. More likely they were destroyed by goatherds, as in the
Carso. The destruction of the forests of the Carso during the last century has been
estimated to have caused a loss equivalent to that of 582 square miles, with over
a million of inhabitants. Steaming along the coast of Dalmatia, the grey and
naked mountains resemble huge heaps of ashes. The reverse slopes, however,
are still wooded from the foot to the summit.

RIVERS AND LAKES.

THE plateaux of Carniola, Kapella, and Vellebid, and the mountains of Dalmatia,
constitute a strong strategic barrier, not only because of their height, but also
because of the want of water. The limestone of which they are composed quickly
sucks up the rain, and no other country in Europe abounds so largely in under-
ground rivers. These rivers have their waterfalls, their freshets, and other
phenomena, like rivers flowing on the surface. M. Schmidt and others, by
descending into the sinks and embarking in small boats upon mysterious water-
courses, have succeeded in mapping several of these subterranean river systems.

Of all these rivers the Rieka, or Recca, near Trieste, is the most famous.
Rising upon the Snowy Mountain, it flows for some distance through a narrow
canon, until it disappears beneath the rock, surmounted by the picturesque village

44 AUSTEIA-HUXOAKY.

of St Caiman. Still lower down it flows over the bottom of a sink, then
forms some cataracts, and disappears once more, only to appear again after an
underground course of 22 miles. At Monfalcone, where the river leaves its
cavernous channels through three apertures, it is of considerable volume, and
navigable for small sea-going vessels. It is known here as Timavo, and was
famous amongst the ancients, who built temples upon its banks. Its volume
appears to have decreased, and M. Czoernig thinks that formerly it was fed by
subterranean channels which now communicate with the Isonzo. It certainly no

Fig. 26. THE ISONZO AND THE TIMAVO.
Scale 1 : 110,000.

2 Miles.

longer deserves to be called the " Mother of the Adriatic," for it is far inferior now
to the Isouzo, whose delta advances at the rate of 23 feet a year.*

A second Recca, or Recina (a word signifying "river"), rises on the Liburnian
Carso, and flows through a fearfully savage gorge towards the Quarnero, which it
enter? a short distance below Fiume. A few hundred yards above its mouth a
spring gushes forth from the foot of the rocks, its waters rushing into the channel
of the river and filling the western port of Fiume, after having put in motion the

Delivery of the Recca at St. Canzian, 5 to 141 cubic feet per second. Discharge of the Timayo, 14
to 1,060 cubic feet per second ; average, 32S cubic feet.

THE ADRIATIC PROVINCES.

wheels of numerous mills. Unfortunately the enormous mass of sediment carried
clown by the river has formed a bar at its mouth (see Fig. 37). No less than
39,200 cubic yards of siliceous mud are deposited every year, the river discharging
during the same period 686,000,000 tons of water. The temperature of this
copious spring averages 50 Fahr. ; that is to say, it is about the same as that of
the rain which falls upon the plateau 4,000 feet above. The temperature of all
the springs along the coast is analogous, and this proves that they are supplied by

Fig. 27. THE OMBLA, GRAVOSA, AND RAGUSA.
Scale 1 : 81.600.

\ rv R A T r

118' 7'E. Of Cr

. 1 Mile.

the rain precipitated upon the plateau of the Carso. Some of them rise from the
bottom of the sea. The most copious of these submarine springs gushes out, at the
foot of the Monte Muggiore, and after heavy rain the rush of fresh water causes a
great commotion of the sea, dangerous to vessels entering within a circle of 600
feet radius.

Phenomena of the same kind have been ol-served in connection with the
Istrian Arsa and the Dalmatian rivers Zennanja, Krka (Kerka), Cettina, and
Xarcnta. On a map these rivers, which hide themselves from time to time

46 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

in underground channels, resemble a serpent cut into pieces. Most of them
flow beneath, the surface valleys, but others take their course athwart moun-
tain ranges. Thus the Cettina, which flows along the foot of the Dinaric
Alps, is supposed to be fed from a lake lying beyond the hills, towards the
east, whilst itself discharging a subterranean branch which reaches the sea
near Spalato. The blue Ombla, which flows into the Bay of Gravosa, and the
spring of Doli, which rises from the bottom of the sea, are supplied by the
Trebincica, a tributary of the Narenta, flowing beyond the mountains of Herze-
govina. Others of these subterranean rivers have never been traced to their
mouths, and there are springs supplied we know not how. The Lake of Vrana, on
the island of Cherso (Kres), covers an area of 2'3 square miles, and holds
233,000,000 tons of water. It is undoubtedly fed by springs supplied from the
mainland, for its temperature is lower than any experienced on the island.

The greater part of Carniola and Dalmatia would be altogether without water,
if it were not for underlying impervious sandstones and clay, which occasionally
force the underground rivers to appear on the surface. Besides this, in crossing
these bare and white plateaux, we are occasionally charmed by the sight of a large
depression filled with verdure, like the quarry gardens of Syracuse. The famous
vineyards of Prosecco occupy one of these verdant sinks of the Triestine Carso.
Many identify these vines with the vites pucinw of the ancients, whilst others seek
them on the slopes of Duino, near the mouth of the Timavo, which yields the
excellent wine known as Rifosco.

One of the most difficult tasks of the people dwelling around the Carso consists
in their protecting themselves against the sudden floods caused by these subter-
ranean rivers. The water, not being able to spread laterally, rises vertically, fills
up the sinks, and even overflows them. The Rieka has been observed to rise
350 feet above its ordinary level in the sink of Trebi<5. The villages are thus
perpetually threatened by inundations. The inhabitants take many precautions
to avert the danger. They place gratings over the openings of the sinks, to
prevent their becoming choked up ; they occasionally clean c ut the underground
channels ; and sometimes even resort to blasting in order to open more commodious
passages for the surplus waters. Permanent or temporary lakes are formed in
many places, in spite of these precautions. One of the largest is the Lake of
Rastoc, to the north of the swampy delta of the Narenta. It shrinks according to
the seasons, a portion of its bed being alternately covered with water abounding
in fish, or cultivated. Still none of these Adriatic lakes can compare with that
of Zirknitz, which lies on the northern slope of the Carso.

Caverns no longer serving as a passage to rivers are as numerous in the Carso
and the Illyrian Alps as are the channels of underground rivers. They ramify
to such an extent that the whole country has been likened to a petrified sponge.
The most widely known of these labyrinthian passages lie within the basin of the
Save, but those of Dalmatia, though less frequently visited, are quite as curious.
Not only are they curious on account of their stalactites, but also because of their
fauna and flora. A peculiar species of bat is found there, and seven species of a

THE ADRIATIC PROVINCES.

shapeless blind reptile inhabit the wells of Gradisca. There are flies, eyeless
coleoptera, arachnids, centipedes, Crustacea, and molluscs.

Formerly the superstition of the inhabitants peopled these caverns with
demons, vampires, and sorcerers. The Morlaks looked upon one of the deepest
of these chasms as a gate of hell, and a neighbouring cavern they converted
into the dwelling-place of a sorceress, who sallied forth at night to steal little
children, whose hearts she eat. In a cavern near Ragusa dwelt the serpent of
^Esculapius, guarding three magic coins lying at the bottom of a limpid pool. A
roaring noise, frequently heard in these caverns at sunrise and sunset during summer,

Fig. 28. THE NARENTA.
Scale 1 : 210,000.

has given birth to and kept alive these superstitions. This curious phenomenon
recalls the singing statue of Memnon, and is due, no doubt, to rushes of air
through narrow fissures. In the autumn of 1825 the sounds heard on the island
of Melada are s lid to have frightened away the inhabitants, who fancied they
heard the threatening voices of souls forgotten in purgatory.

THE COAST. ISLANDS.

THE coast-line of Istria and Dalmatia is quite as remarkable in its configuration
as are the plateaux and the rivers. At the first glance the Istrian peninsula

AUSTRIA-HUNGAKY.

impresses by its massiveness, but narrow arms of the sea, bounded by steep
precipices, penetrate far inland. The Valle Quieto and the Canale di Leme pierce
it on the west, while the Canale di Arsa and the Bay of Fiuuona are equally
remarkable inlets on the east.

But far more fantastical than Istria is the outline of iJalmatiu, with its
peninsulas, and its fringe of islands, isltts, and sunken rocks. Its islands and deep
bays remind us of the skaeren and the fiords of Norway, but this analogy is
merely superficial ; for whilst the fiords of Scandinavia are submarine valleys of
great depth, which intersect the coast range in all directions, and ramify into a
multitude of arms, the canale and bays of Dalmatia are simple channels of

Fig. 29. THE SINK OF PAGO.
Scale 1 : 1,135,000.

DEPTH IN FATHOMS

0-&

Over 11

. 5 Miles.

erosion, less than 160 feet in depth, and extending in the same direction as the
ridges of the Carso and the Dinaric Alps that is, from the north-west to the
south-east. The peninsulas and islands of Illyria have none of the chaotic dis-
order peculiar to the torn rocks of the Scandinavian coast. The direction of their
hill ranges and valleys is the same as that of the mountains and vallevs of the
mainland. Geologically they belong to the same formation as the mainland, the only
exceptions being the eruptive rocks of Lissa and of a few islets far out in the
Adriatic. There can be no doubt that all these islands were formerly joined to the
mainland, the work of erosion which cut them asunder having been favoured by

THE ADEIATIC PROVINCES.

the friable nature of the rocks. The sinks have largely influenced the existing
configuration of the coast and of its fringe of islands. Amongst sinks which
have been converted into harbours, in consequence of the sea having obtained
access to them, may be mentioned those of Buccuri and Porto Re, near Fiume.
Others, as that of Pago, are still separated from the sea by a narrow neck of land.
The coast, moreover, is slowly subsiding. Jn Istria the ruins of the ancient towns
of Sipar and of Medelino may still be distinguished a few yards below the level of
the sea. The island of Cissa, near Rovigno, famous in the time of the Romans
for its dyers, disappeared beneath the waves in the eighth century. The fresh-
Fig. 30. THE KEKKA.
Scale 1 : 160,000.

SCALE 1,140.000

1 MIL*

2 M.I.-.

water Lake of Vrana, near the Narenta, was invaded in 1630 by the sea. On the
other hand, there is not wanting evidence pointing to a local upheaval of the land.
The Nurenta, for instance, cannot now be navigated as freely as during the reign
of the Venetians. This, however, may be due to alluvial deposits obstructing its
channel.

One of the most remarkable estuaries of the Illyrian coast is that into which

the Kerka discharges itself between Zara and Spalato. It is at one and the same

time a river, a lake, and an inlet of the sea. The Kerka, above Scardona, forms a

miniature Niagara. On leaving the narrow chasm scooped out by the waterfall,

AUSTRIA-HUNGAEY.

the fresh water of the river spreads itself over the brackish water of Lake Proklian.
The river then enters a second gorge, through which it flows to the Adriatic.

Of the many bays of Dalinatia, that called Bocche di Cattaro is most widely
known. Its ramifications recall the Lake of the Four Cantons, and although there
are neither glaciers nor pastures, it would be difficult to meet with rocks of bolder
aspect or of more dazzling colours. The " mouths " include numerous ports,
capable of affording shelter to the united fleets of the world. Two passages,
13 fathoms deep, lead into the interior, where the mariner loses sight of the
sea, and finds himself upon a tranquil sheet of water, winding among steep
mountains. Villages of fishermen are seen upon the shore, half hidden amongst

Fig. 31. THE BOCCHE DI CATTARO.
Scale 1 : 240,000.

S fathoms Line

27 Fathoms Lin

. 4 Miles.

verdure ; old walls and ruined towers are reflected in the blue water ; barren
rocks peep out in the midst of vineyards and plantations of olive and lemon trees ;
and wherever we look the horizon is bounded by mountains. Few gulfs in Europe
can rival in beauty these Bocche of Cattaro.

Standing upon the heights of the mountains, we look down on the islands
fringing the coast, their grey or reddish rocks contrasting most admirably
with the blue waters of the Adriatic. Every one of these islands possesses some
feature distinguishing it from the others. Veglia (Krk in Slav) most resembles
the mainland, from which it is separated by the shallow channel of Maltempo.
Cherso (Kres), though nearly surrounded by channels having a depth of over

M
i
ft

ft
O

THE ADRIATIC PROVINCES.

30 fathoms, is separated from the neighbouring island of Lussin only by a
narrow cavanella, hardly 20 feet wide, and perhaps excavated by human hands, to
facilitate the passage from the Quarnero into the channel of Quarnerolo. Arbe
abounding in olives, consists of several parallel ridges, separated by inlets of the
sea and low valleys. Pago, 40 miles in length, terminating in the north in a point
resembling the horns of a narwhal, is bounded by cliffs of eocene limestone, and

Fig. 32. PANORAMA OF THE BOCCHE DI CATTAHO.

has in its centre longitudinal valleys gradually merging into inlets of the sea,
locally known as valli, or talloni ; that is, " valleys." Premula, to the west of
Pago, is well known to mariners as the locality where the Adriatic current
bifurcates, one arm running north towards the Quarnero, Istria, and Trieste, the
other swerving round towards the coast of Emilia. The Isola Lunga, or Long
Island, together with Incoronata, stretches towards the south-west for 40 miles.
Hrazzo, off Spalato, is the most massive of the Dalmatian islands. It resembles a

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

plateau, is well cultivated, and produces excellent wine. Lesina is a tongue
of land extending towards the west. Sabbioncella is not an island, but a
peninsula, traversed by a range of high mountains, 45 miles in length. The island
of Curzola is a westerly continuation of this range. At Melada (Mljet) the chain of
large Dalmatian islands terminates. Lissa, with its fine harbour, lies in the open
Adriatic. Near it the Austrians and Italians fought a naval battle in 1866.
Pelagosa lies nearer to Italy than to Dalmatia, but belongs politically to the
Austrians, who maintain its lighthouse.

In one respect all these islands, and many others of inferior size, resemble
each other : they are all barren, the forests having long disappeared. Selve and

Fig. 33. MELADA.
Scale 1 : 180,000.

IN FATHOMS-

0-11

Over S7

, 2 Miles.

Lesina are no longer wooded, as their name implies, and Curzoli has ceased to boast
of the forests which caused the epithet of " black " to be bestowed upon it. All of
them are distinguished by boldness of contour, and their cliffs contrast strikingly
with the gentle undulations presented by the Italian shores. Their rocks are
sterile, but some of the valleys and smaller islands, partly composed of impervious
sandstone, are of exceeding fertility. Thus, whilst Levrera, a limestone island
near Cherso, supports only rabbits, the neighbouring islet of Sansego has been
converted into a veritable garden by its thousand inhabitants.

CLIMATE, FLORA, AND FAUNA.

THE climate of the valley of Isonzo, of Istria, and of Dalmatia resembles that of
Italy. The flora of the whole of the maritime region is Mediterranean. Myrtles

THE ADEIATIC PROVINCES.

and laurel-trees flourish in the open air at the mouth of the Timavo, 2| to the
north of Liguria.

The mountains shelter the country towards the north and east, and it is
exposed to the afternoon sun. In the Dalmatian littoral valleys we meet with
locust-trees, orange-trees, and fig-trees. The almond- trees bear blossoms in
December, and peas and beans frequently ripen early in January. Palm-trees
are first met with at Trau. On the island of Bua they are numerous, and in
the gardens of Ragusa they sometimes bear ripe fruit. Exceptional frosts, how-
ever, have occasionally proved destructive to the olive plantations of Northern
Dalmatia and Istria, and those around Trieste have never recovered since the
terrible winter of 1787. In 1861 the channel of Zara became covered with ice,
and in April, 18(54, it snowed there. Twice during ten centuries a considerable
portion of the Adriatic froze, viz. in 869 and in 1^34.*

Fig. 34. SAN CLEMENTE.
Scale 1 : 115,000.

.''

:
=-*v5g[ liSI.V*

-. '*%'.* y *

; Port S*.

'.. If SPALMADOKI

Depth 0-5 Fathomt

5-27

27-54

. 2 Miles.

In summer the skies of Dalmatia are usually serene, but in autumn torrential
rains are frequent, as also in the beginning of spring. The winter is generally
rainy, but the equinoctial rains are most abundant. It is the sirocco which
carries the rain-clouds to Dalmatia, for in its passage across the Mediterranean it
becomes charged with vapours, and to it the country is indebted both for its
heat and its moisture. The land and sea breezes, owing to the lay of the coast,
blow in the same direction as the general winds, and therefore either neutralise
them or add to their violence. The bora, blowing from mountains to the south of
Monte Re, is more especially dreaded in its encounters with the sirocco. Its violence,

Average temperature and rainfall in Istria and Dalmatia :

Gorizia (Gorz) 55" 63 inches.

Trieste 57'9 43

Fiume . 57'0 62

Zara 58-5 30

Itagusa 6:>-2 64

5i AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

like that of the Provencal mistral, is extraordinary. In 1873 it upset a railway
train above Fiume, and it finds its way even into the ill-constructed houses hidden
in the cavities of the plateau. Mariners fear it, and cautiously approach the
offings of valleys down which it takes its furious course. As a rule it blows from
the north-east, but it is frequently deflected by the valleys. Its approach is
heralded by puffs of wind and by the purple tint of the sea. The violence of the
bora renders the north-eastern coasts of the islands almost uninhabitable, although
they abound in excellent harbours, for the spray of the sea, which it whirls before
it, proves destructive to vegetation, and only tamarisks resist it. The influence of
the bora extends for several miles inland. It appears to blow with greater force
now than formerly. On the eastern side of Pago the wine harvest now fails every
three or four years, instead of every ten or twelve, as formerly. It is the western
slopes of the islands which support the greater part of the population, and are
most carefully cultivated. The tides, too, differ from those of other parts of the
Adriatic, for in the Quarnero Gulf they only flow once within twenty-four hours,
instead of twice, as in the lagoons of Venice and the Gulf of Trieste.

The climatic differences observed on the plateaux, along the coasts, and on the
islands sufficiently account for the differences in the local floras. On the Carso
the floras of Germany, Italy, and Croatia mingle ; in the valleys the flora varies
much according to elevation and exposure to the sun. The Mediterranean
flora, thanks to the numerous inlets of the sea, is most numerously represented,
and the marine flora of Dalmatia is richer than that of any other European sea.
The fauna, too, presents us with a few species not elsewhere met with. Reptiles
are numerous, especially tortoises ; brown bears are met with in the mountains ;
foxes and martens descend to the plains ; but the slag and the wild boar have
disappeared. The jackal, however, which forms a link between the faunas of
Europe and Asia, is still met with on a few islands and in Southern Dalmatia.
The sea abounds in fish. The tunny is caught at Grignano, in the Gulf of
Trieste ; immense shoals of sardines visit the coast of Istria, and eels ascend the
rivers of Dalmatia. A species of crawfish (Ncphrops Norvegicus), formerly supposed
to be peculiar to Norway, is caught in the Gulf of Quarnero.

INHABITANTS.

THE two dominant races of the empire are represented in these Adriatic pro-
vinces only by soldiers, functionaries, and merchants. With few exceptions, the
inhabitants are either Slavs or Italians. The latter, most numerous in Istria, live
principally in the maritime region, whilst the Slavs occupy the plateaux.

We possess little information concerning the Celts and Pelasgians who originally
inhabited the country. We do not know to whom to ascribe the construction of
the castellieri, or castlets, so numerous in Istria. Thus'rnuch is certain that the
Italian element, in the d;iys of ancient Rome, was far stronger, for the names of
many Slav villages and families in the interior are clearly of Latin origin. The
Chiches and other Slav tribes first occupied the plateaux between the ninth and the
seventeenth centuries, having been introduced by feudal landowners, Venetians,

THE ADRIATIC PROVINCES. 55

and Austrians to cultivate the land or to defend military positions. Some of these
tribes were admitted as guests, and settled in cultivated districts, a proceeding
against which the Italian Istrians complained as early as 804.

At the present time the uplands are Slav ; the lower basin of the Tsonzo,
Gorizia, Trieste, Parenzo, Pola, and all the towns of maritime Istria are Italian, and
iheltdlianissimi of Trieste are consequently justified in aspiring to a union with Italy.
Fiume, on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Quarnero, is likewise Italian, whilst
in Zara, Spalato, and other towns of Dalmatia the Italians are in a majority.
German is no longer compulsory in the superior schools, and the language used in
preference by the educated classes throughout is Italian. Even the Furlani of the
valley of the Isonzo, who speak a dialect akin to that of the Ladins, use it.

The Slavs are divided into numerous tribes, speaking a variety of dialects.
Formerly, before a spirit of nationality had arisen amongst them, they yielded
to the influence exercised by the Italian towns. Civilisation and Italianisation
were then synonymous terms. This is the case no longer. The Slavs, in spite
of local distinctions, have learnt to feel that they are kinsmen. Religious
differences, however, still separate them, for the Slavs of the coast are Roman
Catholics, and detest their brethren holding the orthodox Greek faith.

Amongst the Slavs there are still some whose barbarous manners recall
the TJskoks, or Servian fugitives whom the Ottomans drove from Bosnia, and
who, before they became tillers of the soil, lived upon brigandage. The
vendetta still survives in a district near Zara, known as Berlika, and a local
proverb says that he " who does not avenge an injury remains unclean." The
savage mountains and the vicinity of the frontier enable assassins to evade
justice.* This, too, renders it difficult to suppress revolts. In 1869 the
Krivoscians, on the Herzegovinian frontier, successfully opposed the troops that
were sent against them, and in the end the Austrian Government found itself
compelled to grant all they demanded, viz. .the exemption from military service
and a remission of taxes.

The Morlaks, who are supposed to be a mixture of Albanians, Slavs, and
perhaps Avares, are amongst the least-civilised peoples of Europe. Some of them
are fair, with blue eyes ; others olive-complexioned, with chestnut-coloured hair.
Wretched as they and their habitations are, they delight in fine garments, and
the head-dresses of the women are ornamented with gold and. silver coins.
Superstitions are rife amongst them, and old national songs, or pesmes, survive in
their villages.

The Morlaks are a fine race of men, distinguished by tall stature and strength.
The father of the great Frederick set much store by them, but the restrictions of
military life little suited their independent disposition. The islanders of Lussin
Piccolo likewise are noted for their strength and physical beauty. The climate
of Dalmatia is certainly favourable to physical development, and though most
sanitary laws are defied there, the inhabitants attain a greater age than in any

Between 1851 and 1855 760 murders and attempts at murder are recorded amongst the 8,400
inhabitants of Berlika.

66 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

other part of Austria.* There are, however, a few localities which are noted
for their insalubrity. Such are the swampy lowlands of the Narenta, now
being drained. A local disease scherlievo has been observed near Fiume, and
is ascribed to misery, dirt, and prorniscuousness.

A few foreign colonies exist on the Adriatic slopes of Austria. Peroi is a
Montenegrin village near Pola, whilst Eumanians have settled on the river
Arsa, which flows into the Gulf of Quarnero.f

The cultivation of the soil leaves much to be desired. Irrespectively of the
vicinity of Gorizia, Trieste, a few places in Istria, and near some of the towns
of Dalmatiu, agriculture is in a most backward state. The earth yields harvests
in spite of man. The wine, which might be amongst the best produced in
Europe, is fit only for drunkards ; the fruits are small and without flavour. The
land no longer belongs to families collectively, as in the valley of the Save,
nor has it become the absolute property of individuals, a sort of tenure most
unfavourable to its cultivation. The peasants retain the habits of wandering
herdsmen, and think nothing of pasturing their sheep upon a neighbour's fields.

Fortunately the inhabitants of the coast are not solely dependent upon agri-
culture. The Istriotes participate in the commerce of which Trieste is the centre.
The Dalmatians are excellent seamen, and more than one-half the crews of the
sea-going vessels of Austria are furnished by Ragusa and Cattaro. Ship-building,
sail and rope making, and the salting of provisions occupy many of the inha-
bitants in the coast towns. Commerce is almost exclusively in the hands of
Italians and Jews, and the fisheries appear to have been abandoned to Chioggiuns,
whose sloops are seen in every creek.

Dalmatia, in spite of its natural wealth and favourable geographical position,
does not enjoy the importance which is clearly its due. Illyria was a far more
populous country in the days of the Romans than it is now, and far better culti-
vated. It enjoyed a second period of prosperity during the Middle Ages, when
Ragusa (the Dubrovnik of the Slavs) was one of the great commercial emporiums
of the Mediterranean, rivalling even Venice, and forming a focus of civilisation
to the Slavs of the interior. The city never recovered from the disasters which
repeatedly overtook it since Charles V. " borrowed " three hundred of its vessels.
The fate of the other towns of Dalmatia has been that of Ragusa.

Far removed from the capital of the empire, it has had the fate of a distant
colony, not possessing sufficient resources of its own to insure its prosperity.
Its fine harbours were deserted, for within a few miles from them a boundary
watched by officers of customs separated the country from those inland districts
which might have fed its commerce. The definite incorporation of Bosnia into
the Austrian Empire may possibly revive the fallen fortunes of Dalmatia ; but
for the present that country only exhibits a picture of decay.

* Death rate, 23 to 26 per 1,000 inhabitants.

t Nationality of the Adriatic provinces (1875) :

Slavs. Italians. Germans. Rumans. Others. Total.

Gorizia . . . 150,000 72,000 2,000 225,000

Trieste and Istria . 181,000 219,000 7,000 5,000 412,'flOO

Dalmatia . . 408,000 6^,000 8,000 478,'oOO

THE ADEIATIC PROVINCES.

TOWNS.

A LARGE city could not fail to spring up near the point where the roads from
the Danube and across the Alps debouch upon the Adriatic. In the time of the
Romans this city was Aquilcja, which numbered its inhabitants by hundreds of

Fig. 35. TRIESTE.
Scale 1 : 100,000.

2 Miles.

thousands, but was destroyed by the Huns in 452. Although subsequently the
residence of the patriarchs, the city never recovered, for not only had the rival
towns of Venice and Trieste grown into importance, but its environs, owing to a
subsidence of the land, had been converted into a pestiferous swamp. It is now

AUSTKIA-HUNGARY.

a poor village, but a Byzantine cathedral and Roman ruins recall the time of
its splendour.

Trieste (119,174 inhabitants) is an ancient city too, but its importance dates
hardly farther back than the beginning of the century. It is now the great
commercial emporium of the Austrian Empire, and its growth has been rapid
ever since a railway has connected it with the valley of the Danube, and with all
Germany. The old city is built upon the slopes of a hill crowned by a castle ;
the new quarters occupy a level space between the steep walls of the Carso and
the sea, which has been encroached upon to gain sites for warehouses and for docks.
The roadstead is open, and a breakwater now constructing is progressing but

Fig. 36. PotA.
8oale 1 : 86,000.

2 Miles.

slowly, owing to the weakness of its foundations. The lighthouse pier, instead
of protecting the old port, has accelerated its silting up. But, in spite of these
drawbacks, Trieste far surpasses Venice in commercial activity,* though it cannot
compare with its rival in architectural splendour. In this respect Trieste is
certainly behind many an Italian city far less populous. There are, however, a
rich museum of antiquities and a valuable library.

The belt of verdure surrounding Trieste is of small extent, and a short distance
to the north of it the barren spurs of the Carso descend to the sea. Once past
Miramar, a villa delightfully situated upon a promontory, we could hardly
imagine being so near a populous city, if its vicinity were not betrayed by
numerous vessels of all descriptions. Only after having crossed the Timavo do

* In 1876 15,679 vessels, of 1,970,000 tons burden, entered and cleared. The imports were valued at
21,811,680, the exports at 19,328,100. The building yards of the Austrian Lloyd are at Muggia. The
company possesses 68 steamers.

te
h

THE ADRIATIC PEOVINCES.

we again find ourselves amongst fertile fields, and within sight of towns and
villages. Gorizia (Gorz, 15,300 inhabitants), the principal town of this district,
in its sheltered vale, deserves to be called the Austrian Nice, for its climate is
delightful, and it is as famous for flowers, fruits, and early vegetables as its French
prototype. Lower down on the Isonzo is Gradisca, with an old castle.

No other port of Istria or Dalmatia can aspire to rival Trieste. Capo cFIsfria
(7,539 inhabitants), the old Venetian capital of Istria, still looks defiance ; but
its walls are too wide now for its population, and its commerce has gone. Pirano
(7,691 inhabitants), on a bold promontory, has productive salt marshes and a
famous port (Porto Glorioso), capable of sheltering large vessels. Parenzo (2,471

Fig. 37. FtcM.
Scale 1 : 26,000.

E. Of Part.

IN peer

68- 1,

Half a Mile.

inhabitants), where the Istrian Diet has met since 1861, abounds in Roman
ruins, and boasts of a famous Byzantine cathedral, dating back to the sixth
century. Near it are valuable quarries. Pisino (Pazin, 2,909 inhabitants), in
the centre of Istria, near a vast sink 190 feet in depth, is an important market
town.

Rorigno (9,564 inhabitants) lies in the midst of olive plantation?, and exports
much oil. As a place of commerce it is more important than Pola (16,743
inhabitants), so famous on account of the ruins of the Eoman city of Pietas Julia.
Not twenty years ago Pola was merely a poor village. It is now the great
naval station of the Austrian Empire, its fine port and dockyards being defended
by numerous forts and batteries.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

(13,314 inhabitants), the principal seaport of Hungary, lies at the
bottom of the tranquil Gulf of Quarnero, near the site of the Roman city of
Tarsatica, destroyed by Charlemagne in 799. It is favourably situated for
commerce, and is daily growing in importance. A breakwater is being built to
protect its fine roadstead. The river supplies several flour-mills and other indus-
trial establishments with motive power. Near it is the old mountain fastness of
Tersato, on the site of the ancient Roman city.

The other ports on the Quarnero, such as Buccari (Bacar), Porto Re
(Kraljevica), and Zengg (Segna, 3,231 inhabitants), carry on some coasting trade,

Fig. 38. Lussra PICCOLO.
Scale 1 : 80,000.

2 Miles.

but they all yield in importance to Lmsin Piccolo (7,750 inhabitants), with its
magnificent harbour.

Not one-tenth of the commerce of Austria is carried on through the sixty-two
commercial ports of Dalmatia, for the mariners of these places are not employed in
the export of the produce of their own country. Most of the towns of Dalmaiia
stand upon the coast, and bear a sort of family likeness. They are all defended
by walls, have narrow tortuous streets climbing steep hills, a small port with
a narrow entrance, and a public square with a town-hull close to the water-side.
They are still quite mediaeval in their aspect.

THE ADRIATIC PROVINCES.

Zara (Zador, 8,014 inhabitants), the capital of Dalmatia, has, however, under-
gone an advantageous transfiguration, for its old Venetian walls have been
converted into public gardens. The famous maraschino of Zara is indebted for
it-; peculiar aroma to the cherries of Makarska, near Spalato, from which it is
distilled. Old Zara lies about 20 miles farther south, on the site of the Slav city
of Biograd, which the Venetians destroyed in 1167, transferring its inhabitants
to !New Zara.

Sebenico (Sibenik, 6,131 inhabitants), on the estuary of the Kerka, has an
excellent harbour, and promises to become of importance, for it offers the greatest
facilities for the exportation of the coal discovered near DrniS, on the slopes of
Mount Promina, and of the agricultural produce of the communes of Sign (Sinj)
and Imoski. The Gothic cathedral of the town is the finest church of Dalmatia.
It was built in the fifteenth century by Giorgio di Matteo, a native of the place.

Fig. 39. SPALATO AND THE " SETTE CASTELLI."
Scale 1 : 82,000.

. 5 Milee.

S/jahto (12,196 inhabitants) is called after the palatium of the Emperor
Diocletian, in which the inhabitants of ancient Salona sought refuge when their
town was taken by the Avares. This ancient palace is a vast structure, occupy-
ing nearly half the area of "the town, and inhabited by 4,000 persons, besides
containing wine vaults, stores, and market-places. An ancient temple of Jupiter,
adjoining it, has been converted into a cathedral, and there still exist Roman
ruins of interest. Spalato has an excellent harbour, and the valley of the Clissa
would facilitate the construction of a railway connecting it with the interior.
The shores of the " Bay of the Seven Castles," which extend to the west of Spalato
as far as Trau (3,OG9 inhabitants), are noted on account of their fertility. The
inhabitants of the small territory of Politza, to the east, maintained their
independence until 1807. They dress like Magyars, to prevent being confounded
with the Morlaks.

Venerable Raguaa (Dubrovnik, 5,305 inhabitants) rises on a promontory, and

62 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

is surrounded by turreted walls. In 1667 this " Dalmatian Athens" had 30,000
inhabitants, and it is still of some importance as a place of commerce. Its
harbour is at Gravosa, a pretty village adjoining it. At Ragusa the vegetation
of Europe mingles wilh that of more southern latitudes, and the gardens of the
island of Lacrorna remind us of those of the Hesperides. Old Ragusa, on the
site of Epidaurus, is delightfully situated, but must yield in beauty to that marvel
of the Adriatic, Cuttaro (2,017 inhabitants), in the bottom of the winding inlet of
the Eocche, and at the foot of the road which scales the scarps of Montenegro.

CHAPTER V.

THE COUNTRIES OF THE SOUTHERN SLAVS.
(CARNIOLA, CROATIA, SLATONIA.)

GENERAL ASPECTS.

EOGRAPHICALLY and ethnologically these countries are one,
but politically they have been cut asunder. The Germans,
anxious to retain the passes of the Alps which give access to the
Adriatic, have taken possession of the country of the Slovenes
of Carniola, or Krain, whilst the Magyars claim the Servians
and Croats of the " Mesopotamia " formed by the Drave and the Save as
their subjects. The inhabitants, however, yield but surlily to their foreign
masters. The Croats more especially not ouly look to their kinsmen beyond
their own frontiers when clamouring for their ancient independence, but
also appeal to " historical rights." Though far from having attained all they
desire, they have succeeded in making themselves respected, and amongst the
nationalities struggling within the limits of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
they are not the least influential. The Magyar is no longer able to speak of
them with contempt, for the events of 1848 and 1849 have taught him that the
Croat is a redoubtable adversary. The animosity of the two nations has given a
renewed lease to the Austrian bureaucrats. United, they might have gloried in
the foundation of a Danubian Confederation, and spared themselves untold
miseries.

The countries of the Southern Slavs extend far beyond the limits of the
Austrian Empire, for they include Servia, Bosnia, and a considerable portion of
the Balkan peninsula, as far as the Black Sea and the Gulf of Suloniki. In
extent they rival several of the empires of Europe. Their political disunion is
due 'in a large measure to geographical features. The territories to the south
of the Save and the Danube are filled with a labyrinth of mountains, and are
difficult of access. The Mussulmans, aided by feudal institutions, succeeded in
enslaving most of the inhabitants, for, owing to the difficulties of communication,
their Christian kinsmen beyond the Save were unable to render the succour
which would have been forthcoming under more favourable circumstances. To

G4 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

the north of the Save, which with its forests and swamps forms a formidable
natural boundary, the country is open, hills rising in the midst of plains, which
the Magyars not unnaturally chose to look upon as natural dependencies of their
own country. The Germans, too, considered that they had a natural right to
the passes over the Alps which gave them access to the Gulf of Venice. These
are the reasons which account for the political division of the Southern Slavs.

But though separated politically, these Slavs nevertheless possess a consider-
able amount of national cohesion. Austria, by " occupying " Bosnia and Herzego-
vina, may have precipitated the formation of a great Slav state in the south, so
much dreaded by some politicians. Austrian Croatia, owing to its superior
civilisation and the ardent patriotism of its citizens, would become the natural
nucleus of such a state. Every town and all the larger villages there have their
" reading clubs," or citaonica, in which the discussion of national politics is
industriously carried on. Often the members of these clubs join their voices in
the warlike song of Uboj za narod svoj ! " To arms for our people ! " Croatia is
a small country, and thinly populated, but its geographical position is excep-
tionally favourable.

The High Alps terminate with the snowy pyramid of the Grintouz, to the
north of Laibach. The spurs which extend thence eastwards, between the Drave
and the Save, are of inferior height. The Slemje (3,395 feet), the Ivancica
(3,477 feet), and a few other mountains to the north of Agram, still exceed 3,000
feet, but farther east the hill ranges grow less and less, until near Diakova they
disappear below a deep bed of alluvial soil. Still more to the east an isolated range
rises in the midst of the plain, viz. the Vrdnik, or Fruka Gora (1,761 feet), the
slopes of which are covered with vines. Tertiary strata predominate in these
hills, eruptive rocks being confined to two mountain masses, those of the Slemje,
near Agram, and to the wooded domes of the Garid, or Moslavin (1,587 feet),
farther east. The mountains of Croatia, in the south-west, present most of the
features of the Carso, such as limestone ridges, parallel valleys, and sinks.*
But though quite as stony as the Carso, the eastern slopes of the plateau of
Jroatia are densely wooded. Beeches and pines grow on the mountains, oaks on the
lower slopes and in the valley of the Save. It is these forests which furnish most
of the oaken staves exported from Trieste and Fiume. . The oak of Croatia does
not yield in beauty to that of Germany or of England, but it will surely disappear,
unless a stop be put to the wholesale destruction of the forests. It is painful to
see magnificent trunks of oaks rotting in the swamps, even in the neighbourhood
of towns, and to look upon extensive tracts where only stumps of trees recall
the forests that have disappeared.

In their hydrographical features the countries of the Southern S^vs abound in
contrasts. Low half-drowned plains and arid mountain ridges, great rivers and
tracts ever thirsty, are met with in close proximity.

The eastern extremity of Croatian Mesopotamia has hardly emerged from the

The highest summits are the Bittoray, 4,543 feet ; the Great and the Little Kapella ; the PljeSivica,
8,410 feet; and the Yelk-bid.

CAENIOLA, CROATIA, SLAVONIA.

waters. The Danube at Belgrad discharges between 282,000 and 353,000 cubic
feet of water per second. Its channel being obstructed by rocks, it has not yet
completely drained the vast lake which formerly spread between the Alps and the
Carpathians. Swamps and marshes still occupy the depressions, and in times of
flood the country is inundated for miles. The Save, between Sisek and Belgrad,
is ever scooping itself out fresh channels in the alluvial soil, and no sooner has it
taken possession of one than it deserts it for another. A river of this kind presents
great difficulties to the passage of an army, and we need not, therefore, be surprised
at its having become a political boundary. The swamps and quagmires which
extend along its banks are almost impassable, and the strategical importance of
Brod and Mitrovic, the only places where the banks are high, cannot, therefore, be
over-estimated. The territories subject to be inundated by the Save, in Croatia
alone, have an area of 200 square miles. The tracts exposed to the same peril on

Fig. 40. THE ZONE OF INUNDATION OF THE SAVE.
Scale 1 : 1,750,000.

the southern bank are even more extensive. No less than 330 villages, with
130,000 inhabitants, are annually threatened by these destructive floods. The
population along the river consequently diminishes from year to year, whilst that
in the hilly tracts increases rapidly. Marsh fevers are naturally prevalent, and
annually decimate the population. The Save, in spite of its great volume, is of
very little service to navigation. Above Agram it is used only for floating timber.
Below Sisek it is navigated by steamers, but sand-banks are so numerous, and
they so frequently shift their position, that the traffic has frequently to be inter-
rupted during summer.

In accordance with the law which governs the administration of the Military

Frontier, the money obtained by the sale of timber cut in the Government

forests is to be applied to the " regulation " of the Save, but little appears to have

been done hitherto to prevent its invading the riparian districts. The only

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

engineering work of importance dates back to the third century, and for it we are
indebted to the Romans. It is known as the Canal of Probus, and partially
drains the swamps to the south of the FruSka Gora.*

But whilst one portion of the country has a superabundance of water, another
portion suffers from the want of it. The hills sloping down towards the Save are
as cavernous as are those facing the Adriatic. Nowhere are underground river

Fig. 41. THE CAVERNS OF POSTOINA (ADELSBERO).
Scale 1 : 120,000.

SCALE 1. 130*000

.-. Subterranean course
' of the

'' Pitika and Caverns

channels more numerous than in the range of the Kapella, between Zengg and
Ogulin. Many villages are dependent upon cisterns for their water, although
voluminous rivers flow through inaccessible caverns beneath them. After heavy
rains, and when the snows melt, these rivers appear on the 'surface, and sometimes

Total length of the Save, 660 miles ; area of its catchment basin, 33,990 sq. miles; difference
between high and low water, 31 feet; discharge per second below the Drina-in summer, 24,900 cubic
*t ; when in flood, 144,000 ; average, 39,500 cubic feet (Zornberg, " Regulirung des Saveflusses").

CAENIOLA, CROATIA, SLAVONIA.

form temporary lakes. One of these lakes, formed by the Gaika near Otoac,
sometimes attains a depth of no less than 160 feet.

The Piuka, which is swallowed up by the caverns of Postoina, or Adelsberg
(Arae Posthumii), so rich in stalactites, is perhaps quite as remarkable a river as
the Timavo. After an underground course of about 6 miles the Piuka once
more reaches the surface, a calm and powerful river. Soon after its junction with
the Unz it is again swallowed up, and only reappears a short distance above
Laibach.

Amongst the rivers which discharge themselves into the Unz is the effluent of

Fig. 42 THE LAKE or ZIRKNITZ.
Scale 1 : 116,000.

-Mill's.

the famous Lake of Zirknitz. In the dry season its water is drained off through
the numerous fissures and caverns which perforate its bed. After rains it rises to
the surface, sometimes very suddenly, and occasionally the lake spreads over 11
surface of 30 square miles. Drainage works have to some extent regulated
the ebb and flow of the lake. In former times, however, the whole of the plain
was occasionally converted into a lake, and the villagers alternately gained a
livelihood by fishing and by tilling the land when it emerged.

The plain of Laibach, 66 square miles in extent, was formerly occupied by
a lake similar to that of Zirknitz, fed by the Unz, and from numerous sinks,
locally known as " windows." Weeks passed sometimes before the waters were

AUSTEIA-HUNGAEY.

drained into the Save, for the effluent of this lake, the Gradasca, is but a small
river. The plain is now effectually drained by cunuls, having a total length of over
600 miles, and much land has been brought under cultivation. In the stone age
the lake afforded shelter to a tribe occupying pile dwellings. The flora and fauna
of the country were then in some respects different from what they are now. A
large species of fish, no longer found, inhabited the lake, and an aquatic plant
(Vallisneria spiralix), now unknown, was eaten by the lake dwellers.

INHABITANTS.

THE differences of climate in a country extending for 280 miles from west to
east, from the cold Alps and the inhospitable plateau of Liburnia to the lowlands

Fig. 43. THE PLAIN OF LAIBACH.
Scale 1 : 220,000.

5 Miles.

of the Save and the Danube, are naturally very considerable.* But, in spite of
these differences, the inhabitants belong to one and the same race. On crossing
the Save from Hungary we enter a country inhabited almost exclusively by men
of the same race, speaking dialects of the same language. The easternmost portion
of Slavonia is inhabited by Servians, amongst whom dwell a few Rumanians,
Magyars, and Albanians, the latter near Mitrovic. Farther west, in Croatia, the
foreign elements are still less numerous, for Croats and Slovenes occupy the whole

* Laibach (Carniola)
Zavalje (Plateau of Croatia)
Agram (Plain of Croatia)
Ztmun (Scmlm, in Syrmia)

Mean Temp.
Deg. F.
49
47
52
53

Riinfoll.
Inches.
64
51
31
20

CABNIOLA, CROATIA, SLAVONIA. 69

of the country as far as the German districts beyond the Drave, and the Italian ones
on the Isoiizo. The only considerable foreign colony is that of Gottschee and its
environs, numbering about 24,000 Germans, whom Zeuss looks upon as remnants
of the Vandals, who in the sixth century inhabited Pannonia.

Religion is the great element of discord amongst the Slavs of Austria-
Hungary. The Slovenes, who turned Protestants at the time of the Reformation,
were forced back into the Roman Church, which the Illyrian Slavs had never
abandoned. The Croats, in the west, are Roman Catholics, whilst most of the
Slavonians, Syrmians, and Servians remain faithful to the Greek Church. Reli-
gious animosities, however, are dying out. The dialects, too, are being developed
into a common literary language, Servian having been adopted both in Croatia
and in Slavonia.

The Slavonians and the Croat peasants are probably the purest Slavs to be met
with on the southern confines of the empire. They are tall, strong, and of noble
presence, brave, honest, and good-natured. Their passions are, however, easily
roused when engaged in war, and the name of pandour was formerly dreaded.
The Slovenes, living in a country traversed by great natural high-roads, are far
more mixed. In their manners they assimilate more and more with their German
neighbours.

In Croatia and the neighbouring countries most of the land is still held by
each family in common. The size of these family estates averages between 35 and
70 acres. Each zadntga, or " family community," numbers between ten and
twenty persons, and is governed by a domaiin, or gosjiodar, elected by its members.
Each household has its cottage. The house of the gospodar occupies the centre of
the settlement, and under its roof the members of the miniature republic meet at
meals and for conversation. When one of these associations grows too numerous,
a portion of its members separate and establish a new one. The zadrugas of the
same district most readily assist each other in their agricultural labours. The
social advantages of associations of this kind lie on the surface, but they are
evidently doomed to disappear before individual landowners, who already form a
majority in the neighbourhood of the towns. But though the agricultural
zadrugas cease to exist, so strong is the influence of custom that even in the
Italianised towns of Dalmatia we meet with trading associations formed on their
model. The members of these associations look upon each other as brethren.
There are three degrees of brotherhood, viz. the little fraternity, the fraternity of
misfortune, and the fraternity by association. The last is the most sacred of all,
and is blessed by a priest. Girls, too, form these bonds of affection either amongst
themselves or with young men.

The military organization of the Austrian Frontier districts* has partly
ceased to exist since 1873, but most of them are still placed under a military
governor. Formerly every male, on attaining his twentieth year, was bound to
render militiry service, in return for which he received the usufruct of a plot of

* The Military Frontier districts in 18fi9 had an area of 7,303 square miles, with 699,228 inhabitants,
and furuit>hi'd mi army of 100,000 men for foreign service.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

ground, but no pay, except when serving beyond the frontiers of the country. A
chain of sentinels extended along the whole of the Turkish frontier, the men
occupying small huts perched on the top of masonry pillars, or csardaks, so as to
be beyond the reach of the floods.

The natural fertility of the country is great, and Croatian Mesopotamia will
become one of the granaries of Europe as soon as improved methods of agriculture
have been introduced. Sericulture and viticulture are making progress, but the
country does not as yet even produce sufficient corn for its own consumption.
Syrmia, at the foot of the FruSka Gora, is one of its most fertile districts. It
abounds in fruit trees and vineyards, and its gently undulating hills and mild
climate render it one of the most delightful districts of the monarchy.

Fig. 44. A VIEW IN THE MILITARY FRONTIER.

Carniola and the Triune kingdom are by no means distinguished for their
mineral wealth. The only mine of world-wide repute is that of Idria, in Carniola,
which for a long time enjoyed with Almaden, in Spain, the monopoly of supplying
the world with mercury. It still yields about 320 tons a year, and is far from being
exhausted. Formerly only criminals were employed in it. The miners and
woodmen of Idria are in the habit of eating arsenic, which evidently agrees with
them, for many amongst them live to a very advanced age.

Iron ores are found in the valley of the Feistritss, in Carniola, and on the
eastern slope of the plateau of Croatia ; zinc and lead in the upper valley of the
Save ; sulphur near Radoboj ; copper at Sumobor ; lignite and coal at Glogovac
and in other localities. These mineral resources are capable of great development.

CARNIOLA, CROATIA, SLAVONIA.

There are hardly any manufactures, and the country was one of the last to receive
the benefits conferred by railway. But now that Bosnia has been occupied by the
Austrians, a great international railroad, connecting Croatia with the Gulf of
Saloniki, will no doubt be constructed, and the country will then enter into more
intimate relations with Western Europe.

TOWNS.

Laibaeh (Ljubljana, 22,893 inhabitants), the capital of Carniola, lies at the foot
of a castle commanding the Save. It occupies the site of the ancient city of

Fig. 45. SEMIIN AND BELGKAD.
Scale 1 : 165,000.

ectification
6 Miles.

Emona, which the Huns destroyed in the fifth century, and its position is
strategically and commercially of importance, for it lies upon the main road
connecting the Danube with the Adriatic. Krainburg (2,668 inhabitants), the
old capital of the province, lies to the north of it.

Agram (Zagor, 19,857 inhabitants), the capital of Croatia, is inferior in popu-
lation to Laibaeh, but nevertheless aspires to become the capital of a Triune
Slav kingdom, embracing Croatia, Servia (with Bosnia), and Dalmatia. A uni-
versity, ji^tplldalj^l 874, has made it the intellectual centre of the Southern Slavs.

72 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

A few fine buildings surround the large square in the centre of the town, orna-
mented with a statue of Ban Jela<5i6, but the outskirts resemble a huge village.
A turreted wall separates the lower town fr.om the cathedral close. Vara&din
(10,623 inhabitants), near the Drave and the Hungarian frontier, is the second
town of Croatia. Karlomc Gornjl (Karlstadt, 5,175 inhabitants), on the Kulpa,
not far above its confluence with the Save, is an important grain mart. Sinek
(1,500 inhabitants), more humble still, nevertheless enjoys a considerable trade in
corn. It is the modern representative of Siscia, which played a prominent part
during the wars in Pannonia, and had its own mint. Its wide and grass- grown
streets are bordered with small cabins. The bulk of the population of Croatia live
in scattered hamlets, and there are but few places which can fairly be called towns.

JSssek (Osjek, 17/247 inhabitants), favourably situated, on the Drave, consists of
a fortress surrounded by numerous suburbs. A railway bridge crosses the river
a short distance below the town. There are silk-mills, and commerce flourishes.
Many Germans and Magyars have settled in the town. Djakovo (2,600 inha-
bitants), in the plain to the south of Essek, is the seat of a bishop. Vororitica,
the capital of a district, has a few German and Magyar colonies in its vicinity.

Syrmia abounds in towns famous on account of the military events with which
they are associated. Petertoardcin (Petrovaradin, 5,497 inhabitants), on the
Danube, is connected by a bridge of boats with the powerful citadel of Nmsatz
(Novisad), on the other side of the river, and recalls a defeat of the Turks by
Prince Eugene in 1716. At Karlomc Dolnji (Carlowitz, 1,817 inhabitants), lower
down, the Turks signed the treaty of 1699, by which they surrendered most of the
conquests made in Hungary. Semlin (Zemun, 10,046 inhabitants), near the
confluence of the Danube and Save, is the great commercial emporium of Austria
on the Lower Danube. The " Isle of War " separates it from Belgrad. Mitroric
(5,950 inhabitants), on the Save, is the modern representative of Sirmium, the
birthplace of Probus. Near it is Vinkovci, built on the ruins of Cibalis, where
Constantino defeated Licinius in 314.

CHAPTER VI.

HUNGARY AND TRANSYLVANIA.
(MAGYARS AND RUMANIANS.)

GENERAL ASPECTS. MOUNTAINS.

UNGARY, with Transylvania, possesses, in its geographical homo-
geneity, a great advantage over the Cisleithan half of the Austro-
Hungarian Empire. Very inferior to German Austria in popula-
tion, wealth, and civilisation, Hungary nevertheless enjoys superior
political advantages. The former is an incoherent conglomeration
of territories stretching from the banks of the Rhine eastward to the Vistula,
whilst Hungary presents itself as an oval plain encircled hy mountains. This
plain is the basin of an ancient lake, and the dominant race, numerically as well as
politically, occupies it, and all the other races gravitate towards it. Thus, in spite
of wars and national jealousies, the various peoples inhabiting Hungary, owing to
the geographical homogeneity of the country, have generally been united by the
same political bonds. Together they succumbed to the Turks, and subsequently
to Austria ; and together they now form a self-governing state, proud of having
reconquered the outward signs of its independence. Whatever the future may
have in store, the nation which has established itself in the huge arena encircled
by the Carpathians must always enjoy a preponderating influence in the territory
conquered and hitherto maintained by it. It has been said that the future belongs
to the Aryans, and that all other races will have to submit to them in the end. It
promises well for the destinies of mankind that a nation of non-Aryan origin
should have planted its foot in the centre of Europe. In answer to the haughty
pretensions of the Indo-Europcans, the Magyars are able to refer to their history.
They have' bad their periods of apathy, no doubt, but what neighbouring nation
can boast of being their superior in intelligence, bravery, or love of liberty ?

The Alps play a very subordinate part in the orography of Hungary.
Standing upon the heights above Vienna, we perceive in the distance the bluish
hills rising beyond the river Leitha (1,600 feet), an outlier of the Styrian Alps.
The sandy valley of the Vulka separates these hills from the limestone range of

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Rozalia, a spur of the Semmering. Farther south still there are several other
spurs of the Styrian Alps, separated by small tributaries of the rivers Raab (Raba)
and Mur.

To the north of Lake Balaton rises the Bakony (2,320 feet), a distinct
mountain range, separated from the Alps by a plain of tertiary formation. A few
dome-shaped summits rise in it, interspersed by picturesque gorges, filled with
ancient lava streams. The axis of the Bakony runs in the same direction as that

Fig. 46. PARALLEL VALLEYS TO THE EAST OF LAKE BALATON.
Scale 1 : 346,000.

. 5 Miles.

of the Western Carpathians and the Viennese Alps. Together with the VeYtes and
the Pilis (2,477 feet), it forms a transverse range, which forced the Danube to
deviate from its normal course. At the north-eastern promontory of the Pilis the
river passes through to the defile of Visegrad before it turns south in its course
through the plain of Hungary.

The valleys intersecting these mountains of Western Hungary exhibit a
striking parallelism. Rivers and ravines all run from the south-west to the south-

HUNGARY.

east, whilst to the west of Lake Balaton their direction is from north to south. A
similar parallelism of the valleys has been observed throughout the triangular
district bounded by Lake Balaton, the Drave, and the Danube.

This parallelism is clue, no doubt, to the agency of water, but not to rivers, as
in the case of most valleys. If we were to restore the vast lake which formerly
occupied the plain of Hungary, the mountain ranges would rise above it as elon-
gated islands. If we then destroyed the retaining barrier, the lake would drain
rapidly, the retiring water furrowing its bottom in a direction perpendicular to its
centre. On a miniature scale this phenomenon may be witnessed by draining a
tank, the bottom of which is covered with mud.

The hemicycle of mountains known since the days of Ptolemy as the Carpathians*
stretehes as a continuous rampart for a distance of 900 miles. It completely shuts
in Hungary from the north-west to the east and south, separating it from Moravia,

Fig. 47. PORTA Hl'NGAHICA.
Scale 1 : 1P6.000.

. 7 |5 E.QtC^T

5 Miles.

Galicia, the Bukowina, and Rumania. Apart from the few difficult passes which
lead across it, there are but two roads which enable Hungary freely to communi-
cate with the west and the east, viz. the " Porta Hungarica," near Pressburg, and
the famous " Iron G:ite " of Orsova. These are the only natural outlets which
place the plain of Hung.iry in free communication with the outer world. The
influence exercised by this mountain rampart upon the migration of peoples and
upon their destinies has therefore been naturally great.

The Carpathians are uniform in their general features, if we compare them
with the Western Alps, but their mountain masses and secondary chains nevertheless
present much variety of detail. They begin nearly opposite the last spurs of the
Alps, below the confluence of the Danube and the Morava (March). Their first
summit, the Thebner Kogel (1,683 feet), is the culminating point of a detached
range. To the north of a depression through which runs the railway from Vienna

Fiom Khrebet, a Slav word signifying mountain range.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

to Pressburg rises the most elevated crest of the Little Carpathians (2,675 feet),
separated by another depression from the White Mountains (3,170.feet), thus called
on account of their bare dolomite summits, and from other ranges, including the
Javornik (3,320 feet) and the Wysoka (3,346 feet), which gradually swerve round
to the east to the Pass of Jablunka. Metamorphic slate enters largely into the
composition of this portion of the Carpathians, and forms veritable mountains,
whilst pastures and forests enhance the beauty of the scenery.

Farther east, the mountain ranges, being intersected by the valleys of the
Vag (Waag) and of its tributaries, are of very irregular configuration. They are
more savage in aspect, and attain a greater height, their culminating summit, the

Fig. 48. THE TATRA.

Jiabia Gora, or " Women's Mountain," rising to an altitude of 5,644 feet. We are
approaching the most elevated mountain mass of the Carpathians. This is the Tatra,
which rises about HO mil,* to the south of the normal axis of the Carpathians,
between the v,,lh>ys ,,f tlu- Vag and the Arva on the west, and those of the Poprad
and the Donjec on the east, If those valleys were to be dammed up, a lake almost

Minding the Tatra would be formed, and only a narrow nock of land would
connect it with the mountains in the interior of Hungary.

n-oiigh far exceeding all other mountains of Hungary in height, the Tatra

compare with the Alps, and none of its summits pierce the region of

nal snow. I,, some sheltered crevasses patches of snow may indeed be seen

HUNGARY. 77

in summer, but the snow from the upper summit disappears regularly, although,
above a height of 6,000 feet, snow-storms occur throughout the year. This rapid
disappearance of the snow is attributed to the steep slopes of the mountains. The
Tatra is the boldest mountain mas-* between the Alps and the Caucasus, and its
steep ramparts, vigorous contour, abrupt promontories, and serraterl crests present a
most striking picture. Though formed of crystalline rocks, the Titra possesses all
the variety of outline usually associated only with sandstone and limestone.
There are neither elongated backs nor gentle slopes, and the pastures are of small
extent. Wherever the eye ranges it meets with scarped walls and chaotic rock
masses rising above a green belt of forests. The peaks of Lomnicz (8,633 feet),
and of Kesmark, separated by a narrow gap, known as the " Fork," are amongst
its most formidable summits, but they yield in height to the Nakottlu, or Peak, of
Gerlachfalva (8,683 feet).

The number of lakes is very considerable, if we bear in mind the small area
occupied by the Tatra. M. Hradszky enumerates no less than 1 12. For the most
part they are very small, and the largest amongst them, known as the " Great
Lake " (Vielki Stav), does not exceed 85 acres in area. These lakelets, like those
of the Pyrenees, occupy cup-shaped cavities in the granite. The natives call them
" eyes of the ocean," and fancy that every storm at sea agitates them. Most of
them are reputed unfathomable ; in reality, however, their depth is not very
great. That of the Ryby Stav, or Fish Lake, does not exceed 200 feet.

The Tatra is not rich in metals, iron alone occurring abundantly, but the
natives fancy that immense treasures of gold and precious stones are hidden in the
lakes, where they are guarded by toads.

The Tatra is surrounded on all sides by mountain ranges of inferior height,
which by degrees sink down into the plain. The Little Tatra (6,703 feet) rises
to the south, beyond the valleys of the Vag and the Poprad. Like the Great
Tatra, it is of granite formation. The Krivan Fatra, to the west of it, are far
lower (5,470 feet), as are also the "Metal Ranges" (6,057 feet). Amongst the
foot-hills, more or less detached, which advance like promontories into the plain
of the Danube and the Tisza (Theiss), there is but one which exceeds 3,000 feet in
height. This is the Matra (3,182 feet), the conical summit of which forms a
conspicuous landmark.

The mountain masses surrounding the Little Tatra are nearly all composed of
eruptive rocks, and the hills rising on the margin of the old inland sea are
pierced by igneous rocks. Of all the volcanic districts of Hungary that of the
Matra is in the best state of preservation. Matra is said to mean " hearth,*" with
reference eilher to traditional outbursts of fiery lava, or to burnt-offerings made on
the summit of the mountain. The Tatra, the Fatra, and the Matra are the
historical mountains of the Magyars, and the three peaks on their coat of arms
are supposed to represent them.

To the east of the gorge of Poprad the main range of the Carpathians
stretches towards the south-east. Being composed for the most part of sterile
sandstone, this portion of the range is very thinly peopled, except where salt, coal,

78 AUSTRIA-HUNGAKY.

and other mines have attracted a denser population. Vast forests still cover
the country, and although the mountains are anything but rugged, it is rarely

visited.

Beyond the Pass of Veretske, known also as the " Gate of the Magyars,"
probably because through it they first debouched upon the plain of Hungary, the
Carpathians gradually increase in height, granite reappears, the Pop Ivan attains
a heio-ht of 6,318 feet, reaching far beyond the zone of forests, and for the first
time we observe polished rock surfaces, old moraines, and other evidence of a
glacial epoch. Hydrographically this mountain mass is of greater importance
than the Tatra, for four rivers, the Tisza (Theiss), the Szamos, the golden
Bistritza, and the white Czeremosz, rise upon it and flow towards the cardinal
points of the compass. Spurs, ramifying from this " knot," enclose between them the
mountain citadels of Western Hungary, viz. Marmaros, on the Upper Theiss,
and Transylvania. Amongst the mountains which rise in this part of the chain
that of Pietross (7,240 feet) is the most elevated. It is clad with forests and
pastures, and its extremities terminate in tower-like peaks.

The semicircular range of the Eastern Carpathians forms the eastern citadel of
Western Europe. It looks down upon the half- Asiatic plains of Sarmatia, and has
turned aside many a host of invaders. It bounds the table-land of Transylvania,
which slopes down towards the plain of Hungary, and is named with reference to
the vast forests which cover a great part of it. Easy of access from the west,
Transylvania presents steep and rugged slopes towards the east and south. It is
thus a great natural stronghold, and its geographical features account for the
relative independence enjoyed by its inhabitants whilst the surrounding regions
were held by the Turks.

The Carpathians, to the south of Marmaros, gradually swerve round in the
direction of the meridians. They maintain an average height of from 4,000 to
6,000 feet. The table-land of Hargita, with its deep valleys and dome-shaped
summits,* abuts upon the Carpathians on the west. Farther south they are
separated by magnificent plains, the beds of ancient lakes, from the mountains
filling the interior of the country. These well-cultivated plains are surrounded by
steep, forest-clad mountains, and appear to be designed by nature as the homes of
independent communities.

To the south of the plain of Haromszek the range abruptly turns to the west.
This southern range is known as the Transylvanian Alps, and its summits, of
which the Negoi (8,340 feet) is the highest, yield but little to those of the Tatra.
Like this latter, it is composed of crystalline rocks. In its aspects it is more
forbidding and majestic. Looked at from the plain of Fogaras, intersected by the
beautiful Aluta, we might indeed fancy ourselves in the presence of the Swiss Alps,
if it were not for the small extent of me:idows and the absence of glaciers. Bears
are still common in these little- visited mountains, and herds of chamois as well as
marmots are met with. In the Tatra wild animals are far more scarce, although
bears still occasionally invade the herds and oat-fields. In 1865 only five families of
The Nagy Hargita has a height of 5,713 feet.

HUNGAEY. 79

marmots and six or seven chamois were known to exist, but their pursuit having
been strictly prohibited, these animals have again multiplied. The wild goat,
however, has disappeared from all parts of the Carpathians, and the last wisant
was killed in 1775, near Udvharhely.

The Transylvanian Alps, extending for nearly 200 miles to the north of
Wallachia, occupy a far greater area than the Tatra. At their western extremity,
in the Banat, they ramify into numerous branches, and being rich in coal, ores,
and mineral springs, these are much better known than the main chain in the
east. The main range decreases in height as we travel westward, but at the
" Iron Grate," where the river Danube has forced its passage through it, it is still
of formidable aspect.

Farther east the most elevated part of the Transylvanian Alps is pierced by
three rivers. The easternmost of these rivers is the Buseo (Bodza), a tributary of
the Sereth. Farther west, the Aluta, having drained the ancient lake basins of
Csik, Haromszek, Burzenland, the magnificent valley of Fogaras, and the
basin of Hermannstadt, pierces the main range of the Carpathians about fifteen
miles west of the superb summit of the Negoi. The narrow gorge through which
it has forced itself a passage is known as the Pass of the Red Tower (1,155 feet).
A third river, the Sil (Jiulu), traverses the great mountain range to the west of
the Paring (7,997 feet). The gorge through which it flows is exceedingly rugged,
and the inhabitants, when they desire to cross from Transylvania into Wallachia,
prefer the road over the Vulkan Pass.

The mountains forming the western boundary of Transylvania were no more
able than the Southern Carpathians to resist the pressure of the water pent up in
their rear, and wide valleys have been scooped out, through which it emerged
into the plain of Hungary. The Szamos escapes in the north, the Swift and the
Black Koros in the centre, and the Marcs, a fine river rising in the old lake
basin of Gyergyo, runs through a broad valley in the south. These valleys divide
the mountains of Western Transylvania into separate groups, having distinct names.
Sometimes, however, the whole of them are referred to as "Ore Mountains," a
name they are fully entitled to on account of their mineral wealth and the
diversity of their rocks. Granite, porphyry, schist, sandstone, and limestones, as
well as trachyte and lava, enter into their composition. The Detunata, or
" Thunder-struck," one of the most remarkable basaltic summits of Europe, rises
in their very centre, at the head of the Aranyos, or " Gold River." The neighbour-
hood abounds in metalliferous veins, yielding gold, silver, mercury, iron, and other
metals. Rock-salt is not found there, but it is supposed to underlie the bare and
dreary-looking hills of Mezoseg, which occupy the centre of Transylvania, between
the valleys of the Szamos and the Maros. If these hills were to be removed, we
should reach a sheet of rock-salt occupying the whole of this ancient gulf of the
sea. Six hundred brine springs sufficiently attest the nature of the underlying
rocks, and in a few places the salt crops out on the surface. The salt mountain
near Parajd, in the upper valley of the Kis Kukiillo, a tributary of the Maros,
is twice as large as the famous one of Cardoua, in Catalonia. Some years

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

ago a cliff of salt, of an estimated weight of 2,500 tons, tumbled down into the
river, and for several days obstructed its course.

The hilly region to the north of the ancient lake beds of the Upper Aluta is
remarkable on account of the chemical processes going on there. The rock-salt
lies near the surface, and the cellars of many houses are excavated in it. Near the

Fig. 49. THE PASS OF THE "Rju> TOWER."

Scale 1 : 357,000.

. 5 Miles.

Biidos Hegy, or " Stinking Mountain," vast beds of sulphur are found, and the
sulphurous vapours emitted from crevices in the rocks are supposed to cure a
variety of diseases. Vast quantities of carbonic acid escape near Vafalva, and
sometimes fill the cellars. Acidulous springs are numerous. Combustible gases,
similar to those of Modena, escape near Kis JSaros.

HUNGARY.

RIVERS AND LAKES.

HUNGARY and Transylvania abound in rivers. The annual rainfall through-
out these countries averages 26 inches, besides which the Danube conveys to
them an immense volume of water gathered in its upper basin. For 620
miles that river winds through the plains of Hungary, and amongst the
numerous tributaries which join it from all directions there are several of
great size.

There is only one river in all Hungary, viz. the Poprad, a tributary of the
Vistula, fed by the snows of the Tatra, which does not belong to the basin of the
Danube. Three rivers of Transylvania, viz. the Sil, the Aluta, and the Bodza
(Buseo), join the Lower Danube; all others effect their junction with that river

Fig. 50. THE DEFILE OF VISEOKAD.
Scale 1 : 374,000.

. 5 Miles.

aliove the Iron Gate of Orsova. Politically this convergence of the rivers is a great
advantage, but not commercially. The Danube is the only water highway which
connects the plains of the Magyars with foreign countries, and even that only imper-
fectly, as long as the rocks obstructing the free passage through the Iron Gate
have not been removed. How much greater would be the commercial importance
of the Danube if, instead of flowing into the inhospitable Euxine, it took its
course into the Adriatic ! But what would then have become of the Magyars ?
Brought into contact with a superior civilisation, and mingling more intimately
with other nations, would they have maintained their language and political
existence ?

The Danube, within the boundaries of Hungary, is a great river. Except
where hemmed in by hills, its banks are undefined, and the agencies of destruc-

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Fig. 51. THE DKAVE AND THE DANUBE.

tion and reconstruction are ever at work. At one point the current undermines
the banks, and sweeps away the debris, which it deposits again lower down.
Islands, which in course of time become covered with willows and poplars, are
formed in one part of the river, and washed away in the other. Shallow channels
ramify in all directions, and we wonder how the pilots can pick their way in
this labyrinth. The houses on the banks are hardly visible amongst the trees
which surround them, and sometimes, when we approach clusters of floating mills
anchored in the stream, we fancy that the river population is more numerous than

that of the land. Large herds of
cattle are seen to wander over the
marsh lands bordering upon the
river, swarms of aquatic birds rise
from cane - brakes, and swallows
build their nests where the banks are
steep.

Immediately after having passed
through the Hungarian Gate, be-
tween the Alps and the Carpathians,
the Danube divides into numerous
branches, forming a labyrinth of
islands collectively known as Schiitt
in German, and Czallokoz in Magyar,
the latter name signifying "deceitful
island," probably with reference to
the changes perpetually going on.
These islands are an ancient lake
delta of the river, and between the
mouth of the Vag and the fortress
of Komarom (Comorn), at their
lower end, they cover an area of
COO square miles.

Below Comorn the Danube once
more flows in a single bed, and
then engages in the narrow gorge
formed by the mountains of Pilis
and Nograd (Novigrad). This de-
file, which connects the plain of

Pressburg with the great plain of Hungary, is historically of considerable
importance. Here, on a promontory, rise the ruined towers of Visegrad, a for-
tress in which was kept the crown of St. Stephen ; there, too, rose the magnificent
palace of Matthias Corvinus. Buda-Pest, the twin capital of all Hungary, has been
built not far below it. At Visegrad the Danube abruptly sweeps round to the
south, and it maintains this direction until it is joined by the Drave, when it as
abruptly resumes its easterly course. The Danube, a more considerable river now

Bezdap.

i'8-50- E.of Gr.

5 Miles.

HUNGARY.

than any other in Europe,* traverses the plain in manifold windings. Its islands
and channels change with every flood. Its numerous channels, many of them
deserted, form a perfect labyrinth, sometimes spreading out for 10 miles. Below the
large island of Csepel, upon which Arpad established his camp, the river incessantly
encroaches upon its western bank, not only because of the rotation of the earth,
but also, it is supposed, in consequence of the prevailing south-easterly wind,
known as Kosava to the Servians. Between Peterwardein and Belgrad the river
annually shifts its bed about 18 inches to the westward.

The Lower Drave rivals the Danube in its sinuous course, but of all the
rivers of Hungary the Tisza (Theissj is the most winding. The valley of that

Fig. 52. THE TISZA (THEISS).
Bcole 1 : 360,000.

18-20' E.Of P.

zo'<iO'E.ofGr.

. 5 Miles.

river has a length of 338 miles ; but the river itself, including its numerous
divagations, me isures no less than 930 miles. " Dead " river channels, swamps,
and marshes line its banks. Formerly it was thought sufficient to connect the
many loops of the river by " cuts," and to construct embankments, in order to
protect some 3,000,000 acres against inundation, and to banish the malignant
fevers born in summer from stagnant swamps. The landowners of each
district only looked to their own interests, and even the works constructed
more recently under the direction of the engineer Vasarhelyi, though conceived

Discharge at Bu.Ia-Peat, when the river level has fallen to zero of the gauge, 24,700 cubic feet per
second : when it has risen to 9 inches above zero, 106,000 cubic feet ; at 18'7 feet above zero, 240,000
cubic feet.

AUSTRIA-HUNGAKY.

on a wider plan, are far from having removed the dangers of inundation. On
the contrary, owing to the greater fall of the river, floods appear to prove more
disastrous now than they were formerly.* Vast tracts of land have certainly
been protected by these embankments, but others, far more valuable, have been

Fig. 63. MEAXUEIUNGS AND " CI T TS " OP THE TISZA (THEISS).
Scale 1 : 180.000.

j. V9 ~ - s- l . VT O u N i\ I /

!>>f^*%%l

'P?WW :

s ^ '-= W \M / 1\\ u^%r ^

. 5 Miles.

exposed to the floods, one of the most disastrous of which occurred in the present
year (1879).

At a comparatively recent epoch the Tisza flowed about GO miles farther to
the east, along the foot of the mountains of Transylvania. But its great
tributaries, the Szumos, the Koros, and the Maros, meeting it at right angles,

* In 1872 the cmlmnkmente of the Tisza had a length of "76 miles, whilst by means of " cuts " the
main channel of the river had been shortened 298 miles.

HUNGARY.

have gradually pushed it back towards the west. The right bank, being exposed
to the erosive action of the river, is high, whilst the left bank is composed of
alluvial soil, deposited by the rivers of Transylvania. Farther south the Tisza
yields to the impulsion given to it by the Danube, and travels to the east. In the
time of Trajan and Diocletian the plateau of Titel was on the right of the Tisza ;
subsequently it became an island ; and now the river flows to the east of it.

In travelling towards the west the Tisza has left behind it a wide tract of
swamps, intersected by ancient river channels. Some of these resemble the actual
river in almost every feature, except that they have no current. The elongated
swamp of Er, which connects the Kraszna with the Sebres Koros, to the east of
Debreczen, is one of these deserted channels, and after heavy rains the Kraszna
flows through it towards the south-west, thus converting the whole of the north-
eastern portion of the plain of Hungary into a huge island. The swamps to

Fig. 54. THE "Ino* GATE."
Scale 1 : 100,000.

J20*IO' E.of P.

2Q-30' E.o+Gr.

2 Miles.

the east of the Tisza are not only exposed to inundations, whenever the river
breaks through the embankments designed to control it, but they also suffer
occasionally from a sudden bursting forth of subterranean reservoirs of water.

Floods in Hungary, after all, are more or less traceable to the Danube. The
gorge through which that mighty river escapes to the plains of Rumania is very
narrow, and when the snow melts, or heavy rains fall, the superabundant water
not being able to escape, the river gradually rises, until the swamps lining its
bunks are converted into lakes, and the plains for miles above the Iron Gate
-tinid under water. At the mouth of the Temes a lake 200 square miles in
extent, and 7 feet deep, is formed. So gentle is the slope of the Hungarian
plain that a rise of only 13 feet in the Danube causes the Tisza to flow back as
fur as Szeged, a distance of 87 miles.

No embankments along the upper courses of the rivers can protect the

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

lowlands against these Danubian floods. On the contrary, the greater the volume
of water which these embankments cause to flow towards the Danube, the greater
the danger to which tbe dwellers along the lower river courses find themselves
exposed. Of late years even " hilly districts " have been invaded by the floods,
the inhabitants being obliged to fly for their lives, and see their cattle perish
before their very eyes. Whatever local advantages may have been conferred
by the embankment of the Tisza, the country at large has been a loser. The
only efficacious means of preventing these disastrous floods would be to widen
the Iron Gate, and thus provide an outlet for the pent-up waters of the
Danube.

The succession of gorges through which the noble Danube rushes, on leaving
the plain of Hungary, not only abounds in picturesque scenery, but is geologically

Fig. 55. FORT ELIZABETH.
(Three miles from the Iron Gate.}

interesting, for nowhere else in Europe have such formidable obstacles been over-
come by the irresistible agency of water. The castle of Golubatz and the rocky
islet of Babako stand sentry at the entrance to this wonderful defile, over 60
miles in length. Immediately below these landmarks the Danube rushes over a
bed of rocks, forming a series of rapids, and then engages in the dangerous passes
of Greben, obstructed by blocks of porphyry, where the navigable channels are
hardly 15 feet in width when the river is at its lowest. Beyond the river
broadens, forming the basin of Milanovitz (4,500 feet wide). A precipitous wall
of rock appears to shut it in completely, but an abrupt turn brings us to the
entrance of the famous gorge of Kasan, less than 500 feet in width, and bounded
by steep cliffs of limestone. Roads accompany each bank of the river, that on

HUNGARY.

the Hungarian side being looked upon as one of the marvels of modern engineer-
ing. A famous Roman inscription recalls the glories of Trajan, who " vanquished
the mountains and the river."

Below Orsova and its fortified island the river, here nearly a mile in width, is
obstructed by reefs. This locality is known as the " Iron Gate." Less wild in
aspect than the gorge of Kasan for here no steep cliffs form the banks the Iron
Gate is nevertheless the most dangerous part of the Danube, and hundreds of
vessels, including many steamers, have been wrecked there. In 1846 the first
steamer successfully breasted these rapids, a feat only possible between March and
July. The Danubian Steam Navigation Company virtually maintains two inde-
pendent flotillas, one on the Upper, the other on the Lower Danube, communi-

Fig. 56. LAKB BALATON.
Scale 1 : 680,000.

of Paris.

J.ofG.

10 Miles.

cation between both being kept up by a few steamers of special construction, or by
road.*

It is a disgrace to Austria that this obsticle to the free navigation of the
noblest river of Europe should not have been removed long ago. Hardly any-
thing has been done since the days of Trajan to render these rapids less dangerous ;
and it is only now, and in virtue of the treaty recently signed at Berlin, that
Austria and Servia have undertaken to accomplish this great work of freeing
the Danube.

The Danube has not yet completely drained the plains of Hungary, for a few lakes
remain behind, the largest being that of Balaton, spoken of as the " Hungarian

Average level of the Danube at the Hungarian Gate, 433 feet above the sea ; at the Iron Gate,
128 ffc-t : total fall of the Danube in 593 miles, 305 feel. Delivery at the Iron Gate, 360,900 cubic feet
per second.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Sea "by Magyar poets, although its shores were inhabited by Slovenes, and its
name is derived from a Slav word meaning " marsh." The Balaton recalls in no
sense the beautiful lakes of the Alps, but, although partly bounded by low marshes,
its northern shore is picturesque. Hills clad with forests or covered with vine-
yards bound it, old castles occupy the promontories, villas and villages lie
hidden in the valleys, and in the centre of the lake rises the volcanic cone of
Tihany. The fortified abbey built upon its summit long resisted the onslaughts
of the Turks, after all other castles had fallen.

The waters of the Balaton are slightly brackish, for the lake is partly fed by
mineral springs, some of which are thermals, to judge from the differences of
temperature observed. The fishermen dwelling along its shores pretend to have
observed a tide, but this phenomenon is no doubt the same as that of the seiches of

Fig. 57. THE LAKE OP NEUSIEDL.
Scale 1 : 800,000.

I 15 g.of Paris

] A ;.* H * -

'"'' HXj -" ?

j / : : -~ ^HAJ^- * * ^_- r -*

!720'g.ofGr.

10 Miles.

the Lake of Geneva (see vol. ii. p. 423). The average depth of the Balaton amounts
to 20 feet, and near the extinct volcano of Tihany, where it is deepest, it does
not exceed 150 feet. The lake is drained by the Sio, a small river flowing to the
Danube. The Romans first attempted to drain the lake, and since 1825, in which
year the work was resumed, 490 square miles of swamp have been gained to
cultivation. The lake itself has shrunk, for its level has /alien 39 inches.
Unfortunately the fine sand which covers the parts of its bed now exposed is
carried by the wind far into the country. A species of perch, known as foyas, is
caught in the lake, and highly valued for its flesh.*

The Lake of Neusiedl lies in the plain bounded by the heights of the Leitha
and the Bakony. If it were not for the hills which shelter this lake on the west,

Altitude of Lake Balaton, 426 feet ; average area, 266 square miles ; contents, about 6,320,000,000
tons of water.

HUNGARY. 89

it would long ere this have been silted up, for the cavity which it occupies lies
about 50 feet lower than the bed of the Danube immediately to the north of it.
Its existence even now is intermittent, and occasionally it dries up altogether. If
an ancient document can be credited, the lake was first formed in 1300. In 1693,
in 1738, and in 1865 its waters evaporated, only a few swamps and quagmires
marking its site. The lake, in fact, is largely fed by the Danube. When the
floods of that river are low for a succession of years, the Lake of Neusiedl dries up;
but when high floods occur, so as to force back the sluggish stream of the Hansag,
which drains it, the lake fills again. It could be drained easily, but it is very
doubtful whether this would prove advantageous. The mud covering its bottom
contains much soda, and the fields surrounding it are largely indebted for their
fertility to the evaporation from its surface. Moreover, fine sand mixed with
crystals of salt would be blown over the fields if it were to be drained. The
insalubrious swamps of Hansag, which extend to the eastward of the lake, ought,
however, to be drained at once. The inhabitants who venture into this half-drowned
region fasten boards to their feet, to prevent sinking into the mud, and cover
the head and the face with weeds, as a protection against innumerable swarms of
flies. The remains of pile dwellings and stone implements have been discovered
in the mud of the Lake of Neusiedl.

THE PLAIN OF HUNGARY.

THESE two lakes are the only remnants of the vast sea which in a former epoch
covered nearly the whole of Hungary, and the ancient beach of which can still be
traced near the Iron Gate, at a height of 118 feet above the actual level of
the Danube. The alluvium which now fills the ancient lake bed varies in thick-
ness according to locality. Near Pest the old lake bottom is reached at a depth of
50 feet, but in the Bunat borings of more than 500 feet have failed to attain the
live rock. It has been estimated that an area of nearly 40,000 square miles is
covered with alluvial soil, averaging 300 feet in depth. The mass of debris
washed down from the Carpathians has been triturated so finely that it would be
vain to search for a pebble. The weapons and tools found in the grave-hills of
the Tisza and its tributaries are made of bones and stag's horn, and not of stone,
as in other parts of Europe.

The plain of Upper Hungary, lying between the Porta Hungarica and the
gorge of Visegrad, has long since lost its original physiognomy. The fertile plain
bounded by hills which lies to the north of the Danube fairly deserves its
epithet of " Garden of Gold," and nothing there reminds us of the steppes of
Asia or the savannahs of America. Hungarian " Mesopotamia," drained by the
Danube, the Tisza, and the Maros, however, in a large measure retains its primi-
tive features. To the Magyars this region is the Alfold, or Lowland, as distinguished
from the Felfold, or Upland. Its aspect is monotonous in the extreme. A height
of land, hardly perceptible to the eye, separates the Danube from the Tisza, but
elsewhere the horizon is broken only by ridges of drift sand and by a few hillocks,
78

90 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

some of them raised by human hands, to serve as places of refuge. This uni-
formity, so distressing to a stranger, delights the native, who throughout this
vast region meets with the familiar scenery of the place of his birth.

The forests which formerly covered a portion of the plain of Pannonia have for
the most part disappeared. Until recently hardly a tree was to be seen in the
central portion of the Alfold, and only dried cow-dung was available as fuel. At
the present time the planting of trees is being proceeded with vigorously, and the
aspect of the country is thus being modified. But there still remain vast tracts
impregnated with salt, which resist all attempts at cultivation, and are available
only as pasture-grounds. These pastures, together with cultivated patches far
away from villages, constitute the veritable Puszta sung by Peto'fi and other
Magyar poets. This Puszta is a dead level, covered with grass and herbage, and
abounding in muddy pools, the haunts of aquatic birds. There are no rivers, but
after heavy rains these pools grow larger and larger, until they coalesce. In
summer they often dry up completely, and the herdsmen then find it difficult to
procure sufficient water for their beasts. Natron lakes are numerous, more
especially between Debreczen and Nagy-Varad, and there are also a few saltpetre
ponds.

The Puszta, until quite recently, was a land of herds and flocks, tended by
nomad herdsmen, and although cultivation has made much progress, large
stretches of pasture-land may still be seen. Troops of horses pasture in battle
array, herds of oxen are scattered over the plain, but it is the buffalo reclining
in some swamp which appears to be the master of it. Now and then we see a
stork or a long-shanked crane. We might almost fancy ourselves in a virgin
land, far away from the haunts of civilisation, and the wild horseman racing over
the plain does not contribute towards dispelling this illusion.

CLIMATE AND FLORA.

UNTIL recently a steppe by aspect, the Puszta still preserves that character as to
its climate. Its mean temperature is not only somewhat lower than under the
same latitude in Western Europe, but the changes from cold to heat are more
sudden. It is not rare for the thermometer to rise or fall 40 within a few
hours, and in midsummer we may find ourselves exposed to an icy-cold wind,
whilst many days in December remind us of spring. The general march of the
seasons appears to be less regular than in Western Europe. Rains and droughts
succeed each other without apparent cause, and storms of great violence occa-
sionally whirl up the dust or drive before them the snow.

Of course, in a country so considerable in extent, we meet with many varieties
in the climate. In Transylvania each valley may be said to have a climate of its
own, and that of the Upper Aluta is exposed even to a southerly wind, resembling
the fohn, which enters through the gap of the Red Tower. Hungary, upon the
whole, has a well-defined continental climate. The so-called Hungarian fever,
which has repeatedly decimated invading hosts, and carries off many emigrants,

HUNGARY. 91

is believed to be caused by abrupt changes of temperature, and not by miasmata
rising from swamps. The inhabitants are careful to protect themselves against
these sudden changes.*

As the climate is necessarily reflected in the vegetation of a country, that of
the plain of Hungary recalls the flora of the Russian steppes, in spite of the
Carpathians, which separate the basin of the Danube from the basins of tho
Dniester and the Dnieper. Asiatic types replace in Hungary the European types
met with farther west, and it is believed that, owing to the clinrite becoming
more extreme in its character, the former are gaining the upper hand. Wars,
too, have had something to do with this invasion of Asiatic plants, and since 1849
a spring thistle (Xanthium npittOtum), formerly unknown, has made its appearance
in the fallows of Transylvania. Popularly this thistle is known as " Muscovite
spine."

INHABITANTS.

THE inhabitants of the greater part of the bi.-d of the old Danubian inland sea
have come from the steppes. The Magyars, whose name appears to signify " sons
of the soil," are undoubtedly kinsmen of the Fins. They have become Euro-
peanised, as it were, but their legends, some of their customs, and, above all, their
language, sufficiently attest that they are Turanians. Whilst elsewhere in Europe
the Uralo- Altaic invaders have been swallowed up by the rest of the population, the
Magyars have firmly established themselves in the plain overshadowed by the
Carpathians. The far-stretching Puszta reminded them of the steppes they had
quitted, and even enabled them to continue their nomad life.

The Magyars, however, are not confined to the plain ; they also inhabit some
of the hilly districts. Their country is bounded by the Drave and the Mur in the
south-west, by spurs of the Alps in the west, by the outliers of the Carpathians in
the north, by the mountains of Bihar in the east, and by the swampy lowlands
of the Maros and the Tisza in the south. Five millions of Magyars form a com-
pact mass within the limits thus indicated. They occupy also several detached
territories beyond, in the midst of Germans, Slovaks, Rumanians, and Servians.
They are numerous in the valleys of Transylvania and in the mining districts.
The Szekely (Szeklers of the Germans) are the kinsmen of the Magyars of the
Alfold, and, as their name implies, they occupied the frontiers of the country
towards the east. Ancient customs which have long since disappeared elsewhere
still surviving amongst them, they claim to be more noble than their kinsmen in
the plain.

Debreczen .
Pest .
Schemnitz .
Szegedin
Prcssburg .
Hermannstadt
Krunstadt .

Al'i'ude

Mean Tempera'.a -e.

Eainfell.

in Feet.

January.

July.

Year.

Inches.

430

350

1,950

280

480

1,400

1,900

92 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

The Magyars, although distinguished amongst all other nations by their
patriotic cohesion, are nevertheless the outcome of a commingling of the most
diverse tribes and nations. The conquerors of the country certainly did not
exterminate the Yazygians, Quades, Dacians, and other tribes whom they found
living within the amphitheatre of the Carpathians. When the Roman Empire fell
to pieces, the vast plains of Hungary became a huge fiel-1 of battle. Goths,
Gepides, Vandals and Alans successively established themselves there. Then
came the Huns, led by Attila, who subjugated Slavs and Germans alike. The
modern Magyars are fond of tracing their origin from these Huns, but they passed
over the country like a swarm of locusts, leaving hardly any traces behind them.
Far more abiding was the influence of the Avares, who governed the country
during two centuries and a half. But so great had been the terror which the
epithet of Hun aroused that the country retained its name of " Hunnia " long
after the Huns had disappeared, and the Magyars, when first they appeared
in the ninth century, were called " Huns," or " Hungarians." The Byzantines
called them Tui-ks.

In reality they are neither Huns nor Turks. They separated from the original
Finnish stock when still living as hunters and fishermen, and long before the dog
and the horse were known amongst them. Subsequently they became associated
with Turkish tribes, who initiated them into the mysteries of cattle-breeding and
agriculture. When they established themselves in Hungary, under the sons of
Arpad, they came into contact with the Slovenes, who became the teachers of the
Magyars, whose language and customs they in course of time adopted. Hundreds
of Magyar words bear witness to the great extent of this influence.

Though scarcely numbering 200,000 men when they first came to Hungary,
the Magyars have not only retained their nationality for ten centuries, but they
have also assimilated many of the other inhabitants of the country. The Bulgarian
Ismaelites and Khazars, who lived in the country as traders, have become
Magyars. The Pecheneges, towards the middle of the eleventh century, sought
an asylum amongst their Hungarian kinsmen. Two centuries later the Kumans
were assigned extensive territories in the mountainous region of the north-west
and in the central plain. They too have become Magyars, as have also the
Paloczes (Paloczok) and the Yazygs (Jaszok), who immigrated subsequently.
Even the Germans, in spite of their pretended Aryan superiority, have yielded in
large numbers to " M igyarisation." Many villages, originally settled by Germans,
as is proved by the family names and historical documents, have become Magyar.

Great was the terror inspired by the clouds of Magyar horsemen, who extended
their ravages as far as Italy and France. But _ the great defeat which they
suffered at Augsburg in 955 definitely slaked their thirst after conquest, and
thenceforth they confined themselves to their own country. In the ninth century
their seven tribes had formed an alliance, and their princes were made to swear
that they would respect their liberties and defend them against all comers.
The Magyar, although he felt constrained to submit to be civilised, retains the
free gait, the dignified bearing, and open glance of a warrior. He is proud of

HUNGARY.

his ancestors, and believes himself to be noble. He addresses his equals as
" Your Grace," and the word " honour " is ever in his mouth. All he says
and does is to be worthy of a gallant gentleman. His fondness of show,
vanity, and heedlessness are often taken advantage of by Germans and Jews.
" Vanity will be the death of my people," said old Count Szechenyi when
Hungary was about to plunge into the revolutionary war of 1849. Of a judicial
turn of mind, the Magyar defends the written law with the tenacity of a
Briton. Great is the love he bears his native land. " Life outside Hungary is
not life."

The Magyar is fond of fine clothes, and the herdsmen in the Puszta delight

Fig. 58. A VIEW IN THB PL-RZTA.

in their holiday costumes. The hat is ornamented with ribbons and flowers ; a
silk sash confines the blue or red jacket with metal buttons ; the white over-
coat is embroidered with flowers, conspicuous amongst which is the tulip ; while
loose linen trousers descend over the boots, and are ornamented with a broad
fringe. Passionately fond of dancing, it is a sight to see him join in the csdrdus,
for he is really an artist, and his movements are full of manly grace.

Up till 1849 Latin was the language of the law courts, and educated natives
conversed in it. The oldest Magyar books were written in the time of the
Reformation, and a rich literature has grown up since then. The government of
the country is now carried on in Magyar, und although the other nationalities

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Fig. 59. TYPES AND COSTUMES OF HUNGARY.

exhibit considerable attachment to the languages they speak, partly in order to show

their aversion to the dominant race, Magyar appears to be steadily gaining ground.

The Magyars of Transylvania are Calvinistic Protestants, but in Hungary the

HUNGARY. 95

vast majority of the population are Roman Catholic. " Rather a desert than a
country inhabited by heretics," said Ferdinand II. ; and if all Protestants were
not actually exterminated, as in the Tyrol, this is due to the assistance they
received from the Turks. Religious animosities have almost died out in Hungary,
but the animosities of race survive.

Next to Magyars, the Germans are the most important nation of Hungary,
not so much on account of their number as because of their industry, commerce,
and intelligence. " The Magyars founded the State, the Germans built the cities."
It was they who created a middle class, and nearly the whole of the commerce
of the country was formerly in their hands. Most of the towns which they
founded governed themselves, and even joined in confederations, forming states
within the State. One of these political fraternities included the twenty-four
German pa.ishes of Sepasia, at the foot of the Tatra. The German towns of
Transylvania were associated, and enjoyed the same privileges as those of the
Magyars and Szekely. Even Pest, originally a Slav village, as is proved by its
name,* became a German town, and as recently as 1686 the Magyar inha-
bitants complained that no member of the town council was able to speak their
language.

Formerly the Germans of Hungary were known by different names, according
to their origin. The Hienzen, to the west and south of the Lake of Neusiedl,
are Austrian colonists. The Heidebauern (heath peasants), who dwell between
Neusiedl and the Danube, are Allemans. The German miners in the north-
west are Saxons, whilst the German colonists in the south are Swabians. The
Germans of Transylvania, who inhabit the Burzenland on the Upper Aluta, and
the hills which extend to the north of Fogaras and Hermannstadt as far as Mediasch
and Schiissburg, are known as Saxons, but are in reality for the most part the
descendants of Low Germans and Flemings who settled in the country during the
twt-lfth and thirteenth centuries. They have retained their language and customs
for six centuries, owing no doubt to their superior education, but their political
influence is no longer what it used to be. The Magyars and Rumanians,
amongst whom they live, have not only become more civilised, but they also
increase more rapidly in numbers. Towns and villages formerly inhabited by
Germans have been Magyarised or Rumanised, and relatively the German element
has lost ground.

Hungary offers a favourable field for studying the changes which various nation-
alities undergo in course of time. The Germans in the north, though living nearest
to Germany, have in large numbers become Magyars, Slovaks, or Rutheuians. The
Germans in the south, on the other hand, have succeeded in Germanising both
Rumanians and Servians.

The Slavs of Hungary collectively outnumber the Magyars, but they belong
to different nations. The Slovaks inhabit North-western Hungary, from the
Danube to the Tatra, and a few detached colonies in the plain. They are the

Pest, or Petj, means " lime-kiln." Ofen, which is the German name for Buda, likewise means
"kiln."

AUSTEIA-HUNGAEY.

kinsmen of the Chechians and Moravians, and it is only since 1850 that their
dialect has become a literary language.

Physically the Slovaks are a fine race tall, strong, and well made, with open
foreheads and an abundance of hair. They still wear a national costume, con-
sisting, for holidays, of a white shirt, a red jacket or vest, blue trousers or
petticoats. On ordinary occasions the peasants' dress is white. They are very
poor. Nature has not bwn bountiful to them, and many are obliged to go abroad
in search of work. Slovak pedlars travel as far as France, and, as they are very

Fig. 60. LINGUISTIC MAP OP TUANSYLVANIA.
According to Kelety Karoly

Minjyara Cover isti.c.)

.
Germans fuver76p.c.)

thrifty, they generally succeed in saving up a few gold pieces, with which they
return triumphantly to their native land.

Hitherto the Slovaks have had little influence upon the government of the
country, but they increase rapidly, and many towns formerly inhabited by
Germans or Magyars have been taken possession of by them In part their
growth is due to the interference of the Austrian Government, which expelled
the German Protestants from the mining towns of Upper Hungary, and handed
over their houses to Catholic Slovaks. As an instance of their rapid natural

HUNGARY.

increase may be mentioned the two villages of Dettva, in the comitat of Zolyom,
which, from mere farms in the midst of a forest, have grown into places having
over 12,000 inhabitants each. Turocz-Szent-Marton may be looked upon as the
literary centre of the Slovaks.

The Ruthenians, or Little Russians, inhabit the hills in which the Theiss and
its upper tributaries have their sources, to the east of the Slovaks. These
Russians called Oroszok by the Magyars first established themselves in the
forests which formerly covered the whole of the Carpathians, and gradually spread
over the extensive territory extending from the Tatra to the mountains of
Transylvania. A few districts in which German was spoken a hundred years
ago have become Ruthenian, but elsewhere there are large tracts inhabited by

Fig. 61. THE SLOVAKS op HUNGARY.
According to Ficker. Scale 1 : 4,125,000.

G / A L T C

100 Miles.

Ruthenians, where only Magyar or Rumanian is spoken now. Though kinsmen
of the Russians, the hosts of Paskiewitch, when they invaded Hungary in 1849,
were not hailed as liberators by these the must peaceable of all Slavs. The
principal centre of the Ruthenians in Hungary is Ushgorod (Unghvar).

The Servians, who now form the bulk of the population in the Banat and
elsewhere in the south, first arrived in large numbers after the Servian kingdom
had been overthrown by the Turks. Before that time the Servians were repre-
sented to the north of the Danube by a few colonies only ; but in 1690
more than 36,000 Rascian sadrugas, numbering perhaps 400,000 or 500,000
individuals, sought a refuge in Hungary. Those of them who were assigned
lands in Central or Northern Hungary gradually disappeared amongst the general

98 AUSTEIA-HUNGAEY.

population; but in the south, where they settled in compact bodies, they
have preserved their nationality. Brave, intelligent, and patriotic, the half-
million Servians now form an important element amongst the nations inhabiting
Hungary. They offer a more persistent resistance to the political preponderance
of the Magyars than either Slovaks, Germans, or Rumanians, and in 1848 and
1849 they furiously resisted their pretensions in many a hard-fought battle.
One of their societies, known as Matica, or the " Mother of Bees," has done
much for the elucidation of Servian history and philology ; another, the Omladiita,
or " Young Men's Society," has become formidable politically. Novisad (Neusatz)
is the literary and religious centre of the Servians of Hungary. They are the
kinsmen of Croats, Bosnians, and Dalmatians, but religious differences have created
a strong barrier between Roman Catholic Croats and Greek orthodox Servians.
The Chohaczes, or Bunyevaczes, who live at Maria-Theresiopel and elsewhere, are
supposed to be descended from Dalmatian immigrants. They, too, are Catholics.

Representatives of other Slav nations are found within the boundaries of
Hungary. More than 100,000 Croats have settled to the north of the Drave ;
Wends, or Slovenes, are met with towards the western frontier ; 20,000
Bulgarians have founded colonies amongst the Rumanians of the Banat ;
and Poles have established themselves on the southern slopes of the Carpathians.
In Transylvania, however, hardly any Slavs are found now, although, judging
from the geographical nomenclature, they must formerly have been numerous.
That country is now almost exclusively in the possession of Magyars Germans,
and Rumanians, the latter forming a majority of the population.

The Wallachians of Transylvania, whether we look upon them as Latinised
Dacians or as the descendants of immigrants come from the south, played
no historical part in the Middle Ages. They are first mentioned about the
middle of the fifteenth century. The towns founded or rebuilt by the Romans
were then no longer known by their Latin names. Even famous Sarmizege-
thusa, subsequently named TJlpia Trajana, in honour of the conqueror of Dacia,
had dwindled down into a poor village, known to the Rumanians by its Slav
name of Gredistya. All traditions of a dominion of Rome had died out.

The recent revival of the Rumanian nation is therefore one of the most
interesting events in history. Rumanians in compact masses occupy a con-
siderable portion of the B.mat and of the hilly regions looking down upon the
plain of Hungary. The Szekely and " Saxons " of Transylvania are completely
surrounded by this Latin- speaking people. The Slavs who formerly lived in
Transylvania have been absorbed by them, and their memory only survives
in the names of mountains, of rivers, and of towns. Magyars and Germans have
resisted Latiuisation, but the natural increase of the Rumanians being greater
than theirs, they virtually lose ground likewise.*

Whenever one or more Rumanian families settle down in a village they not
only preserve their language, but gain over to it many of the other inhabitants.

* Population of Transylvania: In 1761, 547.250 Humans 262,000 Magyars and Szekely, 130,500
Germans. In 1877, 1,275,000 Eumans, 625,000 Magyars aud Szekely, 210,000 Germans, 17,000
Jews.

HUNGARY.

Formerly, in the country around Temesvar, hardly anything but Servian and
German was heard, whilst now the Rumanians are very numerous. The Slavs,
in order to escape this absorption by Wallachs, actually flee the country. The
Catholic Bulgarians of the Banat have for the most part become Rumanians,
whilst the Servians of several districts make use of Rumanian in addition to
their native tongue. They are mild and inoffensive, these Rumanians, but once
they secure a footing in a village, their language gains ground rapidly.

The inability or unwillingness of the Rumanians to acquire foreign tongues
partly accounts for this curious state of affairs. If the Slavs, Magyars, and
Germans amongst whom they settle desire to converse with them, they must
learn Rumanian. But this is not all. The Rumanian exhibits greater patience
in adversity than the Servian, and maintains his ground under circumstances

Fig. 62. THE SERVIANS OF HPNOAHV.
According to Picker.

E.of Paris

E.of O.

Otr 10 PK.%.

which would induce the latter to emigrate. Nor is the beauty of the Wallachian
women quite without influence in this Rumanisation. " Once a Wallachian wife
enters a house," so says a proverb, " the whole house becomes Wallachian."
Matrimonial fairs are still held in some parts of Hungary with all the ndicete of
olden times. The " maidens' fair," which takes place at Topanfalva on the day
of St. Peter and St. Paul, attracts the young men for miles around. Hundreds of
girls, accompanied by their relatives, attend this fair, seated upon their trunks,
and surrounded by the cattle which they are to receive as a dowry. A lawyer
sits under a tree, prepared to draw up matrimonial contracts. As many as
110 girls have " gone off " at one of these popular meetings. Amongst the
S/t'kely the parents sometimes even sell their children, and Szekely girls are
found in the harems of Asia Minor.

Up to 1848 the Rumanians of many parts of Hungary were devoid of all

100 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

national feeling. Some, the descendants of shepherds, called themselves Fraduci ;
others, in the mining districts, went by the name of Pofani. At present, however,
they know very well that they are the kinsmen of the Wallachians and Mol-
davians, that their language is akin to that spoken by several nations of Western
Europe, and that numerically they are very formidable. As yet, however, they
do not aspire to national autonomy, and if in 1848 they rose against their old
landlords, this was not owing to a hatred of race.

They are serfs no longer, and if they do not always keep possession of the
land, it is the Jew usurer, and not the Magyar, of whom they have to complain.
These Jews, together with the Bulgarian " Ismaelites," have from immemorial
times been the traders of Hungary. It was they who disposed of the booty collected
by the Magyars, and carried on the traffic in slaves. They themselves were
occasionally reduced almost to a state of slavery, but the money which they
succeeded in amassing frequently enabled them to purchase temporary privileges.
Since 1867 they have been in the enjoyment of full civil rights, but "mixed"
marriages are not yet permitted to them, and the Szekely obstinately refuse to
admit them into their villages.

The increase in the number of Jews since the middle of last century has been
prodigious. There are districts in which they form a majority. Munkacs is a
town of Jews rather than of Christians, and at Pest they have increased from
1,000, in 1836, to 50,000 ! The birth rate amongst the Jews is very high, and
they are said to suffer less than the other inhabitants from epidemic and endemic
diseases.* In 1872 and 1873, when the cholera carried off Magyars, Germans, and
Slavs in thousands, the Jews actually increased in numbers. Emigration con-
tributes its share towards this increase. Hardly a village but the "chosen
people " are represented by an innkeeper and money-lender. The land by degrees
passes into the hands of the Jews, and the unfortunate peasant, whilst cursing
in his heart the cause of his ruin, has not the strength of will to avoid it. The
estates of ruined " magnates," too, often become the property of Jews. The latter
sometimes cause the land thus acquired to be cultivated with care, but as a rule
they farm it out to the ousted peasant proprietors.

The Armenian only resembles the Jew in his love of money and attachment
to the national religion. Szamos-Ujvar (Armenopolis) and Ebesfalva (Elisa-
betopolis) are the head-quarters of the Armenian merchants, whose number
is diminishing, and who no longer speak the language of their ancestors.

Hungary has always extended its hospitalities to the Tsigani, or gipsies, who
were granted certain privileges in the fifteenth century, and formed, as it were,
"itinerant republics" each under its headman (egregitts), and elected judges
(agiles). Joseph II. undertook to civilise the gipsies by compelling them to
become cultivators of the soil, and to abandon their national dress and language.
Notwithstanding this, a few of their nomadic tribes survive to the present day.
The majority, however, have become peasants or labourers.

* Annual death rate at Pest (18681870) per 1,000 inhabitants: -Roman Catholics, 48: Lnlherans,
47; Calvinists, 34; Jews, 18.

HTJNGAKY.

101

It is to his musical talents that the gipsy is principally indebted for the tolera-
tion granted to him by the Magyar, for no fete can take place in Hungary without
gipsy musicians. The gipsies are undoubtedly a mixed race, for some amongst
them are nearly black, whilst others are fair-complexioned. The majority of them
can, however, be recognised by the expression of their features and the glow of
their eyes.

In addition to the nations mentioned above we meet in Hungary with French,
Italian, and Spanish colonists. It is quite impossible to state the number
belonging to each race. Language alone can be our guide, but the numbers
given by different authors vary exceedingly, according to their national pre-
judices. Many claim to be Magyars who in reality are of different race. If the
number of schools could be accepted as a test, the Magyars would actually appear
to form an absolute majority of the population.*

AGKICUI.TIRE, MINING, AND COMMERCE.

HUNGARY is almost exclusively dependent for its wealth on the abundance and
excellence of its agricultural products. There are sterile tracts, no doubt, but the
extent of rich black soil is very considerable, and 92 per cent, of the entire area
is capable of cultivation. The wheat grown in the Alfold and the Banat is highly
appreciated by the merchants of Western Europe. To an agriculturist there is
no finer sight than the wide plain of Hungary with its waving corn-fields. Hemp
and flax are cultivated with success, and Hungarian tobacco, in spite of vexatious
fiscal regulations, is exported into all the countries of Europe.t

Hungary is one of the most productive European wine countries, and some
of its growths are amongst the most esteemed in the world. The wine of Tokaj,
which is grown on the volcanic rocks of the Kopasteto, its cultivation having
been introduced by Italians in the thirteenth century, has not its equal in any
other part of Europe. Excellent wines are also grown on the southern slopes
of the Matra ; on the hills bordering upon the Maros, in Trans; Ivania ; around
Arad ; and in the vicinity of Veszprem, Oedeuburg, Pressburg, and Buda. Even
the plains are being invaded by vineyards, and grapes are exported as far as

* Nationalities and religions of Hungary and Transylvania in 1877 :

Romin Catholics.

Greek Rite.

1,260,000

Total.

Latin Rite.

Magyars

5,760.000

3,660,000

Rumanians .

2,360,000

Germans

1,850,000

1,460,000

Slovaks

1,900,000

1,100,000

Ruthenians .

600,000

Southern Slavs

660,000

80,000

Gipsies .

150,000

20,000

Jews

500.000

Others .

60,000

Total .

13,720,000

6.310.000

Orthodox
Greek Catholics.

Protestants.
2,100,000

340,000

1,600,000

1,100,000

470,000
100,000

1,670,COO

400,000
800,000
160,000

30,000

3,490,000

Schools, 15,445; viz. 8,404 Magyar, 2,184 German, 2,130 Rumanian, 2,057 Slovak, 620 Ruthenian,
351) S, ivi.ni, 71 ('rout, 2 864 mixed.

t Arable land, 31,146,000 acres; vineyards, 787,500 acres; meadows and gardens, 8,445,000 acres.

102

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Hamburg. Unfortunately the country has been in varied by the phylloxera ;
yet the produce increases from ye.ir to year.* The Hungarian wine-grower is
superior to the ordinary peasant, but has still much to learn. The white wines
bear transport only after they have been " fortified." An " Association of Wine
Growers," formed by an Englishman in Tnmsylvania, has done much for the
promotion of viticulture.

The herdsmen, who still hold possession of wide tracts of the Alfold and of
the mountain slopes, are being hard pressed by the agriculturists ; but whilst
natural pasture-grounds are becomng more and more restricted, artificial meadows
and green crops gain in extent, and cattle and sheep increase in numbers.! The

Fig. 63. THE VINEYARDS OF HUNGARY.

,E.of P.

20 E.of Gr.

Wine Distric'9

half-savage oxen, with their tremendous horns, are but rarely seen now, the
cattle plague imported by the Russians in 1849 having destroyed more than
400,000 of them. The buffaloes, too, which are employed as beasts of draught,
and which, being coarse feeders, are highly valued in a country of swamps,
are disappearing. The horses of Hungary are justly valued for their spirit,
sure pace, and endurance. The number of sheep hns increased at a wonderful
rate, and the Magyars, from having been a people of horsemen, have in the
course of this century become a people of shepherds. The breeding of pigs is

Average produce, 186172, 70,935,000 gallons, valued at 3,910,000.

t In 1870 tliere were 1,820,000 horses, 4,435,000 head of caltle, 13,826,000 sheep, 3,587,000 pigs,
and 404,000 goats.

HUNGAEY. 103

more especially of importance Li the south, where oak forests abound, and the
hams of Temesvar are highly esteemed for the delicacy of their flavour.

The great fertility of the soil is unfortunately neutralised in some measure by
the inconstancy of the weather, which renders agriculture a hazardous occupa-
tion. In some seasons not a drop of rain falls for months, in others it rains
nearly incessantly. The almost oriental fatalism of the peasants may possibly
be accounted for by their utter helplessness in the face of such a climate ; and
yet, after months and even years of drought, the wretched Wallachian of Transyl-
vania, although his children cry for food, and a few lumps of coarse malai (maize
paste) are all he has to offer, retains his astonishing placidity.

The distribution of the land in Hungary is by no means favourable to its
intelligent cultivation. By the side of vast domains, many square miles in
extent, we find small patches of land, but hardly any estates of fair medium
size.* As a rule the large domains are badly tilled, yielding hardly more than
twenty pence an acre. The Crown lands (63,000 acres) yield even less, or only
fivepence an acre. The use of manure is unknown in many parts of the country.
Dunghills were allowed to accumulate around the dwellings to keep them warm,
and in 1875, when the cholera ravaged the country, the dung which had accumu-
lated around Pest became a source of danger, and had to be thrown into the
Danube or burnt in furnaces. Such ignorance explains how it is that an acre only
yields four or five bushels of wheat.

Agriculture, nevertheless, is making progress. Hundreds of square miles
have been drained, the moving sand-hills to the north of the Danube have been
planted with acacias, and the country has in many respects changed its aspect.
But whilst trees are being planted in the plain, the forests in the hills are being
devastated, the opening of railways facilitating the export of timber. The
Mezoseg, or " Land of Forests," of the Central Carpathians deserves that name
no longer, for its oaks, beeches, and firs have gone abroad.

The want of fuel in a great measure accounts for the decreasing importance
of the mines. Iron, lead, and gold are found in the " Ore Mountains " of
Transylvania, and although that country no longer deserves the epithet of
" Treasure-chest of Europe," it still produces annually about 200,000 worth of
gold, most of which is washed in the Verespatak, or " Red River." The "gold-
diggers " lead a miserable life, and could earn more in other occupations, but they
have not the strength to tear themselves away from their and their fathers' accus-
tomed pursuit.

The " Ore Mountains " of Hungary proper rise around Schemnitz and
Kremnitz, and yield silver as well as gold, copper, lead, zinc, and iron, the latter
'alone being of importance. t The principal iron works are at Oravicza, Szepes,
Nagy Varad, and Ard.

Salt and sulphur abound in Transylvania and the comitat of Marmaros.

There are 1,444,400 proprietors holding under 7 acres, and 903,710 holding between 7 and 12
acres, the two classes possessing between them nearly one-third of the total area of the country.

t In 1874 Hungary and Transylvania produced 80,200 tons of iron ( value 8^3, 000 ?), 156,000 worth
of silver, 130,400 tons of salt, 1,500,000 toils of coal. Total value of all mining pn ducts above, 3,440,000.

104

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

The mines of both can be worked for centuries at the present rate without
becoming exhausted.

The country is also very rich in coal and lignite. The most productive coal
mines are near Fiinfkirchen (Pecs), between the Danube and the Drave ; at
Ressicza, in the Banat ; at Bersaska, on the Lower Danube ; and in the Transyl-
vanian Alps. Petroseny, on the Upper Sil, is the most important mining town in

Fig 64. THE AVRIFEROCS REGION OF TRANSYLVANIA.

10 Miles.

the latter. It is of quite modern origin, and its stores of coal have been estimated
at 250,000,000 tons.

Hot and mineral springs abound, more especially in Eastern Transylvania.
Some of the springs of Hungary have obtained a European reputation, but most of
them are hardly known by name. The Hercules Baths, near Mehadia, delight-
fully situate at the foot of the Transylvanian Alps, are the most famous amongst
them.

HUNGARY.

105

Railways render it possible to utilise the resources of Hungary to a greater
extent than could be done formerly, but the want of roads to feed the railways is
still very great. To some extent the difficulty of procuring metalling for the
roads accounts for their absence. The railways, however, have a great future
before them, whenever the proposed lines across the Balkans and the Carpathians
shall have brought Hungary into close connection with the ^Egean and the wide
plains of Russia. Hungary will then in reality become an integral part of
Europe, and a land of transit connecting the West with the East.

Fig. 65. A VIEW IN THE MINING DISTHICT OF KKEMNITZ.
(The Hills of the Hapnm )

TOWNS.

THE aspect of the towns of Hungary changes but slowly, for it is easier to
modify our dress than to reconstruct our houses. Formerly the great " towns "
in the Hungarian plain were in reality huge villages, having hardly a feature in
common with the towns of Western Europe. They were classified according to
population and local institutions, but whether known as " royal free cities " or
" market towns," they all consisted of an agglomeration of low, detached houses,
separated by wide roads, gardens, and ponds. In fact, the " towns " resembled
79

106

AUSTKIA-HUNGARY.

vast encampments, recalling the time when the Magyars were still nomads,
municipal buildings and church occupying the central site formerly reserved for
the tents of the chief. When the Turks invaded the country, it never struck the
Magyar peasants that, like the Saxons in Transylvania, they might raise walls as
a defence against the invader.

The spirit of the race may possibly account for the arrangement of the Magyar
towns, but we must not lose sight of the fact that in the Alfold the villages of
Servians, Slovaks, and Eumanians are in every respect similar to the Faluk of
the Magyars. Elsewhere, too, where the nature of the country is the same, as in
the Landes or in the prairies of America, we meet with towns of the same charac-
ter ; but in no other part of Europe is this character so strongly developed. For
hours we ride through the streets of Szabadka, Kecskemet, Debreczen, or
Felegyhaza without meeting anything to break the monotony. And yet these

Fig. 66. THE COAL BASIN OF THE UPPER Sit.
Scale 1 : 500,000.

5 Miles

are " cities " or " towns," and there are " villages " of 10,000 and more inhabitants
which resemble them in every respect. On an average each " town " of the Alfold
has an area of 23 square miles, and rivals Washington in its "magnificent
distances." Szabadka covers no less than 345 square miles.

Buda-Pest (Pesth and Ofcn in German), with its ever-increasing population,*
is being rapidly transformed into a thoroughly European city. The surrounding
country, with its noble river, its hills, and its distant mountains, contributes much
towards ennobling the appearance of the town. The fine buildings which line
the left bank, the edifices suspended upon the slopes of Buda, the steeples and
cupolas, the airy suspension bridge, the iron viaduct higher up, and the steamers
moving majestically along the river impart an air of grandeur to the city which we
frequently miss in towns of much more importance, and notably in Vienna. The

Pest, exclusive of Buda, had 101,300 inhabitants in 1849, 200,500 in 1870. In 1877 the two towns
had an estimated population of 320,000 suuli.

HUNGARY.

107

houses of Budu-Pest are built of a limestone similar to that employed in Paris.
The city grows, not merely because it is the political capital of the country, but
more especially on account of its fine geographical position on a navigable river,
in the centre of a network of railroads, and at the gate to the East. The steam-
mills grind about 300,000 tons of wheat annually. Buda-Pest is insalubrious,
and the death rate is greater there than perhaps in any other city of Europe. To
some extent this excessive mortality is due to poverty. Thousands are without
means to pay for a bed, and in no other town is the number of labourers, servants,
and others living from hand to mouth equally great.*

Fig. 67. DEBRECZEX.

Scale 1 : 432,000.

B.ofQr.

. 5 Miles.

Amongst the public buildings the National Museum is the most important.
It is a vast edifice, containing a gallery of paintings, a natural-history museum,
a library of 200,00'J volumes, and scientific collections of every kind.

Buda is the seat of the civil and military authorities, and many of its buildings
are historically of interest. The tomb of Gull-Baba, the " Father of Roses," in
the suburb of Old Buda, is kept in order in accordance with the stipulations of
the treaty of Carlovitz, and is occasionally visited by Turkish pilgrims.

In 1870 each room was inhabited by three persons, and one-fifth of the inhabitants were either
without bods or lived in common lodgings. (J. Kiirosi, Stat. Jahrbuch der Stadt 1'eet.)

108

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

The environs of the twin city abound in delightful sites. The island of
Murgaretha has been converted into a park. On it are a hot spring and a bathing
establishment. Gardens and a large park lie to the north and east of the city,
and gentlemen's seats are scattered over the plain of Rakos, upon which the
Magyar Diets met formerly, either to elect the sovereign or to decide upon some
warlike expedition. Farther north is the Imperial Palace of Godollo. Far more
charming, however, are the hills around Buda, amongst which is the Blocksberg

Fig. 68. BUDA-PEST.
Scale 1 : 245,000.

E.ofP. 17'

J\Jt UI\3Glf , , fc.V

5K v

%- : -,-A V^i' i'-^ '
..T'^A .."i.-"-

E.ofGr. |9 SO' 1

10 Miles.

(Gellerthegy), commanding the finest view of the Danube. Its summit is
crowned with a citadel.

Many of the other towns of Hungary are German in their aspect, and lie
towards the west, and along the Danube, between Vienna and Pest. Press/jury
(46,540 inhabitants) is one of them, and its castle, its cathedral, and its numerous
palaces recall the time when the Kings of Hungary were anointed there. Lower
down on the Danube is Gyor (Raab, 20,035 inhabitants), formerly one of the
great grain markets of Europe. Komdrom (Comorn, 12,256 inhabitants), the last

HUNGARY.

109

fortress to fall into the hands of the Austrians in 1849, raises its walls at the
confluence of the Vag with the Danube. Opposite to it is O Szony (2,465
inhabitants), the ancient Bregetio, the residence of the Roman Emperors Valen-
tinian I. and II. Lower down is J?szfcr([fim(Qrsin, 8,780 inhabitants), the birthplace
of the sainted King Stephen and the primatial city of Hungary, with a cathedral
built upon the summit of a hill. Then comes Vacz (VVaitzen, 12,894 inhabitants),
on the opposite bank of the Danube, which there sweeps round to the south.

Szekes-Fejertar (Stuhlweissenburg, 22,683 inhabitants), the Alba Regia of

Fig. 69. VIEW OF THE SACHSENSTEIN, OR SZASZKO, NEAR SCHEMNITZ.

medifcval mamisrripts, is tho most famous town in South-western Hungary.
During a long period the Kings of Hungary were crowned and buried there.
Veszprtm (12,0 >2 inhabitants) is also frequently mentioned in the annals of
Hungary, but Papa (14,223 inhabitants), in the same comitat, to the north of the
Bukony Forest, exceeds it in population. Stcinamanger (Szombathcly, 7,-3b'l
inhnbitiints), the Sabaria of the ancients, still boasts of a few Roman ruins, and
having become a great railway centre, promises once more to be of importance.
For the present (htlailturg (21,108 inhabitants), a busy manufacturing town close

110 AUSTEIA.-HUNGAEY.

to the Austrian frontier, far exceeds it in population. Oedenburg occupies the
site of the Roman city of Scarabantia. It lies in the midst of a fertile district
extending to the Lake of Neusiedl.

In the basin of the Drave there are a few commercial towns, such as Nugy
Kanizsa (11,128 inhabitants), and one city, famous on account of its history,
namely, Pecs (Fiinfkirchen, 23,862 inhabitants). It lies at the foot of a group
of hills, and close to a rich coal basin. To the west of it rises the castle of
Szigetvar, which Zrinyi heroically defended against the Turks in 1566, when
Soliman lost 30,000 men and his own life. At Mohdcs (12,140 inhabitants), to
the east, on the Danube, Soliman, forty years before, defeated the army of
Lewis II., but in In87 the Turks were there defeated in turn. Higher up on the
Danube is Duna-FoMvdr (12,382 inhabitants).

The towns in the Carpathians are less populous than those in the plain, but
most of them occupy delightful positions in verdant valleys and on sparkling
rivulets. Tijrnau (Nagy Szombath, 9,737 inhabitants), with its many belfries, is
an old university town. Trencsen (3,449 inhabitants) has an old castle, formerly
looked upon as impregnable, but now in ruins. Near it are the sulphur springs of
Tepla (Teplitz). Schemnitz (Setmeczbanya, 14,029 inhabitants) and Kremnitz (Kor-
moczbanya, 8,442 inhabitants) are two old mining towns : they were of greater im-
portance in bygone times. The former occupies a valley open to the cold northerly
winds. Several sulphur springs are in its neighbourhood, on the banks of the
river Gran, commanded by the ruins of the castle of the Sachsenstein, or " Saxon's
Stone." Nensohl (Banska Bytrica, 11,780 inhabitants) is likewise a mining town,
almost exclusively inhabited by Slavs. None of the sixteen towns of the comitat
of Szepes (Zips), at the foot of the Tatra, are of importance. Visitors, however, are
attracted by the charming scenery and the hot springs of Tdtmfured, or Schmecks,
near Kesmark (3,938 inhabitants). Kaschau (Kassa, 21,742 inhabitants), a fine
old city, and Unyhrdr (11,017 inhabitants), are important market-places. Eperjes
(10,772 inhabitants) is associated with the "bloody assize" held towards the close
of the seventeenth century by order of the Emperor. Munkdcs (8,602 inhabitants),
a dull town, boasts of having been the first place at which the Magyars made a
halt before they descended into the plain. Sz/gcth is the commercial centre of the
comitat of Marmaros, whilst Tokaj (5,012 inhabitants), with its sunburnt rocks,
Eger (Erlau, 19,150 inhabitants), and Gyonyyos (15,830 inhabitants), carry on
the commerce between the mountainous country and the great plain of the Alfold.

In the vast plain of Hungary there are several populous villages, but few
places deserving to be called towns. Sze/j/'d (Szegedin, 70,179 inhabitants),
favourably situated at the confluence of the Theiss and Maros, is the com-
mercial centre of the Puszta. The floods of 1879 destroyed nearly the whole of
the town. Several other towns are likewise of some importance as places of
traffic. Amongst these are Czegled (22,216 inhabitants), to the south-east of Pest ;
Szolnok (15,847 inhabitants), in the midst of the marshes of the Theiss; Debreczen
(46,111 inhabitants), the head-quarters of the Magyar Calvinists ; Nyirehdza
(21,896 inhabitants), a town almost exclusively inhabited by Slovaks ; Szathmur-

HUNGAEY.

Ill

Nemethi (18,353 inhabitants), at the extreme upper end of the plain, 400 feet
above the sea; and Nagy Vdrad (Gross Wardein, 28,698 inhabitants), on the
Sebes Koros, at the mouth of one of the principal defiles leading into Transylvania.
The Turks frequently held possession of the town named last, and a Nilotic plant

Fig. 70. NOVISAD (NEUBATZ, OR
Scale 1 : 75,000.

. 10 HUes.

(Nymphten thermalis), which grows in the spring of Piispok Furdo, near it, is
supposed to have been imported by them.

Several of the towns are on the banks of the Danube, or not far from them,
such as Kalocsa (16,302 inhabitants) and Bnja (18,110 inhabitants). Zombor
(24,309 inhabitants) is on the Francis Canal, which connects the Danube with
the Theiss. Novisad (Nematz, 19,119 inhabitants) lies on the northern bank of

112 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

the Danube, and is commanded by the guns of Peterwardein. The interesting
plateau of Titel, surrounded by the Theiss and by swamps extending from that river
to the Danube, lies to the west. Pancsova (PanSevo, 13,408 inhabitants), at the
mouth of the Temes below Belgrad, is inhabited by Servians.

There are more populous towns on the Theiss (Tisza) than on the Danube. The
following are in the comitat of Jaszkun-Szolnok : Ssolnok (15,847 inhabitants),
Jduz Bereny (20,233 inhabitants), Karczag (143,486 inhabitants), Torok-Szent-Miktos
(13,000 inhabitants), and Mczo-Tur (10,447 inhabitants). Between Szolnok and
Szeged the river flows past Csongrnd (17,356 inhabitants) and Szentes (27,658 inha-
bitants). Near it are Nagy Koros (20,091 inhabitants), Kecskemet (41,195
inhabitants), Felegyhdsa (21,313 inhabitants), and Hod-Mczo-Vdmrhely (19,153
inhabitants). Below Szeged we reach Kanizsa, the port of the city of Haria-
Theresiopel (Szabadka, 56,323 inhabitants), after which comes Zenta (19,938 inha-
bitants), where Prince Eugene defeated the Turks in 1697. To the east is the
important market-town of Nngy Kikinda (18,834 inhabitants), as well as Nagy
Becskerek (19,666 inhabitants), on the river Bega, in the midst of a country exposed
to inundation.

Gyula (18,495 inhabitants), Bekes (22,547 inhabitants), and Szarvas (22,446
inhabitants), are within the basin of the river Koros. The Maros, a far more
important river, is defended by the citadel of Arad, below which nestles the city of
() Arad (32,725 inhabitants), one of the busiest industrial centres of Hungary.
Not far from, here, at the foot of the hills, lies Vildgos, of mournful memory.
Mako (2 ",449 inhabitants) is the largest amongst the towns below Arad. The
famous stud of Mezohegyes lies in the Puszta, to the north of the river Maros.

Temesvdr (32,22-3 inhabitants), the old capital of the Banat, claims with Arad to
be the most important city of South-eastern Hungary. A few other towns of
consequence are in its neighbourhood, such as Werschitz (Versecz, 21,095 inhabitants)
and Oldh Lugos (3,350 inhabitants) ; but we are approaching the hilly country.
The towns can no longer compare in population with those of the Puszta,
and Knrdnscbes, Oravicza (a mining town), and Mehddia are far less populous than
the scattered villages of Halas (13,127 inhabitants), Ndnds, or Boszormeny, which
lie out in the plain.

Kolozsvdr (Klausenburg,Cliusi,26,382 inhabitants) is the most important town in
Transylvania, though not the most populous. It is the capital of the Magyars,
who have their principal schools there. Under the Romans Kolozsvar was one of the
principal cities of Dacia. It then became a German town, and was surrounded
with turreted walls. The suburbs now spread far beyond them, along both banks
of the river Szamos. The only other towns on the river are Szainos U/tdr
(Armenierstadt, 5.188 inhabitants), a head-quarter of the Armenians, Dees (5,822
inhabitants), and Bistritz (7,212 inhabitants), seated in the midst of magnificent
forests. The small watering-place of Radna (Rothenau) lies near the source of
the Szamos, not far from the frontier.

The largest town on the Maros is Maros Vdsarhely (12/78), principally inha-
bited by Szekely. Having been joined by the Aranyos, which rises in a mining

HUNGARY. 113

district and passes Turda (Thorenburg, 8,803 inhabitants), famous on account of
its salt mines, the Maros flows to the south-west, winding along the foot of the sali-
ferous cliffs of Maros Uj'vdr. Below Nagy Enyed (5,779 inhabitants) the Maros is
joined by the Kiikiillo, the main stream of which flows through a country abound-
ing in historical associations. Amongst the towns on its banks are Utlrdrhely
(4,376 inhabitants), the old capital of the Szekely, and Schdssburg (Segesvar, 8,204
inhabitants), a picturesque old town, where Petofi is supposed to have fallen
fighting against the Russians. Lower down the river are Elisabethstadt (2,250
inhabitants), and Mcdiasch (Megyes, 4,621 inhabitants). Returning to the Maros,
we arrive at Kar/sburg (Karoly Fejervar, 7,955 inhabitants), with a fine old
cathedral, in which the Princes of Transylvania were crowned. Below Karlsburg
and its vineyards the Maros flows past the citadel of Deva, which formerly defended
the road leading into Transylvania. To the south of it is one of the Iron Gates,
which was defended by the Roman city Ulpia Trajana (Sarmizegethusa) Only a
few towns are to be found in this part of the country. The village of Vajda Hunyad
(2,597 inhabitants) lies in a lateral valley. Its ancient castle, built by the
Voyvod Hunyad, is now being repaired.

Kronstadt (Brasso, 27,766 inhabitants), the largest town of Transylvania, lies
within the basin of the Aluta. It is essentially a German town, but the surround-
ing villages are inhabited by Rumanians.

The river flows past Fogaras (4,714 inhabitants), and having been reinforced
by the stream which comes from Hermannstadt (Nagy Szeben, Sibiu, 18,998
inhabitants), it escapes through the defile of the Red Tower into Rumania.
Hermannstadt is the capital of the "Saxons." It is a curious old city, very dull,
but interesting on account of its architecture.

CHAPTER VII.

GALICIA AND BITKOVINA.
(AUSTRIAN POLAND AND RUTHENIA.)

GENERAL ASPECTS, MOUNTAINS, AND CLIMATE.

ALICIA and Bukovina, lying outside the rampart of the Carpathians,
form part of the Austrian Empire, in spite of the great boundaries
determined by geographical features. Climate and the general slope
of the soil attest that these countries form an integral portion of
the vast plain which stretches from the Sudetes to the Altai.
They also differ ethnologically from the remainder of the empire, which has
held them for hardly more than a century. By annexing them Austria did
violence not only to geographical landmarks, but also to national susceptibilities.
Maria Theresa herself, when she signed the treaty partitioning Poland, avowed
that she " prostituted her honour for the sake of a paltry bit of land." Cracow,
the last remnant of Poland, was occupied by Austria in 1846, in defiance of a
treaty dictated by herself.

The outer slope of the Carpathians is steeper as a rule than the inner one,
and constitutes a very formidable natural frontier. The boundary-line, however,
neither follows the watershed nor the crest of the mountain range. Hungary
has secured possession of the great central group, the Tatra, as well as of the
upper basin of the Poprad, which flows north towards the Vistula. Only a few
summits in Galicia exceed a height of 6,500 feet, but to a spectator standing in
the plain to the north of them, the Carpathians, with their steep scarps and
barren summits, rising above forests and pastures, and covered with snow during
a great part of the year, present a grand sight. The Eastern Carpathians are
still clad with their ancient forests. In the vicinity of the Cserna Gora, or
" Black Mountains," in the Bukovina, these forests extend uninterruptedly for many
miles, and the Bukovina is fairly entitled to its Slav name of Land of Beeches, or
"Buckingham." In the south, towards the frontiers of Moldavia, a few trachyte
peaks enhance the beauty of the scenery. Elsewhere, and more especially in
the districts of Stanislawow and Kolomyja, the valleys are without running
streams, the rain disappearing in the fissures of the limestone.

GALICIA AND BUKOVINA.

115

A few level tracts lie at the northern foot of the Beskids and Carpathians,
such as the swampy plain upon which the waters of the Dniestr first collect,
and that at the confluence of the San with the Vistula ; but Galicia as a whole
is an undulating table-land, having an average elevation of 820 feet. It forms the
watershed between the Baltic and the Black Sea. Some of the rivers flow north
to the Vistula, the " White River " of the ancient Slavs ; others flow east to the
Dniepr ; others again south-east to the Pruth and the Sereth. To the north of
the valley of the Dniepr the land gradually rises into a table-land of tertiary

Fig. 71. THE CAUPATHIANS.

Scale 1 : 6.500.000.

1',

'SO' E.ofGr.

Altitude in feet

MB ' > MM

100 Miles.

formation. The rivers which intersect this plateau have scooped themselves out
deep valleys, the bottoms of which are covered with fields and meadows, whilst
forests clothe the steep heights which bound them. Some of these forests retain
all their pristine beauty, and nowhere else in Europe do pines grow to such a
height. In the Forest of Pustelnik, near Brody, forty trees exceeding 160 feet in
height have been counted to the acre.

Galicia has a moister climate than might be supposed from its position in the
centre of Europe ; for the rain-laden winds, which blow from the Atlantic and the

116 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

North Sea in the direction of the Euxine, naturally pass through the defile
bounded in the south by the Carpathians, and in the north by the plateaux of
Western Poland and Podolia. But although the rainfall in Galicia equals that
of the maritime regions of Western Europe, its temperature is altogether conti-
nental. The plateau in the north affords but little shelter against the cold
northerly winds, whilst the Carpathians shut out the warm breezes blowing from
the Mediterranean. The heat in summer is intense, the cold of winter most
severe. At Tarnopol the mean temperature during five months does not rise
above freezing point. Accustomed to so rigorous a climate, the mountaineers of
the Beskids and Carpathians, who annually migrate to the lowlands of Hungary
and Austria in search of work, return to their cherished mountain homes pale,
emaciated, and shaken with fever.*

INHABITANTS.

To the north of the Carpathians there has been no struggle between Slavs
and Magyars or Germans. No Magyars live there, and the number of Germans
is comparatively small, and only in the large towns and in a few villages of
Western Galicia are they able to preserve their national speech. Thousands of
German peasants and miners have become Slavs in appearance and in lan-
guage. Germans founded numerous colonies in the thirteenth century, but
nothing except the names of a few towns, such as Landshut or Landskrona,
attests their origin. The Flemish weavers, who came into the country at the
same period, have likewise become Poles in all except their family names.
Where Germans have maintained themselves up to the present time, it has been
because of differences of religion, for nearly one-fourth of the German peasants
are Protestants. Most of these Protestant German colonies survive in the
districts of Lemberg and Stryj.

The Poles occupy Western Galicia, and even extend into Austrian Silesia,
where they are known as "Water Polaks." These Polaks are despised by their
German neighbours on account of their presumed drunkenness and immorality.
It is quite true that they are wretchedly poor and ignorant. The sons of serfs,
and ever pursued by famine, they fall an easy prey to the village usurers. The
Poles dwelling along the foot of the Carpathians and on the Vistula are known
as Mazurs, an epithet properly applicable only to the Poles of Eastern Prussia.
They, too, are poor, and the want of proper nourishment pales their cheeks and
curves their backs. Their women, however, though by no means fond of hard
work, have an appearance of great vigour, and almost seem to belong to a
race different from that of the men. They wear white or rtd turbans, and a
bright-coloured jacket, showing the white chemise beneath. The variety of
costume is greater amongst the men, every village having a fashion of its own.
The peasants, notwithstanding their poverty, are proud of gay colours, embroi-

Mean Temperature Degrees. Rainfall.

Year. January. July. Inches.

* Lemberg 4l-5 23-0 640 2<i

Cracow 46-1 24-1 65'0 19

GALICIA AND BUKOVINA.

117

dered garments, and bright metal buttons. The disease known as Plica Polonica,
from which many of them suffer, is by no means caused by uncleanliness, but is
produced by want of proper nourishment. It is said to hitve been imported by
the Tartars in the thirteenth century.

Fig. 72. PEASANTS AND JEWS OF GALICIA.

' 14

<*Sb

:;.; 1B , '"-^

"-> f " '- """" '

... ' . . ..-."

The Pples of the Beskids are known as Gorals ; that is, " mountaineers." They
are poor, and p:ii-tly live in underground houses, but spending most of their
time in the vivifying mountain air, they are physically far superior to their

118

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

kinsmen of the plain. They are said to be intelligent, and though the land
they live in is exceedingly sterile, they enjoy more comforts than the peasants of
the lowlands. Many of them annually migrate into neighbouring countries,
especially at harvest-time.

In Western Galicia the ethnological boundaries coincide with the mountain
crests. The Gorals do not extend to the southern slopes of the Beskids, nor
are the Podhalanes, or Polish herdsmen of the upper valleys of the Tatra, met
with in the plains of Hungary ; but to the east of the Tatra we enter a country
having a mixed population, and it is quite impossible to draw a line separating
the Poles from the Ruthenians. Many of the inhabitants speak both languages.
The valley of the San, a river flowing into the Vistula, may, however, be looked
upon, as the linguistic boundary, the Ruthenians predominating to the east of

Fig. 73. THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE POLES IN GALICIA.
According to Picker. Scale 1 : 6,000,000.

E.of P.

s'o'E.ofG.

Ovtr SO ftc.

it. Formerly, when the Poles were the sole masters of the country, their lan-
guage slowly gained ground ; but the Ruthenians are now recovering all they
lost, although many educated people in the towns beyond the San prefer to use
Polish. The two nations differ also in religion, for whilst the Poles are Roman
Catholics, the Ruthenians belong to the Greek Church. Most of the small
Ruthenian nobles, derisively culled c/iodricskoca sz/achta, i.e. " s;indal-wearing
gentlemen," are Greek Catholics, whilst the large landowners belong to the
Roman Church.

The Ruthenians, or Red Russians, have never been able to agree with their kins-
men the Poles. They are Russians certainly, though speaking a dialect differing
from that of the Muscovites, to whom, moreover, they are dissimilar in customs.
The descendants of numberless exiles, who fled the yoke of Russian despotism, live

GALICIA AND BUKOVINA.

119

amongst them. In the retired villages of the Carpathians they have been able
to preserve their ancient customs, but superstition likewise survives there, and
their ignorance is great.

Tbe Ruthenians around Tarnopol are known as Podolians ; those to the south
of Lemberg as Bo'iks ; those in the Eastern Capathians as Huzuls. These latter,
not having been demoralised by brandy to the same extent as their kinsmen, are
the gayest and happiest tribe of the Ruthenians : though formerly addicted to
brigandage, they are nevertheless more honest than their kinsmen in the plain.
The Ruthenians are fond of poetry and music ; they are said to be kindly disposed
and hospitable, but at the same time vacillating, untrustworthy, and passionate.
The Huzuls excepted, they are physically a feeble race, though tall and well made.

Fig. 74. THE DISTRIBUTION OP THE RUTHENIANS.
Scale 1 : 5,500,000.

This feebleness, however, may be due to their poverty, or to the frequent fasts
imposed by the Church and scrupulously observed.

In Bukovina the Rumanians are almost as numerous as the Ruthenians.
A hundred years ago the former were in a majority, but the annexation of the
country by Austria has given the preponderance to the Slavs. The population
of this small country is very mixed. Poles are settled amongst the Ruthenians ;
Szekely have crossed the Carpathians in search of pasture-grounds ; Chechians
have settled down as miners ; Germans have formed agricultural colonies and
mining villages. Several thousand Russians belonging to the proscribed sect
of the Lipovani have found a refuge here, and Armenian communities have
established themselves in the principal towns. To these divers nationalities

120

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

must be added the ever-present Jews and the gipsies, who pitch their tents
in the shade of the forests. The inhabitants profess eight different religions,
the Greek Catholics being by far the most numerous.

The Jews increase much more rapidly than the other nations, not only in
Bukovina and in Galicia, but throughout the Austro-Hungariau Empire.
Nearly one-half the Austrian Jews are massed in Galicia, and, as the Jews are
numerous also in the Polish and Russian border districts, this portion of Central
Europe is far better entitled to be called the land of the Jews than Palestine
or any other country whatever.

It will readily be understood that this multitude of Jews, having no attach-

Fig. 75 THE JK\VS IN HUNGAKY AND GALICIA.
Scale 1 : 6,375,000.

Oner, Of. %

100 Miles.

ment to the soil or its indigenous population, and always professing the opinions
of the dominant race, must prove a serious obstacle to the political development
of the Poles or Ruthenians. In Lemberg, Cracow, and other large towns the
Jews constitute one-third of the population ; in Brody and Drochobicz they
are in the majority ; and there is not a town but the Jew, in his gaberdine,
high boots, and broad-brimmed hat, with curls descending to the shoulders, is
frequently met with. He almost monopolizes the commerce of the country. One
sect of Jews, however, that of the Karaites, supposed to be of Tartar origin, though

GALICIA AND -BUKO VINA. 121

claiming descent from the tribe of Judah, neglects commerce and cultivates the
soil. The members of this sect dwell for the most part near Hulicz, or Galicz,
the ancient capital of Galicia.*

AGRICULTURE AND MINING.

THE manufacturing industry of Galicia is still in its infancy. Only near
a few of the towns and in the west do we meet with manufactories producing
woollen and linen stuffs and beet-root sugar. About four-fifths of the inhabitants
are engaged in agriculture. The soil is fertile, and the land capable of cultivation
to a great extent ; but Gdlicia, which nature would appear to have destined to
become one of the granaries of the world, is in reality among the least productive
parts of Austria.t Nor could it be otherwise in a country whose peasantry are at
the mercy of unscrupulous usurers. The peasant, in many parts of the country,
lives in a log-hut covered with straw. His food consists of porridge, which he
washes do'wn with bad brandy, for the sake of which he forgets his wife and
children. Most of the surplus corn grown in this country finds its way into the
distilleries. In years of bad harvests the people would perish with hunger if the
landlords or Jews were not to make them small loans. Ever in debt, the peasant
is in reality no better than a serf, and his ignorance is extreme.

Timber and cattle are amongst the articles of export. The cultivation of hops
has much increased since the middle of the present century, for beer is becoming
a favourite beverage. Tobacco is grown abundantly, over 100,000 cwts. being
produced annually.

The mineral resources of Galicia have been better cultivated than its agricul-
tural ones. Iron, tin, lead, sulphur, and even auriferous sand are found on the
northern foot of the Carpathians, but far more useful than either of these are
the coals which are being worked to the north-west of Cracow. Valuable salt
mines, including those of Wieliczka and Bochnia, lie within a short distance of the
city just named. The salt of Wieliczka occurs in huge masses embedded in clay.
That obtained near the surface is very impure, being mixed with clay
and sand. A purer salt, known as spisa, is found at a greater depth ; but in order
to obtain the taibik, or finest salt, it is necessary to go deeper still. The mines
of Wieliczka have now been worked since the middle of the eleventh century,
and a depth of 1,021 feet (187 feet below the sea-level) has been reached. The
mines, notwithstanding occasional disasters caused by fire, water, or the fulling in
of galleries, continue to yield nearly one-half the salt won throughout the Austrian
Empire.J The saliferous strata extend into Bukovina and Rumania. There are
numerous thermal springs, but only Szczawnica and a few other places attract
visitors. Far more important are the petroleum and asphalt springs, which abound

* Nationalities of Galicia and Bukovina :

Rntheninns. roles. Jews. Rumanians. Germans. Total.

Califia . . 2,443.700 2,341,000 510000 148,000 6,444,700

Bukovina . 210 300 5.000 49,000 194,000 41,000 613,300

t In Galicia 46 per cent, of the total area consists of arable land, 24 per cent, of pastures, 24 por
cent, of forest.

I Total yield in 1873, 282,240 tons, of which Galicia produces 131,500 tons.

122

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

along the northern foot of the Carpathians. These springs remained almost
unknown until the "petroleum fever" in America attracted attention towards
them. Borislaw, on the Upper Dniestr, became, in 1866, one of the centres of
the Galician petroleum region, and in the course of six months grew from a small
village into a town of 20,000 inhabitants.* Subsequently other oil springs
were discovered in Western Galicia, but the produce of all has gradually
declined.

A railway connecting Danzig and Stettin, on the Baltic, with Odessa, on the
Black Sea, and passing through Galicia, has only recently been opened. Before
that time Galicia was hardly accessible, and it was less frequently referred to
than many a less important country in distant Asia. The favourable geographical

Fig. 76. CRACOW AND WIELICZKA.
Scale 1 : 408,000.

17 30'

18 E.of Paris

19' SO-

20' E.ofG-

. 5 Miles.

position of Galicia .half-way between the Baltic and the Euxine,is only now being
properly appreciated. The railway, which traverses the country from west to east,
places Western Europe in communication with the great granaries of Moldavia
and Central Russia, and in course of time its influence will reach as far as the cities
of Central Asia. Even now tbe village of Podwotoczyska, formerly never heard
of, and the town of Brody, import annually 2,000,000 worth of corn.

TOWNS.

Leopo/, the capital of Galicia, was built in 125<>, and called after its founder,
*ter known by its Polish name of Lwow, or its German one of Lemberg

having ato^ll" of 8 4 8 5oO? d 17 ' 50 ^ f "^ <al wax), and 11,000 tons of petroleum,

GALICIA AND BUKOVINA. 123

(102,950 inhabitants). It occupies a central position between the rivers Dniestr,
Vistula, and Bug. No navigable river flows past the city, but three railways
converge upon it, and feed its commerce and industry. The old city covers an
area of only 62 acres, but the suburbs spread over 12 square miles. The
former contains the university and most public buildings, whilst the new National
Museum, with its library, is in one of the suburbs.

Cracow (00,000 inhabitants), though inferior to Lemberg in commerce and
population, far exceeds it in interest on account of its historical associations. Up
to the middle of the seventeenth century Cracow was the capital of Poland, and
its population was then double what it is now. When Austria took possession
of the city its fortunes declined rapidly, and in 1775 it only numbered 16,000
inhabitants. The Congress of Vienna constituted Cracow and its environs an
independent territory, but in 1846 the Austrians nevertheless once more took pos-
session of it. The town is favourably seated upon the navigable Vistula, or Wisla,
and, although very thinly peopled, its appearance from a distance is m >st
striking. Formerly it was one of the great intermediaries of commerce between
Russia and Germany, but it is now only important as a grain mart. Most of its
commerce is in the hands of the Jews, who occupy the whole of the suburb of
Kazimierz, built upon an island of the Vistula. Cracow has a university founded
in 1-'J64, a library of 90,000 volumes, an observatory, and several learned societies.
Many Polish books are published there. The ashes of the Kings of Poland are
preserved in the cathedral, and Copernicus lies buried in another of the thirty-
seven churches of the town. The old castle has been transformed into fortified
barracks, but the fortifications of the city have been razed and converted into
public promenades. Only one of the ancient gates, that of St. Florian, built
in 1498 as a defence against the Turks, has been allowed to remain. A huge
block of granite, dedicated to the memory of Kosciuszko, has been placed on an
artificial mound to the west of the city. That mound, sacred to the great hero
of dying Poland, now lies within the enceinte of an Austrian fort, the guns of
which command the city.

The villages around Cracow are noted for their market gardens, and send
vegetables as far as Berlin and Hamburg. Other articles exported from the
vicinity are the salt of Wieliczka (6,150 inhabitants) and Bochnia (8,200 inha-
bitants), the coal of Jairorzno, and the cloth of Biafa (6,000 inhabitants).

Most of the towns of Galicia are miniature Lembergs, consisting of a compactly
built nucleus surrounded by scattered suburbs. Tnrnoic (22,200 inhabitants), a
rapidly increasing town, is the principal place of commerce on the Dunajec.
Higher up on the same river is Noico Sandek (9,800 inhabitants). Rzcszow
(9,200 inhabitants), half- way between Cracow and Lemberg, exports butter and
eggs. Jiirotilatc (11,150 inhabitants), on the San, rises in the midst of orchards.
Its fairs formerly attracted oriental merchants, including even Persians. Przemi/itl
(1 1,600 inhabitants), higher up on the San, is the commercial centre of a petroleum
district. Sambor (11,750 inhabitants), on the Upper Dniestr, is an agricultural
town, whilst Droclwbicz (16,900 inhabitants), surrounded by forests, exports the

124 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

potroloum won in the district of Bort/atan: (10,000 inhabitants). GrMck
(8,900 inhabitants) suffers from the vicinity of its great neighbour Lemberg, which
it supplies with agricultural produce and fish. Strnj (9,980 inhabitants), at
the mouth of a Carpathian valley, is a favourite summer resort of the Lemberg
merchants, many of whom have villas there.

Brody (30,500 inhabitants), to the east of Lemberg and on the Russian frontier,
is a great commercial town, exporting horses, cattle, and pigs, and importing corn.
Tarnopol (20,800 inhabitants), likewise near the frontier and on the high-road
from Lemberg to Kief, is also an active commercial city. All the other towns
of Eastern Galicia are only of secondary importance. Brzczany (9,800 inhabitants)
has tanneries ; Halicz (3,150 inhabitants) has given its name to the whole country ;
Kolomyjn (17,700 inhabitants) exports timber and tobacco, the latter being
extensively cultivated in its vicinity; Sniatyn (11,100 inhabitants) has agri-
cultural fairs, which are well attended. Other towns are Stanislawow, or Stanislau
(15,000 inhabitants), Zloczow (9,500 inhabitants), Horodenka (8,700 inhabitants),
and Tysmienica (8,500 inhabitants).

Czernowitz (34,000 inhabitants), the capital of Bukovina, is situate on the
Pruth, from the bank of which it rises amphitheatrically. The railway has
proved a great boon to the merchants of the town, whilst Eadautz (9,000 inha-
bitants), Sereth (6,000 inhabitants), and Suczawa (9,000 inhabitants), all of them
farther south in the basin of the Sereth, have suffered in a corresponding degree.
Czernowitz is one of the outposts of European civilisation, and the Germans have
made it the seat of a university.*

* Nationality of the inhabitants of Czernowitz (1874): Jews, 28-3 percent.; Germans, 19-6 per
cent. ; Rumanians, 17'7 per cent. ; Ruthenians, 17'2 per cent. ; others, 17 2 per cent.

CHAPTER VIII.
THE UPPER BASIN OF THE ELBE AND THE MOKAVA.

llicilll. MIA, MoUAVIA, AND At'hTK'AN SlLESIA.)

GENERAL ASPECTS, MOUNTAINS, AND RIVERS.

OHEMIA is usually looked upon as occupying the very centre of
Europe. This is not in reality the case, for the geometrical centre
of Europe lies farther to the east, and the Alps, which form the
main watershed, rise to the south-west. Bohemia, nevertheless,
occupies an intermediate position between Northern and Southern,
Western and Eastern Europe. Like a huge quadrangular citadel, it advances into
the heart of the plains of Northern Germany. Of its four ramparts, the Bohemian
Forest and the Sudetes extend from the south-east to the north-west, whilst the
Ore Mountains (Erzgebirge), which separate Bohemia from Saxony, and the
plateau of Moravia, stretch from the south-west to the north-east.

The general orographical features of no other country in Europe equal those
of Bohemia in simplicity. But when we come to examine these mountains in
detail we find that they vary exceedingly in their aspects. The Bohemian Forest
is made up of an undulating plateau a system of parallel ranges, and a cluster
of curiously piled-up mountain summits. Only a few localities recall the Alps,
for the average height docs not quite reach 4,000 feet, and the dome-shaped
masses of gneiss and schistose pyramids do not rise to any great height above the
valleys. There are, however, a few summits crowned with dykes of white quartz,
locally known as " Devil's Walls." The beauty of the Bohemian Forest must be
sought for in its "running streams," its blue lakelets, and its magnificent trees.
Nowhere else in Germany is the foliage of the beech denser, or the height of the
fir or pine more considerable. Only a few of the highest summits pierce the
region of forests, and reach into that of pastures. The woodman's axe has com-
mitted the usual havoc in these forests, but there exist wide tracts in primeval
luxuriance, with trees nearly a couple of hundred feet in height, and they are still
the home of the boar and the bison, the latter as well as the beaver being carefully
preserved. The wolf has been exterminated, and the last bear was killed in 1856.
The southern portion of the Bohemian Forest is undoubtedly more picturesque

126

AUSTEIA-HUNGAEY.

than its less elevated northern extremity, but the latter attracts the larger numher
of visitors, for the favourite watering-places of Murienbad and Franzensbad lie
within its valleys. The pass, or gateway, of Taus (1,473 feet) leads across the
very centre of the range. The Cerchov (3,500 feet) commands it in the north, the
Oser (4,066 feet) in the south. It was through this gap that the Germans most
frequently essayed to penetrate into the country of the Chechians ; and blood has
flown there in torrents from the days of Samo, the Slav champion, early in
the seventh century, to the war of the Hussites, in the fifteenth. A second

Fig. 77. THE MOUNTAINS OF BOHEMIA.

If E.ofP.

51'

16 E.oi'G.

A luftvlti ;',,'o-., . v.

f~ I

I J

pass, known as the Golden Path (Goldeuer Steig, 2,664 feet), leads across the
mountains farther north. These are the only passes which give ready access
to Bohemia, and railways now run through both of them. Everywhere else the
Bohemian Forest forms an excellent strategical frontier, the interior slopes being
gentle, whilst the outer ones, towards Bavaria, are steep and difficult of access.
The culminating summit of the range, the Arber (4,783 feet), rises within the
frontier of Bavari.i.*

Total length of tho Bohemian Forest, 137 miles; average width, 19 miles; average height, 2,300
feet m the north, 3,940 feet in the sojth

BOHEMIA, MOEAVIA, AND AUSTRIAN SILESIA.

127

The Erzgebirge, or " Ore Mountains," which bound Bohemia on the north-west,
contrast in several respects with the Bohemian Forest. Rising like a wall above
the valleys of the Eger and Biela, in Bohemia, they slope down gently on the
Sixon side. Strategically they form, consequently, a part of Germany, and in
real tv the whole of their slopes are peopled by Germans, who have brought under
cultivation all the available soil. The highest village, Gottesgabe, lies at an
elevation of 3,440 feet. The range is of more uniform contour than the Bohemian
Forest, and its summits are more rounded. Numerous roads cross it in all
directions. Only towards the extremities does it present really picturesque
features: in the west, where chaotically piled-up mountain summits join it to the

Fig. 78. THE PAS* OF TAVS (DUMALICE).
Scale 1 : 425,000.

10"' 30

E. of Parts

(Roloveci

12'50'E.Ofa

6 Miles.

Fichtelgebirge, and in the east, where it terminates in the grotesquely shaped
sandstone rocks of " Saxon Switzerland," at the foot of which flows the Elbe.*

To the west of the deep gorge scooped out by the Elbe on its passage from
Bohemia into Saxony rises a mountain system which is geologically a pendant
of the Erzgebirge. It begins with the volcanic range of Lusatia, continued in the
schistose ridge of the Jmehlicn (Jeted, 3,323 feet). A broad plain separates the
Jeschken from the triple granitic range of the Iser Mountains (3,687 feet), and the
crystalline and schistose masses of the Riesengebirge, or " Giant Mountains," whose
bold contours remind us of the Alps. More elevated than the Bohemian Forest
the Schneekoppe rising to a height of 5,186 feet this mountain mass impresses

Length of the Erzgehirpo. s:, ,,ii]...s ; average width, 23 miles; average height, 2,620 feet; culmi-
nating jioiut (Keilberg), 4,l. u .2 IV, t.

128 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

the beholder by its isolation and its steep declivities, and the luxuriant forests
which cover its lower slopes present a charming contrast to the stunted vegeta-
tion and verdant pastures of its summits. In summer these pastures are the home of
herdsmen, who perfume the butter and cheese they make with aromatic herbs. The
Giant Mountains do not yield subterranean treasures, and the inhabitants employ
themselves in various domestic industries. They are Germans, and geographically,
as well as by legendary lore, the Giant Mountains belong to Germany rather
than to Bohemia. A labyrinth of mountains, surmounted by the granitic crest of
the Adlergebirge, connects the Giant Mountains with the Sudetes, culminating in
the pyramidal Schneeberg (4,648 feet) and the venerable summit of the Altvuter
(4,880 feet). Various passes lead across the Sudetes. To the west of Gratz a
wide gap connects the upper tributaries of the Neisse with those of the Elbe,
and Prussia, fully recognising the strategical importance of this " gate " of
Bohemia, has taken care to secure its possession. Another depression, lying only
960 feet above the sea, separates the Sudetes from the Carpathians, thus opening
a passage into Moravia, defended by the fortress of Olmiitz.

The fourth side of the great Bohemian quadrilateral is not formed by a
mountain range, but by a height of land covered with towns and villages, and con-
stituting no well-defined boundary between Moravia and Bohemia. This accounts
for the two countries named being peopled by men of the same race, and having, in
most cases, shared the same political destinies. Thus, although Bohemia slopes to
the north and is drained into the German Ocean, it forms, politically and geographi-
cally, a portion of the basin of the Danube, and it 'is the Erzgebirge and the
Sudetes. and not the height of land between the Danube and the Elbe, which
form the true dividing line between the north and the south of Central
Europe.

The interior of Bohemia is frequently said to form a " basin," and looking to
the ramparts of crystalline mountains which encompass the country, this descrip-
tion is in a certain measure admissible. In reality the country consists rather of
a succession of terraces, decreasing in height as we proceed to the north. These
terraces are formed of sedimentary rocks successively deposited upon the slopes of
mountains of primitive formation, and they have been ravined by the numerous
rivers which intersect them. In the very centre of this Bohemian basin rise
the Silurian hills of Hrbeny and Brdp, whose palaeontology has been studied
with such success by M. Barrande, and which abound in mineral treasures.
Farther north isolated basaltic cones rise in the midst of the sedimentury forma-
tion. The Mittelgebirge, on both sides of the Elbe, is altogether composed of
volcanic rocks. There are regularly shaped cones rising to a height of 2,600 feet,
piled-up masses of scoriao, and sheets and streams of lava. The old castles, chapels,
and hermitages which crown the summits of many of these cones enhance the
beauty of the scenery. The decomposed lava at the foot of these hills is of
exceeding fertility, and every village is embowered in a forest of fruit trees. The
mineral springs which rise in this part of the country prove that subterranean
agencies are not yet quite exhausted. Amongst these springs are those of Teplitz,

BOHEMIA, MORAVIA, AND AUSTRIAN SILESIA.

129

Carlsbad, Bilin, Pullna, and Sedlitz, whose curative properties annually attract a
host of visitors.

The mountains of Bohemia and Moravia give birth to the three great rivers
of Northern Germany, the Vistula, the Oder, and the Elbe. The Vistula, when
first it escapes from its rocky cradle in the Beskids, irrigates the plains of Galicia
and Poland, whilst the Oder, only a short distance below its source in the Sudetes,
enters German Silesia. The Elbe alone grows into a formidable river before it
crosses from Bohemia into Saxony. It rises in a boggy swamp on the southern
slope of the Giant Mountains, and the whole of Bohemia, a few border districts

Fig. 79. VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS IN NORTHERN BOHEMIA.
According to Hickmann.

1T30

12 E.of Paris

13-50'

'l4'SO' E.of G.

Porphyry $ Metujthyr

excepted, lies within its bounds ; whilst Moravia lies wholly within the basin of
the Morava, after which it has been named, and which is known to Germans
as the March ; and whilst the Elbe flows north towards the German Ocean,
the Morava takes its course towards the Danube and the Black Sea.

The hydrographical nomenclature of the country is full of anomalies. The
Upper Elbe is far inferior in volume to its assumed tributary, the Moldau, or
Vltava. The latter is in reality the great arterial river of Bohemia, and a canal
connects it with the Danube and the Black Sea. The Upper Elbe, however,
flowing in the same direction as the united river below Kolin, has given its name
to the entire river system.

The Upper Vltava and most of its tributaries flow through a region of bogs,
81

180

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

and the broader valleys abound in swamps and small lakes, which act as
" regulators" when the rivers become flooded. The peasants make no use of the
turf as fuel, but they are imprudently active in converting the bogs into produc-
tive land. The small lakes are utilised with considerable success for breeding
fish. It would be far more prudent to allow the bogs to remain as they are, for a
considerable amount of rain falls in Bohemia,* and the bogs, by sucking it up
like a sponge, regulate the flow of the rivers. Rivers which formerly never
overflowed their banks have done so since the drainage works have been begun.

The Vltava and the Elbe effect their junction below Prague, and soon after,
near the bold rock crowned with the ruins of Schreckenstein, the united river is
joined by the Eger from the west. It then enters the gorge through which it

Fig. 80. LAKE REGION IN SOUTHEKN BOHEMIA.
Scale 1 : 375,000.

10 Milus.

escapes from Bohemia. The smiling landscapes of its upper course give place to
bolder scenery. On both banks rise the basaltic cones of the Mittelgebirge,
succeeded by the grotesquely shaped sandstone masses of Bohemian and Saxon
Switzerland. Picturesque towns are seated upon the winding river, and castles
crown the heights looking down upon this gateway of the Elbe, which forms both
a geographical and political boundary, separating Bohemia from the lowlands of
Germany.

INHABITANTS.

Two thousand years have passed away since Bohemia and Moravia were in the
possession of the Boii and other tribes, usually called Celtic. Near Olmutz and at

Rainfall in inches : Bodenhach, at the gate of the Elbe, 23'6 ; Trautenau, near the source of the
Elbe, 40-6 ; Prague, 16'7 ; Budweis, on the Upper Vltava, 24-4.

BOHEMIA, MOEAVIA, AND AUSTRIAN SILESIA.

181

Troppau, M. Jeitteles has discovered the remains of pile villages which resemble
the lake dwellings of ancient Gaul. The corals and marine shells found amongst
the potsherds and bones prove that these ancient inhabitants of the country kept
up an intercourse with the Mediterranean.

In the end these Boii were either driven out of Bohemia, or became the
subjects of Germanic Quadi and Marcomanni, who held the country when the

Fig. 81. THE SCHRECKENSTEIN Aussio, ON THE ELBE.

Romans first crossed the Danube. To these, at the time of the great migration of
peoples, succeeded Rugii and Longobardi, and later on, in the beginning of the
sixth century, Slavs, who have remained the dominant race of the country down to
the present day. A few districts, however, such as the Soho'nhengstler, in Upper
Bohemia and Moravia, have, since the dawn of history, remained uninterruptedly
in the possession of Germans.

The Slav inhabitants of Bohemia and Moravia are of the same race. As a rule

132 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

the term Chechians (Czechs) is applied to the Slavs of Bohemia, whilst their
kinsmen in Moravia and within the border of Hungary are known as Moravians
and Slovaks. Tribal names no longer survive amongst the Chechians, but they
do with the Moravians. The Horaks inhabit the highlands bordering upon
Bohemia, and hardly differ from the Chechians. The Hanaks dwell to the east
of these heights, and in the valleys sloping down towards the Morava. They
number about 400,000 souls. The " Wallachs" live on the frontiers of Hungary.
They are pure Slavs, and have nothing in common with the Rumanians except
the name. Schafarik looks upon them as Boii who adopted the Slav language, and
became known to their German neighbours as Walla,chs, or " Welsh."

The Chechians have had to struggle severely to maintain their numerical
superiority. Almost surrounded by Germans, only a narrow strip of country
connects them with their kinsmen in the east. The Germanisation of the country
made rapid progress after the twelfth century. Lands and privileges were granted
to the German colonists whom nobles and ecclesiastical orders called into the
country. It was the Germans who founded most of the towns, and towards the
close of the fourteenth century Bohemia was looked upon as a German land. But a
violent reaction then took place. The Hussite war degenerated into a war of races,
and the multitudes whom &zka exterminated were Germans. Ever since that time
the Chechians have held their own, notwithstanding their political dependence upon
Germany, and the havoc wrought during the Thirty Years' War, when the popula-
tion was reduced to 780,000 souls, and men were allowed to take two wives, to
repeople the country.

At the present time the linguistic boundary between Slavs and Germans
changes but slowly. The Germans occupy the mountains, the Chechians the hills
and the plains. Both slopes of the Bohemian Forest, the Erzgebirge, and the
Sudetes are inhabited by Germans.

The westernmost district of Europe occupied by Slavs lies close to the Pass
of Domazlice (Taus) and Bavaria. Its inhabitants are Poles, and not Chechians.
According to some they were called into the country by King Bretislav I., and
charged with guarding the frontier towards Germany, on which account they
are known as Chodes, or " Watchmen." They speak Polish no longer, but can
still be recognised by their vivacity and their national costume. The liberties
originally granted to these colonists were finally abrogated in 1628, when they
were reduced to a state of serfdom. Another body of Chodes, settled towards the
south-west, in the upper valley of the Brdlavka, or Angel, were more fortunate,
for they and their German neighbours retained their ancient privileges up to the
middle of the present century, when serfdom ceased to be an institution through-
out Bohemia.

To the south of the Erzgebirge the whole of the country as far as the Eger
is held by the Germans, the villages whose names terminate in grun or rente
("clearing") marking approximately the linguistic boundary. To the west of the
Elbe the Slavs extend to the foot of the mountains, and at one spot even into
Prussian Silosiu. Farther south the territory of the Slavs is restricted to a strip

BOHEMIA, MOBAVIA, AND AUSTRIAN SILESIA. 133

of country between Briinn and Olmiitz hardly 40 miles wide, even though we
include in it Igluu and other enclaves exclusively inhabited by Germans. One-
half of Austrian Silesia and that portion of Moravia which lies nearest to Vienna
became German centuries ago. The inhabitants of many districts are bilingual.
Chechian appears to gain ground slowly, excepting to the north-west of Prague,
between the Eger and the Berounka ; and Germans living in Chechian districts
not unfrequently turn renegades to the extent even of changing their family
names.*

The struggle between German and Slav is an ardent one in Bohemia. The two
detest each other, and the antagonism is all the stronger as it is one of class as well
as of race. The citizens of the towns are for the most part German, whilst the
aristocracy, the peasants, and many of the factory hands are Chech. The rivalry
between the two races is stimulated by every political event, and even in the
smallest villages the national antagonism is kept alive by associations of every
kind. The Chechian peasant is by no means ignorant of the history of his
country, and though a Catholic, feels proud of the achievements of John Huss and
Zizka. These historical associations possibly account for the indulgence with
which he looks upon the few surviving congregations of Hussites. On the other
hand, he detests the Jew, whom he looks upon as an ally of his German enemy.
And indeed the Jews, with rare exceptions, take the side of the Germans, for it is
with German citizens or manufacturers that they transact most business. The
Jews speak both languages, but when among themselves they prefer German.
The influence of the Jews is by no means inconsiderable, for they are numerous,
and also more highly educated than either Germans or Chechians. Kolin may
be looked upon as their head-quarters, and in several other towns they form a
majority of the inhabitants. The Chechians, however, possess an ally beyond
the Carpathians no less powerful, and an exchange of sentiments is being carried
on incessantly between Prague and Moscow.

Whatever the future may have in store for them, the Chechians are undoubt-
edly one of the most compact and energetic nations of Europe, and of all the
Slavs they have most successfully resisted foreign influences. The women of
Bohemia are famous for their clear complexion and fine figures. As to the men,
they do not much differ from the Germans, except that their cheek-bones are
somewhat more prominent, and their eyes deeper set. Their skulls are very large,
and if cerebral capacity is to be accepted as a test of intellect, they occupy a
foremost position amonget the nations of Eurtpe, ranking high above the Germans.
They have indeed contributed largely to the march of ideas, notwithstanding their
political dependency and the wars which so frequently laid waste their country.
Prague is the oldest university of Central Europe, and Huss, a century before

Nationalities in 1875 :

Chechiana. Germans. Poles. Jews. Total.

Bohemia . . 3,310,000 2,000,000 110,00 5,420,000

Moravia . . 1,550,000 508,000 54,000 2,112,000

Auntriiin Silesia . 110,000 279,000 I_59,0p0 7.000 655,000

Total . 4,970,000 2,787,000 T/>9,000 171,000 8,087,000

13 4 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Luther, raised the standard of the Reformation. Austria has vainly sought to
eradicate the national language by prohibiting its use in schools. The Germans
may predominate politically, thanks in a large measure to a cleverly contrived
electoral law, but the Chechian national spirit manifests itself in a hundred
different ways. The ancient history of the country is being studied, national
songs are being collected, and the educated classes share in the scientific and
literary work of the age. Many of the Austrian journalists and a still larger
number of the Government functionaries are Chechians. Education makes rapid
progress. The Chechians exhibit a peculiar aptitude for mathematics ; they are
also good musicians, though none of their composers can aspire to be placed in the
first rank.

Both Chechians and Germans have discontinued to wear a national costume, for
the dress in which the students of Prague occasionally parade the streets is a
fancy one. The peasant women around Domazlice, however, continue to wear red
bodices and kerchiefs, short petticoats and red stockings. In Moravia, too, and
amongst the Slovaks, the old national costume is not yet extinct. The Hanaks,
who cultivate the fertile valley of the Hana, wear yellow leather pantaloons, an
embroidered belt, a cloth jacket richly ornamented, and a multitude of small metal
buttons on the chest. A white over-coat or a blue cloak, with several collars one
above the other, and a black hat with red or yellow ribbons, complete this
costume. Women as well as men wear heavy boots, which render their walk
very clumsy. But though the peasant women of Bohemia now almost universally
imitate the dress of their German neighbours, they still exhibit a decided
preference for red.

The towns of Bohemia and Moravia do not differ, in outward appearance, from
the towns of Germany ; but in the more remote villages we are still able to imagine
ourselves in the Middle Ages. They consist of dwellings placed around an open
oval or circus. The houses are of wood, with a door and two windows looking
upon this open space. The overhanging straw roof is supported by columns.
Barns, stables, and dunghills form an outer circle. There are few trees or flower
gardens, and the only ornament of these dreary-looking villages consists of a
statue of St. John of Nepomuk, the patron saint of Bohemia. Dances, however,
frequently interrupt the monotony of daily life, for the Chechians are passionately
fond of that exercise, and we are indebted to them for some of our favourite
" steps," including the Polka, erroneously supposed to be of Polish origin.

AGRICULTURE, MINING, AND INDUSTRY.

BOHEMIA and Moravia are countries of large estates. More than a third of
Bohemia belongs to noblemen, and one of the Princes of Schwarzenberg owns estates
covering many square miles. The Emperor and the Church are amongst the largest
landholders. These extensive estates, as elsewhere, have led to the impoverishment
and the demoralisation of the great mass of the people. Every one of these feudal
families has its staff of bailiffs and other hangers-on, but the people around the

BOHEMIA, MORAVIA, AND AUSTRIAN SILESIA.

185

sumptuous castles live in misery, and the land is badly cultivated. Although the
most fertile tracts form part of these large estates, they do not yield half as
much per acre as do the holdings of the small proprietors.

Agriculture consequently is still capable of much development, but Bohemia and
Moravia even now are amongst the most productive countries of Austria. The
fertility of some districts is very great. In the lowlands of Moravia and in the
valley of the Hana the peasants are able to live at ease. Other fertile districts are on

Fig. 82. A LAKOE ESTATE IN BOHEMIA.
Scale 1 : 490,000.

lOMilim.

the Upper Elbe, around Koniggratz ; the " Golden Rod," in the valley of the Eger ;
the " Paradise" around Teplitz; and the " Garden of Bohemia," in the Mittelgebirge.
The best hops of Central Europe are grown around Sauz (Zutec). In addition to their
varied agricultural productions, including wine, Bohemia and Silesia are rich in
coals and ores. The coal mines of the Oder, the Elbe, Pilsen, Kladno, Teplitz,
and Polnisch Ostrau yield about half the total quantity produced throughout the
empire. Graphite is worked in Moravia and in Southern Bohemia, at Budweis.

136

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Tin is found on the southern slopes of the Erzgebirge. Every metal or mineral
useful to man is found in Bohemia, from gold and precious stones to iron and
porphyry, only excepting rock-salt. Kuttenburg (Kutna-Hora) had formerly
one of the most productive silver mines of Europe, but it has been abandoned. At
the present day it is Pfibram which yields most silver. This mine has been
worked uninterruptedly since 755 : its principal shaft descends 3,300 feet, and the
ore appears to increase in richness with the depth. About 25,000 Ibs. of silver
were won in 1860, and 42,000 Ibs. in 1872.

The manufacturing industry is highly developed, and the value of the
articles produced annually has been estimated at nearly 50,000,000 sterling.

Fig. 83. THE COAL MINES OF WESTERS BOHEMIA.

E. of P. 1 1

14" E.of G.

mci^uJ jfannJaaKi>-iea

Nearly every branch of industry is represented, for there are cotton, woollen,
and linen manufactories, print and dye works, iron works, machine shops,
chemical works, tanneries, paper-mills, sugar refineries, and breweries. But it is the
glass of Bohemia which is best known beyond the limits of the country, and
which is distinguished by beauty of design, lightness, and brilliancy of colour.

The manufactories are dispersed all over the country, but each district carries
on by preference some special branch. Most of the glass works are in the moun-
tains, where silica and fuel abound. The manufacture of porcelain is carried on
around Carlsbad, in the valley of the Eger. Iron works have naturally been
established in the vicinity of the coal mines, at Pilsen, Kladno, and Polnisch Ostrau.

BOHEMIA, MORAVIA, AND AUSTRIAN SILESIA.

187

The large towns, such as Prague, Briinn, and Troppau, have attracted an extensive
industrial population ; but the great manufacturing region, the Bohemian Lan-
cashire, lies on the Upper Elbe, and its centre is Reichenberg. This district
leads up to the gateway of the Giant Mountains, and is traversed by the high-
road connecting Vienna with Berlin. Strategically it is of great importance,
and the hills upon which was fought the battle of Sadowa rise within it. Farther
to the east, through the valley of the Morava, passes the high-road which connects
Vienna with Breslau, Danzig, Warsaw, and Central Russia.

TOWNS.

BOHEMIA. Prague (Praha, Prag, 223,000 inhabitants*), the capital of Bohemia,
is one of the fine cities of the world. Humboldt considered it inferior only to Lisbon,

Fig. 84. PRAGUE AND ITS ENVIRONS.
Scale 1 : 200,000.

5 Miles.

Naples, and Constantinople, and none can look without pleasure upon this " town
of the hundred towers," with its castellated heights of theHradshin,its fortress of
V\ iehrad, and its bridges spanning the lake -like Vltava,, with its verdant islands.
Prague lies in the very centre of Bohemia, and only Leitmeritz, below the con-
fluence of the Eger and Elbe, and above the gorge leading through Bohemian and
Saxon Switzerland, occupies a geographical position at all comparable with it.
Prague, however, offers far greater facilities for communicating with the countries
lying outside the mountain ramparts of Bohemia, and its natural advantages are
aided by a network of railways converging upon it. Next to Vienna and Buda-
Pest, Prague is the most populous city of the empire, ranking far above every
other town of Bohemia.

The " Old City," in the centre of modern Prague, abounds in historical

* In 1875, 120,000 Slavs, 88,000 Germans, 15,000 Jews.

138

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Fig. 85. THE KAKI.SBKUCKE AT PRACUK.

associations. The town-hall, with its huge clock tower, recalls the execution of
the Protestant leaders after the battle of the White Mountain. Near it are the

BOHEMIA, MORAVIA, AND AUSTRIAN SILESIA. 189

Teynkirche, with its curious towers and the tomb of Tycho Brahe, and the
university buildings.* The Knrkbrucke, with statues of St. John of Nepomuk and
other saints, connects the old city with the fortified Kleinseite and the plateau
of the Hradsliin, upon which rise the Gothic cathedral of St. Vitus, now being
restored, and the royal castle, an extensive pile of buildings, through one of the
windows of which the imperial governors and their secretary were thrown in 1618,
an event which led to the most atrocious war of modern times. The public gardens
of the Belvedere lie to the north of the Hradsliin, and afford a magnificent view of
the city and the meandering Vltava. To the west is seen the White Mountain, where
the power of Bohemia succumbed at the commencement of the Thirty Years' War.
Prague is expanding in all directions. Karolinenthal (Karlin) and Smichow, two
suburbs abounding in manufactories, extend along the river ; Zizkov and the
" New Town " occupy the elevated ground to the east of the old city. New
streets have been opened, including the spacious Wenzelsplatz, quays have been
constructed, and sumptuous buildings erected. But there still remain a few
dilapidated quarters, the most remarkable of which is the ancient Ghetto, with
its sombre synagogue and God-forsaken burying-ground.

At the time when Prague was still the capital of an independent kingdom, the
sovereign usually resided at the castle of Karhiein (Karluv Ty'n), erected upon a
commanding rock overhanging the river Berounka ; but the glories of this palace
have departed, and most of its art treasures have been transferred to Vienna.
Prague, however, abounds in magnificent palaces of the aristocracy, although
manufactories are more characteristic of it than these sumptuous edifices. These
manufactories enjoy the advantage of being close to productive coal mines.
Kladno (11,199 inhabitants), in the centre of this coal basin, has the largest
iron works of the country.

Btidwtis (Budejovice, 17,413 inhabitants), the chief city of Southern Bohemia,
lies near the head of the Vltava, and since 1828 an iron tramway has connected it
with Linz, on the Danube. It carries on a brisk commerce. Near it, in the midst
of an extensive forest, rises the sumptuous castle of Frauenberg. Pkek (9,181
inhabitants) is situate on a river descending from the Bohemian Forest. Castles
are numerous in its vicinity. Tabor (6,717 inhabitants), which played so impor-
tant a part in the war of the Hussites, and still boasts of a few buildings recalling
its ancient glories, is a sleepy town now, seated upon a plateau commanding the
winding Luznice. In memory of the great national meeting which took place at
that town, every public political meeting in Bohemia is called a Tabor.

Several towns of importance are situate in the valley of the Berounka (Beraun),
which joins the Vltava a few miles above Prague. Klattau (Klatovy, 8,060
inhabitants) is built at the mouth of a valley leading to the villages of the
Chodes. Tarn (Domax.lice, 7,647 inhabitants) commands the principal pass leading
into Bavaria. Marianhnil owes to its thermal springs such importance as it
enjoys. Pf-ibram (2,212 inhabitants) is widely known on account of its silver

The university was founded in 1348 by the Empei-or, Charles IV. It has 166 professor*, and is
attended by 2,000 students.

140

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Fig. 86. CARLSBAD.
Scale 1 : 18,000.

E.ofP.

mines. Stribro (Mies) has lead mines. The name of Pilsen (Plzen, 2,800
inhabitants) is known throughout the world in connection with the beer it
exports. The principal brewery, which is carried on conjointly by the 382
house-owners of the town, produces 3,520,000 gallons annually. Coul mines are
worked in the vicinity, but Pilseu is no longer the second town of Bohemia, this
place having been won by its younger manufacturing rival, Reichenberg.

The vtilley of the Egcr,
which stretches along the
foot of the Erzgebirge,
abounds in populous cities.
That amongst them which
is named Egcr (13,463 in-
habitants), after the river,
is not only an important
railway centre, but has also
manufactures. In its castle
Wallenstein was assassi-
nated in 1634. Asc/i (9,405
inhabitants), to the north-
west of Eger, carries on
various textile industries.
Carlsbad (7,276 inha-
hitants), the most famous
watering-place of Central
Europe, extends for several
miles along the valley of
the Tepl, a small tributary
of the Eger. Its principal
spring, the Stntdet, yields
about 5 gallons of water
a second, and the steam
rising from it is seen afar.
Carlsbad depends mainly
upon the 16,000 visitors
who annually remain there
for at least a week ; but it
has also resources of its

Porcelain and lace are manufactured in the town. Grnslits (6,549 inha-
bitants) manufactures embroidery and musical instruments, whilst Joaehimstkal
(6,586 inhabitants) is noted for its silver mines. Both these towns lie in the
Erzgebirge. S;taz (Zatec, 8,870 inhabitants), on the Eger, produces the best
hops of Bohemia, whilst Konwtau (Chomutov, 7,422 inhabitants), in the undulating
plain to the north of it, has metallurgical works.

The valley of the Elbe below the Eger is likewise densely inhabited, the

Quarter of a Mile.

own.

BOHEMIA, MORAVIA, AND AUSTRIAN SILESIA.

141

principal towns being Leitmeritz (LitomSrice, 10,023 inhabitants) and Amnig
(10,933 inhabitants). Two famous watering-places, Bilin and Teplitz (10,155
inhabitants), lie to the west of the Elbe, in a country justly renowned for its
scenery, and several manufacturing towns to the east of that river. Amongst
the latter are Warmdorf (14,900 inhabitants), Schonlinde (6,218 inhabitants),
Qeorgswalde (8,220 inhabitants), Bohmisch-Leipa (9,244 inhabitants), and Jiing-
Biuiztlau (8,695 inhabitants), principally employed in the production of texti'e

Fig. 87. RBICHENBERO AND ITS ENVIRONS.
Seal* 1 : 288,000.

5 Mile*.

fabrics ; Steinschonau and Gablonz (6,752 inhabitants), which engage in the
manufacture of glass; and Reichenberg (30,000 inhabitants), the first town in
the Austrian Empire for its cloth. Placed near to one of the gateways leading
into Bohemia, the town carries on an important trade. Trautcnau (7,U54 inha-
bitants) occupies an antilogous position near the eastern extremity of the Giant
Mountains.

On the Upper Elbe there are no towns of importance. The river below
Hohenellc (5,310 inhabitants), with its cotton and paper mills, flows past

14 2 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Koniginhof (Kralove Dvur, 6,222 inhabitants) ; Jarom&r (5,442 inhabitants) ;
Josefatadt ; the famous fortress of Kditnjgrdtz (Kralove Hradec, 5,515 inhabitants) ;
industrious Pardubice (8,167 inhabitants) ; Koliii (9,460 inhabitants), where
the Hussites in 1434 lost 13,000 men, and Frederick the -Great, nearly
three hundred years afterwards, suffered one of his rare defeats. The other
towns in the basin of the Elbe include LeitomySl (7,021 inhabitants), Chrudim
(11,218 inhabitants), and Kuttenberg (Kutna-Hora, 12,742 inhabitants), the latter
a very important place in the fourteenth century, when its silver mines yielded
rich treasures, whilst now it is dependent in a large measure upon the manu-
facture of beet sugar. To the south-east of it lies (idxlav (5,998 inhabitants),
where Zizka lies buried, and Frederick the Great achieved a victory which yielded
him the greater portion of Silesia.

MORAVIA cannot boast a city comparable at all with Prague for population,
beauty, or celebrity. Briinn (73,464 inhabitants), the capital of the country, is
a large manufacturing town, the rival of Leeds and Verviers, and commanded by
the citadel of the Spielberg, so famous as the prison of Silvio Pellico and others
condemned for state reasons. Olmutz (15,231 inhabitants) is, above all, a
fortress, defending the upper valley of the Morava and the northern approaches
to Vienna. Of other towns lying within the basin of the Morava may be men-
tioned Schonberg (7,285 inhabitants), which has iron mines and furnaces;
Sternberg (13,479 inhabitants), with linen factories ; Prossnitz (15,717 inha-
bitants), in the fertile vale of the Hana ; Prerau (7,000 inhabitants) ; Kremsier
(9,823 inhabitants) ; and Ungarisch-Hradisch (3,100 inhabitants). The latter is
only a small town, built upon an island of the Morava ; but a short distance to
the north of it stood Vellehrad, the ancient capital of the Moravian Empire,
built in the commencement of the tenth century.

Ifjlau (20,112 inhabitants) still lies within the basin of the Morava, but far
away from its main valley, on the road from Briinn to Prague. It is an im-
portant town, with woollen-mills and glass works. Formerly it was a great
mining town. Znaini (10,600 inhabitants) and Nikolsburg (7,173 inhabitants),
both near the frontier of Austria proper, depend upon the neighbourhood of
Vienna for much of their trade. The only large town in the region of the Car-
pathians is Neu-Titschein (8,645 inhabitants), in the centre of a productive district
known as the " Land of Cows."

AUSTRIAN SILESIA lies almost wholly within the basins of the Oder and the
Vistula, and is therefore a natural dependency of Cracow and Bresluu, and not
of Vienna. Troppau (Opava, 16,608 inhabitants), the largest town of the province,
lies close to the Prussian frontier, on a small tributary of the Oder, and is known
through the alliance there renewed in 1820 between Austria, Russia, and Prussia.
Troppau and Jdgcrndorf (8,121 inhabitants) engage largely in the woollen indus-
try, whilst Freudenthal (6,243 inhabitants), to the west of the Litter, is the
principal seat of the linen and cotton manufactures. Still farther to the north-
west lies Freiwaldau (5,242 inhabitants), and near it the hydropathic establishment
of Griifenberg, founded by Priessnitz.

BOHEMIA, MORAVIA, AND AUSTRIAN SILESIA. 143

Teschen (9,779 inhabitants) is the principal town in the eastern or Polish part
of Austrian Silesia, but its trade has suffered somewhat since Oderberg, on the
Prussian frontier, has become the nucleus of an extensive network of railways.
Near Oderberg are the coal basins of Polnisch Ostrau and Karwin, which yield
nearly a million tons of coal a year.

Bielitz (10,721 inhabitants), on the eastern frontier, and separated only by the
Eiala from the Galician town of Biala, has important cloth factories.

CHAPTER IX.

STATISTICS OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

HE political situation of the twin empire of the Danube is altogether
unstable. Vienna and Pest are geographical centres, no doubt, but
the incompatibility of the races inhabiting the empire has caused
its boundaries to fluctuate in accordance with the fortunes of war,
and with the success of diplomatic intrigues or matrimonial alliances.
There was a time when the house of Habsburg was the most powerful in the
world. The boastful inscription of A E I TJ (Austria est imperare orbi utii-
verso), still to be seen on some public buildings, recalls that time. Then, again,
the empire found itself at the mercy of a ruthless conqueror. For fifty years
Austria swayed the decisions of the German Diet, and her orders were obeyed in
Italy ; but the thunders of Sadowa for ever deprived her of the lead in Central
Europe, and only the East appears able to give her compensation for the losses
suffered in the West.

It might be supposed that Austria's expulsion from Germany consolidated
her strength. Far from it. German Austria aspires to union with the
German fatherland. If the empire were to be broken up, the German Austrians
would certainly not combine with the Austrians of other nationalities, but they
would join their kinsmen in the west and north, for Vienna is German above
all. The non-German nationalities, on the other hand, have taken advantage
of the feebleness of th6 central Government to secure their political autonomy.
Vienna has been compelled to make concessions. "Austrian patriotism " has
given place to national aspirations tending to the formation of a group of inde-
pendent states. If it were not for the esprit de corps which animates the army
and the functionaries, and the power of habit, Austria would long ago have
gone to pieces.

Every great political event shakes the empire to its foundations. Austria has
occupied Bosnia and the Herzegovina, but may not this annexation accelerate its
final dismemberment ? The Slav element has gained greatly in consequence, and
the Slavs, forming a vast majority in the empire, will claim, in course of time,
political advantages equal to those enjoyed by Germans and Magyars.

The Germans, no doubt, would console themselves by a union with Germany,

STATISTICS OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 145

but the Magyars would then occupy a far less favourable position. Hemmed
in on all sides by hostile races, their very existence as a nation would be
threatened. Need we wonder, then, that during the late war they sided with
their old enemies, the Turks, and resisted to the last the threatened occupation of
Bosnia ? They feel that the fate of the Turks may one day be their own. Like
them, they are looked upon as strangers in the land they govern.

It would be presumptuous to anticipate the destinies of Austria. Pala6ky,
the historian, said in 1848 that " if Austria existed not, it would be necessary to
invent it ; " but a crisis, attended by vast changes in the balance of power in
Eastern Europe, is nevertheless approaching. If Vienna and Pest are unable or
unwilling to satisfy the aspirations of the nationalities represented within the limits
of the empire, these will look beyond its boundaries for assistance.

But whatever the future may have in store, the material prosperity of Austria-
Hungary progresses as rapidly as that of most other European countries.

POPULATION.

THE population increases. In 1816, soon after the wars of the empire, the
Emperor Francis reigned over 28,000,000 subjects. In 1857, when the first
trustworthy census was taken, the empire had 32,000,000 inhabitants ; and twelve
years afterwards, in 1869, 35,943,000. The annual increase thus amounted to
325,000 souls, and if we suppose it to have continued, the empire must now have
a population of over 38,000,000 souls. In population the empire, therefore, ranks
next to Russia and Germany, but its density is less than in the United Kingdom,
Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, or the Netherlands. The birth rate exceeds
the death rate throughout, but varies exceedingly, and whilst the inhabitants
of Dalmatia, Carniola, and the Tyrol live to a good old age, the Hungarians
die young. Pest, amongst all the capitals of Europe, is that where Death reaps his
most abundant harvests.*

AGRICULTURE AND MINING.

IN Austria-Hungary, as in other countries of Europe, the towns increase at a
more rapid rate than the villages, but at the present time, at all events, the great
mass of the inhabitants live in the country districts. The great wealth of the
empire consists in its varied agricultural products. Nearly all the food and
"industrial" plants of Europe are grown within its limits. All the cereals are
grown, but it is only in the cultivation of maize that Austria holds the first place
in Europe. f The yield per acre is far less than in Western Europe, and if wheat
and flour are nevertheless exported in large quantities, this can be done only
because Rumanians, Polaks, and Slovenes live almost permanently at a starvation
rate.

Birth rate (1869), 40-3 ; death rate, 30-0. Death rate in the Tyrol, 23-9 ; in the Military Frontier
districts, 417.

t Annual produce of cereals, about 688,000,000 quarters, of which one-fourth consists of oats, one
fourth of rye, one-fifth of wheat, and one-seventh of maize.

146

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Potatoes are largely grown, and viticulture is carried on with success. The
Adriatic slopes yield olive oil, the northern provinces the beet employed in the
manufacture of sugar. Tobacco, flax, and hemp are likewise important articles of
cultivation. The forests are very extensive, but only in the Cis-Leithan provinces
are they managed with care and intelligence. These Cis-Leithan provinces,
though inferior in extent to the Trans Leithan ones, are far more carefully
cultivated. The extent of waste land capable of cultivation is very small, whilst

Fig. 88. THE DENSITY OF THE POPULATION OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
Scale 1 : 12,000,000.

Inhabitants to a Square Mile.

1S6-2US.

100 Miles.

in Hungary vast tracts of swamp and steppe still await the ploughman's
share.*

The two halves of the empire exhibit similar differences as to their live stock.
Hungary is poorer in horned cattle than Austria, but has more horses, pigs, and
sheep. The empire is richer in horses than any other state of Europe, Russia

Distribution of the cultivated land in acres (1870) :

Cie-Leithania.
Arable land .... 25,123,600

Meadows 8,912,600

Pastures 11,315,000

Forests ... 23,426,600

Fallov

5,410,010

Trans-Leithnnia.
26,032,900
9,430,180
10,385,200
20,668,600
13,609,000

STATISTICS OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

147

alone exccpted, but in other animals it holds an inferior rank ; and not only wool,
but also horned cattle figure largely amongst the imports.*

The annual revenue derived from the cultivation of the land has been estimated
at 264,600,000 ; that yielded by mines and quarries does not probably exceed
10,000,000 ; and yet the mineral treasures of the country are most varied,
including as they do precious and building stones, coal and salt, sulphur and
petroleum, slate and potter's clay, iron, copper, gold, silver, and other metals. The
coal mines are being worked with increasing success, for the demands of numerous
manufactories are ever increasing.! The production, however, is still far behind
that of Germany, Belgium, France, or the British Islands. The salt mines of
Austria are inexhaustible, but their yield, including that of the salt marshes of

Fig. 89. DIAGRAM EXHIBITING THE IXLIIEASE IN THE PRODUCTION OF COAL, 1819 1873.

' u,
u

Istria and Dalmatia, hardly exceeds 4,000,000 cwts. a year. The iron mines, too,
are capable of much development.?

MANUFACTURES.

THE manufacturing industry of the empire is rapidly becoming of importance,
and its progress has been far more marked than that of agriculture. In this respect
also the Cis-Leithan provinces are far ahead of Hungary. Styria and Carinthia

Live stock in 1870 :

Cis-Leithania.

Trana-Leithai

Horses

1,389,600

2,l58,8uO

Asses anl mules

43,100

33,700

Oxen .

7,425,200

5,279,200

Buffaloes . .

7,000

73,000

Sheep

6,026,400

15,077,000

Goats

979,100

573,000

Pigs . . .

2,551,500

4,443,300

60,000,000 head of poultry ; 1,000,000 beehives.

t In 18291838 the annual production of coal averaged 230,000 tons, in 1861 it was 4,000,000 tons,
and in 1873 12,800,000 tons.

J In 1860 195,000 tons of iron were produced, and in 1873 503,000 tons, the consumption in the
latter year having amounted to 872,000 tons. There are altogether 153,200 miners (66,750 in coal mines).

$ In 1869 there were 2,707,000 factory hands in Cis-Leithania, and 834,000 in Trans- Leithania.

148

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

are the chief seats of the iron industry ; Bohemia and Moravia engage in the
textile industries, in the manufacture of glass and of beet-root sugar, and in the
brewing of beer. Vienna produces textile fabrics, machines, chemical products, and
a variety of minor articles. Hungary, Transylvania, and Croatia can hardly be
said to have a manufacturing industry, and Pest cannot bear comparison in this
respect with Vienna, Reichenberg, or other manufacturing centres of Bohemia or
Moravia. The proletariat of Austria and Bohemia is essentially composed of old

Fig. 90. THE SOHLERGRUND, OR PLAIN OF ZOLTOM, IN THE MINING DISTRICT OF ZOLTOM, HUKOAHT.

factory hands, whilst in Hungary it consists of agricultural labourers. In the
latter country male domestics are twice as numerous as in Austria, whose
manufacturing industry offers better chances of remunerative occupation.*

The minor industries are gradually being absorl ed by huge manufacturing
establishments. The peasant linen-weavers have almost disappeared. Huge
distilleries are gradually superseding the domestic stills, and the corn is ground in

* In 1871 there existed 155 cotton-mills, with 1,526,555 spindles (in Bohemia 705.279 spindles);
linen-mills with 400,000 spindles ; and 2,335 breweries, producing 277,200,000 gallons. The beet-root
sugar factories, in 18; 7-8, consumed 2,286,074 cwts. of beet-root.

STATISTICS OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

149

steam-mills belonging to capitalists or wealthy companies. Even the State
contributes towards this preponderance of the manufacturing industry, for ils
arsenals and tobacco factories count their workmen by thousands.*

COMMERCE.

UP to 1873, the year of the Vienna Exhibition, the progress in the industrial
activity of the empire was rapid. Manufactories increased in number, railways

Fig. 91. THE VIADUCT op KALTHINNB, ox THE SKMMERINO.

were constructed in all directions, and powerful companies were formed to
work the mines. But then came the Krac.h of May 9th, 1873. The banks
stopped payment, and thousands of families found themselves involved in ruin.
Millions were lost in the course of a few weeks, and all industrial progress was
arrested. t

Austria can hardly be said to have recovered from this financial crisis. Still
there has been some progress, for the laud is now being more carefully cultivated,

* In 1872 there were 36 Government tobacco manufactories, with 36,981 workmen. They produced
1,588,105,0.52 cigars and 37,260 tons of manufactured tobacco.

t In 1872 there existed 126 banks, with a capital of 201,058,000 ; in 1874 there only remained 28
banks, with a capital of 72,172,000.

150

AUSTRIA- II UNGAR Y.

and the new railways have promoted the extension of commerce. The imports
between 1855 and 1875 rose from 23,600,000 to 54,440,000 ; the exports from
23,900,000 to 55,100,000, and this notwithstanding the loss of some of the
wealthiest provinces.*

The maritime commerce of Austria-Hungary is naturally restricted, and
exhibits but little progress, t The Danube, however, compensates to some extent
for the small seaboard, and much of the merchandise which floats down that river
has ports of the Black Sea for its destination. * This river traffic is capable of much

Fig. 92. THE RAILWAYS OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
Scale 1 : 12,350,000.

100 Miles.

development, and it will no doubt increase rapidly as soon as the obstacle presented
by the Iron Gate shall have been removed.

The railway system of Austria-Hungary is extensive, far more so than might
be supposed from the amount of the foreign trade of the country. Engineering
difficulties of no mean order had to be overcome when crossing the Brenner, the
Semmering, the Carpathians, or the Carso. The network of railways is, however,
as yet far from complete. Many branch lines remain to be constructed in Hun-
gary, and the junctions with the railways of neighbouring states require multipli-

* The imports and exports in 1875 included

Articles of food ....
Other niw produce ....
Manufactured articles

Imports.

10,300,000

15,l>00,008

29,400,000

Exports
11,000,000
12,600,000
31,500,000

tons.

t The commercial marine consists of 7,608 vessels of 324,898 tons, inclusive of 99 steamers of 56,868
{ The Danubian Steam Navigation Company owns 156 steamers and 551 barges.

STATISTICS OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 151

cation. The railways which, in accordance with the treaty of Berlin, are to be
built in the Balkan peninsula will powerfully contribute towards a development
of Austrian commerce.*

EDUCATION.

THE Germans of Austria-Hungary claim to be the superiors in intellectual culture,
and in many respects their claim must be admitted. The schools of Austria
proper are better attended than any others, and education in the German provinces
is far more advanced than in the eastern half of the empire. In Austria proper
88 per cent, of the adults are able to read and write, in Bohemia only 61 per cent.,
in Hungary 26 per cent., in Galicia 5 per cent., in Dalmatia 1 per cent. Education,
however, is making rapid progress, more especially in Hungary, where the number
of schools has vastly increased since that country has regained its independence.

Cis-Leithania. Trans-Leithania.

Schools. Pupils. Schools. Pupils.

Elementary schools . . . 15,200 1,829.000 16,000 1,242,000

Middle-class schools ... 229 65,689 197 35,815

The ten universities of the empire are attended by 12,300 students, amongst
whom the Jews are proportionally very numerous. There are in addition 7
Polytechnic high schools (4,405 students), and numerous seminaries and special
schools.

We are not in a position to classify the nationalities of the empire according
to their morality, but in one respect the Germans appear to hold an inferior
position. The number of illegitimate children is greater amongst them than
amongst their fellow- citizens, and in Carinthia there are villages where more than
two-thirds of the children born are illegitimate^

The superior influence of the Germans cannot, however, be doubted when it is
a question of science, art, commerce, or industry. The majority of the books and
journals are printed in German, and even at Pest German papers find a larger
number of readers than those written in Magyar. German is the language by
means of which the educated classes of the whole empire are able to communicate
with each other, and its influence is on the increase. As to the Rumanians and
Ruthenians, they can hardly be said to enjoy an intellectual life. It is truly
remarkable that the number of periodicals published in Hebrew, a language no
longer spoken by the Jews, should be greater than that printed in Rumanian, a
language spoken by nearly 3,000,000 living on this side of the Carpathians.*

Railways, 11,175 miles; telegraphs, 30,445 miles, 8,025,826 dispatches; letters, &c., forwarded by
post, 335,686,000.

t Illegitimate births (1869) in Cis-Leithania, 14 "per cent. ; in Trans-Leithania, 6-97 per cent. ; in
Carinthia, 44'15 per cent. ; in Lower Austria, 31-50 per cent.

I 866 newspapers and periodicals appear in Cis-Leithania, and 325 in Trans-Leithania. Of these
662 are German, 195 Magyar, 107 Chechian, 63 Italian, and 49 Polish.

CHAPTER X.

GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION.

HE Emperor-King' exercises his powers in accordance with a con-
stitution more than once modified since its introduction. He
appoints the ministers and presides over their deliberations, pro-
mulgates the laws, and enjoys the right of pardon. He receives
a civil list of 930,000, one-half being paid by each of the two
states, Austria and Hungary.

The common affairs of the two states are directed by three ministers for Foreign
Affairs, War, and General Finance. The Minister of Foreign Affairs presides in
the absence of the Emperor, and, like his colleagues, he is responsible to the delega-
tions nominated by the two Diets. Cis-Leithania and Trans- Lei thania have each
their independent Cabinet, including Ministers of the Interior, of Education, of
Finance, of Agriculture and Commerce, of Public Works, and of Justice. A
member of the Hungarian Cabinet is attached to the Emperor's household, while
another takes charge of the affairs of Croatia. The two Cabinets are responsible to
their respective Diets. The Emperor occasionally may invite the members of these
Cabinets to attend the deliberations of the common ministry, but only when it is
a question of discussing the Budget or foreign affairs.

The legislative Diets and the electoral organization present similar complica-
tions, a curious mixture of feudal traditions, constitutional fictions, and compro-
mises. The Austrian Diet (Rcichsrath) consists of a House of Lords (Herrenha>it>)
and a House of Deputies (Abgtordnetenhtim). The former includes the 13 imperial
princes and 54 hereditary peers, 10 archbishops and 7 bishops, and 107 life
members appointed by the Emperor. The House of Deputies consists of 353
members elected for six years. Of these 85 are representatives of the landed
proprietors, 137 are elected by the towns and Chambers of Commerce, and 131 by
the rural districts. The franchise is enjoyed by all citi/ens who are of age and
possessed of a small property qualification. Practically the electoral laws favour
the return of German deputies.

The Diet (Orszdgyvles) of Trans-Leithania likewise includes two Chambers, viz.
a Board of Magnates (Feko Hdz] and a Board of Deputies (Also Has). The former
consists of 736 members, including 31 prelates, 626 noblemen, 76 governors of

GOVEBNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION. 153

coraitats and other high, dignitaries, 2 deputies of the Diet of Croatia, and the
"Count" of the Saxons of Transylvania. The Board of Deputies consists of
444 members, viz. 334 for Hungary, 1 for Fiume, 75 for Transylvania, and 34
for Croatia and Slavonia. The latter are nominated by the Diet of Croatia, itself
composed of hereditary and elective members. The Croat deputies may address
the Board in their own language, but all other members are only permitted to do
so in Magyar.

The affairs common to both halves of the empire can be discussed only by the
"Delegations," which meet alternately at Vienna and Pest. The Delegation of
each Diet consists of 60 members, one-third of whom belong to the Upper House.
The Delegations discuss separately. In case of a disagreement they address
written " messages " to each other. If an agreement is not arrived at after an
exchange of three messages, they meet and immediately vote. Such is the curious
mechanism of the " dualist " empire invented by Francis Deak for the exclusive
benefit of Germans and Magyars. The Slavs, Rumanians, and Italians can hardly
exercise any influence upon the administration of the country, and time must show
whether an organization which does them so little justice can last.

The organization of the provincial Diets (Landtage) is quite as complicated as
that of the superior representative bodies. Cis-Leithania has seventeen of them.
They are composed of members " by right," such as archbishops, bishops, and
rectors of universities, and of elected members, representing the large proprietors,
towns, Chambers of Commerce, and rural districts. The governor of the province
presides over the deliberations of these Diets and of their executive committees
(Landen-Aus&chuss). In Trans-Leithania there is only one of these local Diets, that
of Croatia.

The provincial capitals as well as several other towns are governed by a Muni-
cipal Council and a body of functionaries. In some instances a "Magistrate,"
elected by the citizens, exists in addition. Ordinary parishes are governed by
a burgomaster and commissioners (Gemeinde-Ausschuss), elected for three years.
" District Diets," in addition to the above, exist in some of the provinces.

In Hungary and Transylvania a distinction is made between " communes "
and " municipalities." The former have a representative body composed, in
equal proportions, of elected members and of the citizens paying the highest
taxes. The " magistrate " is appointed by this body. The municipalities enjoy
somewhat more extended privileges, but in every instance the great taxpayers
share the government with the elected of the people. These municipalities
include the comitats (counties), the " free districts," the " royal free cities," and
the "Land of the Saxons" in Transylvania. Government is represented by a
fo-ispdn (Ober Gespann in German), appointed for life, who presides over the
meetings. The " University of the Saxon Nation " is composed of forty-four
representatives of German towns and districts, presided over by a " Count." In
Croatia and Slavonia each comitat has its tskupUina, partly elected, and each
town or village its " municipal delegation."

Bosnia and Herzegovina, though not yet forming officially an integral por-

154

AUSTHIA-HUNGAKY.

tion of the Austrian Empire, are nevertheless being governed by Austrian officials,
and the probability of these countries being returned to Turkey is a very

remote one.*

The area and population of the great political divisions of the empire are as

follows :

Provinces.

Area.

Sq. MUes.

Population.
31 Dec., 1869. 31 Dec., 1879.

Austria below the Enns

7,654

1,990,708

2,143,928

above the Enns

4,632

786,667

7-16,097

C 1 V.

2,767

153,159

154,184

Styria (Steyermark)
Carinthia {Kiirnten)
Camiola (Krain) ....
Gorizia, Istria, Trieste .

8,670
4,005
3,857
3,084

1,137,990
337,694
466,334
600,525

1,178,067
338,705
469,996
622,899

Tyrol and Vorarlberg .

11,323

885,789

895,653

Bohemia (Bohmen)

20,061

5,140,544

5,361,506

_r . / -L, -yr,\

8,583

2,017,274

2,079,826

1,988

513,352

5,444.689

558,196
6,000,326

Galicia ...-

30,308

4,035

513,404

548,518

4,939

456,961

467,5i4

177,449

Total, Cis-Leithania

115,902

20,:i94,980

21,742,884

Hungary and Transylvania .

. 108,261
8

13,561,215 "I
17,884 |

Between 1870 and 1874
the number of deaths

Croatia and Slavonia .

8,852

1,138,970

> exceeded the births

7,303

699,'228

to the extent of

Army

92,128 ^

| 143,225

Total, Trans-Leithania

124,424

15,509,455

15,510,000

Grand Total

24<i,326

35,904,455

37,252,884

The Church is still a powerful institution in the empire, for its dignitaries
not only enjoy large emoluments, but, as members of the Diets, they also exercise
a considerable political influence. The sovereign must be a Roman Catholic.
The State recognises the Roman Catholic Church, with its three " rites," the
Greek Catholic Church, the Armenians, Lutherans, Calvinists, Unitarians, and
Jews. In Austria all other confessions are admitted, provided they teach nothing
" contrary to the laws of the land and to morals." In Hungary, however, dis-
senters are merely " tolerated."

The Roman Church supports an army of 36,000 priests, and the number of
ecclesiastics, inclusive of monks and nuns, exceeds 51,000, of whom 31,000 reside
in Cis-Leithania.

The Orthodox Greek Catholics had formerly but one patriarch, who resided at
Karlovci, in Syrmia ; but in 1864 the Rumanians separated from the Servians, and
elected a patriarch of their own, whose seat is Hermannstadt. In 1873 Govern-
ment separated the dioceses of Zara and Cattaro from the patriarchate of Karlovci,
and placed them under the Patriarch of Czernowitz.

The Lutheran Churches are governed by a Consistory, and the Calvinists by a

* Bosnia and Herzegovina : Area, 27,367 square miles; population, 1,061,000. See vol. i. p. 126.

GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION.

155

General Synod, both meeting at Vienna. The Consistory of the Unitarians has its
seat at Hermannstadt, in Transylvania.*

The Army is an institution common to the two halves of the empire, the
Militia (called Landicehr in Austria, Honveds in Hungary) alone having a local
character. In 1868 the army was reorganized on the model of that of Prussia.
The term of service is three years in the active army, seven years in the reserve,
and two years in the Landu-ehr. On a peace footing the army numbers 285,000 men,
with 47,540 horses, but in time of war the military forces can be raised to a
strength of more than 1,000,000 men, with 1,600 field guns.t

The Navy consists of 68 vessels, with 404 guns, manned in time of war by
12,000 Istrian and Dalmatian sailors. Fourteen of the vessels are armour-clad,
the most powerful being the Tegethoff, armed with six 25-ton guns, and clad with
armour 13 inches in thickness.

The finances of the empire are in a most unsatisfactory condition, and it
happens frequently that the Government hardly knows where to find the money to
pay its army of functionaries. In the course of the last hundred years it only
happened twice that there was a surplus. The common expenses, towards which
Austria contributes 68 per cent, and Hungary 32 per cent., are met, no doubt, but
the separate Budgets of Austria and Hungary only too plainly exhibit the deficiency
in the revenue. Two-thirds of all the receipts are swallowed up by the army and
the public debt, leaving but one-third to defray the expenses of administration,
public works, and education. The taxation is consequently very heavy, more
especially if we bear in mind the poverty of the inhabitants. The public debt is
increasing from year to year, and amounts already to six years' revenue. We
need not wonder, under these circumstances, that Austria-Hungary enjoys but
small credit in the financial world, and that its bank-notes are never accepted
without a heavy discount. This financial distress most seriously threatens the

Religious confessions (1869) :

/ Latin rite .
Roman ) Orp - k
Catholics f

' Armenian .

Cw-Leithania. Trans-Leithania. Total.

16,400,000 7,600,000 24,000,000

2,350,000 1,600,000 3,950,000

3,100 * 5,202 8,300

Total 18,753,100
369,400

9,205,200
3,202,600

27,958,300
3,572,000

462,000

2,590,000

3,052,000

Gregorian Armenians .

1,200
822,300

650
653,700

1,850
1,376,000

Without confession

370

-'20

590

Total 20.408.370

15,553,370

35,960,740

t Active army
Austrian Lai
Hungarian Honveds
Gendarmerie
Kemount Service

Officers.

Men.

Horses.

23,504

763,992

148,236

wehr .

2,916

118,626

6,070

nveds

3,028

127,234

16,742

8,800

ice

148

5,095

Total 29,596

V>1 3,747

171,048

156

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

power of Austria, embarrasses her politics, and interferes with every measure
calculated to promote the welfare of the empire.*

Revenue. Expenses.

Common receipts (Customs, &c.) . . . . 1,678,000 1,678,000

Cis-Leithania 37,663,781 40,S5<V>47

Trans- Lcithania 21, 833,949

Croatia 298,000

Total ....

23,341,042
298,000

61,473,730

65,873,989

The "common expenses" in 1877 were estimated at 11,709,138, and were defrayed out of the
revenues detailed above. For 1879 these expenses were estimated at 10,9oO,ObO.

The debt of Austria-llungary amounted in 1878 to 371,737,000, if not to a larger sum.

The following works on Austria-Hungary are deserving of notice :

" Statistisches Handbuch der Oesterreich-Ungar. Monarchic" (1878); Hain, "Handbuch der
Statistik des Kaiserstaats " (1853); Klun, "Statistik von Oesterreich-Ungarn " (1876); Matkovic,
" Kroatien-Slavonien ; " Lorenz and Wessely, "Die Bodenkultur Oesterreichs " (1873); Ch. Kelety et
L. Beothy, " Statistique de la Hongrie" (1876) ; A. Ficker, " Bevolkerung der Oesterreichischen Monar-
chic;" P. Hunfalvy, " Ethnographic von Ungarn ; " A. Patterson, " The Magyars, their Country and
Institutions;" Boner, "Transylvania;" Schwicker, "Statistik des Konigreicb.es Ungarn" (1877);
Ditz, " Die ungarische Landwirthschiift ; " H. N e, " Dalmatien und seine Inselwelt ; " Lorenz, " Topo-
graphic von Fiume und Umgebung ; " A. de Gerando, " La Transylvanie et sea habitants ; " A. Lipp,
" Der Handel nach dem Oaten."

GERMANY.

CHAPTER 1.
GENERAL ASPECTS.

ERMANY (Deutschland) occupies the very centre of Europe.
Diagonals connecting the extremities of the continent, whether
drawn from the Hebrides to Constantinople, from the Ural to
Gibraltar, or from the North Cape to Sicily, run through its centre.
Germany consequently appears to be called upon to act that part
of intermediary for the whole of Europe which for ten centuries has fallen to the
lot of France in Western Europe, and which England fills with reference to the
old world and the new.

Germany, as long as there existed no artificial high-roads, possessed fewer
facilities than her neighbour France to enter into direct relations with the countries
of Southern Europe. Shut off from the Mediterranean by the Alps, Germany was
less favourably situated for acting as the intermediary between the south and
the north of Europe. France lies partly within the basin of the Mediterranean,
partly within that of the open Atlantic, whilst the whole of Germany slopes
down towards the north ; and the seas which wash its shores are almost devoid
of good harbours, such as abound in France and England.

The Baltic is an inland sea, communicating with the open ocean only through
the straits separated by the Danish archipelago. Though small in extent, it is
dreaded on account of its sand-banks, short waves, fogs, gusts, and changeable
winds. In winter its ports are closed by ice. The North Sea, though freely
communicating with the open Atlantic, is likewise full of perils on account of its
low, -undefined shores, fringed with islands and sand-banks, and its principal
gateway, the Strait of Dover, is at the mercy of France and England. If the
German mercantile marine- holds a respectable position amongst the merchant
fleets of the world, this is not because of the maritime advantages enjoyed by
Germany.

Germany, therefore, though its seaboard extends from the frontier of Holland
to that of Russia, can scarcely be called a maritime country. Apart from the

158 GERMANY.

invasion of England by the Anglo-Saxons, the great historical events in which
Germans have played a leading part were decided by land, and not by sea. The
battles and struggles between them and their neighbours, whether Slavs, Italians,
or Latinised Gauls, took place in the region of the Alps and in the Valleys of the
Rhine, the Oder, the Vistula, and the Danube. The migrations of peoples were
facilitated by the open, undefinable boundaries of the country, for only in the
south do the Alps constitute a well-defined natural boundary, whilst in the east
and the west the German lowlands merge into those of Russia and the Nether-
lands. The Flemings, who are of more purely German origin than either
Berliners or Viennese, advanced along the shore of the North Sea as far as the
hills of Boulogne, in the centre of France. Other German immigrants followed
the Baltic shores to the east, and penetrated into a country which now forms part
of the Russian Empire. Others, again, descended the valley of the Danube, and
founded colonies in Hungary and Transylvania. In the east the struggle between
Slav and German has been incessant, and the line separating the two races has
ever vacillated. If Bohemia has not been wholly Germanised, like other ancient
Slav countries in Austria and Prussia, this is solely owing to the mountain
rampart which surrounds it.

"Whatever boundaries may have been laid down in treaties, the true limits of
the land of the Germans must always remain to some extent undefined, and it
is difficult to say where Germany really begins and where it ends. At the
same time the central portion of the country is divided by mountain ranges into
a number of distinct districts, geographically predestined to become the homes of
separate tribes. These small basins are more especially abundant between the
north-western angle of Bohemia and the Ardennes, and there the feudal institu-
tions flourished longest, and the small states evolved by it are numerous to the
present day. The extensive plateau to the south of this region of hills and
valleys favoured the formation of a larger state, such as Bavaria, whilst the
extended plain of maritime Germany was shared between a number of independent
communities, which have been gradually absorbed by Prussia.

The mountain ranges of Germany are of sufficient elevation and extent to
have considerably retarded the political unification of the country ; but they
presented no insurmountable obstacles to the migration of peoples, and the
country on both sides of them is inhabited by men of the same race. No doubt
the vast plains of Northern Germany contrast strikingly with the plateau and
mountains of the south, but the North German nevertheless differs only in minor
respects from the South German. The manners and customs of Frieslanders,
Mecklenburgers, and Pomeranians possess curious analogies with those of
Bavarians, Tyrolese, and Styrians. Central Germany, and above all Thuringia,
played the part of intermediary between the north and the south, and every great
impulse in the political life of the country departed from a line connecting
Frankfort, Leipzig, and Berlin.

The general slope of the country is towards the north, from the Alps to the
Baltic Sea and the German Ocean. The plateau of Bavaria lies at a higher

GENEEAL ASPECTS.

159

elevation than the valleys of Central Germany, and the rivers which drain these
latter take their course towards the great plain of the north. The gradual
decrease in height, on going north, almost compensates for differences of latitude,
and the temperature is thus pretty much the same throughout the country. An
isothermal chart hardly exhibits this feature in a satisfactory manner, for the
isothermal lines do not represent the real temperature observed, but the tempera-
ture supposed to prevail at the sea-level. In reality the temperature of places
so far apart as are Ratisbon and Hamburg have very nearly the same mean annual
temperature of 48 Fahr. There are, of course, many local differences, depending
upon elevation above and distance from the sea, and the rainfall is greater in
the mountainous districts than in the vast northern plain ; but in its main

Fig. 93. HYPSOOBAPHICAL MAP op GERMANY.
According to Leipoldt. Scale 1 : 12,000,000.

.5-1!. of Parts

Height! la Feet

features the climate throughout is the same. The valley of the Rhine offers a
remarkable proof of this, for although that river, between Basel and Emmerich,
has a course of nearly 200 miles, the climate throughout is pretty much
the same, notwithstanding the great differences of latitude. This similarity of
climate has no doubt had its share in assimilating the manners, customs, and
modes of thought of North and South Germans. Indeed, the difference of climate
is greater between west and east than between north and south. In the east
the winters are colder, the rains less abundant, and we become sensible that we
are approaching Russia.

Geographically Germany occupies a portion of the northern slope of the Alps,
and has no well-defined boundaries towards the east or west. Geologically, too,

160

GERMANY.

its boundaries are ill defined, and it forms no unit in the configuration of Europe,
as does Spain, England, France, Scandinavia, or Russia. The limestone Alps of
Bavaria are a continuation of those of Vorarlberg and Appenzell. The geological
formations which fill up the great miocene sea of Switzerland can be traced into
Southern Bavaria, where they are in great part concealed below the debris
deposited by glaciers. The Jura extends through Swabia and Southern Germany
as far as the western corner of Bohemia. The Black Forest, with its granite, red
sandstone, and triassic rocks, corresponds with the Vosges on the other bank of
the Rhine, and the platform upon which it rises extends northward as far as the
plain of Hanover. The rocks on both sides of the Rhine, below Mayence, are of
the same age. The Devonian formation of the Ardennes stretches to the north-east

Fig. 94. THE ISOTHERMAL LTNES OF GBKMANY.
According to Putzger.

5- E.of Paris

into Nassau and Westphalia, and is bounded in the north by carboniferous forma-
tions, in the centre of which the plain around Cologne opens out like a vast bay. In
Belgium, as in Germany, the most advanced hills are capped with chalk, or rocks
belonging to more recent formations. Finally, there is the vast northern plain,
covering an area of 150,000 square miles, which merges, on the one hand, in the
plain of Holland, and, on the other, in that of Poland and Russia. Geologically
Germany thus consists of two distinct portions, the south being joined to Switzer-
land, France, and Belgium, whilst the north is a westerly extension of the great
Sarmatian plain.

Volcanic hills are numerous in Central Germany, to the north of the Moselle
and the Main, the craters of some of them being filled with small lakes. They
are the standing witnesses of a time when fiery lava burst forth from volcanoes

GENERAL ASPECTS.

161

rising near the shore of the ocean which then covered the whole of Northern
Germany. The geological constitution of these volcanic districts, and indeed of
the whole of the hilly region from which rise both the Main and the Weser, is
far more complicated than that of tbe remainder of the country. The variety
of geological formations influences in turn the inhabitants, sh< ws itself in the
configuration of the country, and favours the development of inunif ilcl industries.
It has been observed that the customs and institutions of the inhabitants of that
part of Germany are distinguished by originality.

The Rhine, in the west, joins Southern and Northern Germany. That river rises
in the Alps, crosses the chain of the Jura, flows along the vale spread out between
the Vosgesand the Black Forest, and finally forces its way through the barrier, 120

Fig. 95. THE TRUE MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATUKE OF GERMANY.
According to Futzger.

miles wide, which in a former age pent up its waters. The rivers farther to the
east, having been prevented by the Thuringian Forest from flowing in the same
direction as the Rhine, have taken their course along the northern foot of the
Alps, and formed the Danube, which loses itself in an inland sea. In several places
the basins of the Danube and the Rhine are by no means well defined. The
Upper Danube, as far as Ratisbon, flows along the southern foot of the Swabian
Jura ; that is, in exactly the same direction as the Aar, which follows the Swiss
Jura. Many of the smaller tributaries appear to hesitate whether to flow to one
river or the other, and at least one of them is fed through subterranean channels
from the Danube, and discharges itself into the Rhine, thus virtually converting
the Upper Danube iuto a tributary of that river. The Altmuhl and the Regnitz
83

162

GERMANY.

the one tributary to the Danube, the other to the Rhine are separated only by a
flat level, presenting no difficulty to the cutting of a canal. This plain thus forms
a region of transition between the basins of the Rhine and the Danube.

" The rivers of Northern Germany present a remarkable parallelism in their
course. The Weser, the Elbe, the Oder, and the Vistula flow in the same
direction as the Rhine below Mayence. The analogy presented by some of the
curves described by these rivers is truly striking, and clearly points to a
great uniformity in the geological agencies. But not only is the course of these
rivers a parallel one now, it appears to have been so in a remote geological age.
There was a time when the Elbe, below Magdeburg, continued its normal course
towards the north-west, and found its way through the Aller, now a tributary of

Fig. 96. RAIN MAP OF GERMANY.
According to Putzger.

Anrtu&t Rainfall In Inches

Undtr IS

the Weser, into the sea. The Oder, instead of sweeping round to the north on
reaching Frankfort, continued towards the north-west, and joining the Elbe, was
tributary to the North Sea. At that time it must have flowed along what is now
the channel of the Spree, a river likened by a modern writer to " a dwarf concealed
in the armour of a giant." The Vistula, which now discharges into the Frische
Haff, turned to the west, and, by way of the swampy valley now occupied by the
Warte and the Netze, it reached the Oder. The Memel (Niemen), which now
enters the Kurische Huff, at that time flowed along the valley of the Pregel into
the Frische Haff. These changes in the course of the rivers prove that the plain of
Northern Germany must have been upheaved in its western part, causing the
rivers to swerve round to the east. And, indeed, the marks of a subsidence of the

GENERAL ASPECTS. 163

land, observed on the Prussian coast of the Baltic, satisfactorily prove that such
has been the case.

Modern Germany, with its numerous rivers, extensive tracts of fertile lands,
wooded hills, and pasture-grounds, must have strongly attracted the tribes who,
following the lead of the sun, migrated from the east to the west. Of the original
inhabitants of German}' we know nothing except what has been revealed to us by
finds in caverns and lakes.

Long before Teutons and Slavs the country was inhabited by a different race,
of a type supposed to be represented by a skull discovered in the Neander cave,
near Diisseldorf. Similar remains have been discovered, as early as 1700, near
C.umstadt, in Wurteinberg. These primeval inhabitants, with low, retreating
foreheads, narrow and flattened skulls, and strong bones, are supposed to have
lived in the tertiary age, and had to struggle with bears and hyen is for existence.

It is quite possible that long before the arrival of Teutonic tribes the shores of
the Baltic were in the possession of Fins. This question, however, would appear
to be incapable of solution. Anyhow, the remains discovered in the numerous
tumuli, or " Hiinengraber," scattered all over Germany, are attributed to Slav,
Teutonic, and Gallic tribes. The skeletons with elongated skulls, found from
Switzerland to the extreme east of Prussia, are supposed to be Teutonic, whilst
the others are assumed to be those of Gauls.

As long as the distinctive characteristics of the Gormans had not been deter-
mined, the prehistoric remains discovered could shed no light upon the character
of the ancient inhabitants of the country. Until recently all Germans were
supposed to be dolichocephalous, but careful measuremeuts have shown that round
skulls are numerous, and even preponderate in some districts. The skulls of
Frieslanders, whom Professor Virchow looks upon as the purest Germans, the
swamps defending their country having preserved them from contact with other
tribes, are broad and high, but relatively not very elongated. In a general way
it may be stated that the North Germans are dolichocephalous, whilst broad skulls
are more frequent in Southern Germany.

There was a time when we studied Latin authors in order to find out the
physical characterist'cs of the Germans. It was accepted for a fact that they had
blue eyes and flaxen or red hair. An examination of all the school children
throughout Germany, which has taken place recently, shows very clearly that if
blue eyes, flaxen hair, and fair complexions represent the true German type, only
about one- third (32 2 per cent.) of all the children examined belong to it. In
Prussia this German type is represented by 35 per cent., in Bavaria by 20 per
cent., in Alsace by even a smaller proportion. The mountains -which stretch from
Bohemia to the Rhine separate the fair Germans from the darker-complexioned
ones. Along the rivers the complexions, as a rule, are darker than away from
them, and we may conclude from this that migratory non-German tribes followed
their course.

Tims much may be assumed, that the modern Germans are a mixed race, and

10-i

GERMANY.

no more than Gauls present the features ascribed to them by Roman authors. The
type described by Tacitus only survives in Scandinavia. Fair hair and fair
complexions still preponderate, but blue eyes are now rare. The type may have
become modified through a change in the mode of life brought about by the
progress of civilisation ; or dark eyes and dark complexions may have issued
victoriously from a " struggle for existence." Curious to reLite, the Jews of
Germany appear to have undergone an inverse change, for the majority amongst
them have chestnut, or even fair hair.

Language constitutes the great bond of national union. To southern ears the

Fig. 97. LINGUISTIC MAP OF GEKMAXY.

Vpjvr GVrmati Line (.lermnu Ikrniih $ t>vtdi*h fr>K*lt

Kutfitinaii French J/afj/ur Lithuania,

sonorous and powerful language spoken by Germans sounds rugged and guttural,
but in the mouth of the poets it is full of tender grace, and capable of adequately
and harmoniously rendering every shade of meaning, and every sentiment. Harsh
and vigorous when used in anger, it becomes supple and tender when giving
expression to the emotions of the soul.

The original dialects are fast disappearing, and hardly more than an historical
interest attaches to them now. Even the Low Germans, who speak dialects akin

GENERAL ASPECTS. 165

to Dutch and Flemish, have accepted the High German of the books. Platt-Dcutsch
that is, the language of Low Germany is a richer language than literary
German ; but its doom was sealed as soon as a Thuringian dialect was accepted as
the language of books. It is still understood by about 10,000,000 people, and
books are sometimes published in it, but its literary use is confined to poetry and
occasional novels.

In Central Europe German is spoken by more than 55,000,000 souls. If we
add to these the Jews of Poland and Russia, the foreigners who have studied
the language of Goethe and Schiller, and the German colonists scattered through-
out the world, the domain of German will be found to embrace nearly 6-1,000,000
human beings. German has thus become one of the leading languages of human
thought, whether we look to the number by whom it is spoken, or to the historical
part played by Germany, and the influence it actually exercises upon the destinies
of the human race.

Thanks to this universal language, spoken from the Alps to the Baltic,
German unity virtually existed long before it was recognised politically. It was
brought about by the people rather than by the free will of the Governments.
Frieslanders and Bavarians, Prussians and Swabians, undoubtedly stand nearer
to each other in ideas and customs than do Bretons and Provencals, Basques and
Normans. Still there exist great diversities in their character, and it is interesting
tp note them before they have been swept away by a levelling civilisation. The
differences still exhibited by supple and good-natured ^.ustrians, na'ive and obstinate
Swabians, dexterous Hessians, intelligent Saxons, sedate Prussians, and haughty
Frieslanders clearly mark as many provincial types.

And where, amongst these populations, are we to look for the veritable centre
of gravity of the nation ? The Prussians preponderate in politics, it is true, but
they present by no means the best type of the race. That type must be sought
for amongst the inhabitants of Central Germany, in Thuringia, Franconia, on the
banks of the Rhine, and in Swabia, a country so rich in men of genius. The
Alemanni of South-western Germany are amongst Frenchmen the representatives
of all Germans, or " Allemands," whilst amongst the Slavs of the East, Germans,
whatever their origin, are known as " Swabians." Swabians and Alemanni are
of the same origin, and they consequently enjoy the distinction of being looked
upon, in the West as in the East, as the typical representative Germans.

It would be puerile to follow the lead of the host of authors who have written
on the genius and the moral worth of the German nation. Xo people has been
raised higher by its admirers, none has been dragged down lower by its
detractors. The very men who declaim about the "vanity" of the "grand nation"
claim for their own race a position morally and intellectually far above that of
other nations. " Deutsch " (German) is used as the synonym of everything that is
true and sincere, " Welsh " for everything that is false and vicious. But there
are not wanting German writers who are fully alive to the failings of their com-
patriots. It is easy, no doubt, to pass a severe judgment upon any nation, but if
we would judge fairly we must leave the common herd, and turn to representative

1GG GERMANY.

men who have risen above mediocrity. We shall feel bound then to admit the
German to be capable of a profound love of nature, to possess rare poetical
instincts, and to exhibit a na'ive and sincere attachment to any cause he may have
embraced. At the same time he is easily led into extremes, true feeling deterio-
rates with him into touchiness, politeness is transformed into an adherence to
rules of etiquette, anger rises into fury, just resentment turns into rancour, and the
pride of being degenerates into extravagance. The German, in spite of his tenacity
and strength of character, possesses less individuality than either Frenchman,
Italian, or Englishman. He is more easily influenced than they are by popular
opinion, and delights to move in masses. There is method even in his follies, and
he readily submits to discipline.

In the history of the world Germany has played a leading part. When first
the Germans entered upon the stage of history, they covered Euiope with ruins to
the extreme west and south ; but once civilisation took hold of them, they
contributed largely towards its conquests. The German cities became workshops
of human thought and industry, and were the rivals of those of Italy and Flanders.
What greater glory can there be than that of having presented the first printed
book to the world ?

The events which proved fatal to the Italian republics led likewise to the ruin
of the cities of Southern Germany. Whilst the Turks closed the direct roads to
the East, the discovery of the New World and of a maritime route to India
revolutionised the world's commerce. Augsburg and other wealthy cities struggled
against the inevitable. They established factories at Lisbon, Antwerp, and
London ; but when Spain ceased to be governed by German emperors, wben the
Dutch rose into power, and closed the Rhine and the Meuse against German
merchants, the cities of Southern Germany were doomed to decay.

Then came the Thirty Years' War, which destroyed the industry of the towns,
and flung back the country into a state of barbarism. One-third of the total
population is supposed to have perished during that fearful period, and when the
treaty of Westphalia (1648) put a stop to the horrors of war, Germany, still
bleeding from a hundred wounds, found itself reduced to a very inferior position
amongst the nations of Europe. The small sovereigns who had divided it between
them took for their rnotto the words of Louis XIV., " L'Etat c'est moi ! " They
treated their subjects like game, accepted the wages of France to betray their
country, and even sold their subjects to be employed in the wars which England
then carried on in America.* At a time when art and science began to revive in
Germany, the political condition of that country had become most deplorable.

So vile a system of government was doomed to extinction. The French
Revolution shook the organization of the empire to its foundations, and swept
away the greater number of its princes. It was in vain that it was attempted
afterwards to repair the old machinery. The states of the German Confederation
became the battle-ground of Austria and Prussia ; but the nation soon awakened

Between 1776 and 1783 2,600,000 was paid to the Elector of Hesse, and 2,526,000 to other
German princes.

GENERAL ASPECTS. 167

from its torpor, and the idea of a United Germany took root in it long before
events permitted its realisation.

The numerous small principalities into which Germany found itself divided
deprived the country of all political power. The minor princes, jealous of each
other, lent a too willing ear to the foreigner. The small courts, at which it was
sought to imitate the splendours of wealthier capitals, became the seats of vice and
intrigue. Fortunately the whole of Germany was not subjected to this demoral-
ising rule. There yet remained free cities, the guardians of that public spirit
which had so much contributed to their greatness. In course of time fresh centres
of art, science, and literature sprang into existence, and the nation slowly
recovered from the wounds inflicted by a thirty years' religious war.

Towards the close of the last century, on the eve of the groat Revolution,
Germans nobly distinguished themselves by their intellectual labours. Goethe
and Schiller added their immortal works to those previously existing ; gifted
musicians walked in the footsteps of Mozart, Handel, and Haydn ; and Kant
revolutionised ideas. History and its allied sciences have found eloquent inter-
preters in Germany ; philology has been developed there into a science ; mathe-
matics and the natural sciences have employed some of the ablest minds ; and
nowhere else has geography been studied with equal success. The names of
Humboldt, Hitter, and Peschel are amongst those which geographers revere most
deeply.

Germany has reconstituted itself politically within the last decade, but already
the effects of centralisation are making themselves felt. As long as Germany
remained an incoherent congeries of small states, it enjoyed at all events the
advantage of having numerous local centres of life and intellectual light. Had it
always been a centralized empire, such as France became in the time of Richelieu,
it would certainly not now be able to boast of the numerous universities which
constitute one of its great glories. Modern imperial Germany certainly tends
towards centralization. The provinces are gradually being deprived of their
autonomy, and although this may further political coherency, a restriction of local
liberties must in the end weaken the nation, and reduce its power of initiative.

CHAPTER II.

THE REGION OF THE VOSGES.
(ALSACE AND GERMAN LORRAINE.)*

GENERAL ASPECTS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, AND CLIMATE.

LSACE and a portion of Lorraine have recently become German by
right of conquest, and contrary to the wishes of the vast majority
of the inhabitants of these countries. These provinces now form
an " imperial land," or Reichsland, the boundaries of which have
been drawn by the sword. And yet these two provinces, if only
they were permitted to form a truly independent state, might they not act as
mediators between the two nations, morally equally culpable, the one for having
risked their loss without the power of defending them, the other for having taken
them as booty of war ?

Alsace has well-defined boundaries, for it embraces the eastern slope of the
Vosges and the plain extending along the left bank of the Rhine. Much elongated
in proportion to its width, its ancient division into a Sundgau and Nortyan
(southern and northern country), now represented by Upper and Lower Alsace,
was an appropriate one. German Lorraine, on the other hand, does not form a
geographical province, for it includes the western slopes of the Vosges to the north
of the gap of Zabern (Saverne), together with the hilly country which stretches
westward to the Ardennes. It is divided into distinct sections by the valleys of
the Saar, the Nied, and the Moselle, which traverse it from north to south.
Lorraine not only differs from Alsace in these geographical features, but also by
its history and the origin of a majority of its inhabitants. Fortifications, however,
have converted both countries into one huge entrenched camp, and, as they are
now politically united, we shall consider them conjointly. t

* In German Elmss and Lothringen, Latinised into Alsatia and Lotharingia.

t Alsace : Upper Alsace
Lower .
German Lorraine

Total

Area.

Population.

Sq. M.

1866.

1871.

1875.

1,353

473,314

458,873

452,642

1,844

609,987

600,406

597,S50

2,383

513,927

490,459

481,312

5.580

1,597,228

1,549,738

1,531,804

ALSACE AND GERMAN LORRAINE.

169

The slope which the Vosges presents towards the Rhine is far bolder than the
western one, which sinks down gently or merges into the plateau of the Faucilles.
The broad vale of the Rhine contrasts strikingly with the hills which bound it.
Standing within it, at an elevation of some 500 feet above the sea, we see unrolled
before us the entire chain of the Vosges, and are able to grasp at a glance the
wealth of Alsace : the meadows, corn-fields, and hop gardens of the plain, the vine-
yards of the foot-hills, the forests and pasture-lands of the more distant moorlands.

For a distance of 50 miles, from the Belchen, or Ballon, of Alsace (4,677 feet)
to the Donon, or Donner (3,313 feet), the Vosges form the boundary between
France and Germany. Farther north Germany holds both slopes of the mountains,
including the famous gap of Zabern (Saverne, 1,247 feet), which has from a remote
age formed the principal military and commercial gateway between the two

Fig. 98. THE GAP OF ZABERN (SAVERNE).
Scale 1 : 116,000.

7-20E.of Q

2 Miles.

countries. A canal, joining the Rhine with the Marne, and the railway from
Strassburg to Paris, run through this gap, whilst a fine carriage road crosses the
heights to the north of it. The " Little " Vosges extend northward into the
Palatinate, where they are known as Hardt. Their average height does not
exceed 1,300 feet ; yet, owing to the tortuous valleys, they form a serious strategical
obstacle. Formerly, when the country was but thinly inhabited and rendered
insecure by lordly highwaymen, the ruins of whose castles crown every summit,
only a few roads ran across it, and they were little frequented. The road by the
Lauter, passing along the old boundary of Germany, then afforded the only means
of reaching the Rhine in the north of Alsace.

The Vosges are famous throughout Europe on account of their lofty trees, and
it is not without emotion that we roam through the fir woods of the Hohwald and

170

GERMANY.

the Great Donon. Silver firs and pines have been planted by the hand of man,
and the latter are by no means common except on rugged slopes having a
southern aspect. Larches are scarce. The fine forests to the north of the gap of
Zabern and in Lorraine consist of beech-trees, silver firs, and pines, and those
around Bitsch and Chateau-Salins, which furnished the French navy with timber,
are noted for their beauty. In Alsace more than a third of the whole area is

Fig. 99. THE RUINS OP ST. ULRICH, NEAR RAPPOLTSWHILEB.

wooded, in Lorraine hardly a fourth. Nearly one-half of these woods are the

roperty of the communes the State, corporations, and private owners sharing in

remainder. Wild animals have almost disappeared from the forests. The

Ik, the bison, the aurochs, the reindeer, the wild horse, the beaver, the lynx, the

>eur, the wild goat, and perhaps the chamois, were formerly met with, but have

low disappeared. The last bear was killed in 1760, no wild goat has been seen

since 1798, and the stag has disappeared from the Eastern Vosges, though still found

ALSACE AND GERMAN LOEEAINE.

171

in Lorraine. Deer have been exterminated, but were recently reintroduced into
the forests of Schlettstadt. Wolves come over occasionally from the Jura and the
Ardennes, and about a thousand wild boars are killed annually ; but wild cats and
foxes have become rare.

Fig 100. -THE BASIN- OF THE ILL.

Scale 1 : 900.000.

10 Miles.

The forests of Alsace, though very extensive even now, have shrunk consider-
ably in the course of centuries, and thousands of acres have recently been
replanted with a view to regulating the climate and the flow of the rivers. Dams
have been constructed across many of the smaller rivers, and water, stored up by

172 GERMANY.

these means in reservoirs, is utilised in the summer for the purposes of irrigation
and manufacture. The number of these artifical lakelets is great, and was greater
still formerly. In Upper Lorraine some natural lakes and swamps have been
utilised for the same objects. Many swamps have been drained, but others still
remain, and impede communication.

The 111 is the only important river which belongs to Alsace, from its source in the
Swiss Jura to its confluence with the Rhine, and it can hardly be doubted that the
whole country was named after it.* It drains a basin of 1,770 square miles. On
debouching upon the plain of Mulhausen, instead of flowing direct to the Rhine,
it takes a northerly course, parallel with that river, and only enters it below
Strassburg, after a course of 70 miles. In this respect it resembles the remarkable
lateral streams of the Loire. We have reason to suppose that the 111, in the time
of the Romans, entered the Rhine above Strassburg. It is a very erratic stream,
often changing its course,t and its floods are much dreaded. Strassburg has
frequently suffered from inundations, and it is proposed now to construct an
" outfall " canal above that town, to prevent their recurrence. J

The mud deposited in Alsace by the ancient glaciers and the Rhine is distin-
guished for its fertility, and yields rich harvests, but there are also sandy or gravelly
tracts, which produce only trees. One of these lies to the east of Mulhausen, and
is known as the Hurt, or " forest," but the oaks which grow there are stunted, and
many parts of it are only covered with coppice or shrubs. Farther north, where
sand takes the place of gravel, we meet with luxuriant forests, one of the finest
of which is that of Hagenau. A hundred and fifty years ago it was an oak forest,
but at the present day hardly anything except pines is seen there.

The climate of Alsace is not as equable as that of France. It is determined in
a large measure by the Vosges, which form a barrier to westerly winds, and by the
broad valley of the Rhine, which is open to northerly ones. The summers are
warm, the winters cold, and sudden changes of temperature frequent. Down in
the plain the winds alternate between north and south, but in the mountains they
follow the direction of the valleys. The rainfall is far heavier there than in the
plain, although the number of rainy days is about the same in both. In Lorraine
the rains are more frequent than in Alsace, and dense fogs, impregnated with the
vapours rising from swamps and bogs, frequently hang over the country. Though
unpleasant on account of their peculiar odour, these fogs are said not to be injurious
to health. They certainly are beneficial to vegetation, for they protect the sandy
soil from the scorching rays of the sun, thus enabling it to retain its moisture.

* nisass, EUsass.

t " The 111 goes where it will," says an Alsatian proverb.

J Delivery of the 111 at Strassburg : -Average, 1,590 cubic feet ; minimum, 70 cubic feet ; maximum,
8,480 cubic feet a second ^Ch Grad).

Mean Temperature.

Depr Fahr. Rainfall.

January. July. Year. In.

Mulhausen ... .30 70 52 30'0

Strassburg 31 66 51 2 6-4

Hagenau ...... 37 72 53 26-4

Metz 31 67 49-5 260

ALSACE AND GERMAN LORRAINE. 173

INHABITANTS.

ALSACE is exceptionally rich in prehistoric monuments, including coarsely sculp-
tured rocks, tombs, and fortifications. One of the most interesting of these
witnesses of an unrecorded age is known as the Heidenmauer (Pagan's Wall). It
lies to the west of Strassburg, and consists of a triple wall about 6 miles in
length, and enclosing several mountains. This ancient fortress, to judge from tne
varied character of the workmanship, would appear to have been put repeatedly
into repair.

Alsace, before the arrival of the Romans, was held by German and Gallic
tribes, and its population, down to the present day, exhibits local differences
pointing to the preponderance of one of these ethnical elements. Nevertheless the
Alsatians and the inhabitants of many valleys of the eastern slope of the Vosges have
been completely Germanised, the Alemannic type preponderating, as in Switzer-
land. The linguistic boundary generally follows the crest of the Vosges, but at a
few places the French tongue has gained a footing on the eastern slope. French
is spoken in the valley of the Largue, and at Orbey, La Poutroye, and Les Uaroches,
above Colmar. Even the town of Markirch (Ste. Murie-aux-Mines) was more
French formerly than German. In this part of Alsace the German tongue has
certainly lost ground in the course of the last two centuries. This is proved by
the German names of several villages on the Upper Meurihe, where only French
is heard now.

German Lorraine not only embraces the district known, up to 1751, as the
"German bailiwick," but also a considerable extent of purely French territory.
Metz is and always has been a French town, notwithstanding that many Germans
resided in it during the Middle Ages. The German Government is now making
strenuous efforts to Germanise the newly acquired French parishes.*

The Alsatians are a powerful and tall race, and their services in the French
armies have at all times been highly appreciated. Several of the most famous
generals of the Republic and the Empire were Alsatians. The inhabitants of the
country do not, however, excel only as soldiers ; they are distinguished likewise for
their achievements in the arts of peace. Strassburg and Metz present great natural
facilities for an exchange of merchandise and ideas between France and Germany.
A majority of the inhabitants of the towns are able to express themselves in French
as well as in German, and 97 per cent, of the young men called out for military
service are able to read and write.

AGRICULTVRE, MINING, AND INDUSTRY.

THE population in the plains and hilly districts is dense. Nearly the whole of the
plains are under cultivation, most of the heaths and the inundated lands bordering

* Professor H. Kiepert estimates the French at 250,000 ; M. H. Gaidoz, the persons " habitually speak-
ing French," at 350,000 souls. According to the former the number of French (exclusive of workmen in
the towns) is 58,000 in Alsace, 192,000 in German Lorraine.

174

GEBMANY
Rg. 101. ALSATIAN PEASANT*.

upon the 111 and the Rhine baring been brought under the plough. Wheat and
barley are the principal cereals cultivated. Emerald meadows alternate with fields

ALSACE AND GEEMAN LORBAINE.

175

of bright yellow rape, poppies, flax, hemp, tobacco, hops, and other plants. The
homesteads of the peasants are embowered in orchards and gardens, ai:d present an
air of comfort. The cellars are rarely without a few casks of wine or kirsehtcasser.
The land is very much subdivided,* and Jewish usurers prey as usual upon the poorer
peasants ; but notwithstanding this the inhabitants of many districts are able to
live in ease. Alsace is one of the most intelligently cultivated countries in Europe,
and, according to M. Grad, capital invested in agriculture yields between 8 and
10 per cent. The wine district, which extends from Thann to Mutzig, is the
Ithiest and most densely peopled part of the country. Some of the wines
produced enjoy a high reputation. The region of vineyards is succeeded by that
of the forests, which are managed with great success,! and higher still we enter
the pasture-grounds. The neat stock of Alsace, much of which is itall fed, is

Fig. 102. DIEVZ*, CHATEAI'-SAU.NS, AND TUB POND OF INDKI.

Scale 1 :3*>.000.

K.of O.

6' 45

inferior to the breeds of Switzerland and Franche Comte, but is being improved.
Much cheese is made in the mountain districts.

Lorraine is far inferior to Alsace in its agricultural productions, both soil and
climate being less favourable to vegetation. There is no broad alluvial valley,
like that of the Rhine, and the cultivation of the vine is remunerative only in the
valley of the Moselle and a few other localities. On an average the land only
yields half what it does in Alsace, and extensive heaths are still met with. A
system of " cultivation " peculiar to Lorraine is that applied to the numerous
ponds scattered over the country. About two- thirds of the water are occasionally
drawn off, after which the exposed portion of the bed is sown with wheat or other
cereals, and the fish are caught. The dam is then again closed up, and the

Average area of each property in 1870, 7'9 acres.

t The Government forests alone yielded ' 44,580 in 1877, or about 19s. an acre (8. after deducting
all expenses).

176 GERMANY.

process repeated after the fish have had time to multiply. The large Pond of
Lindre, in the valley of the Seille, sometimes yields 1,000 tons in a single year.
In a hot climate this curious " rotation of crops " would breed a pestilence, and it
is not quite without its drawbacks under a latitude of 49.*

Agriculture does not suffice to support the dense population of Alsace-Lorraine,
and vast manufacturing interests have been created since the beginning of the
century. The first cotton-mill was built in 1746, and the first steam-engine set
up in 1812. The progress since then has been immense. At first the manu-
facturers established themselves in the valleys of the Vosges, where streams
supplied them gratuitously with the motive power they stood in need of. In
course of time, however, steam superseded the running water, and the factories
were removed to the towns of the plain, where coal could be procured more

cheaply.

Lower Alsace excels in agiiculture, Upper Alsace in its manufacturing industry,
the great centre of which is at Miilhausen. The manufacture of cotton yarns and
stuffs holds the first place, but there are also woollen-mills, machine shops, and
chemical works. Strassburg, in Lower Alsace, has many factories and breweries
in its suburbs. Niederbronn and the neighbouring villages have foundries,
construct railway carriages, and manufacture enamelled hardware. Lorraine,
being rich in iron and coal, has iron and steel works. The most important of
these are in the valley of the Orne, close to the French frontier : the coal mines
are in that of the Saar, to the south of Saarbriicken. Glass is manufactured at
Forbach, whilst Saargemund is noted for its enamelled porcelain, its snuff-boxes,
machines, and mathematical instruments. In addition to coal and iron, Lorraine
yields salt. The principal salt mines lie between the rivers Saar and Seille, and
more especially in the vicinity of Dieuze, Moyenvic, and Saaralbe. These mines
are for the first time mentioned in a document of the seventh century, and appear to
have been worked from the most remote times. Much of the salt is employed in
the chemical works established in their vicinity. Before concluding this notice of
the manufacturing industry of Lorraine we must mention the famous glass works of
St. Louis (Miinzthal), which employ 2,000 workmen, and turn out annually over
300,000 worth of crystal glass.f

Alsace is well supplied with railways, the line first constructed, that from
Strassburg to Basel, being now joined to the railway systems of France and
Germany. The railway which runs from Ostend by way of Brussels, Luxemburg,
and Strassburg to Switzerland, is one of the great trunk lines of Europe. Since
the Germans have taken possession of the country several strategical lines have

* Of the total area of Alsace-Lorraine, 46 per cent, is arable land, 12 per cent, mefdows, 2 per cent,
vineyards, 1| per cent, gardens, 31 per cent, forests, and 7f per cent, uncultivated.

t Occupations (1875): 14,308 miners; 11,785 persons employed in potteries and glass works;
11,785 in the manufacture of machines imd instruments ; 75,075 in the textile industries ; 15,905 worked
in wood; 14,609 were engaged in the preparation of articles of food and drink; 29,850 in making wear-
ing apparel, &<.

II ining(l 876) : Coal, 376,044 tons; iron ores, 664,498 tons: asphalt, 59.238 cwts. ; petroleum,
10,953 cwts. ; salt, 37,304 tons. In the same year 19^,279 tons of pig-iron were made.

ALSACE AND GEEMAN LORRAINE. 177

been constructed. They connect the formidable fortresses which have converted
the country into a vast entrenched camp.

Most of the trade in the villages of Alsace is in the hands of Jews, who are
very numerous.

TOPOGRAPHY.

UPPER AI.SACE. Hunlngen (2,210 inhabitants) is the first town met with on
leaving Switzerland. It was famous formerly on account of its fortifications,
which were razed in 1815. The Rhine is spanned here by a bridge of boats. The
fish-breeding establishment set up by the French Government is now rendering
good service to its successors.

Mulhamen (Mulhouse, 65,361 inhabitants) is the industrial centre of Upper
Alsace. The " Town of Mills " occupies a favourable position at the foot of the
hills of the Sundgau, and at the head of navigation of the 111. For nearly three
centuries (1506 1795) a member of the Swiss Confederation, the town was able
freely to develop its industries, and became one of the manufacturing capitals of
Europe. Its leading manufacturers are members of a few old families, united by
ties of relationship like a clan, and thus able to bring their joint influence to
bear upon the markets of the world. In 1853 one of these families constructed the
first " workman's city," which has since served as a pattern to many others. This
citt consists now of over a thousand neat cottages, surrounded by gardens.* Miil-
hausen most energetically resisted annexation to Germany, and thousands of its
inhabitants emigrated into France. The town, however, has recovered since, and,
like all manufacturing places, it attracts numerous settlers.

Altkirch (3,007 inhabitants), on the road to Belfort, is known for its potteries.
All other towns in this part of the country are dependencies of Miilhausen.
Maxmunster (Massevaux, 2,784 inhabitants) lies in the valley of the Doller, to the
westward. The river Thur, towards the north-west, rises at the foot of the
Rhetnkopf, and flows past Wcsscrling, St. Amarin (2,025 inhabitants), Thann
(7,544 inhabitants), and Seiinheim (Cernay, 3,965 inhabitants). The Lauch, fed
from an artificial lake at the foot of the Bolchen, propels the wheels of the cotton-
mills of Gebu-eiler (11,622 inhabitants), Sub (4,987 inhabitants), and Bollu-eiler.
Of all these towns Gebweiler is the most populous, but Thann, with its fine Gothic
church and the ruins of the Engelburg, is the most curious. The best red wine of
the country grows on the hills near it.

Colmar (22,728 inhabitants), thanks to its central position on the 111, has been
chosen administrative capital of Upper Alsace. It is a mediaeval town, with a fine
Gothic church and several curious private houses. Monuments have been raised in
honour of Generals Rapp and Bruat, who were natives of the place. The industrial
establishments of Colmar are for the most part situate on the canal of Logelbach,
to the west of the town. The canal is fed by the Fecht, and, ascending that river,
we pass the old walled town of Turkheim (2,547 inhabitants), and reach Miinster

Each of these cottages costs, on an average, 120. After sixteen or twenty-two years' payment of
rent the cottage becomes the property of the tenant.

178 GERMANY.

(5,148 inhabitants) and its cotton-mills, situated in one of the most picturesque
valleys of the Vosges. Near Egisheim, a small village to the south of Colmar,
the bones of human beings and extinct animals have been found in the glacial
drift.

Colmar is an open town now, its ramparts having been converted into public
walks, but Neu-Brcisach (2,772 inhabitants), to the west of it, is an important
fortress guarding one of the passes over the Rhine, and faces Freiburg and the
principal pass through the Black Forest.

In the fertile plain of the 111, to the north of Colmar, and in the side valleys
of the Vosges, towns and villages are numerous. Kaiscrsberg (2,507 inhabitants) is
situate at the mouth of the Weiss. Rappoltsiceiler (Ribeauville, 5,785 inhabitants),
famous for its wines, occupies an analogous position on the Strong. Markirch (Ste.
Marie-aux-Mines, 8,141 inhabitants) stands on the Upper Leber, in the heart of the
Vosges. There are no mines, but the town is a rival of Barmen and Elberfeld,
employing several thousand weavers scattered throughout the neighbouring
villages. Markirch carries on a considerable commerce with St. Die, on the
French slope of the Vosges.

LOWER ALSACE. Descending the Leber, we reach Schlettstadt (9,088 inhabit-
ants), a dismantled fortress. Within sight of it the ruins of the Hohe Koniysbwg '
crown the summit of a hill. Andlau (1,906 inhabitants), Barr (5.945 inhabitants),
and Molsheim (3,085 inhabitants), lie at the foot of the hills : Waselheim (AVasselonne,
3,250 inhabitants) and Schirmeck (994 inhabitants) are situate within them. The
quarries of the place named last have furnished most of the stone required for
the construction of the new forts of Strassburg.

Strassburg (92,379 inhabitants), the capital of Alsace, is one of the ' historical
cities of Europe. Its geographical position, near the confluence of the 111 with the
Rhine, and at a point where the latter, flowing between high banks, presents a less
formidable obstacle than elsewhere, is a very favourable one. A town has occupied
this site as far back as we know, and modern Strassburg, the " Town of Roads," is
the representative of the Roman Argentoratum. The Prankish kings resided here,
and the fairs of Strassburg were much frequented during the Middle Ages. The
town might have become a great centre of industry had not its fine strategical
position attracted the attention of military men. A " bulwark of the empire "
two hundred years ago, it became, under Louis XIV., one of the great fortresses
of France. Since its recapture by the Germans in 1870 the fortifications have
been much strengthened. Twelve detached forts and numerous smaller works
surround the town at a distance of from 3 to 5 miles, and its environs thus
form an entrenched camp. Three of these forts are on the Baden side of the
Rhine. The old citadel is about to be razed, and its site will be utilised for
the construction of a dock for receiving a military flotilla. Warlike enter-
prises have prevented the town from attaining that importance as a place of
commerce and industry which would appear to be due to the principal stage on
the road from Paris to Vienna.

Strassburg, in its general aspects, still retains much of its old character.

o
w

PS
u
E
o

ALSACE AND GERMAN LORRAINE.

179

Narrow winding streets abound, as do houses with gabled roofs and carved fronts.
High above all rises the lofty steeple of the famous minster, constructed of red
sandstone. This is one of the most remarkable buildings of the world, being
surpassed in height only by the cathedral of Rouen, the Great Pyramid, and the
church of St. Nicholas at Hamburg. Master Erwin of Steinbach, one of its
architects, has immortalised himself in the great western portal. Standing upon

Fig. 103. STRASSBURG.
Scale 1 : 133,000.

. 2 Miles.

the platform of the minster, the town lies spread out beneath us like a map, and
the eye ranges as far as the Vosges and the Black Forest.

A monument has been erected to Marshal Saxe in the Protestant church of St.
Thomas. Statues of General Kleber and Gutenberg occupy the principal square.
As befitted a town which has played a leading part in the history of printing,
Strassburg boasted the possession of a valuable library. The general who

180

GERMANY.

bombarded the town in 1870 had the courage to direct his shells upon the building
which contained this invaluable collection of 300,000 volumes, and it became a prey

Fig. 104. THE STRASSBURG MINSTER.

to the flames. The Protestant library of 100,000 volumes was destroyed on the
same occasion. A new library has since been formed, but it is the property of the

ALSACE AND GERMAN LORRAINE.

181

German University,* and not of the town. Strassburg is a centre of much literary
activity, and the seat of many scientific societies.

Thousands of Germans have settled in Strassburg since its recovery, and the
suburbs and surrounding villages are ever increasing in size. The proposed new
enceinte will encircle the villages of Schiltigheim (5,653 inhabitants), Honhnm, and
Piuprechtxau (Robertsau), to the north of the town, as well as the fine park known
as the " Orangerie." Most of the industrial establishments of Strassburg are in
the suburbs. Strassburg is noted for its saner-kraut, its beer, and its goose-liver
patties.

Hagenau (11,000 inhabitants) is the principal town to the north of Strassburg.

Fig. 105. WORTH AND REICHSHOFEN.
Scale 1 : 1,120,000.

" E.of Parts

7to E.of O.

. 2 Miles.

It is a wealthy old city, and was a favourite residence of the Emperor Frederick
Burba rossa. A forest, 42,000 acres in extent, adjoins it. Bischweiler (6,531
inhabitants), 3 miles to the south-east, on the Moder, bus manufactories, and
so has Niederbronn (2,830 inhabitants), to the north-west, a charming town, much
frequented on account of its mineral springs. Close by are the villages of Worth,
Reiclitshofen (2,862 inhabitants), and Frosch/reiler, near which MacMuhon's army
was overthrown in 1870 after a desperate resist ince. Formerly Northern Alsace
was defended by the lines of Wemenbury (6,152 inhabitants), a series of entrench-

* Strassbtirg University was attended by 658 students in 1877, of whom 88 were natives of Alsace-
Lorraine.

182

GEEMANT.

ments about 20 miles in extent, which Villers, early in the eighteenth century,
constructed along the right bank of the Lauter.

The hilly region bounding the plain of Northern Alsace has likewise become
famous in the military history of Western Europe. Zabern l^Saverne, 5,771
inhabitants), the Roman Trcn Tabvnue, defends the principal pass of the Vosges.
Near it, during the Peasants' War, 16,000 of these unfortunate beings were
massacred by the troops of Anton of Lorraine after their lives had been promised
thein. Pfalzburg (2,425 inhabitants), farther west, on the high-road to Paris, has
been dismantled. It only succumbed to hunger in 1870. The neighbouring fort
of Lutzelstcin (Petite-Pierre) was not even defended. BUach (1,987 inhabitants),

Fig. 106. MET/,.
Scale 1 : 200,000.

to' B.at P.l

1 Mile.

in the north, is really impregnable, its casemates being hewn out of the solid rock.
It only surrendered after the treaty of peace had been signed. The population
of the whole of this district is very warlike. No other town counts so many
generals amongst its children as Pfalzburg.

Saargemund (Sarreguemines, 8,466 inhabitants) is the only important town in
the valley of the Saar (Sarre), but, like Forlach (4,729 inhabitants), St. Avoid
(2,715 inhabitants), and other places in the vicinity, it has been surpassed by the
Prussian town of Saarbrucken, which enjoys the advantage of lying in the centre
of a most productive coal basin. The towns of Dieiize (2,659 inhabitants),
Moyenvic, Vic (2,114 inhabitants), and Chateau- Siilins (2,060 inhabitants), on the
Seille or its affluent, the Little Seille, are known on account of their salt mines.

: . t%_i*' 'If?' J
, '..",. l - >;

ALSACE AND GERMAN LORRAINE. 188

Marsal is an old fortress, which surrendered in 1870 after having been bombarded
for an hour. Sole/ten (Bouky, 2,520 inhabitants) is the only town in the valley
of the Nied.

Metz (53,151 inhabitants), the old capital of the department of the Moselle, is
an ancient city, deriving its name from the Mediomatrici, the people to whom it
belonged before the time of the Eomans. Situated on a fertile peninsula formed
by the confluence of the Seille and Moselle, and surrounded by low-lying meadows,
the town was capable of resisting attacks ; and attacks were not wanting in the
case of a city lying within the debatable frc ntier districts of France and Germany.
Fra^ois de Guise, in 1552, made a stout defence, but in 1870 the town yielded,
together with the 170,000 men who had been thrown back into it after the sangui-
nary battles of Mars-la-Tour, Bezonville, Gravelotte, and St. Privat.

Metz has been much strengthened since it has passed into the hands af
Germany. Its entrenched camp, formed by a line of detached forts, has a circum-
ference of 15 miles, and there are other works farther away from the town.
The outward aspect of the town is the same as before, but its streets are almost
deserted. They are narrow and tortuous, and many of the houses are sombre and
forbidding in appearance. The cathedral is one of the finest Gothic edifices of the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The site of the old citadel has been converted
into a public garden, ornamented with the statues of Ney and Fabert, who were
born here, as were also Custine, Paixhans, and Pilatre de Rozier. An abundant
supply of water has been procured from the hills above Gorze, about 12 miles to
the south-west of the town.

Metz is above all things a garrison town, and its manufactories are of less
importance than those of the far smaller town of Ars-sw- Moselle (5,708 inhabitants),
which lies close to the frontier. Metz has much decreased in population since
its annexation to Germany, and notwithstanding the vast sums expended upon
fortifications, the town is becoming impoverished. In 1877 there were over 3,000
empty lodgings, and the value of house property had fallen, in the course of seven
years, from 4,400,000 to less than 2,000,000. Thionville (Diedenhofen, 7,168
inhabitants), to the north of Metz, is likewise a strong fortress, and, in case of
another war, hundreds of thousands of men could be launched forth from these
two places.

CHAPTER III.

THE RHINE AND THE MOSELLE.
(BADEN, UESSE-DAKMSTADT, FRANKFORT, NASSAU, PALATINATE, RHENISH PRUSSIA .)*

GENERA i, ASPECTS. THE EHINE.

HE noble river which, on crossing the frontier of Switzerland, is
already one of the great water highways of Europe, irrigates
regions very different in their aspects. If it were not that the
Rhine forms a connecting link between Baden and Hesse, the
valleys of the Nahe, the Lahn, the Moselle, the Sieg, and the Ruhr
would each have to be studied separately. It is the Rhine which stamps a
common character upon regions so diverse in many respects.

The Celtic names of numerous towns and rivers, as well as the physical affinities
which anthropologists have noticed amongst the inhabitants dwelling along its
banks, prove to us that the Rhine, from the most remote ages, formed on,e of the
highways followed by migratory tribes. The great lines of migration, however,
crossed the river transversely. To wandering hordes coming from the East, the
Neckar, the Main, and other eastern tributaries afforded easy access to the river,
but having once overcome the obstacle presented by it, these migrants found
themselves in the face of mountain ranges and plateaux which proved more
formidable than the river had done. Hence those incessant struggles whose
memory survives amongst the dwellers along the banks of the Rhine, and which
have rendered the river so famous. Poets speak of the Rhine almost as of a
sentient being, capable of comprehending the struggles of which it was a witness.

Area and population of Rhenish Germany, exclusive of Alsace-Lorraine and the upper basins of
the Neckar, the Jlain, and the I.ippo :

Area.
Pq. M.
5,824
2,965
2,140
2,292
105
10,413
2,972

26,806 8,534,878 319

Baden

llrss, -Darmstadt

Nassau (Prussial

Piaianail Palatinate ....

Principality of liirkent'eld (Oldenburg) .
Rhenish Prussia (Rhcinland) .
District of Arnabcrg : Westphalia) .

Total .

Popnlition.

Inhabitants

an.

to a Pq. M.

1,507,179

259

884,218

298

679,012

3i6

641, 254

280

37,093

190

3,804,:i81

366

981,741

330

THE RHINE AND THE MOSELLE.

185

DENSITY OF POPULATION ALONG THE
KHINB.

They speak of it as " Vater Rhein," and insensible though it be, is it not
virtually the " father " of the towns which rise upon its banks ?

But the Rhine has not only played an important part in the struggles
between Gaul and German, it has also largely influenced the commercial history
of "Western Europe. The other rivers of Germany rise far away from the
Mediterranean watershed, but the
Rhine descends from the Alps, its g '
head-streams rising near the passes
affording the easiest access to Italy.
The plain of Switzerland connects the
valley of the Rhine with that of the
Rhone, thus forming a great natural
highway extending from the Mediter-
ranean to the German Ocean. More-
over, the Main and other affluents place
the Rhine in easy communication with
the basin of the Danube, thus facili-
tating commercial intercourse.

It is a curious feature that most of
the great towns should have been built
on the left bank of the Rhine, instead
of at the mouths of its eastern tribu-
taries. The fact that the left bank
was formerly occupied by the Romans
accounts for this. The military camps
established by Drusus and others grew
in process of time into cities. Three
great high-roads passing through Gaul
debouched upon the Rhine at Strass-
burg, Mayence, and Cologne, and a
military road ran along its left bank.
The right bank, at that time, had but
few inhabitants, and the Romans only
ventured across the river in their
military expeditions. At that period
it formed a veritable political boundary.
The western bank maintained its supe-
riority in civilisation throughout the
Middle Ages ; but an equality has in
course of time been established. Of the two lines of railway which now skirt
the banks of the Rhine, that on the right side is virtually far more important
than the one which supersedes the old Roman road.

The Upper Rhine terminates in the Lake of Constanz, which separates
Germany from Switzerland, but lies for the most part within German territory.
85

186 GERMANY.

On issuing from this ancient "Sea of Swabia," the Rhine once more returns to
Switzerland ; but having forced its way through the Jura, it abruptly turns to
the north on reaching Basel, and leaves the region of the Alps for ever

behind it.

The course of the Rhine below Basel naturally divides itself into three
sections. From Basel to Mayence the river meanders over a broad plain, once
occupied by an ancient inland lake. At Bingen, below Mayence, it enters a
mountain defile, which it leaves at Bonn, after which it traverses a wide alluvial
plain, and bifurcating, reaches the sea through several arms, into the principal
amongst which the Meuse (Maas) discharges itself. Each of these sections is
characterized by special features.

There exists no evidence of the wide lacustrine plain of the Middle Rhine,
between Basel and Bingen, having ever been occupied by a glacier. No traces
have been discovered there of the vast river of ice which from Switzerland
spread over the plateau of Swabia, nor have erratic blocks been found on the
Taunus or the Niederwald, ranges of hills which bound the alluvial plain in the
north. Yet, although the ice may not actually have invaded this vast depres-
sion, 170 miles in length and 18 wide, it is to glacial action that the debris, gravel,
and sand which fill it now must in a large measure be traced. The vast deposits,
which now cover to an unknown depth an area of 3,000 square miles, have been
conveyed thither by glacial currents. Most of these deposits are traceable to
the Alps and the Jura, and along the sides of the valley they are partially
concealed beneath layers of gravel derived from the Vosges and the Black
Forest. The lateral terraces of the valley, up to a height of 300 and even 600
feet above the Rhine, are in many localities covered with a deposit of loess, or
loam, some 250 feet in thickness. This loess consists of finely comminuted
band and pulverulent loam combined with carbonate of lime, and is replete with fresh-
water shells of species still living in the arctic regions ; and the bones of extinct
mammals have also been found in it. The Rhine has scooped itself out a passage
through this loess, and although no longer the mighty river as of yore, the
matter held in suspension by it and carried down stream is immense. At
Germersheim the bed of the Rhine is supposed to contain 1,000 cubic yards
of gravel to every yard of length, and to carry this mass annually a distance
of 275 yards down stream. The mud yearly washed past the same place has
been calculated at 2,710,000 cubic yards. M. Daubree estimates that the mud
annually carried down the Rhine would form a cube having sides 340 feet in
length. The sand of the Rhine contains a few particles of gold, but the quantity
is so small now as not any longer to repay the labour involved in searching for
it. Up to 1850 about 2,000 worth was abstracted every year.

The Rhine, in its progress through the wide valley extending from Basel to
Mayence, winds much about, and the floods, which occur annually, continually
change its channels and displace its islands. Neuburg, a village near Germersheim,
was built in 1570 on the right bank of the river, but stands now on the left
bank, its original site not having been changed. In the time of the Romans

THE EHINE AND THE MOSELLE. 187

and during the Middle Ages, when quagmires extended for miles along the banks
of the river, rendering access to them difficult, the few favoured spots where its
volume was confined to a single bed bounded by solid banks were naturallv
much appreciated. In the present century the Rhine is rapidly being converted
into a navigation canal, having a uniform width of 820 feet. It is no longer
permitted to invade the districts bordering upon it, the old marshes and deserted
channels are being drained and cultivated, and roads and railways running along
lofty embankments afford access to every part of the country.*

After its union with the Main, the Rhine, being turned aside by the spurs of the

Fig. 108. MEANDERING* op THE RHINE BETWEEN GPRMEKSHKIM AND SPEYBR.

Scale 1 : 140.000.

. 2 Mileo.

Taunus, flows to the west, and having discovered at the Binger Loch, or Gap of
Bingen, the weakest point in the opposing mountain range, it engages in a narrow
rtK-k-bound defile, which forms as it were a fluviatile gateway between Southern

* The delivery of the Rhine ig ag follows:

At Kehl. At Lauterburg.

In summer 12,360 Iti.'ISO cubic feet per second.

< >M an average throughout the year . . 33,763 39,060

Vlii-n in flood 16.i,456 178,936

TJir cli'rrt <it' tin CMIVI i-i<m of (he Rhine into a navigation canal may be judged from the fact that

it* length, an far as it washes Lower Alsace, has been reduced from 484,290 feet in 1838, to 380,500 feet
in l.SUU.

188

GERMANY.

and Northern Germany. The mountains which it traverses, in this part of its
course form a connecting link between those of Bohemia and the Ardennes,
and have a width of 60 miles. It must not, however, he supposed that the
Rhine did not reach the North Sea until it had excavated the tortuous gorge
through which it flows at present. River terraces have been discovered at an
elevation of 550 feet above the present bed of the Rhine. Their occurrence is
explained by a gradual rise of the land, during the progress of which the Rhine
shaped out its present bed.

Formerly the spot where the Rhine enters its narrow gorge was dreaded on

Fiff. 109. THE " MOUSE " AMD ST. GOAR.

account of rapids and sunken rocks. The removal of these obstacles to naviga-
tion may have deprived the landscape of some picturesque features, but the
scenery is even now strikingly beautiful. The town of Bingen, embosomed in
trees, stretches along the river on the left, and climbs a hill, as if desirous of
peeping down into the valley of the Nahe ; the old " Mouse Tower " rises on
a rock in the centre of the river ; the castle of Ehrenfels hangs on the slopes of
the Niederwald, itself surmounted by a colossal statue intended to commemorate
the " Wacht am Rhein."

THE RHINE AND THE MOSELLE.

189

Ehrenfels is the first of a series of castles, many of them in ruins, which
occupy every coin of vantage. Rheinstein, Falkenburg, Sooneck, Fiirstenberg,
and Stahleck occupy promontories on the left bank ; the Pfalz stands on a rock
in the middle of the river ; whilst Gutent'els, on the east, looks down from its
slate rock upon the town of Caub. Then appear Schonberg (Schomberg) and

Fig. 110. THE VINEYARDS OF THE RHINE.
According to Putzrer.

f~ lofGr.

Ue*n Temperature of Summer

If I'M UiMricl

Rheinfels on the left bank, and the inimical castles of the " Cat " and the
" Mouse " frown at each, other menacingly from two neighbouring hills.
Lfiebenstein, Sternfels, and Marxburg crown prominent summits lower down
the river. Stolzenfels rises proudly on a rock facing the mouth of the
Lahn.

190

GEEMANY.

In the side valleys of the Rhine the old castles are equally numerous, and well
may Theophile Gautier ask how their owners, those birds of prey of the Middle Age,
contrived to live, seeing that their area of pillage was thus restricted. But these
ruins are not merely associated with pillage and the clang of arms. Every castle,
nay, every rock and promontory, has its legend, and this legendary lore has
proved a fertile source from which poets have drawn their inspirations. The
bold rock known as the Lorelei is the most famous amongst the promontories.
The Rhine rushes wildly along its foot, and the rocks, which formerly impeded
its course, caused many a boatman to perish, whose cries of anguish were repeated
fifteen times by a mocking echo.

Picturesque scenery, old castles, and historical associations are not, however,
the only things which have rendered the Rhine famous, for its slaty cliffs produce
one of the best appreciated wines of the world. The vines are cultivated in terraces,
and in good years the formidable labour of the winzers is richly rewarded. Rhenish
wine has supplied German poets with one of their most fertile themes, and even
prose writers speak of it with raptures.*

The only affluent of any importance which the Rhine receives between
Bingen and Lahnstein is the Wisper, known on account of its alternating gusts
of wind, which blow down towards the Rhine in the morning and up the valley
in the evening. A short distance below the river Lahn, which rises in the hills
of Hesse, the valley of the Rhine widens, and it is joined on the left by the
Moselle, a tortuous river, bounded by steep hills, famous for their wine. So
winding is the course of the Moselle that it is next to impossible to utilise it as
a road of commerce. The main roads, instead of following its valley, run over
the hills which bound it.

Both the Moselle and the Lahn join the Rhine at right angles, and conjointly
they occupy a depression intersecting it transversely, and running parallel with
the general axis of the mountains. The Nahe and the Lower Main, together with
the connecting portion of the Rhine, occupy a similar depression.

To the north of the basin of Coblenz the Rhine enters a second defile, that
of Andernach. This gorge is less wild than that of Bingen, and the hills
bounding the river present gentler slopes. Gradually they retire, and finally
the Rhine debouches upon the vast alluvial plain which now occupies an ancient
gulf of the ocean. Having been joined by a few tributaries the Sieg, the
Ruhr, and the Lippe it swerves round to the west a short distance from the
Dutch frontier and the head of its delta. In this portion of its course the
Rhine is as erratic as in the plains of Alsace and the Palatinate. Traces of
deserted channels abound, and between Diisseldorf and Crefeld may be seen an
old bed of the Rhine which extends to the north-west, and joins the Meuse
(Maas) to the south of Cleves. Careful measurements continued for more than
a century show that the volume of the river has sensibly diminished. At
Emmerich, with an average depth of about 10 feet, the mean level in 1835 was

* In England Rhenish wine is usually known as Hock, from Hochheim, a town on the Main.

THE RHINE AND THE MOSELLE. 191

16 inches lower than it had been in 1770. At Germersheim the average delivery
between 1840 and 1853 amounted to 45,630 cubic feet ; between 1854 and 1867
it was only 37,680 cubic feet.*

MOUNTAINS.

THK Black Forest (Schwarzwald), which bounds the valley of the Rhine in
Southern Germany, is one geological fragment of an ancient mountain system, of
which the Vosges are the other. The wide gap now separating the two originated
during the miocene age, when it was scooped out by torrents flowing to the south,
and the de'bris deposited at the foot of the Alps. After the glacial age the floods
set in a contrary direction, carrying pebbles and loam into the valley of the
Rhine. Notwithstanding these great geological revolutions, the formations of the
two mountain ranges present singular analogies. Granite forms the nucleus of
both, its pyramids and domes frequently rising for hundreds of feet above the
surrounding beds of red sandstone. Rocks of the oolitic and triassic formations
partly conceal the red sandstone, and porphyry has been erupted not only in the
Vosges, but also in the Black Forest.

The Black Forest is bounded in the south and west by the Rhine and its broad
alluvial plain ; but in the east, towards Swabia, it would be difficult to indicate
its precise boundary. We may, however, accept the beds of shell limesto ic as
forming its natural eastern boundary, more especially as those dark forests of
firs and pines to which the Schwarzwald is indebted for its name do not extend
beyond them. The valley of the Kinzig separates the principal group of the Black
Forest from the inferior heights to the north. A railway runs up this river and
one of its tributaries, the Gutach, finally climbing the steep slopes which lead up
to the hilly plateau bounding the valley of ^the Neckur. Farther north still, the
valley of the Murg penetrates the Black Forest, which extends as far as the gap of
Pforzheim (825 feet), where it terminates.

The Black Forest presents a bold front towards the plain of the Rhine, but
merges almost imperceptibly into the plateau of Swabia towards the east. Its
highest summits rise above the region of forests, the most elevated amongst
them being the Feldberg (4,901 feet). They belong to the same geological
formation as the culminating summits of the Alps, and more than eighty species
of Alpine plants have been gathered upon them. A wide bay, the centre of which
is occupied by the city of Freiburg, penetrates the western face of the mountains ;
whilst right out in the plain, and close to the Rhine, rises the detached basaltic
cone of the Kaiserstuhl (Emperor's Chair, 1,875 feet), upon whose summit
Rudolph of ITabsburg is said to have held a court of justice. It commands one of
the finest prospects on the Rhine, the surrounding country, with its woods and
meadows, being bounded by distant mountains. The Black Forest is rich in
savage and lovely scenery, but the great mass of its visitors are content to explore
the immediate vicinity of Baden-Baden.

Total length of the Khine, 699 miles ; area of its catchment basin, 97,218 square miles; average
delivery at Emmerich, 78,030 cubic fret.

192

GERMANY.

Forests still constitute the great wealth of the Schwarzwald, even though
many slopes have been robbed of them. Attempts to cultivate the land tlms
disafforested have not always been successful. The peasants of Kniebes, at the
foot of a mountain bearing the same name, destroyed the forest which had
afforded them a maintenance, but the fields which took its place refused to yield a
remunerative harvest. In the end they were driven to abandon their village, and
the forest has been replanted. The mines, which were formerly very productive,
have for the most part been abandoned, and many of the mountaineers annually
descend into the plain in search of work. Those who remain at home employ their
leisure in plaiting straw, and more especially in the manufacture of clocks, a

Fig. 111. THE PASS OF THE GUTACH.
Scale 1 : 158,000.

5-55' E.of Parts

8' 15' E.ofG.

8-25'

2 Miles.

branch of industry which originated here. Manufactories, too, are springing up,
and the tourist, stepping out from the dense forest, is occasionally surprised by
suddenly coming upon a factory, with its smoking chimneys and swarms of factory
hands.

The wooded hills which form the continuation of the Black Forest, to the
north of the gap of Pforzheim, attain only a moderate height. They terminate
close to Heidelberg, in the Konigstuhl (1,900 feet). Beyond the Neckar the
country rises once more, forming the Odenwald. This region of hills is of granitic
and crystalline formation in .the west, where it sinks down boldly into the vale of the
Rhine and Main, whilst sandstone prevails in the east, with masses of volcanic

THE RHINE AND THE MOSELLE. 193

rocks, one of which forms the Katzenbuckel (Cat's Back, 2,060 feet). The Western
Odenwald is a varied region of gentle hills, well-cultivated valleys, and numerous
villages, whilst the East is generally sterile, and covered with forests. One of the
most remarkable summits in the former is the Felsberg (1,695 feet), rising in the
midst of a " sea of rocks," or Felsenmeer. It is but little inferior in height to
the Malchus, or Melibocus (1,700 feet), the culminating point of the entire range.
Emigration has been very active in the Odenwald, and whilst the " emigration
fever " was at its height, the inhabitants of entire villages, headed by the burgo-
master, quitted their homes.

The Spessart, to the east of the Main, is geologically looked upon as a pendant
of the Black Forest, but is equally a member of the mountain system of Central
Germany. A wide alluvial plain stretches from the Odenwald northward beyond
the Main to the foot of the Taunus (2,890 feet), the reverse slope of which sinks
down gently towards the Lahn. It is pierced in many places by basalt, which
apparently has some connection with the mineral springs which abound in that
part of Germany.

The Hunsriick (2,672 feet), to the west of the gorge of the Rhine, is a
continuation of the Taunus, filling the country between the Nahe and the Moselle.
Like the Taunus, it is composed of argillaceous schists, and wooded, and it forms
bold clifls towards the valleys which bound it. On the south it joins the Hardt, a
northern continuation of the Vosges, extending into the Bavarian Palatinate.
The Hardt rises steeply from the plain of the Rhine, and slopes away gently
towards the north and west. A large cavity in its centre is now a peat moss, but
was formerly occupied by a lake. Upon the table-land of the Hardt rises the
isolated porphyritic cone known as the Donnersberg, or Thunderer (2,260 feet).
Upon its summit may still be traced a line of ancient fortification, and many Celtic
coins have been discovered there.

Vast tracts of the Hardt are sterile and incapable of cultivation, and the
climate, more especially in the "Westrich," is very inclement, hardly anything but
potatoes succeeding there. Ever since 1689, when the Palatinate was for the first
time laid waste by the French, its inhabitants have emigrated in large numbers.
Recently, however, the discovery of a productive coal basin around Saarbriicken
has led to the foundation of numerous industrial establishments, which provide
employment for the surplus population. This coal basin covers an area of 1,200
square miles, and the coal beds are supposed to extend to a depth of 25,000 feet
below the sea- level.

The country between the Moselle and the Meuse (Maas) is hilly, and deep
valleys, with limpid streams flowing over rocky beds, intersect it. The cold and
dreary plateau of the Ardennes extends into Germany. It is only sparsely
wooded now, but is nevertheless superior in that respect to the arid mountain
group of the Hohe Venn (2,280 feet), to the north of it. Wide tracts there are
covered with peat mosses, and in 1684 and 1825, when the summer was excep-
tionally dry, the turf caught fire, and burnt for several months, until extinguished
by the winter's snow. The Eifel, which extends from the Ardennes and the Venn

194

GERMANY.

to the Rhine, is likewise a sterile country, very thinly peopled. Vast tracts of it
are covered with blocks of rock, which it is necessary to remove before the land
can be cultivated. In some parts the land is allowed to lie fallow for fifteen and
even twenty years, after which the grass that has sprung up in the meantime is
burnt, and oats are sown in the ashes. After two or three years' cultivation these
fields are once more abandoned.

The Eifel is remarkable on account of its extinct volcanoes, presenting regular
cones, craters, streams of lava, and heaps of scoriae. Crater lakes, locally known
as rnaare, form a distinct feature of this volcanic district. The most remarkable

Fig. 112. THE LAKE OP LAACH.
Scale 1 : 135,000.

. B Miles.

amongst these lakes is that of Laach, which covers an area of 830 acres, and has a
depth of 200 feet. Within a radius of 5 miles of it no less than thirty-one craters
have been discovered, but the cup-shaped cavity now occupied by the lake appears
to have been produced by a gaseous explosion. Lava never flowed from it, though
it ejected scoriae and other volcanic products. Numerous gaseous springs rise on
the bottom of this lake and in its environs, and carbonic acid gas escapes in a
neighbouring peat moss. The surplus waters of the lake are discharged through a
tunnel, constructed in the twelfth century. Extensive tracts are covered with
pumice, not only on the left bank of the Rhine, but also on the right, as far

THE RHINE AND THE MOSELLE.

195

as Marburg, 60 miles away. The thick tufa beds of the valley of Brohl supply
millstones, which are exported even to America. The huge lava stream of Nieder
Mendig, to the south of the lake, furnishes excellent building stones, and has been
quarried from the most remote age. The brewers of the neighbourhood have
converted some of the abandoned quarries into beer cellars.

The volcanoes of the Eifel, with the exception of the Aspenkippel, a basaltic
cone near Giessen, are the only ones of Germany which have preserved their craters
intact. The Roderberg, near Bonn, is the northernmost of these volcanoes. The
" Seven Mountains," or Siebengebirge, which face it, are of igneous origin too,

Fig. 113. THE SIEBENOEBIROE, OK SEVBN MOUNTAINS.
Scale 1 : 133,000.

but are without volcunic vents. They are composed of trachyte and basalt,
and though of inferior elevation, their culminating summit, the Oelberg, only
attaining a height of 1,520 feet, they have become famous on account of their
picturesque srenery and their legends. On the Drachenfels (Dragon's Rock),
which rises baldly above the floods of the Rhine, Siegfried killed the monster
which guarded the treasures of the Nibelungs.

Schistose plateaux, intersected by numerous tributaries of the Rhine, extend
to the north :md east of this volcanic region as far as the hills of Hesse. The
Westerwald (2,155 feet), between the Lahn and the Sieg, has partly been robbed

196 GERMANY.

of its woods, and extensive tracts are now covered with peat mosses. The hilly
district to the north of the Sieg, pierced in many places by basalt, extends
westward as far as the Sauerland ; that is, " Souther Land," thus named with
reference to its position to the vast plains of Lower Westphalia and Hanover.
The Rothhaar range and the plateau of the Winterberg (2,760 feet) extend
eastward to the banks of the Weser, whilst the table-land of the Haarstrang rises
boldly on the northern bank of the Ruhr, but sinks down gently towards the
north until it merges in the plains of Lippe.

Striking are the contrasts presented by the valley of the Rhine and the
mountains which bound it. The Suevi and Alemanni who dwell in the Black
Forest and the Palatinate, the Franks of the northern heights and the Catti of Hesse,
occupying remote regions, still represent the Germany of a bygone age. The
inhabitants of the plain, on the other hand, have been stirred into activity by
wars and commerce. The " Highlanders " of some p;irts of the Rhine countries
are amongst the least civilised of Germans, whilst the dwellers in the plain occupy
a foremost rank by their industry and commerce. Yet all these flourishing cities
are more or less dependent upon the mountain valleys for their existence. It is
there they recruit their population, and it is the products of the mountains which
in a large measure feed their commerce.

TOWNS.

BADEX. Constant (12,003 inhabitants), at the lower end of the Bodensee, where
the Rhine flows out of that lake, is the first German town we meet in a journey
down the river. In the fifteenth century, when the famous Council was held
there, Constanz was an important town of 40,000 inhabitants, much frequented
by Italian merchants, and noted for its linens. Wars and sieges robbed it of its
prosperity, and towards the close of the last century its population had dwindled
down to 4,000 souls. Of late the town has been reviving, for its delightful environs
attract tourists in shoals, and like its neighbours, Ueberlingen (3,864 inhabitants)
and Meersburg, on the northern shore of the lake, it has become a favourite summer
resort. Mainau is an island near the town, with a summer residence of the
Grand Duke of Baden. Constanz occupies a situation on the Bodensee somewhat
analogous to that of Geneva on the Leman, but no great commercial advantages
accrue to it in consequence, for, owing to the Bodensee forming several large bays,
other towns, such as Ludwigshafen on the Bay of Ueberlingen, Radolfszell (1,803
inhabitants) on the Untersee, and Stem on the Rhine, possess similar advantages.
The great lines of traffic, moreover, cross the lake from north to south, and not from
east to west. Siitgeii, an important railway junction, lies to the west of the lake,
and near it are the lacustrine beds of Oeningen, replete with remains of insects,
fishes, and animals, supposed to have been killed by mephitic vapours which
suddenly arose from the bottom of the lake. A small volcano vomited flames
close by.

In the upper b.isin of the Danube there are a few Baden towns of note,

BADEN.

197

including Villingen (5,578 inhabitants) ; but on the southern slope of the Black
Forest, and along the Rhine below Schaff hausen, no town of importance whatever
is met with, the land capable of cultivation consisting but of a narrow strip lying
between the river and the foot of its wooded mountains. Waldshut (2,347
inhabitants), the most important town of that district, is situate on the Rhine,
opposite the mouth of the Aar. Lor rack (6,249 inhabitants), at the south-western
angle of the Black Forest, owes its importance to the vicinity of Basel, whose
capitalists have founded numerous spinning-mills in the valley of the Wiese, the
mouth of which it guards. A railway runs up the valley to the manufacturing
villages of Schopfheim (2,492 inhabitants), Hausen, and Zell (2,156 inhabitants).
Hebel, the Swabian poet, was a native of Hausen.

The principal towns of the plain of Baden to the north of Basel are built at

Fig. 114. THE LAKE OF CONSTANZ (CONSTANCE).
Scale 1 : 610,000.

10 Milea.

the mouths of the valleys of the Schwarzwald, and not on the banks of the Rhine.
The first town which we reach by travelling along the ancient highway running
at the foot of the mountains is Mulheim (3,089 inhabitants), near which are
the mineral springs of Badeniceiler, already known to the Romans. We next
reach the famous city of Freiburg (30,595 inhabitants), the capital of the Breisgau,
a district named after the town of Breisach (3,212 inhabitants), built on a volcanic
rock opposite to the town of Neu Breisach, on the left bank of the Rhine, and
formerly known as one of the " Keys " of Germany.

Freiburg has prospered no less in consequence of its favourable geographical
position than because of " privileges " granted to it. The route from the Danube
across the Black Forest debouches there upon the plain of the Rhine. The
Romans recognised the importance of this position by establishing one of their

198 GERMANY.

camps there, and later on the Counts of Ziihringen erected a stronghold upon a
neighbouring hill. In the sixteenth century, when Danubian commerce was
more brisk than it is now, Freiburg had 40,000 inhabitants. At the present day
it is known rather for its charming situation and fine cathedral than because
of its commerce and industry. It boasts also of a small university, known as the
Albertiiia, from its founder, Duke Albert. A monument commemorates the
memory of Berthold Schwarz, the reputed inventor of gunpowder.

Lahr (8,491 inhabitants), a small manufacturing town, lies in a valley at some
distance from the main road. OJf'enburg (6,587 inhabitants) occupies a favourable
position on the Kinzig, and at the foot of a pass leading over the Black Forest.
Its growth would no doubt have been more rapid had it not been for the greater
attraction exercised by Strassburg, whose cathedral peeps out above the trees on
the horizon.

Baden-Baden (10,958 inhabitants), the most populous town of this portion of
the Black Forest, is wholly indebted to its springs for the prosperity it enjoys.
Situate in the charming valley of the Oos, this ancient residential seat of the
Dukes of Baden attracts annually some 50,000 visitors, amongst whom French-
men were formerly very numerous. The hottest of the thirteen mineral springs
of this Aurelia Aquetisis of the Romans has a temperature now of 144 F.,
bat, to judge from the silica deposited around, it must have been much hotter
formerly.

Historical associations abound in the country which extends from Baden to
Heidelberg. An obelisk near the village of Sasbach marks the spot of Turenne's
death in 1675. Rastatt (12,219 inhabitants), a fortress defending the valley of the
Murg, recalls the Congress which sat there during the wars of the Revolution in
1797 to 1799, and at the close of which the French plenipotentiaries were assas-
sinated.

Karlsruhe (42,895 inhabitants), the modern capital of Baden, dates no further
back than the beginning of the seventeenth century. It lies off the great
historical highway, which runs to the east of it, through Ettlingen (5,288
inhabitants) and Durlaeh (6,782 inhabitants). A creation of caprice, Karls-
ruhe gradually grew into a town of importance after it had become the seat of
Government and the centre of a network of railways. The Grand Ducal palace,
with its park, occupies the centre of the town, and thirty-two radii diverge from
it. It is a neat town, with several fine buildings, a museum, a library, and a
technical high school attended by 800 students.

Pforzheim (23,692 inhabitants), to the south-west of Karlsruhe, on the Enz,
a tributary of the Neckar, recalls the Portce ffercynue of the Romans. It has
become a great industrial centre since French immigrants introduced the
manufacture of jewellery, which now occupies 8,000 artisans in the town and
neighbouring villages. Most of the jewellery manufactured at Pforzheim is of
inferior quality, 13^ carat gold being legally permitted to be used.*

* In 1873 Pforzheim exported 72 tons of jewellery; Hauau, 40 tons; Giniind, 10 tons; and Stutt-
gart, o tons.

BADEN.

199

Bruclisal (10,811 inhabitants) lies on the old high-road, at the foot of the
mountains. Its port on the Rhine is Philippsburg (2,407 inhabitants), formerly
a fortress of considerable importance. Bretten (3,606 inhabitants), a small town
above Bruchsal, and in the same valley, was the birthplace of Melancthon.

Heidflberg (23,918 inhabitants) and Mannheim (46,453 inhabitants) are sister
towns, the one situate at the junction of the Neckar with the Rhine, the other
some 12 miles above that junction, where the Neckar debouches upon the
plain. Heidelberg claims to be the most beautiful town of all Germany, and
indeed there are but few places outside the valleys of the Alps which can
compare with it. It occupies a narrow strip of land in the valley of the Neckar,
its houses on the one side climbing the hill-slopes, whilst on the other they
spread out over the plain. An ancient castle, partly destroyed by the French

Fig. 115. KAHLSRUHE.
Scale 1 : 80,000.

1 Mile.

in 1692, occupies a hill above the town. The shady walks which surround it,
and the magnificent view to be enjoyed from its terrace, add no little to the
attractions of Heidelberg. The environs of the town abound in delightful walks,
the Konigsstuhltothe south, the Heiligenberg to the north, the villages of Ncckar-
gemtind (2,103 inhabitants) and Neckarsteinach, in the sinuous valley of the
Neckar, and the gardens of Schicetzingen (4,277 inhabitants), out in the plain,
forming as many centres of attraction. But Heidelberg is famous, in addition, on
account of its university, founded in 1386, and attended by 800 students, many
of whom are foreigners.

Mannheim, on the other hand, is a modern town, founded by Dutch immi-
grants in the seventeenth century, with streets intersecting each other at right
angles, affording a free prospect of the country except on the side of the Rhine,

200

GERMANY.

where the view is intercepted by a huge castle. Far from being a dull place,
Mannheim is politically and commercially a busy hive. Standing at the head of
navigation of the Rhine, its harbour is at all times crowded with vessels. A
suspension bridge and a bridge of boats connect it with Ludwigshafen, in the
Palatinate. Mannheim, however, is not solely given up to commerce. The castle
contains valuable collections ; there is an observatory ; and the theatre, one of the
best in Germany, boasts of having been the first to produce the plays of Schiller.

Weinheim (6,723 inhabitants), an old walled city on the Bergstrasse, which
runs along the foot of the Odenwald, is the only town to the north of Mannheim

Fig. 116. HEIDELBERG AND MANNHEIM.
Scale 1 : 190,000.

. 2 Miles.

belonging to the Grand Duchy of Baden. In this part of the country ancient
customs have survived to the present day, the land being frequently held in
common by the inhabitants. The " common lands " of the parish of Virnheim have
an area of 1,800 acres, and are divided into 550 " lots," distributed amongst the
citizens, the largest plots being allotted to the most aged. The village is pros-
perous, its surplus population finding a new home in America, upon lands pur-
chased at the common expense.

THK RHENISH PALATINATE (RHEINPFAI.Z). The position of the towns of this
detached portion of Bavaria is dependent, as in the case of those of Baden, upon

HESSE AND NASSAU. 201

the directions of the great natural highways. Most of them are in the fertile
plain of the Rhine, and at the mouths of the valleys which debouch upon it.
Others occupy favourable sites on the banks of the Rhine itself.

Kaiseralautern (22,108 inhabitants), the capital of the province, lies nearly in
the very heart of the Hardt, at a spot where the roads from Lorraine converge
upon those leading to Speyer, "Worms, and Mayence. The town is very ancient,
having been founded by the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, but numerous factories
impart a modern air to it. One of its churches is the finest Gothic edifice of the
province. Amongst the many old castles rising in the neighbourhood is that of
Landstuhl, in the defence of which died Franz von Sickingen.

Zireibrucken (Deux-Ponts in French, 9,149 inhabitants) has frequently changed
hands, even the Swedes having for many years held possession of it (1654 1719).
During the last century it acquired some celebrity as the town where Christian IV.
published the Bipontine classics. At the present day it is the seat of the superior
court of justice of the province, and has many factories. St. Ingbert (7,000
inhabitants), to the west of it, lies already within the coal basin of Saarbriick.
Pirmasens (10,044 inhabitants), built on a plateau 1,600 feet above the level of the
sea, engages in the manufacture of shoes and slippers.

The strategical road from Zweibriicken to the plain of the Rhine runs through
the valley of the Queich, the mouth of which used to be defended by Landau
(7,579 inhabitants), a fortress constructed by Vauban, but disrated in 1873, as
no longer capable of resisting modern artillery. Its place has been taken by
Germcrshfim (6,455 inhabitants), at the mouth of the Queich and on the Rhine,
spanned here by a permanent railway bridge.

The road to the north of Landau passes through the towns of Neustadt (10,222
inhabitants), Durkheim (5,841 inhabitants), Grunstadt (3,531 inhabitants), and
Frankenthal (7,840 inhabitants), all of them situate at the foot of vine-clad hills,
and much frequented in summer by persons submitting to the "grape cure."
Vineyards and fertile fields have won this part of the country the epithet of
Wonnegau. But this " Land of Gladness " was formerly the property of feudal
lords and priests, whose mansions still crown many of the hills. The most exten-
sive of these ancient castles is that of Hartenburg, the family seat of the Counts of
Leiningen.

Speyer (Spires, 14,100 inhabitants), the N<ivion>agm of the Gauls, the Colonia
Nemctum of the Romans, is the most famous city of the Palatinate, though not at
present the most populous. It was a favourite residence of the emperors, many of
whom lie buried in the crypt of the cathedral. At a Diet held here in 1529 the
name of "Protestant" originated. The French destroyed the town in 1689, and
it never recovered from that disaster, Ludirigshafen (12,093 inhabitants), opposite
Mannheim, having superseded it as a place of commerce.

Hiv-^K AND NASSAU. Worms (16,575 inhabitants), a sister of Speyer by its

destinies, is the first town of Hesse below Ludwigshafen. Known to the Romans

under its Gallic name of BorbitomaffUt, it subsequently passed into the hands of

the Burgunduou, an( ] became associated with the legend of the Nibelungs. Like

202 GERMANY.

Spever, it was an early bulwark of Protestantism, and like it was razed to the
ground by the French in 1689. It never recovered from that blow, and instead
of 40,000 or 70,000 inhabitants, as in the time of its prosperity, it now hardly
numbers 16,000. The Jews of Worms claim to be the descendants of a colony
settled in the country prior to the introduction of Christianity. There is a tine
monument of Luther by Rietschel.

Darmstadt (43,695 inhabitants), the capital of the Grand Duchy of Hesse, lies
far away from the Rhine, in the centre of a sandy plain, and there is nothing in
the geographical features of the locality to favour the growth of a city. A small
village occupied the site of the modern town as far back as the eighth century, and
became, in 1319, the residence of a Count of Hesse. Since that time Darmstadt
has grown by degrees, and now that railways facilitate its communications, it has
become an important centre of commerce. The Grand Ducal castle, with its
museums, art collections, and library, is the principal building of the town, which
has also a Polytechnic school and several learned societies. A fine forest extends
close to the houses of the town, but the environs cannot rival those of Heidelberg
in natural beauty.

Frankfort-on-Main (103,136 inhabitants),* unlike Darmstadt, occupies a most
favourable geographical position. Though some 20 miles above the mouth of
the Main, it is nevertheless a Rhenish city, owing to the great natural high-roads
which converge upon it. One of these roads follows the foot of the hills from
Basel to the northward, by way of Freiburg, Pforzheim, Heidelberg, and Darm-
stadt, and crossing the Main, runs through the Wetterau to the Weser. It is
intersected at almost right angles by a road following the Main, the Rhine, and
the Nahe. The whole of the basin of the Main is tributary to the town, and
gives access to the basin of the Danube. Upon Frankfort converge the most
important roads of the west, and the line separating 'Northern and Southern
Germany runs through it.

The town was founded by the Franks at a " ford ; " hence its name. Charle-
magne had a palace at Frankfort, and under Lewis the German Frankfort became
the capital of the eastern kingdom of the Franks. Its fairs acquired a European
reputation, and wealth flowed from all quarters into this meeting- place of
merchants, princes, and ecclesiastics. In former times the place where the
Emperors of Germany were elected and crowned, Frankfort in 1816 became the
seat of the Diet of the German Bund. In 1866 it ceased to exist as a free city,
and now forms part of a Prussian district, the capital of which is Wiesbaden.

The town, notwithstanding its loss of independence, keeps growing in impor-
tance. It ranks among the great money marts of Europe, and has given birth to
one of the most powerful banking families in the world. Formerly Frankfort was
celebrated for its book trade, and the first daily newspaper made its appearance there
in 1625. The environs are carefully cultivated, and supply all the town requires.
A locnl proverb says, " The Wetterau (in the north) is Frankfort's granary, the

With its suburbs (Bornheim, Bockcnheim, Oberrad, and Rodelheim), Frankfort has 134,776
inhabitants.

M
p

HESSE AND NASSAU.

208

Rheingau (in the west) its cellar, the Maingau (in the east) its timber and stone
yard, and the Gerau (in the south) its kitchen garden." Numerous factories have
been established in the neighbouring villages, as well as at Offenbach (25,911
inhabitants), a Hessian town a few miles above Frankfort.

The fortifications of Frankfort were razed in 1804, and the sites converted into
public walks ; new streets facilitating communications have been built ; and the
famous old Jews' Street (Judengasse) has nearly disappeared. The time when the
Jews were locked up in it during the night and on Christian holidays, and when
they were subject to other disabilities, now lies far behind us.

The old parish church, or Dom, with its fine tower dating back to the
thirteenth century, is most cherished by the natives of the town. The town-
Fig. 117. FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN.
Scale 1 : 100,000.

hall, known as the Romcr (Roman), contains the hall in which the German
emperors were elected, and which is ornamented with their portraits by modern
artists. The Sia.'/iof, close by, occupies the site of Charlemagne's palace. The
circular church of St. Paul recalls the German Parliament of 1848. There are an
Art Institute, with a gallery of paintings, a natural- history museum, a town
library, a botanical and a zoological garden, and several scientific societies. Statues
of Gutenberg, Schiller, and Goethe (the latter the most illustrious of the town's
sons) ornament the public squares. Minor monuments recall Boerne, Feuerbach,
and other famous citizens.

Hunan (22,409 inhabitants), towards the east, at the fork of the great high-roads
leading to Leipzig and Niirnberg, may be looked upon as an outpost of Frankfort.
It first rose into importance about the close of the sixteenth century, when Flemish,

204 GERMANY.

Dutch, and French refugees settled in it. The manufacture of jewellery is carried
on with much success, Hanau ranking next to Pforzheim in that respect, and
there are also tobacco factories, tanneries, and metallurgical establishments.
Hanau was the birthplace of the brothers Grimm, and near it Napoleon, in 181:5,
fought his last battle upon the soil of Germany. The hot springs of Wilhelmxbad,
near Hanau, are much frequented by the citizens of Frankfort.

A railway runs along the right bank of the Main, passing high above the
famous vineyards of Hochheim (2,620 inhabitants), and connects Frankfort with
Mainz (Mayence, 56,421 inhabitants), a fortress defending the most important pass
over the Rhine. At the first glance the geographical position of Mayence strikes
us as being even more favourable than that of Frankfort ; but Mayence is not the
point of junction of so many roads, and the Taunus, on the north, appears to shut
it in. The interests of commerce and industry have, besides this, always been
obliged to yield to military considerations. It was here that Drusus, nineteen
centuries ago, constructed one of his most powerful castles, to serve as a barrier
against the Germans. The Mayence of the present day, on the contrary, has its
guns pointed in the direction of Gaul. Its extensive lines of fortifications and
numerous detached forts require a garrison of 20,000 men for their defence. The
victualling yards and bakeries of Mayence are on a sufficient scale to supply the
daily wants of an army of 500,000 men.

There still exist the ruins of an aqueduct of 500 arches, and a few other
remains of ancient Moguntiaciim, and the museum in the old Grand Ducal palace
is exceedingly rich in Roman antiquities. The Byzantine cathedral forms the
most striking monument of the town. It was completed in 1340, but parts of it
date back to the tenth century. A statue by Thorwaldsen commemorates the
memory of Gutenberg, the inventor of printing, who was a native of the town.

Mayence is the most populous city of Grand Ducal Hesse. The Rhine below it,
as far as the Nahe, has only small villages on its left bank, but one of these is the
famous Ober Iiigelheim (2,808 inhabitants), the alleged birthplace of Charlemagne.
Bingen (6,380 inhabitants), at the confluence of the Nahe with the Rhine, has an old
castle, and from the Rochusberg, above the town, may be enjoyed one of the most
extended views on the Rhine.

At a distance of only 5 miles in a direct lino from Mayence we reach another
large town, Wirxlmdni (43,674 inhabitants), the old capital of the Duchy of Nassau.
Pleasantly situate at the opening of a valley, and at the foot of the wooded Taunus
Mountains, this town possesses peculiar qualifications as a health resort or place of
leisure. The hot springs Fontes Mnttinci were known to the Romans, but it is
only since the beginning of this century that they have attracted a considerable
number of visitors. The old " village " of Wiesbaden forms but a small portion of
the modern town, which has straight streets, shaded walks, villas, and gardens. A
few minutes suffice either to take us into the wooded hills or to Biebrich (7,690
inhabitants), on the banks of the Rhine, where there is a fine park.

Wiesbaden is the principal watering-place of the Taunus, attracting annually
no less than 70,000 visitors. Schlangcnbad, the " Bath of Snakes," thus named

THE RHINE FROM

Scale

NEW YORK.

\YENCETOCOBLENZ.

240-000

6 H. Miles

HESSE AND NASSAU. 205

after the inoffensive adders which abound there, lies to the west, in a wooded gap
of the mountains. The elongated Lan gen- Schwa Ibach (2,731 inhabitants) lies
beyond the watershed, in a valley tributary to the Lahn. Nieder Setters, and
many other springs charged with carbonic acid, rise in another side valley of the
Lahn, and furnish the popular Saltzer- water, of which nearly 5,000,000 stone
bottles are annually exported. Towards the east, within easy reach of Frankfort,
are the thermal or mineral springs of Hofheim (2,097 inhabitants), Weilbach,
Sodcn, Kon>yn8tein,JTr<mfferg(2,4'L7 inhabitants), Kronthal, and Hombury-vor-der-
Hohe (8,290 inhabitants), a favourite resort of the Frankfurters, the gambling-
rooms of which formerly attracted visitors from all parts of Europe. Other springs
rise in the Wetterau, to the east of the Taunus, the most important being those of
Nauheim (2,391 inhabitants). Friedrichtsdorf, a village near Homburg, was
founded in 1689 by French Huguenots, whose descendants still speak French.

A short distance below Biebrich commences the most famous wine district of
the Rheingau. Successively we pass the vine-clad hills of Eltcille (2,883 inha-
bitants), Johannissberg, and Ritdesheim (3,455 inhabitants). Excellent wine is
likewise grown in the gorge below Bingen, more especially near Asmannshausen.
All these wines have a slaty flavour, highly appreciated by connoisseurs. There
are no large towns along this pjrt of the right bank of the Rhine, only a narrow
ledge of level land intervening between the foot of the hills and the river.

Populous towns, however, abound in the valley of the Lahn, which joins the
Rhine between the castle-crowned rocks of Upper and Lower Lahmtein (conjointly
7,319 inhabitants). The Lahn rises in the same group of hills as the Sieg. It
at first takes an easterly direction, but then turns south, flowing past the university
town of Marburg (9,600 inhabitants) to Gicssen (13,858 inhabitants), likewise the
seat of a university, and situate in the centre of an ancient lake basin. Wetzlar
(6,837 inhabitants), lower down the river, was a place of greater importance
formerly, when it was the seat, between 1698 and 18U6, of the Supreme Court of
Justice of the empire, whilst now it is mainly dependent upon its tan-yards and iron
mines. Limburg (5,157 inhabitants), the veritable capital of the valley of the
Lahn, was a great place of commerce in former times, rich enough to support
2,000 troopers for the protection of its merchants, and to build one of the finest
cathedrals of Germany. Mines of argentiferous lead, zinc, copper, iron, and coal
are worked in the environs, and there are also slate and marble quarries. Fine
potter's clay is found in this part of Nassau, and the manufacture of earthenware
is carried on with success.

Still descending the Lahn, we pass the village of Nassau, with its old castle,
and reach Ems (6,077 inhabitants), the famous watering-place so often referred to
in the annals of diplomacy. No town would ever have been built in this narrow
valley if it were not for the thermal springs ; yet the environs abound in
delightful walks, one of which conducts us to the village of Friicht, where the
tomb of the statesman Stein is shown to visitors.

BTRKI.NFKI.I) The valley of the Nahe is partly occupied by the principality
of Birkenfeld, which the collective wisdom of the Congress of Vienna assigned to

206 GERMANY.

the Dukes of Oldenburg. The two small towns of that district, Oberstein (4,094
inhabitants) and Idar (3,521 inhabitants), are well known for the articles
manufactured there of agates and other pebbles. This is a very old industry, but,
as long as the workmen were dependent upon the stones found in the country, it
could not attain a very high development. It has grown into importance only
since 1834, when emigrants from Oberstein discovered stones suited to their
purpose in Brazil. At the present time this industry employs 2,300 workmen.
About 330 tons of agates and other stones are converted annually into fancy
articles, amulets, idols, &c., their value being thereby increased from 30,000 to
160,000.

RHENISH PRUSSIA Kreuznach (13,772 inhabitants), the principal town on the
Nahe, being situate at the head of navigation of the river, enjoys great advantages
for commerce, but is chiefly known on account of its mineral springs. The
environs abound in picturesque ruins, nearly every bluff on the banks of the Nahe
having formerly been crowned by the castle of some robber-knight.

No populous towns are met with in the picturesque gorge which the Rhine
traverses between Bingen and Coblenz. Bacharach, a centre of the wine trade,
occupies a picturesque site at the mouth of a valley. Leaving Caub (2,031 inha-
bitants) on the right, we reach Obertcescl, the ancient Volsozia (2,580 inhabitants),
which stretches along the left bank of the river. Passing beneath the " Lorelei,"
we come upon St. Goar. Then rise the ancient towers of Boppard, the Bondobriga
of the Romans (5,268 inhabitants), and, looking up on the left, we espy the walnut-
trees in the shade of which stood the Konigsstuhl, or Royal Chair, upon which the
King of the Germans took his seat after election.

Passing the mouth of the Lahn, we immediately afterwards reach that of the
Mosel, or Moselle. The towns on the Moselle do not rival those of the Rhine, but
several are rapidly acquiring importance. Foremost amongst them in' Saorbrucken,
which, with its suburb St. Jo/iann, on the other bank of the Saar, has a population
of 19,982 souls, and is rapidly uniting with the neighbouring manufacturing
town of Mafstadt-Bitrbach (12,433 inhabitants). Saarbriicken is indebted lo
the productive coal-fields of which it forms the centre for its prosperity. These
coal-fields yield annually more than 5,000,000 tons of coal. Furnaces, foundries,
machine shops, and chemical works abound in these towns, and in the neighbour-
ing ones of Dudweiler (10,029 inhabitants), Sulzbach (5,000 inhabitants), Fried-
rkhsthal (5,002 inhabitants), and Nvunkirchen (11,169 inhabitants). But not
only are the factories of their vicinity supplied from the coal-pits of Saarbriicken,
those of Alsace-Lorraine and Switzerland likewise are dependent upon them for
their fuel.

Following the course of the Saar, we pass Puttlingcn (6,726 inhabitants), a
manufacturing town; Saarfoiiin (6,782 inhabitants^, the birthplace of Marshal
Ney ; Merzig (4,412 inhabitants) ; and Smrburg (1,866 inhabitants). Leaving the
confluence of the Saar with the Moselle behind us, we reach Trier (Treves, 32,972
inhabitants), the most ancient city of all Germany, which down to this dny
perpetuates the name of the Gallic tribe of the Treveri which founded it. Treves,

RHENISH PRUSSIA.

207

lying below the junction of three important rivers, the Moselle, the Sauer, and the
Saar, possessed many "'advantages for carrying on the commerce between the
civilised Gallo-Romans and the uncultured Germans. It quickly rose into impor-
tance, and almost deserved the epithet of " second capital of the Roman world,"
which Ausonius bestowed upon it. It became at an early date embellished with
fine buildings, and numerous villas arose upon the surrounding heights. Of the
Roman ruins still existing that known as the Porta Niyra is the most remarkable.
There are also vast underground vaults, and the ruins of an amphitheatre in
which Constantino caused thousands of captive Franks to be torn to pieces by
wild beasts. The cathedral dates back, in part, to the fourth century. The local

Fig. 118. SAABBRCCKEM.
Scale 1 : 143.000.

6*50' B.ofOr

_> Miles.

museum, in addition to many Roman antiquities, contains numerous objects of a
more remote age. The " Column of Igel," to the south-west of the city, is the best
preserved Roman tomb in Germany.

Treves, like its great prototype, after having been a political capital, became a
religious one, and for more than a thousand years it was known as Sancta civitas
Tri'rcroriim. Out of every three buildings one was dedicated to religious purposes,
and the entire population was composed of ecclesiastics and their hangers-on.
Many of these ancient religious buildings are now used as barracks, warehouses,
breweries, and private dwelling-houses. A modern city of factories has sprung up
around the old one, and soon it will become necessary to go to the museum in

208

GERMANY.

order to obtain a glimpse of ancient Treves. The "holy coat" occasionally
attracts vast numbers of pilgrims to Treves, but that town has recently met with a
formidable rival in the neighbouring village of M(irj)itnji', whence miraculous
appearances of the Virgin Mary have been reported.

The Moselle below Treves has a course of no less than 110 miles before it
joins the Rhine, but throughout this extent not a single town of importance is
met with, though small villages are plentiful. The narrow valley, bounded by
vine- clad hills, affords no room for a large town, and only at the confluence could
space be found for a larger agglomeration of houses. Coblenz (34,130 inhabit-
ants), the Co-nfluentes of the Romans, has not attained the importance which its

Fig. 119. TREVES (TRIER).
Scale 1 : 124,000.

, 2 Miles.

position would seem to warrant. Its inferiority to Frankfort and Cologne is
accounted for by the fact of its being surrounded by sterile, thinly peopled hills,
possessing few resources. Besides this, the military character of the town must
necessarily cripple its industrial and commercial development. Coblenz has a fine
Byzantine church, a noble railway bridge over the Rhine, and an ancient bridge
across the Moselle, but the structures which principally attract attention are its
fortifications. Right opposite rises the impregnable citadel of EhrenbreitsMn,
with its casemated batteries. The detached forts surrounding the town afford
shelter to an army of 200,000 men, and yet all these fortifications can be defended
by 5,000 men, so carefully have they been planned.

- ' V-

KHENISH PRUSSIA. 209

Once more descending the Rhine, we pass the industrial town of Neuwied
(9,474 inhabitants), partly inhabited by Protestants. On a hill nearly opposite
rises an obelisk erected by the army of the Sambre and Meuse in memory of
General Hoche. The Nette, which flows along the foot of the hill, takes us to
Nmjtn (6,839 inhabitants), the principal town of the Eifel. Lower down on the
Rhine is Andernach (4,839 inhabitants), the Antoniacum of the Romans, with
ancient walls, a feudal castle, and a Byzantine church.

The Rhine once more enters a narrow gorge, and village succeeds village, but
it is only after the picturesque Siebengebirge has been left behind that we again
reach a town of importance. This is Bonn (28,075 inhabitants), the ancient
Bonnet, occupying a position on the outskirts of the great alluvial plain of
Germany analogous to that of Maestricht on the Meuse. Bonn is best known
now for its university, and as a head-quarter of tourists. A statue has been
erected there to Beethoven, a native of the place. Another great man, Rubens,
probably saw the light of day at Siegen (12,901 inhabitants), the old capital
of the Sicambri, on the river Sieg, which flows into the Rhine a few miles below
Bonn. Siegen prospers, thanks to its iron, lead, zinc, and copper mines, its
metallurgical establishments and tanneries. Sieglurg (5,668 inhabitants) lies
lower down in the same valley.

Cologne (Koln, 154,564 inhabitants) is the principal town of Rhenish Prussia.
Its geographical position on the great natural high-road which from Northern
France to Western Russia runs along the foot of the hills bounding the plain of
Northern Europe is a most favourable one. That high-road crosses the Rhine at
Deutz, the " Dutch " suburb of Cologne. In a time when artificial roads were
still scarce, Cologne had but few rivals amongst the inland towns of Northern
Europe, and when the Romans founded there their Colonia Claudia Augusta
Agrippinensium the town quickly rose into importance. In the Middle Ages it
became the great staple of trade on the Rhine, and long before the Hanseatic
League was formed the merchants of Cologne concluded commercial treaties with
foreign powers. As early as the tenth century they dispatched their own vessels
to London, where they had a herberghe of their own.* After a long struggle
with their bishops the citizens of Cologne secured their municipal liberties, and
rapidly grew rich. In 1235, 18,000 of them, sumptuously attired, paraded
before the English bride of the Emperor Frederick II., and " Rich as a cloth
merchant of Cologne" became a proverbial expression throughout Germany.
Cologne at that time was not only one of the principal cloth marts of Europe, it
also held a foremost place in the sale of gold and silver, and its artisans were
distinguished in many handicrafts. But in the end disasters overtook the town.
The discovery of America led to the abandonment of the old commercial route
which connected Venice with Augsburg; the United Netherlands, when they
acquired their independence, closed the mouths of the Rhine against all vessels
except their own ; and, as if this were not enough, the Catholics, proud of the
epithet of " German Rome " which had been bestowed upon their city, suicidally

On the site of what is now known as Cold Harbour (Colon Hcrbcrghc), near the Tower.

210 GEEMANY.

expelled their Protestant fellow-citizens. After this the town decayed rapidly.
Its tortuous streets became changed into gutters, and shoals of mendicants beset
the church doors. Of recent years the recovery has been rapid. Cologne has
become the head-quarters for the steam navigation of the Rhine, the traffic on the
railways converging upon it is increasing from year to year, and numerous manu-
factories, including potteries, spinning-mills, chemical works, and machine shops,
have sprung up in the city and in its environs, not to mention the many "original"
distillers of eau de Cologne. Including its suburb Dnttz (14,507 inhabitants), it
has now a population of 169,071 souls, which is probably not much inferior to
what it had in its most prosperous days.

The cathedral, or Dorn, is the most famous edifice of Cologne, rising high
above the surrounding houses, a witness to the wealth, past and present, of the city.
During more than three centuries this unfinished structure was allowed to fall
into decay, but work upon it has been resumed, and it is hoped to complete it in
the course of a few years. Many other churches are noteworthy on account of
their architecture. St. Mary of the Capitol, the oldest amongst them, is built in
the Byzantine style ; that of the Apostles is famed for its arcades ; St. Gereon
has a crypt paved with mosaics; and St. Peter's boasts of an altar painting by
Rubens. The town-hall is an incongruous structure, not wanting, however, in
picturesqueness. Near it is the Giirzenich, with its famous concert hall. A
museum, founded by two citizens, Wallraf and Richartz, contains a collection
of paintings and antiquities. There are also zoological and horticultural
gardens.

Cologne, being a fortress, is enclosed by an enceinte, which will, however, be
razed as soon as the twelve detached forts now building shall have been com-
pleted.

To the west of Cologne, close to the frontier of Belgium, rises another
large city, which for a long time might fairly claim to be the superior of the
Rhenish city. This is Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle, 79,608 inhabitants), situate on
a small tributary of the Meuse, fed from the hot spring which rises in the
" valley of the wild boars," called Porcetum in mediaeval Latin, and now known
as Burtttche.id (Borcette, 10,220 inhabitants). Aachen does not enjoy the advan-
tage of a great navigable river, but its many sulphur and thermal springs so
pleased Charlemagne that he made Aquisgranum the capital of his empire, and
there constructed a marble palace, of which marvels are related in old legends.
The palace has disappeared, the town-hall occupying its site ; but the chapel
which Charlemagne built, and in which he was buried, still exists as a portion of
the cathedral which grew out of it. So great a hold had Charlemagne's deeds
obtained upon the minds of his contemporaries that Aachen was proclaimed a
' holy city " soon after his death, and attracted multitudes of pilgrims.
Thirty-seven emperors were crowned there, seated in the marble throne of
Charlemagne.

The springs, which originally made the fortune of the town, still attract
some 26,000 visitors annually, but Aachen possesses other elements of wealth in

RHENISH PRUSSIA. 211

its coal, lead, and zinc mines,* its metallurgical establishments, cloth-mills, and
manufactories of needles and pins. A technical high school supplies the industrial
establishments of the town and its neighbourhood with competent managers.

The whole of the country surrounding the twin city of Aachen- Burtscheid
abounds in manufactories. Eschtoeiler (11,000 inhabitants), in the north-east,
has iron works and coal mines. Slolberg (10,252 inhabitants), still nearer to
Aachen, has iron works, glass works, and other manufactories. Eupen (14,759
inhabitants) is the Bradford of Prussia, its cloths being largely exported.
Moresnet, a small territory conjointly governed by Prussia and Belgium, has
become famous on account of its " Vieille Moutagne " zinc mines, yielding 40,200
tons of that metal annually. Malmedy (5,671 inhabitants), still farther to the
south, has extensive tanneries. Diiren (14,516 inhabitants), half-way between
Aachen and Cologne, manufactures cloth, and carries on a considerable commerce.
One of the five lines of railways which diverge from it takes us to Jiilich (Juliers,
5,111 inhabitants), close to the Dutch frontier, while another runs past Zdlpich
and the manufacturing town of Eunkirchen (5,489 inhabitants) to Treves, on the
Moselle. Ziilpich is the Tolbiucum or Tolbiac of old writers, where Clovis defeated
the Alemanni in 496.

Soon after leaving Cologne we reach Miifheim (17,353 inhabitants), a manu-
facturing town on the Rhine, and the port of Bergisch-Gladbach (7,030 inhabitants) ;
but lower down for a distance of 30 miles, as far as Dusseldorf, no town of note is
met with on the river. Dusseldorf (80,695 inhabitants), formerly merely a village at
the mouth of the rivulet Diissel, has grown into a populous city since the Dukes of
Berg made it their capital. It is the natural port of the manufacturing district
of which Barmen and Elberfeld are the centre. The town enjoys the advantage of
having fine public parks and clean streets. Its school of art is famous throughout
Germany. Cornelius the painter, and Heine the poet, were natives of the town.

On the other bank of the Rhine, though at some distance from the river, rise
the walls of Neuwi (15,364 inhabitants), which Charles the Bold vainly besieged in
1474 and 1475. Tacitus mentions this town under the name of Novesium, and it
was formerly the capital of the whole district. A canal connects it with the Meuse
and the Rhine, and it is now one of the most important grain marts of Germany.
Manufacturing towns have sprung up in this part of the Rhineland. Crcfeld
(52,905 inhabitants), the principal amongst them, is quite American in its appear-
ance, having grown in the course of a century from a small village into a large
and busy town, engaging more especially in the manufacture of velvets, silks, and
ribbons.t The same branches of industry are carried on in the neighbouring towns,
the principal amongst which are Viersen (19,705 inhabitants), Munc/n-n-G/adbtich
(31,970 inhabitants), Rheydt (15,835 inhabitants), Suchteln (8,957 inhabitants),
and Kcmpcn (5,372 inhabitants), the latter the native place of Thomas a Kempis.
To the north of these towns, beyond Gcldern (5,194 inhabitants), the old capital of

* They yield annually 800,000 tons of coal, 12,300 tons of load, and 4,040 tons of zinc.
t ('refold, in 1674, had 128,103 luoms, paid 1,030,900 in wages, and exported goods valued at
3,409,800.

212

GERMANY.

a duchy, the country which extends between the Meuse and the Rhine is quite
rural in its aspect.

On the Lower Rhine there are no towns which equal Du*seldorf in importance.
Past Uerlingen (3,216 inhabitants), the port of Crefeld, the river flows beneath the
railway bridge of Rheinhawen, and we reach Ruhrort (9,051 inhabitants), at the
mouth of the Ruhr, one of the busiest ports of Germany, exporting annually over
1,000,000 tons of coal. Ruhrort has ship-yards and factories, and is the port of a
number of important manufacturing cities, including Duisbnrg (37,380 inhabitants),
Mulheim-on-thf-Ruhr (15,277 inhabitants), and Ober/iausen (15,479 inhabitants).

Wesel (19,104 inhabitants) is situate on the right bank of the Rhine, at the

Fig. 120. CKEFELD AND ITS ENVIRONS.
Scale 1 : 250,000.

, 5 Miles.

mouth of the Lippe. It is an ancient town, with gabled houses and an old Gothic
church, growing an abundance of fruit and vegetables in the gardens which
surround it. Wesel defends the Dutch frontiers of Germany, and its works have
recently been augmented. A permanent bridge, no less than 6,285 feet in length,
including its approaches, here crosses the Rhine. Xanten (3,292 inhabitants), a
decayed town, and Emmerich (8,107 inhabitants), are the last German towns
washed by the floods of the Rhine. On a terrace to the west of the latter rises
C/ei-e (Cleves, 9,233 inhabitants), a name perhaps signifying "cliff." The legend
of Lohengrin, the " Knight of the Swan," is associated with this town.

The country around Crefeld is one of the most densely populated districts of

RHENISH PRUSSIA.

213

Germany, but it is surpased by the coal basin of the Ruhr, the veritable
Lancashire of Prussia, where town presses upon town, and the network of
railways is most bewildering. Elberfeld (80,589 inhabitants) and Barmen (86,502
inhabitants) were small villages a century ago, but now extend for 5 miles
along the valley of the Wupper. The interests of the inhabitants are almost
exclusively wrapped up in the manufacture of silks, cottons, and ribbons, in
print works and other industrial establishments. Barmen also exports pianofortes.
All the towns of that district present the same aspect, and look like so many
suburbs of Elberfeld scattered broadcast over the country. Ronsdorf (9,573
inhabitants), Luttriitr/hansen (9,471 inhabitants), Lennep (7,753 inhabitants), and
Kronenberg (8,167 inhabitants) are the more important amongst them. Hildm
(6,787 inhabitants), not far from the Rhine, manufactures silks ; Remscheid
(15,000 inhabitants) is the German Sheffield; whilst Solingen (15,142 inhabitants)
and the towns near it* are known for their cutlery. Solingen is famous for its

Fig. 121. Rl'HRORT AND IT8 ExVIRONB.
Scale 1 : 326,000.

. 6 Mill's.

The extent of the ooal basin is indicated by shading.

sword-blades, the art of tempering them, it is said, having been introduced there
from Damascus.

The number of towns to the north of the railway which joins Diisseldorf to
Elberfeld is somcwhut less bewildering. Meftmann (6,500 inhabitants), near which
is the famous Neander Valley with its bone caves ; Werden (6,746 inhabitants),
in the abbey of which was preserved Ulfila's Gothic translation of the Bible until
the Swedes carried it off during the Thirty Years' War; and other towns are still
separated by wide stretches of open country. But to the north of the Ruhr, and
close upon the borders of the country, we come upon another group of manufactur-
ing towns, whose growth has perhaps been even more rapid than that of those
mentioned previously. The most important of these is Essen (76,450 inhabitants),
which in less than fifty years has grown into one of the most populous towns of
Prussia. Essen supplies Germany and the world with those famous cast-steel

Including MTIM li.'icl (10,017 inhabitants), Dorp (11,380 inhabitants), Hiischeid (9,959 inhabitants),
Wald (7,701 inhabitants), &c.

214 GERMANY.

guns which have made the reputation of their inventor, Krupp. But guns con-
stitute only a small part of the products of Krupp's huge establishment, which
covers an area of 960 acres, occupies 15,000 workmen, in addition to some 5,000
miners, and produces annually 125,000 tons of cast steel. The neighbouring
towns of Altenessen (12,658 inhabitants), Attendorf (12,675 inhabitants), and Borbeck
(with Bocholt, 20,095 inhabitants) engage in the same industries.

WESTPHALIA. The coal basin of the Ruhr extends eastward into Westphalia,
and there, too, it has caused huge manufacturing towns to spring from the soil.
Dortmund (57,742 inhabitants), however, the most populous town of Westphalia,
dates back to an earlier period, for it is mentioned in chronicles of the tenth century.
Favourably situate on the high-road connecting the Rhine with the Elbe and Oder,
it was one of the first to join the Hanseatic League. Its town-hall and fine
churches belong to that period, and more venerable still, a group of lime-trees is
pointed out, in whose shade the judges of the Holy Vehme met. The surrounding

Pig. 122. ESSEN.

district is rich in agricultural produce, but the actual wealth of Dortmund is due
rather to coal and iron mines and iron works than to its trade in corn.*
Bochum (28,368 inhabitants), half-way between Dortmund and Essen, rivals both
as a mining and industrial town.t The other towns of this portion of Westphalia
are equally distinguished for their industry. Foremost amongst them are Geken-
kirchen (11,295 inhabitants), Witten (18,106 inhabitants), Horde (12,837 inhabit-
ants), and Hagcn (26,870 inhabitants). Iscrlohn (16,838 inhabitants) has iron and
zinc mines as well as lime-kilns, and, like its neighbours, engages in the manu-
facture of every description of hardware.

But whilst industry has transformed the villages of Southern Westphalia into
large towns, Soest (13,099 inhabitants), which was formerly one of the largest

The district of Dortmund annually yields 3,300,000 tons of coal and 89.500 tons of iron ore,
while 280,000 tons of pTg-iron and steel are produced yearly,
t About 0,000,000 tons of coal are raised annually.

WESTPHALIA.

215

towns of all Germany, has singularly lagged behind in this race for pre-eminence.
In the fifteenth century Soest had 50,000 inhabitants, and its ancient " customs "
enjoyed a high reputation in the towns of Northern Germany. Situate half-way
between the Rhine and the Weser, on the fertile plateau of the Hellweg, and
having easy access to the valley of the Lippe in the north, and to that of the
Ruhr in the south, Soest enjoyed peculiar natural advantages, and soon acquired
considerable wealth. Unita (7,3"J3 inhabitants), on the same plateau, half-way

Fig. 123. THE HELLWEO.
Scale 1 : 410,000.

30' 7; 30' Ji.OI Q.

r, Mill's.

between Soest and Dortmund, shares in these advantages, but, like its more powerful
neighbour, it has not participated in the progress of the towns placed within easy
reach of coal and iron.

Anuberg (5,486 inhabitants), the chief place of the Sauerland, is likewise an
ancient town. Situate on the Upper Ruhr, beyond the coal basin named after that
river, it has remained a small place. Quite in the east of the country, in the
basin of the Weser, rises the Marsberg, upon which tradition places Irminsul, the
Saxon idol oTerthrown by Charlemagne.

CHAPTER IV.

THE SWABIAN JURA AND THE VALLEY OF THE NECKAR.

(WiJBTTEMBEKO AND HoHENZOLLEBN.) *

GENERAL ASPECTS, MOUNTAINS, AND RIVERS.

JHE basin of the Neckar, though tributary to the Rhine, yet forms a
distinct region, as far as concerns its upper portion, bounded as it
is in the west by the ranges of the Black Forest and Odenwald.
Geographical features thus justify the formation of a separate
kingdom, of which the old castle of Wirtineberg, near the site now
occupied by the city of Stuttgart, became the natural nucleus. The boundaries of
"Wiirttemberg, as drawn in accordance with treaties, present, no doubt, a few
anomalies, the districts on the Upper Danube and to the north of the Lake of
Constanz lying outside the valley of the Neckar ; but upon the whole Wiirttemberg
forms a world apart, quite able to lead a life of its own. A map showing the
density of the population proves this very plainly. The valley of the Neckar
stands prominently forth upon it as a great centre of population, separated from
Baden, Switzerland, and Bavaria by thinly peopled tracts of country.

The western boundary of this, one of the wealthiest and most active countries
of Germany, is formed by the Black Forest, or Schwarzwald, whose southern
extremity strikes the Swabian Jura at an acute angle. The elevation of the hills
near the point of contact is comparatively small, and easy passes lead across them
into the valley of the Danube, and thence into that of the Rhine. This facility of
communication has enabled Wiirttemberg to extend its political boundaries in that
direction as far as the shores of the Bodensee.

The Jurassic formation gradually increases in width as we travel eastward
from the Rhine. The highest summits of the Swabian Jura rise to the west of
the Danube, on the plateau of the Heuberg, the most considerable amongst them
attaining an elevation of 3,320 feet. On its summit the vast amphitheatre formed
by the Black Forest and the Alps lies spread out before us, and through a gap in
the former we are able even to catch a glimpse of the Vosges.

Area. Population. Inliab. to a

Sq. Miles. 1875. Sq. Mile.

Wurttcmbcrg .... 7,531 1,881,605 249

Hohenzollern .... 441 66,466 151

WURTTEMBERG AND HOHENZOLLERN.

217

To the north of the pass which the railway from Stuttgart crosses at an
elevation of 3,005 feet, the height of the Jura gradually decreases towards the
north-east.

The Swabian Jura differs in its aspect, but not in its geological formation, from
the Jura of France. Instead of consisting of a succession of parallel ridges, it forms

Pig. 124. DENSITY OF THE POPULATION OF WURTTEMBERO.

an undulating plateau, presenting a bold face to the Neckar nearly 1,000
feet in height, and sinking down gently towards the Danube. The more elevated
ridges are covered with stones, between which grows a scanty herbage. Their
climate is too inclement to admit of cultivation, and the name of Rauhe Alp (Rugged
Mountain), which is applied to them by the peasants, is therefore a very appropriate
87

218

GERMANY.

one. But standing upon the western scarpments of the Jura, we look down into
smiling valleys, wending their way to the Neckar, and ahounding in wealthy
villages, homesteads, and oichards. Bold masses of whitish rock project towards
the valley of the Neckar, almost separated from the plateau by the erosive action
of water. . One of these crags is occupied by the castle of Hohenzollern (2,800

Fig. 125. URACH AND HOHEN-URACH.
Scale 1 : 81.000.

. 1 Mile.

feet), the ancestral home of the reigning family of Prussiaand Germany ; another
bore upon its summit the proud castle of the Hohenstaufen (2,240 feet).

The Swabian Jura is quite as cavernous as that of France, and the bones of
bears and other animals now extinct have been found in its recesses. Narrow
gorges or clefts, which divide the plateau into distinct sections, abound. The
gorge of the Brigach, one of the head-streams of the Danube, thus cuts in two
the plateau of the Baar. The gorge of the Fils, an affluent of the Neckar,

WiJETTEMBEEG AND HOHENZOLLEEN.

219

Scale 1 : 163,000.

i..r pri.

more to the north, divides the central plateau of the Rauhe Alp from that of the
Albach. A third river gorge separates the Albaeh from the Hardtfeld ; and the
Bavarian Wernitz divides the Swabian from the Franconian Jura. These breaches,
or gorges, offer peculiar facilities for the construction of roads and railways.
The limestone mountains of Svvabia are as replete with fossils as are those of
Switzerland. The Boll, to the south of Stuttgart, has acquired some fame on
account of the skeletons of fossil reptiles which have been found there. Steinheim,
between the Albach and the Hardtfeld, presents the curious spectacle of a huge
atoll, similar in all respects to the atolls built by zoophytes in the Pacific.
The Klosterberg, in the centre of the atoll, with its nineteen distinct varieties of a

species of Plaitorbis, is one of the great

. . _, Fig. 126. HEILBRONN AND THE "Loops" OP

battle-grounds or palaeontologists. Ine LAUFFEN.

marls of that district are soaked with oil,
apparently consisting of a mixture of
mineral substances with the fat of the
animals buried there. Every square mile
of the bituminous slate of the Swabian
Jura contains, according to Quenstedt,
about 515,000 tons of oil, resulting
from the decomposition of small marine
animals. That portion of Wiirttemberg
which lies between the Jura and the Lake
of Constanz belongs to the plateau of
Bavaria.

Nearly all the rivers to the north of
the Jura flow into the Neckar, the only
exceptions being the Kinzig and the Murg,
which flow direct to the Rhine, and the
Tauber, which is tributary to the Main.
The Neckar rises in a swampy depres-
sion to the west of the plateau of the Baar,
at an elevation of 2,290 feet above the
sea. Reinforced by numerous streams
descending from the Black Forest and
Jura, it soon becomes large enough to float timber. Below Cannstadt the river
is navigable for barges. For a considerable portion of its course the Neckar is
bounded by steep cliffs, the country on either side of it often lying as much as
500 feet above the surface of the river. These gorges, however, alternate with
wide basins, where the Neckar winds about amongst verdant hills. The scenery
along the tributaries of the Neckar is equally varied. These tributaries are the
Enz, on the left ; the Fils, Rems, Kocher, and Jagst, on the right. Gentle hills,
contrasting with bolder contours and even cliffs, impart much graceful beauty to
the country. Notwithstanding the absence of lakes and of a background of snow-
clad mountains, Wiirttemberg resembles in a remarkable manner the plateau of

. 2 Miles.

220 GERMANY.

Switzerland. Its climate* and vegetation, too, are nearly identical, its more
northern latitude being compensated for by the greater elevation of Switzerland.
Wiirttemberg, quite as much as the region irrigated by the Lower Aar, is a land of
corn-fields and orchards, and even the vine flourishes on the banks of the Neckar,
all the way down from Tubingen (1,040 feet).

INHABITANTS.

THE country around Stuttgart and Cannstadt, one of the most carefully culti-
vated of all Germany, was in a former age the favourite haunt of the mammoth
and shaggy rhinoceros, whose bones, mixed with those of horses, oxen, hyenas,
and tigers, have been discovered in the tufa. The caverns of the Swabian
Jura have yielded the bones of reindeer, together with stone implements, from
which it is concluded that the reindeer survived in the forests of Germany long
after it had become extinct in those of Gaul.

This much is certain, that the country had its human inhabitants long before
the dawn of history. The kinship of the aboriginal inhabitants still forms a subject
of dispute between the learned. They were succeeded by Celts, and later on by
Germans. It is even supposed that the designation of the castle which has given
a name to the entire country is a corruption of the Celtic appellation of Virodunum,
the modern equivalent for which is Verdun. It was assumed formerly that the vast
majority of the Wiirttembergers are the direct descendants of the Suevi. An
examination of the old grave-hills has shown, however, that only about one-third
of the present inhabitants of the country exhibit the long skulls and fair com-
plexions which are associated with the Suevi. The majority, more especially in
the south and west, have black hair and round skulls : " one might almost take
them to be Figurians," says Dr. Fraas. The original type of the Swabian sur-
vives only on the plateau of the Rauhe Alp, where nearly all the children have
flaxen hair and blue eyes. This sterile mountain tract has exercised no attraction
upon invaders, and its inhabitants were thus able to perpetuate the type and
customs of their ancestors. Old German superstitions still survive there in the
guise of Christianity. Horse-shoes are nailed to every stable door as a protection
to the cattle, and Ascension Day is not allowed to pass without a fresh wreath of
amaranths being prepared to shield the house against lightning. The inhabitants,
like those of Savoy and Auvergne, migrate annually to the plain, where they gain a
living as pedlars and seed or flower merchants. Ehningcn, a village near Eeutlingen,
is one of the head-quarters of these Swabian pedlars, and at Christmas-time the
whole of them return to their village to hold what is called their " congress."
Grown rich by trade, the Ehningers have made their village " the prettiest in all
Wiirttemberg."

Fraas, the geologist, has divided the inhabitants of the country into five

Height. Temperature (Degrees Fahr.).

Feet. Latitude. Summer. January. Year.

Bas el .... 930 48* 47' 65'3 31-2 49-4

Stuttgart ... 868 47" 34' 660 33-3 50'3

WURTTEMBEEG. 221

distinct groups, according to the nature of the soil upon which they dwell. These
groups are determined by the granite and triassic sandstone of the Black Forest,
the shell limestone of the lower valleys, the variegated marls in the north, the
Jurassic rocks of the Rauhe Alp, and the alluvial lands beyond the Danube. As
these formations occur at varying heights, the districts in which they pre-
dominate naturally present differences of climate ; and climate and the nature
of the soil exercise a great influence upon the occupations and customs of the
inhabitants. The woodmen of the Black Forest, living in solitary log-huts, differ
strikingly from the peasants of the plain, who cultivate wheat and the vine,
and retire after the day's labour to their comfortable villages. At the same time
this geological classification of the inhabitants is far from precise, especially
when dealing with the populous districts in the north, which have been exposed to
a great variety of influences. No doubt the men and beasts, the cereals and fruits,
of the marly districts are superior to those of the rest of Swabia, but this appears to
be due to the mildness of the climate and a greater intermingling of races. At all
events it is an interesting fact in the history of humanity that this central district,
of Wiirttemberg should have produced such men of mark in the world of thought
as were Kepler, Schiller, Schelling, and Hegel. On the other hand, there are
districts of Wiirttemberg in which superstition iw rife, and where ghost stories are
listened to even by men of some education. In no other part of Germany do new
religious sects gain an equal number of converts.

TOWNS.

Stuttgart (107,273 inhabitants), though not situate on the Neckar itself, occu-
pies a most favourable position in the very centre of Wiirttemberg. Its environs,
moreover, are delightful, and well deserve the epithet of " Swabian Paradise "
which has been bestowed upon them. Cunnstadt (15,065 inhabitants), at the
head of the navigation of the Neckar, would perhaps have been a more favourable
site for the capital of the country, but virtually the two towns, hardly more than
a mile apart, are one, and lead a common life. No other town of Germany has
increased in population at a more rapid rate, for it is hardly a century since
Stuttgart had only 20,000 inhabitants. The " old town," with its tortuous streets,
still occupies the centre of the modern city, but forms only a small part of it.
The number of elegant mansions is large in every part of the town, and amongst
the statues which ornament its public squares there are several which deservedly
rank as works of art. Though not a university city, Stuttgart possesses a library
of 350,000 volumes, a natural-history museum, a gallery of paintings, and many
other collections. Music is much cultivated, and the manufacture of pianos is of
considerable importance, as is also the publishing trade.

The royal park, barracks, and other buildings extend to the north-east of Stutt-
gart in the direction of Cannstadt. That town, too, boasts of many fine build-
ings and villas, and its ferruginous springs annually attract thousands of visitors.
As to Ludwiyitburg (14,709 inhabitants), in the plain to the north of the capital, it

222

GERMANY.

is merely a dependency of a royal palace, with streets intersecting each other at
right angles. Strauss, the author of the " Life of Jesus," was born there. There
are extensive barracks and other military establishments. The agricultural
academy of Hohenheim, to the south of Stuttgart, is perhaps the best institution of
that kind in Germany.

The Neckar, in its upper course, flows past several towns of importance.
Eottweil (4,596 inhabitants), with its turreted walls, is a town of salt works and

Fig 127. STTTTGART AND ITS ENVIRONS.
Scale 1 : 135,000.

2 Miles.

manufactories. Though situate on the northern slope of the Jura, this ancient
free city was for more than two centuries a member of the Swiss Confederation.
Passing Horb (2,043 inhabitants), near which Auerbach was born, and the
picturesque old town of Rotttnbury (6,155 inhabitants), we reach Tubingen (10,450
inhabitants), the most curious city on the Upper Neckar. It owes its reputation
solely to its university, which is attended by over 1,000 students, many of whom
are no doubt quite as much attracted by the charms of the surrounding scenery
as by the reputation of the professors. Uhlaud was born at Tubingen, and died
there.

WURTTEMBEEO.

228

Reutlingen (15,245 inhabitants), in a side valley of the Neckar, was merely a
village of serfs in the twelfth century, but through the industry of its inhabitants
it has grown into an important town. There are tan-yards, shoe factories, and
printing-offices. The Gothic church of the town is looked upon as the finest
religious edifice in Wiirttemberg.

Metzingen (5,003 inhabitants) and Niirtingen (5,078 inhabitants) succeed each
other on the Neckar, whilst Kirchheim (6,197 inhabitants), at the foot of the
castle of Teck, and Goppingen (9,532 inhabitants), known for its tan-yards and
cotton-mills, occupy lateral valleys at the foot of the Swabian Jura. Esslingen

Fig. 128. VIEW OF TCBINOEN.

(15,701 inhabitants), lower down on the Neckar and close to Stuttgart, has
machine shops, iron works, and other manufactories. The grapes grown on the
surrounding hills are converted into " Esslingen champagne," a mischievous
beverage.

Several towns of importance lie in the valley of the Rems, which joins the
Neckar opposite Ludwigsburg, and is one of the most fertile of Wiirttemberg.
Waiblinyi'ii (4,128 inhabitants), near its mouth, is no longer the most populous
town, but under its Italian name of Ghibcllino it has acquired a great repu-
tation on account of the wars carried on in Italy by the emperors of the

224 GEEMANY.

house of Waiblingen or Hohenstaufen. Gmiind (12,838 inhabitants), the chief
town of the valley, engages in the manufacture of jewellery. A railway runs up
the valley as far as Aalen (5,928 inhabitants), a town of iron works.

The Neckar, below its junction with the Reins, flows past Marbach (2,241
inhabitants), the birthplace of Schiller, whose house has been converted into a
Schiller Museum. Near it the Murr joins the Neckar on the right, the principal
town on it being Backnang (4,923 inhabitants). Besigheim (2,441 inhabitants),
believed to be of Roman origin, is situate at the mouth of the Enz, which rises in
the Black Forest. The hot springs of Wildbad (2,700 inhabitants) rise in the
main valley of the Enz, whilst Leonbrrg (2,231 inhabitants), the native town of
Schelling, and Weil der Stadt (1,765 inhabitants), that of Kepler, occupy side
valleys. Freudenstadt (5,237 inhabitants), farther to the south, is the only town
of Wiirttemberg which lies beyond the watershed separating the basin of the
Neckar from that of the Rhine. It was founded in the sixteenth century by
Austrian and Moravian refugees. Naulbronn, with its famous abbey, lies on the
hills between the Neckar and the Rhine. Near it are several colonies of French
refugees, who settled in the country in 1698 and 1699.

At Laujfen (3,418 inhabitants), thus named after the rapids formed by the
Neckar, that river emerges upon the plain in which rise the houses and factories
of Heilbronn (21,208 inhabitants), the largest town of Northern Wiirttemberg.
The ancient cily owes its name of " Healing Burn" to a spring over which a
church has been built. It is a busy manufacturing centre, with sugar-mills,
paper-mills, iron works, and jewellers' shops. Much of the wine produced in the
vicinity is converted into "champagne." Weinsberg (2,186 inhabitants) is near
it. Heilbronn is famous for its fine trees and flowers, and much of the produce
of its market gardens is exported. Quarries and salt works are near it, but the
most productive brine springs of Wiirttemberg are those of Hall (8,430 inhabit-
ants), in the valley of the Kocher.

Mergentheim (4,021 inhabitants), in the valley of the Tauber, which is tributary
to the Neckar, recalls the gloiies of the Teutonic knights, whose property
Nupoleon confiscated in 1809.

CHAPTER V.

THE UPPER DANUBE AND THE MAIN.
(BAVARIA AND DANUBIAN We RTTBMBKHO.)

GENERAL ASPECTS. MOUNTAINS.

F all the states of Germany, Bavaria, excluding therefrom the Trans-
Rhenan Palatinate, has its boundaries drawn most in accordance
with natural features. The country presents itself as a vast quad-
rangle, bounded on the south by the limestone Alps of the Algau,
Tyrol, and Salzburg ; on the east by the Bohemian Forest ; on the
north by the Thuringian Forest ; and in the west by the Franconian and Swabian
Jura. The rivers, it is true, partly belong to the basin of the Danube, and partly
to that of the Rhine, but the passage from one basin to the other presents no
obstacles whatever. This geographical unity has greatly promoted the political con-
stitution of Bavaria. It has kept alive, too, a " particularist " Bavarian patriotism,
old customs, and traditions. There was a time when politicians dreamed of giving
to Bavaria a position analogous to that of Prussia and Austria, but that time is
past, and Bavaria has become a province, though a very important one, of the new
German Empire.*

Austria took care at the Congress of Vienna to secure possession of all the
great passes over the Alps, and not even the rivers which discharge themselves
into the Danube above Passau were wholly assigned to Bavaria. Austria holds
not only the whole of the valley of the Inn and Vorarlberg, but also the upper
valleys of the Lech and Isar. The Fern Pass (4,025 feet), through which runs
the old high-road from Augsburg to Innsbruck and Italy, lies wholly within
Austrian territory. Bavaria, however, may nevertheless boast of possessing some
veritable Alps, with glaciers, perennial snows, lakes, and succeeding zones of
vegetation. Standing upon the Hohe Peissenberg (3,190 feet), an isolated cone

Bavaria to the east of the Rhine .
Palatinate .

Area.

Sq. Mil.-.

26,999

2,292

Population.
1887. 1875.

4,198,355 4,381,136

626,066 641,254

Total

29,291

4,824,421

6,022,390

Inhab. to
Sq. Mile.

102

280
172

226

GERMANY.

rising in the middle of a plain, these Bavarian Alps lie spread out before us,
forming a magnificent panorama. Their culminating summit, the Zugspitze
(9,99 feet), is the highest mountain within the present limits of the German

Empire.

Some of the Alpine valleys of Bavaria are noted for their picturesque scenery.

Fig. 129. THE KONIGSEE.
Scale 1 : 100,000.

,:,,

. N' - " Jaener
Kopf

2 Miles.

The castle of Hohenschwangau, to the east of Fiissen, commands an extensive
view of the valley of the Lech and of a country of moraines, now covered
with forest. The beautiful valley of Parteukirchen opens out at the foot of the
Wetterstein, and near it (he Walchensee occupies a huge natural amphitheatre in-
the mountains. The 1\ gernsee, with its villas, lies farther to the east, whilst the

BAVAEIA.

227

Konigsee occupies a much-admired site in the midst of the mountains. This latter
is the most beautiful lake of all Germany. Its grey-green waters reflect the snow-
capped summit of the Watzmann (8,987 feet), cascades sparkle amongst the
folinge, the forests descend in many places to the edge of the water, and villas
occupy every coin of vantage around it. The foaming rivulet which escapes
from this charming lake flows through the valley of Berchtesgaden towards Salz-
burg. There is no more delightful valley in all Bavaria than that of Berchtes-
gaden, with its brine springs and salt works, its watering-places and summer

Pig. 130. VIEW OF THE KONIOSEE.

resorts. And yet man there is physically most wretched. Subjected for ages to
the hard rule of monks, the dwellers in this earthly paradise became so poor that
the peasants of the neighbourhood refused to give their daughters in marriage to
them. Consanguineous marriages and physical deterioration were the result, and
in the district of Berchtesgaden one amongst every fourteen inhabitants is afflicted
with goitre, and one in a hundred and fifty is a cretin ! Their occupation
the carving of wooden images necessitating much confinement, only increases
these evils.

The mountainous region which bounds the plateau of Bavaria on the east, and

228 GERMANY.

separates it from Bohemia, commences immediately to the north of the Danube.
An inferior range of crystalline formation, and partly wooded, stretches along the
river, attaining a height of 3,000 feet, with summits rising several hundred
feet higher. This range, known as the Bavarian Forest, is separated by the
longitudinal valley of the Regen from the more elevated range usually called the
Bohemian Forest. The Arber (4,841 feet) and Rachel (4,782 feet), the cul-
minating points of this range, rise within the Bavarian frontier. We have
already seen how formidable an obstacle this wooded region has at all times
proved to the march of armies. Only one good pass leads across it, connecting
the Bavarian town of Furth with Taus in Bohemia. Farther north the Bohemian
Forest is less elevated.

The Fichtelgebirge "Pine Mountain" a protuberance of granite and
gneiss pierced here and there by basalt, forms the north-eastern boundary of
Bavaria. It is by no means very elevated, but, owing to its rugged nature, its
inclement climate, sterile soil, and sparse population, has at all times proved a
serious obstacle to the free intercourse between North and South Germany. The
rivers which rise in these mountains the Main, a tributary of the Rhine ; the
Naab, a feeder of the Danube ; and the Saale and Elster, which both flow to the
Elbe indicate the position of the most favourable locality where they can be
crossed. This gap lies close to Bohemia, between the Ore Mountains and the
Fichtelgebirge, and from the most remote time it has maintained its rank as an
important highway.*

The mountains which extend from the Fichtelgebirge to the westward attain
their highest elevation outside the political borders of Bavaria. Only one group
of mountains lies almost wholly within Bavaria, viz. the Spessart, or " Wood-
pecker's Forest," culminating in the Geiersberg, or "Vulture Mountain" (2,017
feet). The Main almost encircles the Spessart before it continues its course
towards the Rhine. The climate of this mountain group is rude, its inhabitants
are poor, but the forests of beeches and oaks are magnificent, and game, including
wild boars, deer, and wild cats, is plentiful. Formerly it was haunted by
brigands.

Wide plateaux separate the basin of the Danube from that of the Main.
These plateaux are a continuation of the Swabian Jura, which towards the north-
east assumes the name of Franconian Jura. Much broader than that of Wurttem-
berg, the Bavarian Jura is far less elevated, and it does not terminate in a range
of cliffs, as does the Rauhe Alp. It is intersected by narrow gorges, which
present great facilities for the construction of roads. Its surface is diversified by
the remains of ancient atolls, and by cavities formed by volcanic explosions. The
plain of the Ries, in the centre of which stands the town of Nordlingen, is thus bounded
on all sides by hills exhibiting violently contorted strata, and its fertile soil results
from the decomposition of igneous rocks. The Bavarian Jura presents the same
geological features as the other parts of the system. It, too, abounds in fossils.
One of its upper beds furnishes the famous lithographic stones of Solenhofen, the

* The Schneeberg, 3,587 feet, is the highest summit of the Fichtelgebirge.

BAVAEIA.

229

quarries, seen from afar, presenting the appearance of a glaring white town built
in the midst of a forest.* Amongst the fossils found in the strata of Solingen is
the Archaopteryx, an animal half bird, half reptile. The Franconian Jura abounds
in caverns, most of them yielding the bones of hyenas, bears, and other extinct
animals, and sometimes also human remains. The cavern of Gailenreuth is that
which is best known to geologists, but thousands of others yet remain to be
explored. The entrance to these caverns is for the most part through sinks,
locally known as Schauerlocher or Wetterlocher, and popularly supposed to have
been caused by thunderbolts.

Although the Alps occupy but a small portion of Bavaria, their debris can be

Fig. 131. A REGION OF MORAINES IN UPPER BAVARIA.
Scale 1 : 300,000.

T E.of Paris

. 6 Miles.

traced for nearly 100 miles from their northern foot, even to the other side
of the Danube. Nearly one-half of Bavaria is covered with soil resulting from the
disintegration of the mountains. The blocks of rock, the gravel, sand, and clay
which cover th